HKDSE

Interactive Geography




Notes

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments:
A continuing challenge

















HKDSE Interactive Geography
Aristo Educational Press Ltd. @ 2009
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

2
Unit 1 How does water shape our rivers and coasts?
The work of water creates a variety of ____________ and ____________
environments. There are various physical and human factors that shape the Earths
surface.
From source to mouth, a river develops distinct landform features. Most rivers consist
of ____________ courses, namely the upper course, middle course and lower course.
But in Hong Kong, most rivers are ____________ due to compact land profiles and
steep slopes. They typically have only _______ courses, upper and lower.
Coasts have various landform features formed by the wearing away of rocks or
transporting sediments by the waves to a new location. In Hong Kong, there are more
than 260 ____________ islands with magnificent coastlines and coastal features.


Example of river in China-Chang Jiang
Refer to Fig.1.2 in Section 2 p.7
Refer to Fig.1.3 in Section 2 p.8-9

The Chang J iang is the ____________ and largest river in China. It is 6 300 km long,
the third longest river in the world.
Originates from the _____________ Gaoyuan.
Flows through 11 _____________ and autonomous regions.
A huge _____________ network, with a total drainage area of 1.8 million km
2
, one-fifth
of China's total land area.
The huge _____________ produces a large sediment load, amounting to 486 million
tons each year.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

3
Coastal features in the United Kingdom
Refer to Fig.1.4 in Section 2 p.11-12

The coastline of the United Kingdom is very _________ with a length about 12 500 km.
In the south and west, the coast is _________ with steep cliffs.
The east coast is often _________ and low-lying, with beaches and mud-flats.
In the southeast, there are dramatic _________ cliffs.
In the southwest, a long peninsula with rocky outcrops of _________, sea arches and
stacks can be found.

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

4
Unit 2 The river basin and coast

The water cycle
Water on the Earths surface is returned to the atmosphere through the process of
____________.
The water vapour will later ____________ into liquid or solids that fall to the ground
again. This ____________ process is known as the water cycle.

The operation of water cycle
Water has three physical states: 1. solid (_________), 2. liquid (_________) and 3. gas
(__________________).
Refer to Fig.2.1 in Section 2 p.17

Input:
1 Precipitation
When air is saturated with water vapour, water vapour condenses to form ____________.
When water droplets become larger and are too heavy to remain suspended in the air, they
fall to the ground as precipitation.

Transfer:
1. Interception Precipitation falls on _______________ and is caught there.
2. Throughfall &
stem flow
Some water reaches the ground by dripping off ____________
(throughfall) or flowing down the ____________ (stem flow).
3. Infiltration Some water ____________ into the soil, forming soil storage.
4. Throughflow Some water ____________ in soil flows along the slope as
throughflow.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

5

5. Percolation Some soil water flows downward as percolation until it reaches
the _____________________.
6. Ground water
flow
Some ground water remains deep in the ____________, while
some flows to the surface and into rivers or oceans.
7. Surface
runoff
Water flows on the surface as surface runoff. It includes
____________ flow and ____________ flow.
8. Channel flow Surface runoff following river channels is called channel flow.
9. Overland flow The _______________ surface runoff, flowing on the ground
surface.

Outputs:
1. Evaporation Water in soil, on the ground or in rivers and sea will absorb heat
energy from the sun. It will change into water ____________
and return to the atmosphere through the process of
evaporation.
2. Transpiration Water in _______________ is released into the atmosphere
through transpiration.


A river basin
Refer to Fig.2.2a and b in Section 2 p.19

It is a _______________ area of a river and its tributaries. It is also known as the river
_______________ area.
The main stream and its _____________ form a drainage network or drainage system.
Adjacent river basins are separated by a _______________.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

6
A coast
It is the ____________ of the land where it meets the sea or ocean.
It is the area between the _______________ (marks the highest level reached by the
sea and shoreline), the outer margin of the wave-cut terrace.

The coast can be generally divided into several parts:
Refer to Fig.2.6 in Section 2 p.22

1. Shore - the area between the _______________ and the low water level.
- It includes two parts _______________ and _______________.
2. Nearshore - the area between the low water level and the _______________
(lowest water level).
3. Offshore - extends seawards from the ____________ water level.

A coast is a ____________.
Inputs: energy from wind, sediments from the sea
Outputs: sediments deposited on shores, energy dissipated by waves. Sometimes
beautiful coastal features can be regarded as another output.

The coast contributes to the ________________ of an area because it serves the
functions of defense, fishing, recreation and overseas trading.
In Hong Kong, much of our urban land has been modified and _______________ from
coastal areas. As a result, many parts of the coastline have been ________________.

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

7
Unit 3 How do fluvial processes shape the land?

The fluvial processes
Fluvial processes are _______________ processes that occur at or near the Earths
surface.
Different fluvial processes create various _______________ features within a drainage
basin.
River flows lead to fluvial _______________, _______________ and
_______________ that occur in all parts of a river.
The strength of the fluvial processes is determined by the amount of
________________________.

The river energy
Rivers flow from high altitude (higher potential energy) to low altitude (lower potential
energy) under the force of _____________.
Potential energy is converted into _____________ energy, which becomes the energy
of a river that causes erosion and deposition, forming various fluvial landscapes.

Factors determine river energy
River energy is _______________ to river discharge, which depends upon the amount
of water and the _____________ of river flow.
______________ refers to a measured volume of water (usually in cubic metres or in
cubic kilometres) flowing past a given point in a specified period of time (usually one
second).
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

8
1. Volume of flow
The higher the volume of flow of a river, the ___________ the rivers energy and
the more intense its fluvial _______________ and _______________.
_____________________ determines the volume of flow. Therefore, factors
affecting channel capacity also affect the volume of flow.

a. Precipitation
The _______ precipitation, the
_______ surface runoff.
Volume of flow of the river will
___________.
b. Vegetation cover
The _______ vegetation cover,
the ___________ the rate of
infiltration and ___________
surface runoff.
Volume of flow of the river will
___________.
c.
Evapotranspiration
rate
The ___________ the rate of
evapotranspiration, the
_______ the surface runoff.
Volume of flow of the river will
___________.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

9
d.
Permeability of river
basin
The ___________ the
permeability of bed rock, the
___________ the rate of
infiltration.
Volume of flow of the river will
___________.
e.
Slope gradient of
the river basin
The ___________ the
gradient, the _______ the
surface runoff. This permits
_______ infiltration.
Volume of flow of the river will
___________.
f. Human activities
Urbanisation increases surface runoff as more land surface
is covered by impermeable concrete.
Volume of flow of the river will ___________.

2. River velocity
The higher the river velocity, the ___________ the energy of the river.

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

10
Factors affecting river velocity
a. Channel
gradient
If the channel gradient is steep, _____________ energy can be
converted into ___________ energy at a faster rate, so river
velocity will ___________.
b. Channel friction
Much of a rivers energy is used to overcome channel friction, which
depends on the following factors:
i. Channel roughness Channel roughness depends on the materials that form
the river ________ and ________.
The ___________ the materials, the greater the channel
roughness.
A rough channel causes greater ___________, which
depletes river energy as water passes the channel
surface.
ii. Channel shape River channels vary greatly in __________ which affects
channel friction.
The greater the ______________ of the channel, the
longer the channel is. The total contact surface between
water and the river banks and bed ____________, thus
friction increases.
iii. Wetted perimeter
of the channel
River channels also vary in their cross sectional profile.
This determines the contact surface area between water
and the channel, which is known as
_______________________________.
In general, the larger the wetted perimeter, the
____________ the channel friction.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

11
Fluvial erosion
Fluvial erosion is the ____________ down of rocks and minerals along the river bed
and banks.
When river energy ____________, or when there is a decrease in energy loss, more
energy is available to carry out ____________.
Flowing water removes __________ materials from the river source, the river bed and
river banks. The transported loads will also cause abrasion, by which the sides and
bed of the river channel are eroded.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

12
Direction of fluvial erosion
Fluvial erosion takes place in three different directions.

Headward erosion Vertical erosion Lateral erosion
Place of
occurrence
Source of river Upper course Middle and lower
courses
Effect on
river valley
____________ the
valley
____________ the
valley
____________ the
valley
Processes
At the river source,
ground water flows out
from ____________
and erodes the
materials in an
upstream direction,
gradually increasing
the length of the river
channel.
At slopes with a steep
gradient, erosion takes
place in a downward
direction, thus
deepening the valley,
which becomes more
narrowly ____-shaped.
The valley sides
become
____________.
Where the gradient is
more gentle in the
middle and lower
courses, vertical
erosion is
____________. Water
flows laterally and the
sides of the channel
are eroded. The valley
is widened and
becomes broadly
V-shaped.

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

13
Types of fluvial erosion
Refer to Fig.3.4 in Section 2 p.33

1. Hydraulic action
Running water produces a great __________ which erodes the bed and walls of a river
channel.
This force also widens __________ and __________ in rocks, and removes loose
materials.

2. Solution/Corrosion
Water dissolves and removes __________ minerals in rocks. An example of such a
mineral is __________ in limestone.
As minerals are removed, the rocks are weakened and are more easily eroded by
other erosive processes.

3. Abrasion/Corrasion
The load of rock fragments carried by the river scrapes against the bottom and sides of
the river channel.
__________ often occur in a rough channel of pebbles and boulders. These eddies
twist rock fragments which drill into the river bed, carving out __________. Such
hollows are called potholes.
Both abrasion and hydraulic action are intense beneath a _____________. The river
bed is eroded and deepened, forming a depression or ____________________.

4. Attrition
Rock fragments in the load carried by the river __________ against one another.
The rock fragments are then broken down into __________ and more __________
pieces.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

14
Fluvial transportation
Fluvial transportation is the _______________ of loads downstream.
A river carries eroded materials to its lower course for deposition, so that the inputs of
the whole system can be transformed to outputs. Land is re-shaped throughout the
entire course of the river.

The load of a river
The load of a river refers to materials it carries. These are mainly weathered materials
in the drainage basin, such as ______________________, sand and clay.
Some are materials produced by fluvial _____________ and others come from
_______________ of river banks. The larger the load, the greater the amount of
energy needed to transport it.

Types of load
There are three different types of river load, classified according to the particle
_________ and _________ of transportation.
1. _________ load consists of large rock fragments transported on the river bed by
_____________ or _____________.
2. _____________ load is made up of tiny silt and clay particles transported in
_____________.
3. _____________ load consists of ions of minerals dissolved in the water.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

15
Major fluvial transportation processes
Refer to Fig.3.5 in Section 2 p.35

Mode Characteristics of
load
Where
transported?
How does it take place?
Solution _________ of
different minerals
(dissolved load)
In flowing water Icons are dissolved in the water
Suspension _________ silt and
clay (suspended
load)
In flowing water Silt and clay particles are so
small that they remain
suspended in water
Saltation _________ rock
fragments
(bed load)
River bed and
flowing water
Rock fragments undergo
saltation when they regain
energy bouncing on the river
bed
Traction _________ rock
fragments
(bed load)
River bed The fragments are so large that
they can only be dragged by
water along the river bed


Fluvial deposition
Fluvial deposition is the ______________ of materials of a river.
It takes place when a river loses its ___________ and its load becomes too heavy for it
to carry, i.e. the amount of load ___________ the rivers carrying capacity.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

16
Process of fluvial deposition
When velocity or discharge ______________, river energy is gradually reduced.
______________ particles remain suspended in the water until there is a further
reduction of river energy.
Therefore, along the course of a river, the __________ particles are deposited first.
Smaller ones are carried further downstream before they are deposited.
As deposition takes place in sequence according to particle __________, it occurs at
different times and locations. This process is called ______________.
Sediments are deposited on a sea, river or lakes bed in sequence. __________ of
sediment are formed. This is called __________________.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

17
The characteristics of the different courses of a river
Upper course Middle course Lower course
Stream order Low Medium High
Slope gradient Steep Medium Gentle
Size of load Large Medium Small
Shape of load Angular Mixed Rounded
Amount of load Small Medium Large
Cross section of
valley



Shape of valley Deep, narrow
V-shaped
Wider V-shaped Flat and broad
V-shaped
Channel shape Relatively _________,
sometimes bends
along interlocking
spurs
Meander-formed,
__________ course
along the valley
Well-developed
__________, winding
course on the
floodplain
Channel
roughness
__________
(mainly boulders)
Medium __________ (mainly
fine sand and silt)
Wetted perimeter Medium
Average velocity Medium
Discharge Medium
River energy Medium
Main fluvial
process
More __________ and
__________ erosion
than lateral erosion
More
______________ and
__________ erosion
than vertical erosion
Dominantly
______________,
______________ and
lateral erosion
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

18
The velocity, discharge and channel shape change downstream and the factors
influencing these changes
Characteristics Reason
Velocity
River bed and banks become increasingly smooth towards the
__________ course as the materials are finer. Less energy is used
for overcoming friction, thus allowing the river to flow faster.
As discharge _____________ downstream, so does the velocity.
Discharge
The number of tributaries ___________ from the source. Thus the
discharge ___________ as flow proceeds towards the main stream.
Efficiency
River efficiency is determined by __________ and __________.
In the upper course, the channel tends to be __________ in shape
with protruding rocks. The loads carried are angular and consist of
large boulders and rocks. All these contribute to the increase in
channel roughness, leading to greater friction and __________
efficiency in the upper course.
When moving downstream, the channel becomes __________ and
the loads become smaller, leading to a reduction in friction, so
efficiency ____________.
Channel
gradient
Valley shape
In the upper course, ____________ erosion is greater than
__________ erosion, forming a deeply cut, narrow and steep,
V-shaped valley.
____________ erosion becomes more dominant in the middle
course. The valley is gradually ____________.
In the lower course, there is simultaneous __________ erosion and
________________. The meander keeps changing course, thus
further widening the valley. The slope is gentle.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

19
Landform features in the upper course of a river

1. Waterfalls and rapids
Refer to Fig.3.8 in Section 2 p.44

When a river flows over a very _________ portion of its channel with a sudden
increase in ____________, it is called a waterfall.
A waterfall usually occurs when a layer of _____________ hard rock rises vertically
across the river bed, dips upstream or lies horizontally. The _________ rock lying
beneath is more rapidly eroded by the river, resulting in a vertical drop.

Cross
section
of a
waterfall
Condition Vertical, resistant rock
layers such as porphyry
dykes are exposed after
overlying rock is eroded.
The surrounding, less
resistant granite is
eroded by the river,
forming a waterfall.

The more resistant layer
of rock such as
conglomerate lying
across the river course
dips upstream, while the
underlying volcanic rock
is less resistant and
subject to erosion,
forming a waterfall.
At the top lies a layer of
hard rock, such as
dolomite, with less
resistant rock, such as
shale or sandstone lying
underneath it. The water
tumbles over the high
cliff into the plunge pool
below.
Example Waterfall on River Silver
near Silver Mine Bay
Brides Pool Falls Niagara Falls, border of
the USA and Canada
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

20
Refer to Fig.3.10 in Section 2 p.45

____________ may also cause a
waterfall or rapid to form. Faulting can
cause the block of crust on the
downstream side to ____________.

The displacement results in a sudden
____________ drop. The channel
gradient becomes much
____________, forming a waterfall or
rapid.





Refer to Fig.3.12 in Section 2 p.46

__________ occur where the flow of the river is very swift and ________________
develops as a result of a sudden increase in steepness of the river channel.
A river plunging over a waterfall erodes the river bed below by ___________________
while its load erodes by ____________.
The river bed below the waterfall is deepened, forming a ____________________,
such as the Brides Pool and Mirror Pool in Hong Kong.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

21




2. Gorges
a. Gorge formed by waterfall retreat
Refer to Fig.3.13 in Section 2 p.46

The __________ of a waterfall leads to the formation of a gorge.
The resistant rock underneath the waterfall is gradually _____________ by erosion, so
pieces of rock break free and fall away.
The waterfall then retreats upstream and a __________ may develop on the
downstream side of the waterfall.

Refer to Fig.3.14a and b in Section 2 p.47

Example: _____________________ at the border of the USA and Canada has
retreated upstream for 11.4 km because the river bed shale has been constantly
eroded by River _____________.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

22
b. Gorge formed by downcutting
Refer to Fig.3.15 in Section 2 p.47

During a tectonic _________ of landmass, or under intense vertical erosion caused by
an abrupt increase in river discharge, a gorge is developed.
Example: The _________________________________ in China and the
_______________________ in the USA are famous examples of this kind of gorge.





Landform features in the middle course of a river
1. Bluffs and slip off slopes
Refer to Fig.3.19 and 3.20 in Section 2 p.50

In the middle course, __________ erosion is dominant. Swing of waterflow, rugged
river bed and the nature of the loads contribute to the development of a winding river
course, which __________ the valley.
Lateral erosion cuts into the __________ bank (outer bank) of a river bend, forming
__________ slopes bordering the rivers. Such steep slopes are known as
__________.

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

23
The water flow at the ___________________ (inner bank) of a river bend is slower.
___________________ instead of lateral erosion takes place as river energy falls.
Sediments carried by the river are gradually dropped, and a __________ slope is
formed as a _____________ slope.


2. Meanders
Refer to Fig.3.19 and 3.20 in Section 2 p.50

In its middle course, a river begins to flow in a __________ course and its valley
widens.
Water undercuts the __________ (outer) banks and slow-flowing water deposits
sediments on the __________ (inner) banks. These curves or bends of a river are
called ________________.



Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

24
Landform features in the lower course of a river
When a river enters its lower course, its winding course forms _________________.
Sand bars in the channel lead to the formation of _________.
Sediments are also deposited at the river mouth to form a _________.

1. Meanders
The flat and smooth river bed in the lower course favours __________ erosion. This
leads to further __________ of the river channel and meanders are formed.
Meanders in the lower course are generally more maturely formed than those in the
__________ course.

2. Oxbow lakes
Refer to Fig.3.24 in Section 2 p.53

As erosion is intense along the ______________________ (outer bank) of the
meander, the bank gradually __________.
Deposition along the ______________________ (inner bank) causes the bank to
extend outwards. The bend becomes more ________.
When two adjacent __________ banks continue to be undercut, only a narrow
________ of meander is left between them. The neck is eventually cut through by
further lateral erosion to form a __________.
As the water flows along the new straight channel, the abandoned meander will be
closed off by deposition and separated from the main channel. This cutoff meander
has a crescent shape and is usually filled with water. It is called an oxbow lake.

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

25


The neck of a meander
separates two concave
banks which are being
undercut.


3. Floodplains
Refer to Fig.3.25 in Section 2 p.53

__________ of the concave bank (outer bank) and ______________ on the convex
bank (inner bank) cause a meander to expand. Flat land is thus developed in the lower
river course.
Due to its gentle gradient, high discharge and shallow river bed, the river easily
______________ banks during flooding, and deposits large amounts of
______________ on the valley floor. An extensive, flat plain known as a
______________ is thus formed.
Examples: ______________ and ______________ floodplain.

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

26



4. Levees
Refer to Fig.3.26 in Section 2 p.54

During a flood, large amounts of sediment are carried onto the ______________ by
floodwaters.
The ______________ are deposited when the river slows and loses its energy after
the flood.
___________ and ___________ materials are first deposited on the channel banks,
while ___________ particles and silt are carried further onto the floodplain before
being deposited.
Repeated flooding causes a raised bank which forms ___________. They often flank
the river as far as the river ___________.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

27




5. Braided stream
The river channel in the lower course of a river is wider.
______________ of a large number of loads will form sandbars within the channel.
These ______________ divide the river into many smaller channels which rejoin
downstream to form braided stream.

6. Deltas
Refer to Fig.3.28 in Section 2 p.55

Sediments accumulate at the shallow river __________. Due to __________ currents
in the area, the deposition rate is faster than the natural removal rate.
Gradually sediments build up from the coarsest to the finest in a seaward direction to
form a flat, gentle ______________ feature known as a delta.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

28
Types of delta
Refer to Table 3.8 in Section 2 p.55-56

Types of delta Formation process Example
Estuarine delta
Most of the ______________ settle around the
main river and distributaries.
As the shallow sea floor at the river mouth
receives added ______________, the delta
extends along _______ sides of the mouth.
Chang J iang
Delta
Arcuate delta
Sediments deposit at the river mouth, forming
______________.
Numerous distributaries develop and the delta is
______________ in shape.
Nile River
Delta
Birds foot delta
The delta extends into the sea with an
______________ shape which looks like a
______________.
The distributaries carry sediments and deposit
them over a wide area along the courses of the
______________.
Mississippi
River Delta
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

29
Unit 4 How do coastal processes shape the land?

Wave generation
Refer to Fig 4.1 in Section 2 p.64

Waves get energy and motion from _________, and they are generated when wind
blows over the sea surface.
Wind action produces tiny ___________ in the water. These ripples combine and
increase in size to form _________.
The wind then causes the water particles to ___________ in a vertical, circular orbit,
moving the waves forward in the direction of the wind.

Parts of a wave
Refer to Fig 4.2 in Section 2 p.65

A wave ___________ is the curved top or ridge of a moving wave.
A wave ___________ is the lowest part of the moving wave.
Wave ___________ is the distance between the trough and the crest.
Wave ___________ is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs.


Characteristics of wave generation
1. Fetch
Refer to Fig 4.3 in Section 2 p.65

Fetch is the _______________ distance in one direction across an open body of water
that wind can blow, or simply, the maximum distance a wave can travel.
The longer the fetch, the ___________ the wave.
So areas with longest fetch potentially receive the highest ___________ waves.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

30
For example, Cornish Coast in the southwestern part of England receives maximum
fetch because it is exposed to the _____________ Ocean.

2. Energy
The size and energy of waves are affected by the following four factors:
a. How long the wind has been blowingThe ___________ the time, the stronger the
wave
b. The strength of the windThe ___________ the wind, the stronger the waves
c. The fetchThe ___________ the fetch, the stronger the waves
d. Wave heightThe ___________ the wave, the greater the wave energy

Refer to the case of Hong Kong coastal areas in Section 2 p.66


Constructive waves and destructives waves
Refer to Fig 4.6 in Section 2 p.67

As a wave approaches the coast and comes in contact with the sea bed, its bottom part
is held back by _____________ drag.
This _____________ the velocity and length of the wave, while the height and
steepness of the wave _____________. Then, the top of the wave is thrown forward,
resulting in a ___________.
When a wave breaks, its ___________ is released. Water is washed up the beach.
Such a water movement is called ___________. After that the water drains back down
the beach as _____________.

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

31
Constructive wave Destructive wave
Wave height
Wave length
Wave size
Swash
Backwash
Relationship
between swash
and backwash

Wave frequency
Offshore gradient
Coastal process
Cross section


Erosion processes along coasts
Refer to Fig 4.8 in Section 2 p.70

1. Hydraulic action
Sea cliffs and rocks contain lines of weakness such as __________ or __________.
When water is thrown against these lines of weakness, air may be _____________ or
________________ within, leading to an increase in ________________.
When the wave retreats, the compressed air rushes out of the gap.
The sea cliffs and the rocks will be ________________ or cracked as this process is
repeated.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

32
2. Abrasion/corrasion
Waves carry materials such as __________, shingles, __________ and boulders.
These materials scrape against the bases of sea cliffs through wave __________,
gradually wearing them away.

3. Attrition
This is the process by which waves drive eroded rocks and pebbles into each other,
causing them to __________ into smaller sizes and become more rounded in shape.

4. Solution/corrosion
Solution is the process of dissolving _____________ loads. Sea water contains
chemicals like _____________ acid, which can dissolve _____________ and
_____________.
________________ of sea water leaves behind salt crystals, which may cause the
________________ of rocks.


Transportation processes along coasts
Refer to Fig 4.9 in Section 2 p.71

Along the coast, there are _______ major transportation processes.
1. _____________ large boulders and materials that are rolled along the sea floor by
waves.
2. _____________ slightly lighter pebbles and materials are bounced along the sea floor
by waves.
3. _____________ small materials such as sand and silt are carried by moving water.
4. _____________ fine materials such as calcium carbonate and salts are dissolved and
carried by the water.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

33
5. Longshore drift Refer to Fig 4.10 in Section 2 p.72
Longshore drift is a transportation process that _________ rock particles eroded from
one part of a coastline to a place of deposition elsewhere.
Wind causes waves to break on the beach at an _________. The swash carries
materials up the beach at an ___________ angle, but the backwash carries materials
down the beach at a _________ angle under the force of ___________.
The drift moves materials and sand along the beach downward in a _________ pattern
parallel to the shore along the sea floor. This movement is known as
________________.
Waves continuously approach the shore at an angle. When a wave meets the shore
and breaks, another _________ is right behind it. This prevents the broken wave from
flowing backward and causes a slight raise in the _________ level.
A _______________________ flowing parallel to the shore is formed. Both water and
sediments are moving along with it.
Longshore drift =_______________________ +_______________________


Deposition processes along the coasts
When waves lose their _________, they will drop the materials they are carrying such
as sand, rock particles and pebbles. This process is called ________________.
It occurs when swash is ________________ than backwash.
Deposition takes place in ________________ areas with low-energy waves or where
rapid coastal erosion nearby along the coast provides an abundant supply of materials.

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

34
Factors affecting coastal processes change over space
Coastal erosion, transportation and deposition processes change over space due to
different coastal energy that is affected by ________________, ________________
and ________________ factors.


2.1 Atmospheric factors
1. Strength of wind (velocity)
Wind _____________ affects the energy of waves.
With a _____________ wind velocity, wave energy is _____________ and is capable
of overcoming _____________, contributing to a _____________ rate of erosion and
transportation.
On the contrary, a ___________ wind velocity means waves have less energy to carry
their loads, thus ________________ will occur.

2. Duration of wind
The ___________ distance the wind blows (fetch), the more time that is available for
waves to gather energy from the wind.
Stronger wave energy means the rate of erosion is ___________. A shorter fetch
means less wave energy, which favours ________________.


2.2 Marine factors
Refer to Fig 4.12 a and b in Section 2 p.73

1. Depth of the sea
________ water provides a favourable condition for coastal erosion and transportation
processes.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

35
There is ________ wave energy and less friction in deep water, so the rate of erosion
will ___________.
However, when waves enter an area of shallow water, they begin to break
___________.
As waves lose their energy, the rate of ________________ will increase.

2. Gradient of offshore slope
Refer to Fig 4.13 a and b in Section 2 p.74

A ________ offshore slope such as the foot of a sea cliff contributes to a ________
rate of coastal erosion.
When a wave strikes a steep offshore slope, most energy is released and causes
___________.
A ___________ offshore slope can increase the rate of deposition.
Wave ___________ and ___________ are reduced when entering a gentle offshore
slope, and waves will release and deposit their loads.

3. Type of wave
Refer to Fig 4.14 a and b in Section 2 p.74

________________ waves favour the deposition of loads. When swash is
___________ than backwash, sediments are washed onto the coast and the rate of
deposition increases.
________________ waves increase the rate of erosion. When backwash is
___________ than swash, waves can remove materials from the coasts.

4. Longshore current
Longshore current is the current of water flowing ______________ to the shore.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

36
The ___________ the longshore current, the greater the rate of sediment
________________. Sediment loads resulting from erosion can thus be easily
transported. This will expose the coast to further ___________.
The ___________ the longshore current, the less efficiently sediment loads can be
transported. This protects the coast against further erosion.

5. Tidal range
Refer to Fig 4.15 a and b in Section 2 p.75

________________ is the difference in height between a high and a low tide in an
area.
The ___________ the tidal range, the stronger the tidal current which can remove
sediment loads effectively, which exposes the coast to further erosion.
A _________ tidal current can protect the coast against erosion because it is
_________ efficient in removing sediment loads.


2.3 Geological factors
1. Type and structure of rock
Refer to the case in Section 2 p.76

The type, structure and ______ of rocks can affect their resistance to coastal erosion.
Less resistant rocks usually possess lines of weaknesses or are composed of soluble
materials, which are more prone to ___________.
Rocks of ___________ resistance overlie one another, increasing the susceptibility to
erosion.
Rock dipping upward from the sea forms the ____________ sea cliffs but horizontal or
vertical dip forms the ____________ sea cliffs.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

37
2. Amount of load
_________ weathering and erosion can produce excessive amounts of sediments.
They are brought by rivers or ____________________ to the coastal area.
When a load becomes too heavy for waves to transport, ________________ takes
place. Deposited sediments can protect against coastal erosion by dissipating and
absorbing wave energy.
The more the amount of deposited beach materials, the deeper the beach extends
inland, hence offering more ________________ for coastal features like sea cliffs.

3. Size of load
Large loads require strong waves for ________________. If the average size of loads
is smaller, the rate of transportation will be _________.
If the size is large, the loads can be transported only by ________________ and
________________ in the offshore region, while smaller loads can be carried closer to
the backshore by ________________ and ________________.


2.4 Other factors
1. Coastal obstacles
Coastal landscape features and ______________ structures along the coast affect
coastal erosion and transportation processes.
______________ like mangroves and coral reefs in a coastal area can __________ it
from erosion and transportation processes.
Coastal ________________strategies such as building groynes and other artificial
wave breakers may slow down the ________________ of sediments by longshore drift,
so that orderly ________________ occurs.

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

38
2. Location of coast
Erosion tends to concentrate on _____________ coastal locations, for instance around
headlands.
If the coast is located in a _____________ area or a bay, wave energy will be _______
and this _____________ the rate of deposition.


Features of coastal erosion
Refer to Fig 4.32 and Fig 4.33 in Section 2 p.83

1. Sea cliff and wave-cut platform
Refer to Fig 4.20 in Section 2 p.79

A sea cliff is a high _______ rock face and a __________________________ is a
gently sloping rock surface extending from the base of the sea cliff.
A wave-cut platform is covered by water at __________ and exposed at __________.


Destructive waves cut out a
_______ just above low tide level
through ___________________
and _____________.
The base of the notch is
_____________ after prolonged
wave erosion.
The upper part of the notch
eventually _____________ by
weathering and mass wasting.

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

39


Waves break the fallen debris and carry it
away. A steep sea cliff is formed.
Further undercutting causes the sea cliff to
_____________ and a _____________ is
left. As the wave-cut platform widens, the
sea covering it becomes shallower.
The cliff will be attacked less frequently
and less vigorously by waves.


Refer to Fig 4.21 and Fig 4.22 in Section 2 p.80

Example: The steepest sea cliffs- ________________ near High Island at Sai Kung.
They are formed by resistant ___________.
Cliffs formed by less resistant granite are typically much less ________. As the tidal
range is small and coasts are often steep, wave-cut platforms in Hong Kong are
typically not _______. As long fetch can be found on ______________ coasts, most of
the platforms are formed there.

2. Sea cave
Refer to Fig 4.24 a and b in Section 2 p.80

A sea cave is a ___________ or ___________ formed by waves on a coast.
When waves attack a sea cliff, they first erode rocks with lines of ______________
such as joints, cracks and bedding planes, and areas of weakness composed of less
resistant rocks.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

40
_____________ and _____________ erode rock layers. ____________________ and
_________ caused by waves also erode weak areas between high and low tide levels.
The sea cliff is thus opened up and sea caves are formed.

3. Geo
Refer to Fig 4.25 a and b in Section 2 p.81

The waves gradually wear away the ____________ of the sea cave and enlarges it.
Later mass wasting of the roof leads to its ____________ due to a lack of support.
The sea cave is exposed and the narrow, steep-sided ________ is called a geo.

4. Sea arch and stack
Refer to Fig 4.27 and Fig4.28 in Section 2 p.81-82

Since wave energy is concentrated on a ____________, both sides of the headland
are subjected to wave ____________.
When a line of weakness lies across a headland, sea caves will develop on both sides
of the headland. A cave may cut through a narrow headland, or back-to-back
_________ may eventually meet, forming a __________ through the headland.
Further erosion will widen the tunnel, eventually leaving only a rock __________ above
it, which is called a ____________.
When the roof of the arch ____________ under denudation, leaving part of the
headland isolated in the sea, a ________ is formed.
It may also be formed when two ________________ geos join together. Both arches
and stacks are features which will eventually disappear under continued wave erosion.

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

41
Features of coastal deposition
Refer to Fig 4.41 in Section 2 p.87

When wave energy ____________, sediments are deposited instead of transported.
Examples of deposition featuresbeach, spit, bar and tombolo

1. Beach
Refer to Fig 4.34 in Section 2 p.84

A beach is a strip of land bordering the sea, normally consists of ____________,
____________ or ________.
It lies between _______ and _______ tides, accumulating sediments above and below
the waterline.

Refer to Fig 4.35 in Section 2 p.84

When sediments are deposited to form a beach, the ____________ materials are
usually pushed by swash and deposited near the top of the beach, while the _______
materials are dragged by backwash and deposited on the seaward side.
A beach also shows differences according to different climatic conditions. Typhoon and
__________ backwash of storm waves can remove large amounts of ____________
from the beach, while mild winds push the sediments back onto the beach, forming a
longer and wider beach.
Example: Sandy beach at ____________

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

42
2. Offshore bar
Refer to Fig 4.36a, b and c in Section 2 p.85

Along a gently sloping beach, waves break at or near the ____________ as the water
is shallow.
The waves ____________ sediments and a narrow _________-like feature called an
offshore bar is formed.
It is ____________ to the coast and both ends are not attached to the _______.
Formation processes of an offshore bar:




3. Spit
Refer to Fig 4.37 in Section 2 p.85

A spit is a long, narrow accumulation of sand with one end linked to the ____________
and the other projected into the _______ or across an ____________.
It is formed by a combination of ___________________, tides, river or ocean currents,
and a bend of the ____________.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

43
When a longshore drift travels along a coast, the water becomes shallow and calm.
Wave energy ____________, the drift cannot be maintained and materials being
transported are deposited.
A _________ sand spit that points in the direction of the longshore drift is then formed.
Example: _________ of Lantau Island
Formation processes of a spit:


Beach material is transported
along the coast by longshore
drift.


4. Bay-bar
Refer to Fig 4.38 in Section 2 p.86

If longshore drift deposits sediments in a _______, a bay-bar may be formed by linking
the ends of two ____________.
A bay-bar is a long _________ of sand or pebbles running ____________ to the
coastline across a bay, which straightens coastlines and traps water in a
____________ on the landward side.
Formation processes of a bay-bar:
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

44


A spit extends from the end
of headland


5. Tombolo
Refer to Fig 4.39 in Section 2 p.86

A tombolo is formed when a spit or bar is extended between an ____________ island
and the ____________, or between two __________.
Sediments brought by ______________________ from each direction are deposited,
thus the original separated landmasses eventually _____________ by the extension of
the spit or bar, and a narrow piece of land named a tombolo is formed.
Example: the tombolo at ___________________.
Formation processes of a tombolo:


Two seperate islands existed.
Longshore drifts brought
sediments to the areas.


Refer to the case of coastal features in Holderness, England in Section 2 p.90-91
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

45
Unit 5 How do human activities influence and alter river and
coastal environments?

Human activities and their consequences for river and coastal
environments

1.1 Reclamation
Reclamation is the usual method of acquiring land by dumping materials into the sea to
_________ the level of the sea bed or areas of land that were once _________ the sea
until they become ______ land.
Reclamation is commonly practised in Hong Kong as there is little ____________.
More than ______ of Hong Kong developed land area is reclaimed from the sea,
especially the area along both sides of _______________________, which has
provided valuable flat land for economic development.
Refer to the case in Section 2 p.96

Consequences:
Reclamation can change the ground _________________ and cause ____________
flow of ground water.
It also reduces the __________________ capacity of a lake by reducing its size.
All these may lead to more frequent ____________.
Dumping of pebbles and sand into water bodies and intensive development of the
reclaimed site may ____________ the water in nearby areas.
Water also becomes more ___________ and affects photosynthesis of water plants.
______________ of the harbour and water courses results in higher waves and
stronger currents, which threaten marine safety for ______________ and other water
activities.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

46
The natural coastline, river banks and river bed are altered by reclamation that leads to
the removal of wildlife ___________.
Local ______________, feeding grounds of various organisms and the original
ecosystem cannot be maintained.


1.2 Dredging
Dredging is the process of ____________ sediment and accumulated debris from
water bodies and placing the materials in particular locations.
Dredging is practised to keep harbours and rivers from __________ up or as a method
of collecting sand for ______________.
It is an important process used to _____________ ports, fairways, typhoon shelters,
drainage and flood protection schemes.
Refer to the case in Section 2 p.97

Consequences:
Dredging disturbs the natural sediment _____________ pattern of water currents of
rivers and sea directly.
It also pollutes the water bodies by stirring up highly _______________ mud at the
bottom of the harbour, _______________ and burying aquatic life.
Removal of sediments from the sea bed and river bed destroys __________. For
example, large areas of coral reefs and sea grasses are damaged due to dredging.
Food supplies for animals higher up the _______________ such as fish and dolphins
will be reduced.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

47
1.3 Destabilisation and erosion
1. Coastal mining
Coastal mining is the process of _____________ sand or minerals from the sea bed
and beaches.
It includes the exploitation of rare _____________ and _____________ like diamonds
and titanium found in coastal waters.
Mining of ________ and gravel is concentrated in estuaries, beaches, dunes and
near-shore areas. Large-scale mining of sand and gravel is also conducted in offshore
areas and in river beds

2. Urban development
River and coastal regions provide good ________________ and beautiful scenery
which attract many people to live there.
Urban development of cities and towns along rivers and coasts always involves
large-scale ________________ projects for commercial, industrial and residential
facilities.

3. Deforestation
Refer to the case in Section 2 p.99

Deforestation refers to ________________ removal of forests or vegetation. It is
commonly practised along rivers and coastal areas.
The spread of agriculture, firewood collection, and unregulated timber _____________
activities are the principal causes of deforestation.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

48
Consequences:
Coastal mining, urban development and deforestation remove the vegetation and
expose the soil to severe ____________, which will cause the ____________ up of
rivers and reduce their natural flood storage.
Impervious areas in cities such as roads and roofs lower _________________ and
increase the risk of ____________.
Mining activities and urban development also cause pollution and bring serious
damage to the ecosystem. _________________ and toxic substances from mining,
____________ from industries and households pollutes groundwater and surface
runoff.
Nutritive pollutants stimulate the growth of ________. Together with _______________
particles in the water, they will cover filter-feeding corals and hinder their ability to
survive.


1.4 Agriculture
1. Farming
The relatively flat land on either side of a river provides __________ soil for agricultural
activities. Annual floods deposit a fresh layer of _____________ that rejuvenates the
soil of the floodplain, saving the costs of _____________.
Farmers can take advantage of the nearby river by drawing water from the river for
_____________.
They can also have access to __________ water transportation for delivering the
crops to markets.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

49
2. Aquaculture
Aquaculture is the cultivation of __________ organisms such as fish, shellfish, algae
and other aquatic plants in ponds near or along rivers and coasts.
This practice helps to form a _________ zone to protect the coast from life-threatening
erosion and _____________ problems.

Consequences:
Clearing land for farming will leave the land barren and result in
__________________.
Chemical fertilisers from agriculture may stimulate the growth of _________ and other
marine organisms. When they die and decompose, they will consume a lot of
____________ and make a lake or river ____________. Aquatic plants and fish may
die because of a lack of oxygen.
Pesticides and other toxic substances can also enter and accumulate throughout local
__________________, and may eventually affect human health.
For example, excess ____________ in drinking water may lead to blue baby syndrome
and stomach cancer.


1.5 Recreation
Rivers and coasts are areas many people visit to enjoy their _______________. They
take advantage of the multitude of recreational activities available there, from
swimming or fishing to simply lying on the beach to enjoy sunbathing.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

50
Consequences:
Undesirable visitors behaviour, however, could cause direct _______________ of
ecosystems.
The development of recreational facilities along the coast is the prime contributor to
coastal erosion and _______________. It involves sand mining, beach and sand dune
erosion, soil erosion and extensive paving of ground surfaces.
Recreation also contributes to ____________ and solid wastes, which ____________
rivers, seas and lakes.


1.6 Power generation
1. Hydro-electric power (HEP)
Refer to the case in Section 2 p.102

Hydro-electric power requires a _______ and ____________ on a large river that has
a dramatic drop in ____________.
The falling water spins turbines that generate electricity. Hydro-electric power is a
clean, inexpensive and ________________ power resource.

2. Tidal power
Refer to Fig 5.14a and b in Section 2 p.102

Tidal power is also a ________________ power resource.
It involves the building of a dam across a river mouth or _______.
The incoming and outgoing _______ of the sea drive the air turbines to generate
electricity.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

51
3. Nuclear power
Many nuclear power stations are located along rivers and coastal areas. These
locations can provide an adequate supply of ____________ water for the reactors.

Consequences:
Power generation requires _________________ construction projects like the building
of dams, reservoirs and power plants, resulting in many problems such as
____________ and _________________.
Soil erosion increases the amount of sediments which silt up the _____________
capacity of reservoirs and increase the risk of ____________.
The reservoir for HEP generation, for example, changes ____________ conditions in
the surrounding area. The temperature in the region will ________, which may affect
the aquatic environment and wildlife habitats.
____________ pollution caused by the discharge of hot water from the power plant will
lead to the ______________ of coral reefs and killing of marine organisms.


The management of river and coastal systems
Rivers and coastal shorelines are ______________.
Humans have significantly ______________ rivers and coasts by different
management strategies such as constructing dykes and groynes, beach nourishment
and land use zoning.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

52
Hard engineering strategies
Hard engineering are traditional _________________ responses which aim at
resisting the energy of waves and tides.
These projects involve the construction of ______________ structures that can stop
wave energy reaching the shore, or absorb and reflect the energy at the shore.

1. Dykes
A dyke, an _____________ wall built along the edge of a water body onto an adjacent
lowland, can solve the problem of ______________.
The ________________ has been successful with the dyke system.
With careful design and management of the _______ system, the flood problem in the
Netherlands has been turned into an economic opportunity, as shown by a prosperous
development of __________________________ which requires a high input of
irrigation water.

2. Groynes
Refer to Fig 5.21 in Section 2 p.108

A groyne is one of the most common methods of countering ___________ erosion in
an outer bank.
Structures of stone, timber, concrete and steel extend from the river ________ into the
water so that high ___________ currents are diverted away from the banks to prevent
or minimise erosion.
Along many coasts, ________________________ causes the beach to thin out in
places where erosion of land behind the beach becomes a problem.
Groynes are built at ________ angles to the coastline to reduce the power of the
longshore drift and ________ sediments, so that beaches will not be eroded.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

53
Groynes are commonly constructed along the coasts in the United Kingdom because
they are __________ to build. The building costs are comparatively
________________ and maintenance costs decrease with time. They are also efficient
in trapping sediments.
Groynes have a significant impact on the landscape as they destroy the beautiful
coastal _____________ and create _____________ to the recreational use of the
beach.
Local _____________ around groynes and downdrift erosion may happen if beaches
are not well-managed.

3. Other examples of hard engineering strategies
Refer to Table 5.2 in Section 2 p.109

Sea wall
Sea walls are placed ____________ to the shore, often along the base
of a cliff.
They can be __________ and have a __________ top which breaks
up the energy of the waves and prevents water from going over the top
of the wall during heavy storms.
Gabion
A gabion is a metal ________ filled with rocks.
They are stacked to form a simple ________ or placed at the foot of an
eroding cliff.
They are relatively _________, easy to use and are especially quick to
install.
Breakwater
Breakwaters are built ____________ or at an __________ to the
coastline as an obstacle to break the waves further onshore.
They are usually made of ________, blocks of stone and rubber tyres.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

54

Revetment
Revetments are placed ____________ to the coastline.
They are ________________ and let water pass through, protecting
the cliff from wave erosion.
Timber slats, concrete or __________ are the major materials.
Riprap / rock
armour
Riprap are large _____________ piled up along the ____________
or placed at the foot of the cliff to form a protective wall.
Riprap dissipates wave energy and traps _______________. So
energy of the waves is dispersed and ____________ is reduced.
Dam and
reservoir
Dams and reservoirs are constructed along rivers to limit
____________ and protect existing land uses.
A dam can help ____________ water flow as well.

Refer to the case of coastal hard engineering used in Happisburgh in Section 2 p.115


Soft engineering strategies
Since hard engineering often causes problems, soft engineering has become more
popular. Soft engineering tries to work with natural processes to ____________, rather
than ____________ erosion.
These techniques involve promoting ____________ systems such as beaches to
protect the coast.
They are usually less _______________ to construct and maintain than hard
engineering techniques and are more _______________________.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

55
1. Beach nourishment
Beach nourishment is the process of placing sand that has been removed by
longshore drift or erosion in order to provide a ___________ against waves.
Sand is either brought in from elsewhere, or transported back along a beach, usually
_________ a year.
This strategy is widely adopted because it restores and improves the
_________________ value of the beach.
When compared with other hard strategies, beach nourishment does not leave
_________ on the beach if erosion continues and no costly construction is involved.
The beach turns into a _________________ zone during its nourishment and the
coastal ecology of the beach will be damaged. A variety of plants, insects and other
animals become _________________ or endangered.
Beach nourishment does not stop erosion and periodic nourishment is needed, which
is known as ______________________________.
In fact, beach nourishment is an ________________ management option because of
its uncertain ________________ and continuing maintenance cost.

2. Land use zoning
Land use zoning aims to _______________ land use for meeting specified intentions
for individual areas. It is used as a conservation tool to conserve the natural
environment and _______________ heritage.
It is particularly effective in preventing the occurrence of coastal problems in
_________________ and _______ populated coastal areas.
Land use zoning can be achieved primarily by the designation of _________________
__________________________________________ (SSSIs), ___________________
_________________________ and _______________________________________.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

56
a. Site of Special Scientific Interests (SSSIs)
SSSIs are designated to conserve areas of ______________ interest with rare fauna
or flora species in Hong Kong.
Generally, no new _________________ or change in land use can be carried out in
the area.
The north shore of Tolo Harbour and the _____________ Marshes are examples of
SSSIs.

b. Coastal protection areas
Coastal protection areas are planned to conserve, protect and retain the natural
coastline and preserve the coastal environment. These include places with attractive
_______________ features, physical landforms or areas of natural landscape with
scenic or _______________ value.
Only development which _____________ the existing natural landscape or essential
infrastructure projects are permitted.
The estuary of _______________ river is an example of coastal protection area.

c. Marine parks / reserves
Marine parks / reserves are set up to protect and _____________ ecologically
important marine environments and resources.
These parks / reserves can facilitate _________________, recreation,
_________________ and research activities for the public.
There are _________ marine parks and _________ marine reserve in Hong Kong,
covering a total marine area of 2 430 ha.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

57
3. Managed retreat (doing nothing)
With the approach of managed retreat, the coast is allowed to evolve naturally by
____________, deposition and flooding.
The government takes ______________ other than to monitor the situation.
This approach is applied to land of ______ value with no significant risks to people.
As nothing is done, this is a very _________________ method in the short term.
Nevertheless, if erosion continues, there may be a need to _________________
people for the loss of business, land or home.


Evaluation of methods and strategies used for river and coastal
management

1. Effectiveness of the strategy
Some of the strategies taken are not as ______________ as expected.

2. Durability of the strategy
Some of the strategies are not _____________ and cannot withstand strong ocean waves.

Strategies Advantages Disadvantages
Dyke /
sea wall
Provides
______________
protection against
flooding or erosion
May ______________ beach erosion
Limits ______________ to the beaches
_____________ wave may erode the
materials under the sea wall
Disrupts the natural interaction
between the coast and the sea
Very ______________

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

58

Groynes
Protect the beaches / banks
from erosion
Maintain beach
____________
Shift the coastal erosion problems to
the downdrift location
__________ impact unsightly
Beach
nourishment
Increases sand in the
_______________ to protect
the beach
_______________ the
beach to an optimal profile
against erosion
Relatively ______________
Requires ________________
maintenance
Must be carefully designed as they
may alter the ________ on the
beach and dredging site
Land use
zoning
______ cost
Prevents / reduces
_________ damage
effectively
____________ reduce existing
damage
Reduces _______________
Land use _______________ is
costly
Managed
retreat
Limits the damage of erosion
or flooding
Maintains the _________
operation
Expensive _______________ to
relocate residents
Affects _____________ human
activities along the river course or
coast

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

59
Costs and benefits

Costs Benefits
1. Economic
a. Construction costs
Most ________ engineering incur
construction costs which
________ countries may not be
able to afford.
For instance, construction of
large-scale ________ and
_____________ is a costly and
lengthy process which incurs
huge costs.
In contrast, groyne construction
requires relatively less
_____________ cost.

b. Maintenance costs
All strategies have a limited
_____________ and require
regular _____________ work.
After dam construction, regular
_____________ and
_____________ must be
conducted to maintain the
reservoir capacity and strength of
Human ________ and
_____________ are
protected from floods and
erosion by effective
management strategies.
Values of properties and
the cost of _____________
can be maintained.

Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

60
the dam.
Wooden groynes are _________
to build but have a _________
lifespan that requires constant
repair after installation.
2. Ecological
Some of the strategies, especially
those related to _________
engineering strategies such as
river channelisation, building sea
walls and dykes, may destroy the
__________ beauty along the
coastline or river.
Management works cause the
displacement of large areas of
wetland habitat and can act as a
sink for trapping marine or
river-borne _____________ that
would otherwise be flushed away
by natural flows. These ecological
costs should not be neglected.
Some areas with high
_____________ value can
be protected from erosion
and flooding through
different river and coastal
management strategies.
Plants and animals living
along rivers and the coast
can continue to flourish and
their __________ can be
preserved.


Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

61

3. Social
Constructing reservoirs or
managing retreat strategies
along hazardous coasts
requires _____________ local
residents and economic
activities.
Compensation and relocation
are costly and may cause
__________ unrest.
The ________ of
submergence or collapse of
historic sites, tourist spots and
unique heritage areas cannot
be measured.

Coastal and river management
can effectively prevent
_____________. This can help
minimise worries of people
who were once threatened by
the hazards, therefore
promoting social
_____________.
These management strategies
are intended to strike a
______________ between
resource protection and
economic development,
therefore balancing and
settling ____________ among
different interest groups.
Certain measures such as
beach nourishment can help
protect ______________
areas for different groups of the
society such as surfers,
swimmers and sunbathers.
Section 2
Managing river and coastal environments: A continuing challenge

62
Problems may be encountered after all the costs and benefits have been
analysed

1. Enforcement issue
There are often criticisms about the ________________ of existing strategies for
conserving ecologically important sites under _____________ ownership.
As long as land use complies with zoning control, the government cannot prohibit
activities carried out on _____________ lands even though they may not be
compatible with conservation objectives or may cause adverse impacts on natural
habitats.
It is evident that conservation of important habitats involving private lands cannot
succeed without the support and cooperation of the landowners and other local
________________.
The level of __________________ is still low and this limits the effectiveness of the
measures.
Although there are four marine parks and one marine reserve in Hong Kong, they
protect less than 2% of local coastal waters.

2. Divided opinions
From time to time, there are _____________ on whether a site should be conserved,
especially when the nature conservation objective _____________ with development
proposals.
Nature conservation is essentially the conservation of biodiversity. Different people
may have different views on what should constitute an ecologically important site. Such
conflicting opinions may _____________ management of the debated area.

Refer to the case of coastal management in the Holderness coast in Section 2 p.126