GRANULAR FILTRATION

Settling is not sufficient to remove all particles and flocs from water. Typical overflow qualities from
sedimentation tanks range from 1 to 10 NTU. Filtration, usually rapid sand filtration, is ten employed
for furter !polising", i.e. to get te tur#idity to lower tan 0.$ NTU %as required #y legislation&. 'apid
sand filtration after prior sedimentation is te most common configuration worldwide. (ncreasingly,
direct filtration is #eing employed were te tur#idity of te raw water is not ig. Slow sand filtration is
not very common, #ut tere is a renewal in interest in using tis as a very useful unit process wen
organic removal #y #iological means #ecomes important.
Sand filtration is recogni)ed as one of te essential #arriers in water treatment, a #arrier to patogens.
Te oter #arrier is disinfection. *it te focus on proto)oan diseases, giardiasis and
cryptosporidiasis, te importance of sand filtration as once more #een reali)ed, due to te failure of
disinfection to inactivate te cysts and oocysts of te proto)oa. To ensure effective removal of oocysts,
some water treatment plants strive to acieve a tur#idity level of 0.1 NTU and initial filtrates immediately
after #ackwasing are discarded.
Tere are several oter filtering processes used for te separation of particles from a stream of water or
sludge. Precoat filtration is mainly used in pretreatment #efore membrane filtration, altoug one form
of precoat filtration, diatomaceous earth filters are commonly used in swimming pools. Tese
tecnologies are #eing reconsidered in full+scale water treatment to counteract proto)oan diseases.
Vacuum filters and filter presses are used for removing water from sludges #y te use of a filter clot,
wic retains a layer of sludge from wic water is sucked or pressed #y an induced pressure
difference. Tese units operate mainly troug te use of a mecanical straining process. Te
empasis in tese notes will #e on sand filtration.
3.1 RAPID SAND FILTRATION
Filtration is used in #ot water treatment and wastewater treatment as a separation process, wic
removes fine inorganic and organic particles from te water. Sand filters are often used in treatment of
water to remove fine particles, wic cannot #e economically removed #y sedimentation. Sand filtration
is a form of granular medium filtration, in wic te filtering medium consists of granular material suc
as sand, antracite, activated car#on or oter grains. Te main applications in water treatment are
rapid sand filtration and slow sand filtration.
Tere are a num#er of mecanisms, wic result in te removal of particles from water during rapid
sand filtration as discussed #elow.
Mechanical straining
,ranular filters remove particles tat are very muc smaller tan te dimensions of te interstices
#etween teir grains. -ltoug tere must #e some mechanical straining effect, it accounts for only a
minor part of te action of a filter. - granular filter is capa#le of capturing very fine particles, even in te
a#sence of particles large enoug to #ridge te interstices.
Adsortion
Tere are tree essential parts of te filtration process in a granular material. Tey are.
%a& te #ed of fi/ed solids %consisting of te filter medium togeter wit previously deposited impurities&,
%#& te water passing troug te interstices #etween te fi/ed solids, and
%c& te solid impurities suspended in te water.
Filtration CE523 1
Adsorption of particles of impurities onto te fi/ed #ed %tat is, te fine particles stick eiter to a grain of
filter material or to previously deposited and adsor#ed impurities& is a ma0or factor in successful
filtration troug porous media. -dsorption is a process of wic te efficiency depends on te surface
properties of #ot te adsor#ing matri/ and te small particles tat are adsor#ed. Tere are two factors
in te adsorption of a particle.
a& its a#ility to stick to te matri/ wen it is #rougt into contact and
#& its transport to a position were it eiter contacts te surface or comes close enoug to #e attracted to it.
Te metod of attacment of particles is similar to te process of flocculation. - small particle in close
pro/imity to a solid surface is su#0ect to eiter electrical attraction or repulsion %depending on te
surface canges developed #y #ot te particle and te surface wen in contact wit te water& and to
te attraction caused #y van der *aals forces %see Fig 1.1&. (t is also su#0ect to te ydraulic forces
resulting from te movement of te water. Te electrical forces can eiter ini#it or enance te
removal of fine particles from te water as it passes troug a filter. For most of a filtering period, te
grains of filter material are coated wit a layer of impurities and, terefore, te surface carge produced
on te impurities is important in ensuring a prolonged effective filter operation #efore cleaning is
required. (f te water as #een treated to give optimum destabilization of colloids for effective
flocculation and sedimentation, it is likely tat te remaining particles will #e suita#ly desta#ili)ed for
effective filtering.
Te forces of adesion #etween te deposited impurities and te filter grains can #ecome so strong
tat te impurities are not readily removed during #ackwasing. Te impurities and filter grains may
ten lump togeter to form mud-balls, wic are very resistant to #eing cleaned #y #ackwasing2 teir
ydraulic #eavior makes tem settle in a fluidi)ed #ed of sand. 3are must terefore #e e/ercised to
ensure tat altoug te adesion surface forces are strong enoug to trap and old impurities, tey
are weak enoug to allow teir release during #ackwasing.
Transort
For adsorption to occur, particles must #e carried close enoug to te matri/ surface to #ecome
attracted and attaced to it. Tey are carried troug te interstices in te filter matri/ #y te water
flow, wic, under normal conditions, is laminar.
Tere are tree main mecanisms #y wic particles are transported into contact wit te filter matri/.
interception, sedimentation and diffusion %see Fig 4.1&.
a& Interception is te process were#y a particle #eing carried along a streamline cances to come close
enoug to te surface for its attacment. (f a particle of effective diameter d
p
is moving along a streamline
wic passes witin a distance of
1
5
1
d
p
from a solid surface, tere is an opportunity for adsorption.
#& Sedimentation is te process in wic a particle is deflected from te streamline pat #y te gravitational
effect, resulting from te difference #etween its weigt and its #uoyancy. - granular filter as an action tat
could #e considered as an irregular sallow dept sedimentation unit.
c& Diffusion is te process were#y particles are randomly deflected #y #uffeting resulting from molecular
activity %6rownian motion&. Tis will occur under laminar flow conditions.
Te effectiveness of interception and sedimentation in a filter increases wit an increase in particle
si)e, #ut te effectiveness of diffusion increases wit a decrease in si)e. Tus, altoug a filter may
remove large particles efficiently #y interception and sedimentation, and very small particles #y
diffusion, tere is an intermediate si)e of particle for wic te removal efficiency is relatively low. For
practical filters, tis is a#out 1 7 $ micron. 3onsidering tat 3ryptosporidium oocysts are a#out $ in
diameter, teir removal is difficult.
Filtration CE523 2
Fig!re 3.1 Methods o" article transort
Te desta#ili)ation of colloids wit adequate cemical pre+treatment is an essential aspect of rapid
sand filtration.
#ead loss in oerating "ilter
For filter flow rates in te normal operating regime of 4 to 1$ m
4
m
+1

+1
, i.e. 4 to 1$ m5 approac
velocity, and sand wit an effective si)e of 0.$ to 1.0 mm, te error in assuming tat te ead loss is
proportional to te flow rate is practically negligi#le. Tus 8arcy9s :aw,
; < =
h
L
%4.1&
Filtration CE523 3
can #e used to estimate te ead loss in filter, were is te ead loss2 : is te dept of filter #ed over
wic te loss occurs2 ; is te velocity of te water at te filter2 and = is 8arcy9s coefficient of
permea#ility.
Te coefficient of permea#ility is a function of te density, , and viscosity, , of te water, te si)e and
sape of te grains in te #ed, and teir porosity, f %or as in -**-&.
=o)eny9s equation gives an estimate of te ead gradient in a clean #ed of sand filtering clean water as

h
L
<
2
2 3
2
) 1 (

f g
A f kV

%4.1&

were k is a dimensionless coefficient wit a value of a#out $ for most filtering conditions2
- is te grain surface area2 and is te grain volume.
For sperical grains,
A

6
d
, were d is te diameter of spere #ut for oter
sapes,
A

6
d
, were is a sape coefficient + a#out 0.> for water+worn
sand, 0.? for angular sand, and 0.@$ for well+saped crused material. (f k is assumed to #e $, te
ead loss troug a clean #ed of dept : is given appro/imately #y %Note. 1A0
< $ / @
1
&
<
180
g

V
(1 f )
2
f
3
L

2
d
2
%4.4&
Te two parameters relating to te #ed, wic ave te most effect on ead loss are d, te grain
diameter, and f, te porosity. - decrease in eiter will cause an increase in ead loss.
(n a practical filter tere is a mi/ture of particles si)es, te water is not clean and, for most of te time,
many of te grains of filter medium are coated wit impurities. Te calculation of ead loss is useful
only to estimate te minimum ead loss in a filter for a given flow. 6ecause of te difference #etween
practical and ideal conditions, only a moderate degree of agreement #etween actual and estimated
ead losses can #e e/pected.
Example 3.1
- clean filter as a #ed consisting of uniform, water+worn sand grains 0.? mm in diameter. Te porosity
of te #ed is 0.B and te #ed is 0.A m deep. (f te flow rate is 1.$ :.s
+1
.m
+1
, estimate te ead loss if te
viscosity of te water is 1 / 10
+4
N.s.m
+1
.
Solution
Su#stituting in Cq 4.@ %converting to #asic S( units& Note. < 1 / 10
+4
kgm
+1
s
+1
, from N < kgms
+1
:s
+1
m
+1
< mm5s < 4.@ m5
<
180
9.81
x
1 x10
3
[1000 ]
x
1.5
1000
x
(10.4)
2
0.4
3
x
0.8
0.9
2
x 0.0007
2
< 0.41 m
The e""ect o" "o!ling
Filtration CE523 4
(t as #een found from e/perience tat, as a filter #ed collects impurities, te increase in te head loss
is approximatel directl proportional to the amount of impurities collected. Te ead loss in a filter
during operation wit a uniform quality of feed, can ten #e written as
< ;%a D # & %4.B&
were ; is te approac velocity of te water2 is te volume of water filtered troug unit area of #ed
since te last #ackwas2 and a and # are parameters depending on te si)e and sape of te material,
and te quality of te applied water.
Example 3.2
- filter as a ead loss of 0.4 m wen newly wased, and 1.4 m after 1B ours, wen operating at a
rate of 1.$ :s
+1
m
+1
. Cstimate te ead loss #ot immediately after #ackwas and 10 ours later, if te
same water is applied at a rate of 1 :s
+1
m
+1
.
Solution
Su#stitution of te data in te formula gives two simultaneous equations
0.4 <
1.5
1000
Ea D %0 / #&F
1.4 <
1.5
1000
Ea D %
1.5
1000
/ 1B / 4@00 #&F
Solution of tese simultaneous equations gives a < 100, # < $.1B
For te new condition, su#stitution gives

o
<
2
1000
E100 D %0 / #&F < 0.B m and

10
<
2
1000
E100 D %
2
1000
/ 10 / 4@00 / $.1B&F < 1.AA m
#ead loss $hen %ac&$ashing
Te total ead loss during a #ackwas is equal to te sum of ead losses in te sand #ed, gravel #ed
and distri#ution system.
(n te sand bed, te ead loss follows 8arcy9s law for low flows. *ater flowing upwards troug a
granular #ed creates ydraulic drag forces on te grains. -s long as a grain is in contact wit oter
grains, te resultant of te intergranular forces and drag forces on te grain is equal to te #uoyant
weigt of te grain. (f, owever, te grain is freely suspended in te water, te intergranular forces
must #e )ero and te drag force ten equals its #uoyant weigt.
Te drag force acts on te grains and tere is an equal and opposite reaction on te water. Tis gives
rise to a pressure loss as te water passes troug te granular #ed. (t follows tat te pressure loss is
given #y
G < %*
#
+ F
f
&5-
were G is te pressure loss in te #ed2 *
#
is te #uoyant weigt of #ed material2 F
f
is te total of
granular forces acting on te floor of te #ed2 and - is te ori)ontal area of te #ed.
Filtration CE523 5
-s F
f
cannot #e negative, te ma/imum value of G is *
#
5-. *en te flow e/ceeds tat at wic te
8arcy pressure loss %g / ead loss& is equal to te #uoyant weigt of te grains in unit area, te sand
#ed e/pands and tus increases te porosity. Hence, te pressure loss remains equal to, or less tan,
te #uoyant weigt of te grains per unit area. *en te porosity as increased so tat te grains in
te #ed are free to move wile suspended #y te ydraulic forces, te #ed is fluidized. Fluidi)ation is a
special case of indered settling.
Te total ead loss in a fully fluidi)ed sand #ed is appro/imately equal to te original dept of te #ed.
Tis is coincidental, #ecause te apparent relative density of sand is a#out 1.@$ %tat is, 1.@$ + 1& and,
wit a porosity of a#out 0.B, te volume of te sand grains is a#out 0.@ times te volume of te #ed.
Te pressure corresponding to te #uoyant weigt of te grains per unit area terefore corresponds to
tat caused #y a ead of water a#out 0.@ / 1.@$ times te dept of te #ed.
Te empirical 'icardson+Iaki formula relates te porosity and upflow velocity in a fluidi)ed #ed.
;
s
< ;
p
%1 + 3&
n
%4.$&
were ;
s
is te indered settling velocity %wic, in a fluidi)ed #ed, is equal to te upflow velocity&2 ;
p
is
te settling velocity of a single particle %of mean si)e&2 3 is te volumetric concentration %1 + porosity&2
and n is an inde/ wic depends on te nature and grading of te grains.
Te value of n varies from a#out 1.$ for particles, wic settle wit a tur#ulent wake to B.@$ for
sperical particles around wic te flow of water is laminar. For filter sand, te value is usually in te
range 4.@ to B.$.
-s te magnitude of te upflow velocity, ;
s
, in te fluidi)ed condition increases, so te porosity
increases and te concentration decreases. (f te initial #ed dept and concentration are : and 3
o
respectively, te dept of te fluidi)ed #ed is :3
o
53. Te percentage e/pansion of te #ed is equal to
100 %3
o
+ 3&53.
Te upflow troug a #ed is inerently unstable. Te ead loss over a given dept is proportional to
te concentration, and terefore decreases as te flow increases. -ny local increase in flow reduces
te local concentration. Terefore, te resistance to flow is reduced and tis tends to cause a furter
increase of flow. Uneven #ackwasing of filters results from tis penomenon, and controls e/ternal to
te #ed must #e provided.
Te e/ternal control of flow is provided #y te ead loss in te finer layers of gravel in te sand support
or #y te distri#uting orifices in te filter floor, or #ot. Te ead loss troug tese must #e large
enoug to control te flow, despite te unsta#le nature of te granular #ed.
Te viscosity of water varies wit temperature. Terefore, lower flow rates are required wit very cold
waters, and iger flow rates wit warm waters %as found in ot climates&, to produce te same sand
e/pansion and wasing efficiency.
Example 3.3
- filter #ed of uniform sand as an operating dept of 0.@ m at a porosity of 0.B1. *en #ackwased at
a rate of ?.1 :5s.m
1
at 1$J3, te #ed e/pands to a dept of 0.?1 m and, at 1@.1 :5s.m
1
, it e/pands to a
dept of 0.>0@ m. Cstimate te #ackwas rate required at te same temperature to cause 40 per cent
e/pansion.
Solution
Su#stitution of te data in te 'icardson+Iaki equation, ;
s
< ;
p
%1 + 3&
n
, gives
?.1 < ;
p
1 0.59 x
0.6
0.72



_
,




1
]
1
n
Filtration CE523 6
1@.1 < ;
p
1 0.59 x
0.6
0.906



_
,




1
]
1
n
8ivide :HS #y :HS and 'HS #y 'HS, wic gives
0.BB? <
0.508
0.609



_
,

n
Terefore, n < B.BB.
Su#stitution of tis value in one of te a#ove equations gives
?.1 < ;
p
1 0.59 x
0.6
0.72



_
,




1
]
1
4.44
V
p
(0.508)
4.44
from wic ;
p
< 1B$.@ mm5s.
Now, for 40 per cent e/pansion,
;
s
< 1B$.@ 1 0.59 x
100
130



_
,




1
]
1
4.44
< >.>4 mm5s
Oeration o" Raid Sand Filters
'apid filtration is used as te final clarifying step in municipal water treatment plants. (f te raw water
as tur#idity in e/cess of 10+10 NTU, flocculation and sedimentation unit processes sould #e
employed #efore te rapid filters must #e provided. Tere is limited #iological action in conventional
rapid filters. Some nitrification #y cemotrops occurs wen te o/ygen content is adequate, and te
retention time is sufficient.
Te working of a rapid gravity filter is e/plained #elow wit reference to Figures 4.1 and 4.4. *en te
filter is in a working condition, only valves 1 and B are kept open and all oters are kept closed.
'ac&$ashing
*ater tat passes troug te filter medium, supporting layer, and underdrain, e/periences frictional
loss of resistance known as eadloss. *en te ead loss e/ceeds 1.$+1.$ m, te filter needs
cleaning. Te first operation is to close valves 1 and B %Figure 4.1& and allow te filter to drain until te
water lies a few centimeters a#ove te top of te #ed. Ten valve $ %Figures 4.1 and 4.4& is opened,
and air is #lown #ack troug a compressed air unit at a rate of a#out 1 + 1.$ m
4
free air5min. m
1
of #ed
area for a#out 1+4 minutes, at a pressure of 10+4$ kN5m
1
. Te water over te #ed quickly #ecomes
very dirty as te air+agitated sand #reaks up surface scum and dirt. Following tis, valves 1 and @ are
opened, and an upward flow of water is sent troug te #ed at a carefully designed ig velocity. Tis
sould #e sufficient to e/pand te #ed %10+$0K & and cause te sand grain to #e agitated so tat
deposits are wased off tem, #ut not so ig tat te sand grains are carried away in te rising
upwards flus of water.
-fter te wasing of te filters as #een completed, valves 1 and @ will #e closed, and valves 1 and 4
opened. Tis restores te inlet supplied troug valve 1. Te filtered water is wasted to te gutter for a
few minutes after tis, until te required quality is acieved. Ultimately, valve 4 is closed and valve B is
opened to get te filtered water again. Te entire process of #ackwasing te filters and restarting te
supplies takes a#out 1$ minutes. Te specified minimum #ackwas time for a rapid filter is $ minutes.
Filtration CE523 7
Te amount of water required to was a rapid filter may vary from 4+@K of te total amount of water
filtered.
Fig!re 3.( Diagra))atic section o" a raid sand "ilter
Fig!re 3.3 Diagra))atic section o" a %ac&$ash s*ste)
Upward was water rates are usually of te order of 0.4+1.0 m5min. (t is usually more economical to
use gravity flow from a large storage tank, since te #ackwas flow rates are ig. =eeping suc a
tank topped up #y a relatively small, continuously running pump drawing from te filtered water supply
can minimi)e energy requirements. Te waswater tank sould ave a capacity to provide a minimum
of one filter was of 10 minutes duration. (t sould #e capa#le of #eing refilled in @0 minutes.
(f tere is significant particle retention at te surface of te #ed, it is recommended to ave a surface
was. Surface was is acieved #y an additional c.0.1 m
4
5min+m
1
of water 0etted onto te surface of
sand at 1$0+B$0 kN5m
1
. 8ifferent filter #ackwas metods and te recommended design valves are
summari)ed in Ta#le 4.1.
Filtration CE523 8
Te underdrain system of a filter is an important component in te design and operation. Te selection
is #ased on te filter type and si)e, media caracteristics, and te selected metod of #ackwasing.
Te underdrain sould contain a central manifold, wit laterals tat are eiter perforated or ave
um#rella+type strainers on top. Lter types tat may #e used include clay tile #locks, precast concrete
laterals, false #ottoms wit strainers, and porous plates, etc. Te selected underdrain system, wile
ensuring uniform flow distri#ution of te #ackwas, sould ensure dura#ility, relia#ility, and cost+
effectiveness.
Ta%le 3.1. Reco))ended design +al!es "or +ario!s %ac&$ash )ethods
Filter Underdrains
Tere are two metods of keeping a uniform flow distri#ution of te #ackwas water inside te filter cell
as descri#ed #elow.
1. 6y making te orifice or slits in te filter underdrain system small enoug to introduce a
controlled eadloss.
1. 6y decreasing te flow velocity of te pressuri)ed conduit upstream of te underdrain system so
tat te ydraulic grade and energy lines of te flow entering te underdrain system are fairly
uniform.
False+#ottom under drain systems are preferred due to relia#le performance and low maintenance
costs %=awamura, 1>>1&. Ta#le 4.1 gives te typical design parameters of an underdrain system
%lateral manifold system& for a small rapid sand filter.
Ta%le 3.( Design ,riteria "or Underdrains -N.S / D'0 11223

,riterion 4al!e

Minimum diameter of underdrains 10 cm
8iameter of te perforations @+11 mm %suggested at a sligt angle to te vertical a/is
of te pipe&
Spacing of perforations along laterals ?.$ cm for @ mm perforations
10 cm for 11 mm perforations
'atio of total area of perforation to 0.1$ for @ mm perforations
total cross+sectional area of laterals 0.$0 for 11 mm perforations
'atio of total area of perforation to 0.004
te entire filter area
:engt to diameter ratio of te lateral @0.1
Ma/imum spacing of laterals 40 cm
3ross+sectional area of te manifold 1.$+1.0 times te total area of laterals
Filtration CE523 9
;elocity of te filtered water outlet 1.0+1.A m5s

M!lti)edia Filters
Te conventional rapid filter generally uses sand wit an effective si)e of 0.@ +1.1 mm and a uniformity
coefficient of 1.$ + 1. Te uniformity coefficient is te ratio of te screen si)e, wic will pass @0K of te
material to te si)e, wic will pass 10K.
6ackwasing results in te filter media #eing stratified wit te finer medium remaining at te top and
te coarser medium at te #ottom of te filter #ed. Tis makes only te top fine sand portion effective in
filtration. To overcome tis pro#lem, two alternatives ave #een proposed. dual or multimedia filtration2
or coarse+si)e, narrowly graded media filtration.
Te conventional approac to multimedia filtration is to ave tree layers of material. coarse %1mm&
antracite on top, sand of 0.$mm in te middle and 0.1$mm garnet at te #ottom. Te si)e and specific
gravity are carefully selected to minimi)e intermi/ing. Te commonly used media are antracite coal
and sand. Te difference in densities. c. 1$00 kg5m
4
of antracite, 1$00 kg5m
4
of sand and 4400 kg5m
4
of garnet, ensures tat tese layers maintain teir position also during #ackwasing.
C/tensive researc as #een carried out to study te advantages and disadvantages of intermi/ing of
filter media in dual media filtration. *ile some researcers feel tat te grain si)e of coarse antracite
and fine sand sould #e cosen in suc a way tat te intermi/ing at te interface is minimi)ed, oters
#elieve tat controlled mi/ing among filter media is #eneficial. - detailed design of media is discussed
in te literature %;igneswaran et al., 1>A42 Ma)umdar, 1>AB&.
-s a result of te searc for a dual+media filter in wic interface intermi/ing does not occur, a new type of filter
called te flotofilter as #een introduced. Te flotofilter uses syntetic plastic #eads as te filter medium.
Golypropylene is te coarse medium and polystyrene is te fine medium %*erellagama, 1>>4&. 6ot te media
ave a specific gravity less tat water, ence te #ed floats in water. Golypropylene is muc more dense tan
polystyrene, ence it forms te lower part of te floating filter #ed. -s te coarse medium is at te #ottom, te
filtration is upflow. Tis filter needs an upper retention grid to prevent te loss of media wit filtered water. 8ue to
te large density difference, te two media do not intermi/ even under severe agitation, leaving a clear media
interface after #ackwasing. Tis eliminates te most common operational pro#lem encountered in conventional
multimedia filters. -lso, as tere is a #uffer )one of water #etween te floating #ed and te filter inlet, te #ed is
not distur#ed due to te tur#ulent conditions in te underdrain system. Tis permits te use of a very simple
underdrain system, resulting in #ot capital and operational cost savings. Since te two media are floating, tey
can #e fluidi)ed using muc lower energy tan conventional dual+media filters. Tis results in considera#le
energy and water saving during te #ackwasing of te filter. C/periments carried out in France %6en -im et al.,
1>>4& and in -ustralia %;igneswaran and Ngo, 1>>4& ave indicated tat tis can #e successfully used as a static
flocculator and5or prefiltration unit prior to te direct filtration unit.
I)ro+e)ents on Flo$ Rate
3onventional rapid filtration operates at a constant rate of appro/imately $ m
4
5m
1
.. 'esearc work on
te variation of flow rate as indicated tat ig+rate filtration and declining+rate filtration are
advantageous for most cases. (f it is possi#le to acieve te desired filtrate quality wit a iger filter
rate at an operational and maintenance cost compara#le to tat of a conventional rapid filter, ten one
could acieve a significant capital saving #y using a ig+rate filter. Similarly, researc as indicated
tat declining+rate filtration produces a #etter effluent quality tan te conventional process. Terefore,
if one could o#tain te same amount of filtered water wit equal capital investments, ten declining+rate
filtration would ave a definite advantage over conventional rapid filtration. -noter advantage of using
declining+rate filtration is tat it does not require automatic rate control.
Te concept of declining+rate filtration is not new. 6asically, no rate controller is used in tis system,
and instead a fi/ed orifice replaces it. Te filtration rate in tis system is allowed to decline from a
ma/imum value at te #eginning of te run, wen te filter is clean, to a minimum value at te end of
Filtration CE523 10
te filter run, wen te filter is in need of #ackwasing. (n practice, several %a minimum of four& filters
are used in parallel, and te water level is maintained essentially at te same level in all four. -s tey
will #e in different stages of #ackwasing, flow rate differences will #e evened out.
Hig+rate filtration, in wic te filtration rate is a#out 10+1$ m
4
5m
1
., as compared to te rate of
conventional rapid sand filtration, wic is of te order of $.0 m
4
5m
1
., is useful in upgrading e/isting
plants. Suc ig filtration rates are possi#le, tanks to te development of %1& dual+media or
multimedia2 and %1& control of flocculation #y polyelectrolytes, wic produce relatively less sludge.
Hig+rate filters wit dual or coarse+medium arrangements ave #een successfully used in developed
countries. Tis could #e one of te economic solutions for te e/pansion of e/isting water treatment
plants and for te construction of new plants. Te filters sould #e designed to operate at te igest
practical rate. Te design sould #e suc tat even wit te iger frequency of wasing, tey are
more economical. Here, more attention sould #e paid to te selection of te filter media and filtration
rate so tat te filtrate quality meets te required standard.
U"lo$ "iltration
1. Te flow in conventional rapid filtration is in te downward direction. Te ma0or disadvantage in
tis process is tat te flow meets te fine sand #efore reacing te coarse sand tat is found at te
#ottom layer %as a result of non+uniformity and stratification during #ackwasing&. (f one inverts tis
flow to an upward direction, a #etter use of te filter media can #e acieved. Lne could ten use
ungraded sand to provide a larger range of si)es. Tis type of upflow grid filters as #een e/tensively
used for filtration of water for municipal and industrial supplies in Curope, -frica and -merica %:andis,
1>@@2 Lkun, 1>@?&. Lperation witout grids as also met wit considera#le success in Sout -frica.
%;an der Merwe and van :eeuwen, 1>>1&.
3.( DIR5,T FILTRATION
3onventional water treatment plants generally use unit operations suc as rapid mi/ing, flocculation,
sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. 8epending on te quality of te water, one or more unit
operations can #e eliminated, tere#y acieving a cost+effective water treatment. 8irect filtration is one
suc metod. Filters used in direct filtration tus differ little from tose for conventional treatment in
construction. Te primary difference in te operation of te two systems is related to solids storage
capacity and #ackwasing requirements. 8ifferent direct filtration flow scemes are presented in
Figure 4.B.
8irect filtration was first e/plored during te early 1>00s, #ut tese attempts were not successful, due to
te rapid clogging of te sand #eds. Te development of coarse+sand filters and dual+media filters as
made it possi#le to store greater amounts of floc witin te filter #ed witout e/cessive eadloss, and
as tus increased te feasi#ility of te direct filtration process. Furter advances in filter design and
te availa#ility of a wider selection of cemical coagulants and polyelectrolytes ave resulted in a
variety of filtration systems #eing designed in wic coagulating cemicals are employed. Te
flocculation #asin is eiter eliminated or reduced in si)e, and te sedimentation #asin is not utili)ed.
Suc processes tus ave only screening, rapid mi/ing, and a sort time of flocculation prior to
filtration. -ll suspended solids and flocs formed are deposited in te filter, wic is usually a multi+
media, granular #ed containing coal, sand, and peraps oter media.
Te -merican *ater *orks -ssociation %-**-& Filtration 3ommittee %1>A0& did a worldwide survey of
?0 operating and pilot plants. Tis indicated tat waters wit less tan B0 units of color, tur#idity
consistently #elow $ NTU, iron and manganese concentrations less tan 0.4 mg5: and 0.0$ mg5:,
respectively, and algal counts of up to 1000 per m: %measured in a#sorption units at 1000 nm& appear
to #e perfect candidates for direct filtration. Tur#idity and color removals are consistently attained in
Filtration CE523 11
tis process. 6y efficient post+clorination, #acteria and virus removal pro#lems can #e eliminated.
Most of te literature favors te use of dual or mi/ed media for direct filtration.
8irect filtration can successfully #e used for low+tur#id waters, #ecause of its lower capital and
operational cost. (t does not require any sopisticated equipment, altoug skilled operators are need
in order to monitor te filters. -ttention sould #e paid to te possi#ility of poor #acteriological quality of
te filters in case of igly polluted raw water.
Design Princiles
Since optimum design parameters depend greatly on te nature of te water to #e treated, pilot studies
are required to determine te appropriate type of coagulant and coagulant+aid, and te media
composition, si)e, and dept. Some guidelines are given #elow.
!ilter media 3an #e single, dual, or mi/ed media, #ut usually dual and mi/ed media are preferred
in direct filtration. ,adkari et al. %1>A0& recommend dual+media wit #ituminous coal or antracite
coal. 8eeper filters wit greater filter medium depts are preferred %=ing and -my, 1>?>&. Te
finest media possi#le sould #e selected to minimi)e cemical dosages. *itin reasona#le limits,
coarse filter #eds can produce te same quality filtrate as finer #eds, #ut more polymer is required.
Fine filter media are supported on a gravel #ed. Tis is preferred to direct support on #ottoms
equipped wit mecanical strainers or no))les, wic are not recommended %3ulp, 1>??&.
Fig!re 3.6 Direction "iltration "lo$ sche)es
"apid mixing Te rapid mi/ing process for direct filtration usually does not differ muc from tat
used for conventional plants.
!iltration rate 10+1$ m
4
5m
1
. %constant+rate operation&. - rate of 11 m
4
5m
1
. is usually adopted.
'ecent studies ave sown tat iger filtration rates are possi#le %up to 10 m
4
5m
1
.& wit low tur#id
waters %Murray and 'oddy, 1>>4a&.
!locculants Te type of flocculent is te most important parameter and sould #e e/perimentally
evaluated initially. -lum as #een utili)ed wit success in many installations. 8osages of $+10
mg5: can #e effective for direct filtration of waters of various tur#idities %-din et al., 1>?>&.
However, more recently it as #ecome apparent tat a carefully selected cationic polymer may
ave considera#le advantages in some situations. Golyelectrolyte doses for uncolored water may
frequently vary from 0.0$+1.0 mg5: wen used as primary flocculants %essentially cationic&, and
may #e less wen used in addition to alum for te treatment of organic contaminated water %-din et
al., 1>?>&. Te general range of cationic polymer dosage used as te primary coagulant is 0.1+$
mg5: %3ulp, 1>??&. Murray and 'oddy %1>>4#& indicated tat cationic polymer togeter wit alum
will not only increase flow rate, #ut also significantly increases te filter run time. Nonionic polymer
and flocculation time were found to #e very important.
Filtration CE523 12
#ackwash method -ny conventional wasing procedure can #e used. Te usual #ackwasing
rate is 4?.$+@0 m
4
5m
1
.. (n te case of dual+media and multi+media filters, te #ackwasing rate
sould #e cosen in suc a way as to minimi)e te intermi/ing of media. 8etails are given
elsewere %6aumann, 1>?A2 =awamura, 1>?$&. Te total #ackwas volume can #e reduced #y a
com#ined air+water #ackwas metod. 8irect filtration needs frequent #ackwasing. *en a plant
contains more tan four direct filtration units, inter+filter #ackwasing can #e used. 3leas#y %1>>4&
recommends an inlet restriction as te metod of flow control wen inter+filter #ackwasing is used.
!ilter-run length Filter+run lengt depends on te raw water caracteristics, te coagulant dose, te
mi/ing energy input for floc formation %e/tent of pretreatment&, te media si)e, te filtration rate, etc.
-s a guideline for design, te design parameters sould #e cosen in suc a way tat te filter run
is at least 11 ours.
$ead re%uirement Since te filtration rate declines wit time in a direct filtration plant, te total ead
requirement for a direct filtration plant is less tan tat for a constant+rate filtration plant wit te
same flow rate. Te ead previously consumed in underdrains and piping during te early ig+
rate part of te filter cycle decreases wit te square of te filtration rate, and #ecomes availa#le to
overcome te clogging eadloss late in te cycle. -lso, te eadloss due to dirt accumulation is
reduced as te rate declines. Te total ead requirement is typically a#out two+tirds of tat
required for a constant+rate plant %3leas#y, 1>>4&.
&se of a standb filter - stand#y filter in a #ank of declining rate filters is often advisa#le. Tis one
filter remains off+line after it is #ackwased and is #rougt on+line as te ne/t dirty filter needs to go
off+line for #ackwasing. Tis arrangement as two oter advantages #esides avoiding te spikes
in level and filtrate tur#idity. First, te filter tat goes off+line for #ackwasing can #e allowed to
continue to filter after te inlet flow is stopped. (t will slowly drop in level as it filters to te clear well.
Tis may even take more tan an our in some cases. 6y doing tis, te pretreated water a#ove
te filter is not wasted in te desire to finis te #ackwas operation in a urry. -lso, due to te
reduction in spike, te filter #o/ dept can #e reduced. Te clean filter will come online wit a lower
total ead and terefore will start at a lower filtration rate. Suc use of a stand#y filter means tat
te e/tra filter is not truly redundant %stand#y& as intended #y te regulations %3leas#y, 1>>4&.
:a# tests for direct filtration ttp.55www.pipps#ird.com5filtrat.tml
3.3 SLO. SAND FILTRATION
(n rural areas, especially in developing countries were land is plentiful, te slow sand filter can #e used
wit success if te raw water is not igly tur#id. (t is well suited for tur#idities less tan $0 NTU. (n
case of igly tur#id water, one as to ave pretreatment prior to slow sand filtration. Te scematic
diagram of a simplified slow sand filtration plant, serving 1,$00+10,000 people, is presented in Figure
4.$.
Princile and oeration o" slo$ sand "ilters
*ater is purified #y passing it troug a #ed of fine sand at low velocities %0.1+0.4 m
4
5m
1
.&, wic
causes te retention of suspended matter in te upper 0.$+1 cm of te filter #ed. 6y scraping out tis
top layer, te filter is cleaned and restored to its original capacity. Te interval #etween two successive
cleaning9s varies from a few weeks to a few monts, depending on te raw water caracteristics.
Filtration CE523 13
Fig!re 3.7 Si)li"ied oeration o" slo$ sand "ilter
Te removal mecanisms of particles in a slow sand filter include mecanical straining, sedimentation,
diffusion, and cemical and #iological o/idation. 3oarse and fine particles of suspended matter are
deposited at te surface of te filter #ed #y te action of mecanical straining and sedimentation,
respectively, wile colloidal and dissolved impurities are removed #y te action of diffusion. 6y
cemical and #iological o/idation, te deposited organic matter is converted into inorganic solids and
discarged wit filter effluent. Micro#ial and #iocemical processes, and ence te removal of
impurities, take place mainly in te top )oological layer of te filter #ed %known as te !Scmut)decke"&.
Te important design parameters of a slow sand filter are te dept of te filter #ed, filter media si)e,
te filtration rate, and te dept of te supernatant water level. -s far as possi#le, tese design
parameters sould #e #ased on e/perience o#tained from e/isting treatment plants tat use a raw
water source of similar quality. (n te a#sence of relia#le data from suc e/isting treatment plants, pilot
plants can #e used to determine suita#le design criteria. Te values presented in Ta#le 4.4 can serve
as elpful guidelines.
Ta%le 3.3 Design criteria "or slo$ sand "ilters

Design ara)eters Reco))ended range o" +al!es

Filtration rate 0.1$ m
4
5m
1
. %0.1+0.1 m
4
5m
1
.&
-rea per filter #ed :ess tan 100 m
1
%in small community water
supplies to facilitate manual filter cleaning&
Num#er of filter #eds Minimum of two #eds
8ept of filter #ed 1 m %minimum of 0.? m of sand dept&
Filter media Cffective si)e %CS& < 0.1$+0.4$ mm
Uniformity coefficient %U3& < 1+4
Heigt of supernatant water 0.?+1 m %ma/imum 1.$ m&
Underdrain system
Standard #ricks
Grecast concrete sla#s ,enerally no need for furter ydraulic calculations
Grecast concrete #locks wit oles on te top
Gorous concrete
Gerforated pipes %laterals and manifold type& Ma/imum velocity in te manifolds and in laterals < 0.4 m5s
Spacing #etween laterals < 1.$ m
Spacing of oles in laterals < 0.1$ m
Si)e of oles in laterals < 4 mm

Since te purification mecanism in a slow sand filter is essentially a #iological process, its efficiency
depends upon a #alanced #iological community in te !Scmut)decke". Terefore, it is desira#le to
design te filters to operate as far as possi#le at a constant rate. However, te operation of slow sand
Filtration CE523 14
filters in most developing countries is intermittent due to te financial difficulties in employing operators
to run te plants around te clock. 6ut te intermittent operation causes deterioration in effluent quality
#ecause during stoppages te microorganisms causing #acteriological degradation of trapped
impurities lose teir effectiveness. (ntermittent operation distur#s te continuity needed for efficient
#iological activity.
Lne way of overcoming tis pro#lem is #y allowing te filter to operate at a declining rate after a cycle
of constant rate filtration. 8eclining rate filtration gives an additional water production of 0.$ and 0.?
m
4
5m
1
%of filter area&, wit a declining rate operation for A or 1@ ours after 1@ or A ours of constant
rate, operation respectively. Te effluent acieved during tis operation is generally satisfactory.
Moreover, te declining+rate model may #e applied during nigt+time, resulting in significant savings of
la#or.
,leaning o" slo$ sand "ilters
6efore cleaning a slow sand filter, floating matter suc as leaves and algae tat may cause nuisance
sould first #e removed #y raising te water level in te unit to flus te floating matter over te weir.
Ten te water level in te #ed is lowered to a#out 0.1+0.1 m #elow te sand surface #y closing te
inlet valve and opening #ot te supernatant water drain valve and te valve on te underdrains. Te
filter #ed is ten cleaned #y rapidly scraping off te top 1+1 cm of te #ed, in view of minimi)ing te
interference wit te filter micro#ial activity. *en one unit is sut down for cleaning, te oters are run
at a sligtly iger rate to maintain te output of te plant.
-fter cleaning, te unit is refilled wit water troug te underdrains. Tis water can #e o#tained from
an overead storage tank or #y using filtered water from an ad0acent filter. Te temporary reduction of
plant output due to tis metod sould #e taken into account wen te clear+water storage tank is
designed, assuring tat sufficient water is availa#le for te users.
6efore starting operating, te filter needs a period of at least 1B ours to allow for re+ripening of te #ed.
-fter tis period, te microorganisms usually reesta#lis to #e a#le to produce an accepta#le effluent.
(n cooler areas, te ripening may take a few days. Cven ten, if te tur#idity of te effluent is sufficiently
low, te water supply can #e resumed after a period of one day, after adequate clorination %;isscer,
1>>0&.
Ta#le 4.B gives a comparison of te caracteristics of te rapid filters %#ot pressure and gravity types&
wit slow sand filters.
,osts o" slo$ sand "ilters
Te construction cost of an open slow sand filter e/cluding pipes and valves as two components,
namely, %1& te floor, underdrains, sand, and gravel2 and %1& te walls of te filter #o/. Te cost of la#or
and land is usually less important. (n rural areas, te cost of land rarely e/ceeds 1K of te total
construction cost. However, in densely populated areas, te somewat larger areas required for slow
sand filter plants can #e a pro#lem %;isscer, 1>>0&.
Te construction cost of small+and+medium+si)ed slow sand filters are often less tan tat of oter
types of treatment. 3onstruction of a slow sand filter in (ndia is less e/pensive tan a rapid sand filter
up to a capacity of 4000 m
4
5d. However, if recurrent costs for operation and maintenance are taken into
account, te #alance sifts to A000 m
4
5d. Using ceaper materials like ferro+cement and less
e/pensive drainage systems will reduce te cost of slow sand filtration %;isscer, 1>>0&.
(n 3olom#ia, te new slow sand filtration plants are competitive wit conventional treatment plants.
Cven conversion of conventional plants into slow sand filtration plants as #een cost+effective. For
e/ample, in a su#ur# near 3ali, operation and maintenance of a conventional treatment plant cost U.S.
N11B05mont. 6ecause of te increasing cost of cemicals, it was decided to reconstruct te plant and
adopt slow sand filtration as te main treatment. Most of te e/isting structure could #e used, olding
Filtration CE523 15
te cost of reconstruction to as low as U.S. N?000. Te oversi)ed water storage tanks were canged
into slow sand filters. Lperation and maintenance costs are now U.S. N1B05mont %;isscer, 1>>0&.
Ta%le 3.6 ,o)arison o" Slo$ Sand Filters and Raid Sand Filters

Raid "ilter

,haracteristic Slo$ sand "ilter Gra+it* Press!re

Filtration rate 1+$ m
4
5m
1
.d 110+4@0m
4
5m
1
.d
Si)e of #ed :arge %1000 m
1
& Small %100 m
1
&
8ept of #ed 400 mm gravel, 1 m sand $00 mm gravel, 0.?+1.0 m sand,
unstratified stratified2 in some cases sand and
antracite are used as dual media
Cffective si)e of sand 0.4$ mm 0.@+1.1 mm
Uniformity coefficient 1+1.$ 1.$+1.?
Head loss Up to 1 m Up to 4 m
:engt of run 10+>0 days 1+1 days
Metod of cleaning Scrape off top layer 6ackwas wit water and
and was %or replace air D water scour and in some cases
wit new sand& surface scour
*aswater consumption 0.1+0.@K of filtered water 4+@K of filtered water
Genetration of suspended solids Superficial 8eep
troug te filter #ed
Gretreatment #y coagulation No Oes Oes
3overed construction No Lptional Oes
;isi#le operation Oes Oes No
3apital cost Hig Hig Medium
Lperating cost :ow Hig Hig
Skilled supervision Not required 'equired
-d0usting te quality of filtrate 8ifficult 3an #e done quickly
6acteria removal >>.>>K >0+>>K

Ad+antages and disad+antages o" slo$ sand "ilters
Simplicity of design and operation and minimal requirements of power and e/pensive cemicals make
te slow sand filter an appropriate tecnique for te removal of organic and inorganic suspended matter
as well as patogenic organisms present in surface waters of rural areas in developing countries.
Sludge andling pro#lems are also minimal. 3lose control #y an operator is not necessary, wic is
important to small communities #ecause an operator may ave several responsi#ilities. 8esign
e/perience in -merica sows tat te slow sand filter is more tan >>.>K efficient in removing 'iardia
Filtration CE523 16
cysts and coliform #acteria, and provides a sta#le effluent quality wit a low operating #udget %Seelaus
et al., 1>A@&. (t as te added advantage of #eing a#le to make use of locally availa#le materials and
la#or.
However, slow sand filtration as certain limitations. Te requirements of a large area, large quantities
of filter medium, and la#or for te manual cleaning are te ma0or disadvantages. Tese limitations do
not apply to te rural areas in te developing world were land and unskilled la#or are readily availa#le.
Design aroach to sand "ilters
1. Start all calculations on te #asis of 1m
1
of filter area.
1. Sand filter pressure drop over a clean filter can #e calculated using eiter te =o)eny or 'ose
equations. Tis is calculated from some predetermined ma/imum rate of filtration.
4. Te pressure drop resulting from fouling ten needs to #e added as a function of time. *e now
ave a linear function #etween pressure drop %or trougput& and operating time, increasing
until some unaccepta#le ig pressure drop %or low trougput&. %Te #racketed parts refer to
conditions under constant ead filtration.&
B. Te trougput rate over te operational period can #e determined as te product of %average&
trougput rate and time.
$. Te #ackwasing volume of water necessary can #e calculated from te #ackwas velocities
required and te period required for #ackwasing.
@. Te actual trougput per cycle %net production& is ten calculated #y su#tracting te amount
of water required per #ackwas. (f additional water is wasted, tis also needs to #e su#tracted.
?. Te total cycle lengt is te filtration time D #ackwas time D downtime5cycle
A. Te average trougput rate can #e calculated from te net production divided #y te cycle
lengt.
>. Te water demand divided #y te average trougput provides te required filter area.
I)ortant e)erging iss!es
Te removal of proto)oan ova2 direct filtration design2 upflow filtration2 continuous #ackwasing during
filtration2 floating media2 increased #ackwasing and flusing on water quality2 oter forms of filtration to
replace sand filtration2 #iological rapid sand filtration, etc.
Cryptosporidium ooc*sts
R5F5R5N,5S
-din, -., 6aumann, C. '. and 3leas#y, P.:., Te application of filtration teory to pilot+plant design, P. -**-, ?1%1&, 1?,
1>?>.
Filtration CE523 17
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for water treatment, Groceedings, *orld Filtration 3ongress, Nagoya, Papan, 1>>4.
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Filtration CE523 18