THE GEIGER-MUELLER COUNTER

OBJECTIVE: To study the operation of the Geiger-Mueller counter.

TEO!": In #$%&' Bec(uerel disco)ered the pheno*enon of radioacti)ity +hen he noticed
that uraniu* salts +ere capa,le of ,lac-ening photographic plates' e)en +hen separated fro*
the* ,y opa(ue *aterial. It +as found that uraniu*' and all the hea)y ele*ents fro* Z . $/ to
%0' e*it radiations +hich can ,lac-en a photographic plate' ioni1e gas' and produce
scintillations or s*all flashes of light +hen they stri-e a suita,le *aterial. This e*ission of
radiation is acco*panied ,y a gradual trans*utation of the radioacti)e ele*ent' -no+n as
radioacti)e decay' in +hich the ato*ic nu*,er is decreased' finally reaching Z . $0 2lead3.
Getting this radiation to pass through a *agnetic field re)eals the* to ,e of three -inds: those
that deflect one +ay' those that deflect the opposite +ay' and those that do not deflect at all in
the *agnetic field. 4ro* the directions of propagation' field' and deflection +e see that these
three -inds are: alpha particles +hich ha)e a positi)e charge 2they are eliu* nuclei3' beta
particles +hich ha)e a negati)e charge 2they are electrons3' and gamma rays +hich are
uncharged 2they are electro*agnetic radiations3.
The Geiger-Mueller counter is a de)ice for detecting radiation. It gi)es relati)e' not a,solute'
*easure*ents' and records count rates' often reported in counts per *inute 2cp*3. The
operation of the counter is ,ased on the a,ility of nuclear radiation to ioni1e gas. The sensiti)e
ele*ent of the instru*ent is the Geiger-Mueller tu,e. The tu,e has a thin +indo+ on one end
and is filled +ith a gas at a pressure of a fe+ centi*eters of *ercury. There is a fine +ire
*ounted along the tu,e5s a6is. The se(uence of e)ents leading to the detection of a
radioacti)e particle or (uantu* is sho+n in 4ig # on page /.
4ig. #7 sho+s the process ,eginning as a particle enters the tu,e. The +indo+ is ultra-thin so
as to offer the least possi,le resistance to the entrance of the particle. o+e)er alpha particles
are una,le to penetrate e)en this thin +indo+ and conse(uently the instru*ent is insensiti)e to
alpha radiation. The incident particle stri-es se)eral gas ato*s' -noc-ing loose electrons and
lea)ing positi)e ions. The electrons 2s*all ,lac- dots3 *igrate to+ard the positi)e anode'
+hich is the fine +ire along the a6is of the tu,e. This phase is sho+n in 4ig. #B. 7s the
electrons fly to+ard the anode' they stri-e other ato*s' ioni1ing the*. This process continues
li-e an a)alanche' resulting in hea)y ioni1ation in the region of the anode. The sudden rush of
electrons to the anode gi)es rise to a s*all pulse of current' or a 8count.8 This phase is sho+n
in 4ig. #C. The pulse is cut off ,y an accu*ulation of electrons or negati)e ions in the region of
the anode' +here ioni1ation is hea)iest' +hich neutrali1es the field of the anode' so that no
further electrons are attracted. 4ig. #9 sho+s the accu*ulated positi)e ions as they ,egin to
*igrate fro* the anode to the cathode. 7 8(uenching )apor8 included in the tu,e pre)ents the
positi)e ions fro* starting a ne+ pulse as they *o)e to+ards the cathode.
The nu*,er of counts per *inute e*itted ,y the GM tu,e depends on the applied )oltage.
Belo+ a certain threshold )oltage' there +ill ,e no counts. O)er a certain range of )oltage' the
nu*,er +ill re*ain nearly constant as the )oltage is )aried. 2:ee 4ig. 0.3 Before using the
instru*ent it is necessary to deter*ine this 8plateau8 and set the )oltage in the *iddle of this
range.
7fter a discharge ta-es place in a Geiger-Mueller tu,e due to an e)ent caused ,y an incident
particle' the space charge around the outer cathode region depresses the field at the central
G-M Counter
anode so as to *a-e any further *ultiplication ,y collision i*possi,le. 7 second particle
entering the tu,e at this ti*e +ill not produce a pulse. 7s the space charge *o)es to+ard the
cathode' the field increases again. It ,eco*es sufficiently large so that a second particle *ay
produce a s*all pulse after a certain ti*e ' the dead time' follo+ing the passage of the first
pulse. If +e let:
. dead ti*e of the G-M tu,e in seconds ;s<
c . *easured nu*,er of particles in ti*e inter)al t
n . *easured counting rate ;cps<
then
n . c = t
n . the fraction of a particle that is *issed for each *easured particle 2n > #3
# - n . the fraction of a particle that is actually counted for each *easured particle
c=2# - n3 . the T!?E nu*,er of particles entering the detector in t
If +e let N . the T!?E counting rate 2i.e.' the counting rate for 1ero dead ti*e3 then'

=

=
n
n
t
n c
N
#
3 # =2
2#3
The dead ti*e' ' *ay ,e deter*ined ,y e*ploying t+o strong sources of radiation in the
follo+ing *anner:
a. using the left source only gi)es: NL . nL = 2# - nL3 2073
,. using the right source only gi)es: NR . nR = 2# - nR3 20B3
c. ,oth sources in their pre)ious positions gi)es:
NL @ NR . Nboth . nboth = 2# - nboth3 20C3
7lge,raically sol)ing for the dead ti*e ,y adding E(s. 2073 A 20B3 and su,tracting their su*
fro* E(. 20C3 yields

+
=
R L
both R L both
both
n n
n n n n
n
3 2
# #
#
2B3
+hich is to ,e used in the e)aluation of the dead ti*e of the Geiger-Mueller tu,e.
C!OCE9?!E:
#. :ET-?C: The high )oltage supply for the tu,e and the counting electronics are contained in
the counter 2:pechTech :t-BDE3. The counter and data ac(uisition is co*puter-controlled.
#.#. Connect the G-M tu,e to the counter +ith the coa6ial ca,le. Clug the counter5s
transfor*er into the soc-et and turn the counter OF )ia the toggle s+itch on the ,ac- of
the counter.
#.0. Turn the selector -no, on the front of the counter to 8!EMOTE8.
#.B. Turn on the co*puter. 9ou,le clic- on the 8G7BGIFH8 icon on the des- top.
#./. Clic- on 8OH8 on the first screen. :elect COM# on the ne6t screen.
0
G-M Counter
0. CG7TE7? CGOT: "ou +ill first need to generate a plateau plot 2count rate )s. tu,e )oltage3
to characteri1e your tu,e.
0.#. 9eter*ine appro6i*ate threshold )oltage:
0.#.#. Clace a source of Beta !ays 2such as Tl-0E/3 on a shelf of the G-M tu,e holder.
0.#.0. ?nder 4ile' select 8Fe+8.
0.#.B. ?nder Vie+' select 8Counts8.
0.#./. ?nder Cresets' select 8igh Voltage8. Enter a )alue of DEE V.
0.#.D. Clic- 8CO?FT8. If no counts occur' the tu,e )oltage is too lo+. Go ,ac- to
Cresets' select 8igh Voltage8' and increase the )oltage ,y a,out DE V. :ee if the
tu,e counts. Heep doing this until you find the appro6i*ate )oltage +here the tu,e
Iust starts counting. This is the appro6i*ate )alue of the threshold )oltage.
0.#.&. Clic- 8:TOC8.

0.0. Clateau 9ata 7c(uisition:
0.0.#. ?nder Cresets' select 8igh Voltage8. :et the )oltage to a )alue slightly ,elo+
your appro6i*ate threshold )oltage.
0.0.0. ?nder Cresets' select 8Ti*e8. Enter &E seconds. 2Je5ll do one *inute counts.3
0.0.B. ?nder Mode' select 8Voltage !a*p On8.
0.0./. Clic- 8!E:ET8.
0.0.D. Clic- 8CO?FT8. The counter +ill no+ ra*p the tu,e )oltage in 0D V steps up to
#0EE V' ta-ing a one-*inute count at each )oltage )alue. Jait until the counter is
done.
0.0.&. ?nder Mode' select 8Voltage !a*p Off8.
0.0.K. ?nder 4ile' select 8:a)e8. Cro)ide a file na*e +ith no suffi6. The suffi6 .tsv +ill
,e added auto*atically ,y the soft+are.
0.0.$. ?nder Cresets' select 8igh Voltage8. Enter E or clic- 8Off8 to turn the tu,e
)oltage off.
0.0.%. ?nder 4ile' select 8E6it8.
0.B. Clotting the Clateau:
0.B.#. Gaunch E6cel on the co*puter.
0.B.0. Open the .tsv data file that you Iust sa)ed. It is in the Lablink folder on dri)e C .
0.B.B. :elect the )oltage and count colu*ns to *a-e a plot of Count !ate n 2cp*3 )esus
Tu,e Voltage 2V3.
0.B./. "ou can sa)e this E6cel file and put in on a floppy for use outside of class.

B
G-M Counter
B. CG7TE7? 7F7G":I::
B.#. 9eter*ine the threshold )oltage fro* your plot. This is still an esti*ate since the
)oltage +as stepped in 0D V inter)als.
B.0. The condition of the tu,e can ,e deter*ined ,y the relati)e flatness of the plateau.
Calculate the percent rise per #EE V using:
L !ise=#EE Volts
% 100
) (
) )( 100 (
1 1 2
1 2

=
n V V
n n V
2/3
+here n1 is the cp* at the )oltage V1 and n2 is the cp* at V2 . These points should
,e chosen fro* points on the plateau of the cur)e. 2:ee 4ig. 0.3 If your G-M tu,e
is in good shape' this )alue should ,e less than #EL.
B.B. The operating point is the )oltage at +hich you +ill operate the tu,e for future
e6peri*ents. Je nor*ally use a )oltage that is DE Volts ,eyond the 8-nee8. 9eter*ine
the -nee )oltage 2:ee 4ig. 03' add DE V' and record this operating )oltage.

/. 9E79 TIME: "ou +ill deter*ine the dead ti*e of your tu,e using the t+o-source *ethod.
?se a source that gi)es at least 0EEE cp* in order to o,tain an accurate dead ti*e.
/.#. Clace ,oth sources on the shelf' side-,y-side and centered under the tu,e. :et-up and
perfor* a D *inute count. To do this:
/.#.#. ?nder 4ile' select 8Fe+8.
/.#.0. ?nder Cresets' select 8igh Voltage8. Enter the operating )oltage pre)iously
deter*ined.
/.#.B. ?nder Cresets' select 8Ti*e8. Enter D *inutes.
/.#./. Clic- 8!E:ET8.
/.#.D. Clic- 8CO?FT8.
/.#.&. Jhen the counting is done' record the nu*,er of counts and calculate the count
rate in counts per second 2cps3. This is the count rate for ,oth sources' nboth.
/.0. !e*o)e the left source. :et-up and perfor* a D *inute count as ,efore. Calculate the
count rate in cps for the right source' n!.
/.B. !eturn the left source and re*o)e the right source. :et-up and perfor* a D *inute
count as ,efore. Calculate nL in cps.
/./. Turn-off the tu,e and counter. To do this:
/./.#. ?nder Cresets' select 8igh Voltage8. Enter E or clic- 8Off8.
/./.0. ?nder 4ile' select 8E6it8.
/./.B. Turn off the counter5s toggle s+itch and unplug it fro* the outlet.
/.D. 4ind the dead ti*e using E(. 2B3.
/.&. Calculate the true counting rates in cps using E(s. 207-C3. Co*pare these )alues +ith
the o,ser)ed counting rates.
/.K. Verify that the o,ser)ed counting rates gi)e nL @ nR M nboth. Jhy is this soN Then )erify
that the true counting rates gi)e NL @ NR . Nboth. Jhy is this soN
!ECO!T:
Cerfor* all of the calculations and ans+er all of the (uestions as descri,ed in the Crocedure.
/
path of particle
G-M Counter

D
+ire
tu,e
+
-
+
-
e
-
@ ion
+
-
A. e
-
' @ ion pairs produced B. e
-
Os accelerated to+ard anode
C. fast e
-
Os create *ore e
-
' @ ion pairs
+
-
D. current pulse A (uenching
FIGURE 1
R
2cp*3
G-M tu,e )oltage 2Volts3
-nee
plateau
FIGURE 2