Nature and Management of Tropical Peat Soils

1
Nature and Management of

Tropical Peat Soils

Table of Contents

FAO SOILS BULLETIN 59

by
J. P. Andriesse
Consultant
Soil Resources, Management and Conservation Service
FAO Land and Water Development Division
FAO - FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 1988
Cover photo: Initial clearing for drainage of bush vegetation on deep peat in Brazil (photo: J .P.
Andriesse)
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression
of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the
delimitation of Its frontiers or boundaries.
M-51
ISBN 92-5-102657-2
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a
statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director,
Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di
Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
FAO 1988
This electronic document has been scanned using optical character recognition (OCR) software
and careful manual recorrection. Even if the quality of digitalisation is high, the FAO declines all
responsibility for any discrepancies that may exist between the present document and its original
printed version.

2

Table of Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgements
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objectives
1.2 The Definition of Tropical Peats
2. DISTRIBUTION OF TROPICAL PEAT
2.1 Extent
2.2 The Main Occurrences
2.3 Application of Research
3. FORMATION OF PEATS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Environmental Factors
3.2.1 Hydro-topography
3.2.2 Source and quality of water
3.3 Stages in Development
3.4 Type of Vegetation
4. THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL PEATS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Physical Properties of Organic Materials
4.2.1 General
4.2.2 Moisture relationships
4.2.3 Bulk density
4.2.4 Porosity
4.2.5 Texture and loss on ignition
4.2.6 Swelling and shrinking
4.2.7 Irreversible drying
4.2.8 Physico-chemical properties
4.3 Chemical Properties of Peat Materials
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Composition
4.3.3 Acidity
4.3.4 Exchange characteristics
4.3.5 Organic carbon
4.3.6 Nitrogen
4.3.7 Phosphorus
4.3.8 Free lime (CaCO
3
)
4.3.9 Sulphur
4.3.10 Trace elements
4.4 Biological Activity
4.5 Characteristics of the Peatswamps
4.5.1 Geomorphology
4.5.2 Hydrology

3

5. CLASSIFICATION
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Historical
5.3 Classification Systems
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Topographical classification
5.3.3 Classifications based on surface vegetation
5.3.4 Classifications based on chemical properties
5.3.5 Classifications based on botanical origin
5.3.6 Classifications based on physical characteristics
5.3.7 Classifications based on genetic processes
5.4 Conclusions
5.5 Recommended Approach
5.6 Classification of Organic Soils According to Soil Taxonomy
5.6.1 Introduction
5.6.2 Fibrists
5.6.3 Hemists
5.6.4 Saprists
5.6.5 Folists
5.6.6 Further development of soil taxonomy for the Tropics
5.7 The Classification of the Physical Environment
6. AGRICULTURAL POTENTIAL
6.1 Introduction
6.2 General Suitability for Cropping
6.3 Land Capability and Crop Suitability Evaluation
6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 The initial survey
6.4 Conclusions and Recommendations
7. RECLAMATION PROBLEMS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Initial Problems in Peat Reclamation
7.2.1 Initial drainage
7.2.2 Clearing
7.2.3 Burning
7.2.4 Organization
7.3 Permanent Constraints in Peat Reclamation
7.3.1 Subsidence
7.3.2 Cultivation practices
7.4 Water-table Management

4

8. AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Crop Choice
8.2.1 Choice of crop under natural drainage conditions
8.2.2 Choice of crops under improved drainage with water-table at less than 40 cm depth
8.2.3 Choice of crops assuming deep drainage
8.3 Water Management at Farm Level
8.3.1 Systems of open drains
8.3.2 Subsurface drains
8.3.3 Irrigation
8.4 Tillage and Cultivation Methods
8.5 Correcting Acidity by Liming
8.5.1 Lime requirements
8.5.2 Materials used
8.6 Fertilizer Use
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Burning
8.6.3 Basic principles
8.6.4 Nitrogen requirements
8.6.5 Phosphorus requirements
8.6.6 Potassium requirements
8.6.7 Calcium and magnesium requirements
8.6.8 Micro-nutrients or trace element requirements
8.6.9 Conclusions
8.7 Crop Protection
8.7.1 Weed control
8.7.2 Pest and disease control

5

9. ENERGY USE OF PEAT
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Peat as an Energy Source
9.2.1 Decomposition stage
9.2.2 Carbon and hydrogen content
9.2.3 Ash content
9.2.4 Types of fuel peat
9.2.5 Fuel properties
9.2.6 Minor factors
9.3 Resource Estimation
9.3.1 Initial survey
9.4 Peat Production
9.4.1 Introduction
9.4.2 Clearing
9.4.3 Ditching
9.4.4 Clearing of stumps
9.4.5 Methods of production and layout
9.5 Peat Extraction and Land Use Planning
9.5.1 Rapid disposal
9.5.2 Slow disposal
9.5.3 Effect of peatland distribution
9.5.4 Reclamation of freshly exploited peat deposits
10. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF RECLAMATION
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Natural Functions of Peatswamps
10.2.1 Regulating functions
10.2.2 Production function
10.2.3 Information function
10.2.4 Miscellaneous functions
10.3 Environmental Impacts of Peat Reclamation

6

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX 1 - Tests of Organic Soil Materials
APPENDIX 2 - Volumetric Relations in Soil Materials
APPENDIX 3 - Soil and Other Physical Limits for Satisfactory Crop Growth on Organic Soils
APPENDIX 4 - Linking Drainage and Soil Temperature
FAO SOILS BULLETINS

7

Foreword
In developing countries at the present time there is an increasing demand for agricultural
expansion onto new land caused by population pressure, by deterioration of existing land as a
result of overfarming, or by competition for land from industry and urbanization. For many countries
self-sufficiency in food either necessitates intensification of food cropping on existing land or the
reclamation of new land for agriculture.
Most land not yet in agricultural use has some limitations on its suitability for agriculture. Much of
this land is too steep or too wet for farming. In general the limitations caused by wetness are
technically easier to overcome so wetlands offer better prospects for sustained agriculture than
steepland.
Wetlands have been developed as farmland ever since the very earliest agricultural settlements
and the most suitable and some less suitable land has been occupied for centuries. Many
undeveloped wetlands have serious limitations of which the presence of thick deposits of organic
material or peat is but one.
A prerequisite for the successful farming on wetlands is the provision of an effective drainage
system to create sufficiently well-aerated soil conditions to allow crop growth. In this respect
peatswamps are no different to other land. Their reclamation however, often leads to unforeseen
problems which are usually a result of the lack of understanding of their underlying causes. There
is relatively little experience of the reclamation of peatswamps in tropical countries particularly
those in the developing world.
As well as providing farmland after reclamation peatswamps have a potential for peat extraction if
the peat is of good quality. Peat can provide an attractive source of energy particularly in remote
areas and in countries that depend entirely on outside fossil energy resources. For this reason the
last few decades have seen many attempts in the tropics to tap such resources, with mixed results.
Unfamiliarity with the conditions of the swamps and the nature of the peat materials, among
reclamation engineers and farmers alike, has caused many failures.
Often, disappointments could have been avoided if the knowledge of appropriate reclamation
procedures and suitable agricultural management specifically geared to peat soils had been readily
available. Considerable knowledge has been acquired both through reclamation efforts in
temperate countries over the last few centuries and to a lesser extent, more recently in the tropics.
Some problems caused by peat reclamation cannot be solved. One of them is the fact that peat
once drained will gradually disappear, so sustained agriculture on peat is a fallacy.
This Bulletin aims to consolidate the up-to-date knowledge available on the characteristics of
tropical peatswamps, and to describe the management required to reclaim them and to bring them
into production. It is comprehensive and intended for all disciplines involved in peatswamp
reclamation. All aspects of peatswamps are covered, from their genesis to the environmental
impact of their reclamation on neighbouring ecosystems.
This Bulletin is not a working manual in the sense that it provides answers to all problems which
might arise. The subject is too wide in scope and the conditions too variable to make this possible
in a volume of this size. The Bulletin tries to focus on principles, processes and procedures to
create awareness of the likely problems involved, and to show ways and means to solve them. It
also provides a carefully chosen bibliography covering most of the issues raised.

8

Acknowledgements
In the preparation of this book the author has drawn on information from the traditional literature. In
addition he made much use of personal experience not previously published. He has also received
much assistance from individuals and organizations possessing information of practical value not
so readily available. He would like to acknowledge the help of the Consultancy Bureau of
Euroconsult in the Netherlands, and Bord na Mona in Ireland. He wishes to thank in particular
Professor Snyder, University of Florida, U.S.A. (Everglades Research and Education Centre Belle
Glade) for making available research data from the Everglades Peats, and the Departments of
Agriculture in Sarawak (Malaysia) for also allowing him to use unpublished information. The text
was edited by J .M. Hodgson and R.C. Palmer of the Soil Survey and Land Research Centre,
Rothamsted Experimental Station, England.

9

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1.Objectives
1.2.The Definition of Tropical Peats

1.1 Objecti ves
The title of this Bulletin poses questions about the definition of peat. What are in fact Tropical
Peats and why should they be treated specially? Why are they not regarded as similar in all
respects to peats at higher latitudes in the cool temperate and boreal regions for which efficient
management procedures are known? There are indeed many reasons why peats in tropical
regions should be given special treatment and these are elaborated in some detail below.
Before the end of the 19th century it was not generally accepted in scientific circles that tropical
peat existed and that it could form under the present tropical climate. Though peat and peatland in
northern Asia and Europe has been used for centuries, albeit mainly for energy purposes, it was
not until 1895, when Koorders published a description of extensive tropical peat forests in Sumatra
(Indonesia), that it was established beyond doubt that peat soils could be formed under a tropical
climate, and that they actually covered considerable areas (Polak 1952).
Acceptance of this finding was facilitated by suggestions made by geologists somewhat earlier that
the large coal deposits formed in the Carboniferous period are the remnants of enormous peat
bogs of tropical origin in which the giant Pteridophytes (tree-ferns) were the main peat formers.
This origin contrasts with that of present day peats in temperate regions, which are formed mainly
from the remains of mosses and herbs.
It should be remarked here that attempts to reclaim peat soils in the tropics date back several
centuries. For example the Dutch attempted reclamation in the 17th century in the coastal strip
north of Colombo in Sri Lanka, then Ceylon. No doubt unrecorded reclamation efforts were made
elsewhere in tropical areas. Since the early description by Koorders, many peat deposits have
been reported from tropical and subtropical areas, and it is now well known that organic soils cover
extensive areas of the tropical regions, particularly on the coastal plains.
Human settlement of such areas has up to now been avoided because reclamation has been
constrained by several factors. Drainage problems, low fertility, risk of disease (for example
malaria) and inaccessibility, kept the local population from developing them. Today, the
accelerated pace of agricultural development to meet population growth and the need to expand
onto peat lands, requires new management knowledge. Knowledge which is sadly lacking for most
tropical areas. During the last few decades many attempts, often large in scale, have been made
to bring these marshy lands into cultivation. There are many examples of success but there are
more failures.

10

In retrospect it is easy to point out the many varied causes of failure. There has been a general
lack of comprehension, which still persists in many quarters, that peat swamps are unique, as are
the materials comprising them. The special character of the landscape and the underlying soils
was often not recognized and reclamation followed the same pattern as for mineral soils. This
frequently has had disastrous consequences: drainage soon deteriorated, flooding has increased
in frequency and magnitude, nutrient deficiencies have occurred in crops and harvests have been
poor. These are all reasons why projects and schemes have been abandoned. Peatland is being
brought into cultivation at the present time on an increasingly large scale, particularly in South East
Asia and Latin America, by small farmers and entrepreneurs who lack traditional know-how of
farming on this type of land. For these reasons and in these circumstances it is necessary to look
at the knowledge and management experience which have been developed and accumulated
elsewhere. Such experience must be reviewed before it can be put to use in new localities. Any
transfer of knowledge also requires sufficient basic information on the nature of the swamp to be
developed and its organic materials. Such information also enables us to identify the need for
specific research in cases where available knowledge is not directly transferable because of the
specific nature of the peats involved.
Chapters 2 to 5 of this book concentrate on ways of characterizing tropical peats so that
management techniques can be matched appropriately in subsequent chapters. Because tropical
peat reclamation is a relatively new field of development there is too little data and information.
This needs to be put right by more research. The writer hopes that this Bulletin, apart from fulfilling
its immediate objectives, will also generate sufficient interest in the subject to encourage scientists
and project operators to make available their unpublished knowledge and practical experience.
It is important to recognize that peatswamp reclamation will be successful only through integrated
multi-disciplinary endeavour, encompassing civil engineering, hydrology, agricultural and social
science. This Bulletin, however, does not focus in depth on reclamation issues or constraints of an
engineering or socio-economic nature. Where appropriate, however, it indicates where such inputs
are necessary so they are not forgotten.
Peats and peatland are not only a resource for agricultural development. Extraction of peat for
industrial purposes and its potential use as a local, relatively cheap alternative fuel, are gaining in
importance as other fossil forms of energy are becoming an economic constraint to development.
For this reason attention is given to peat as an energy source and to aspects of peat extraction,
particularly in relation to agricultural usage and the agricultural potential of peatswamps after
extraction.
The agricultural or commercial development of peat and peatswamps requires recognition of the
environmental issues which play a role when reclaiming tracts of wetlands. Peatswamps often
provide unique ecosystems so environmental aspects must be reviewed where appropriate.
Finally, a selected but extensive bibliography is provided for general reference. The author has
made liberal use of the information contained in the literature. He has tried to refer as much as
possible to this material, particularly when specific issues are raised or examples are used. For
practical reasons it is impossible to acknowledge every individual source of information. Some of
the original literature sources referred to by research workers could not be consulted and such
sources have been acknowledged only by quotation.

11

1.2 The Definition of Tropical Peats
Before embarking upon the treatment of the wide field of tropical peat soils and their management
it is necessary to define the subject matter under discussion and to indicate its geographical limits.
To start it should be recognized that the subject can be clearly subdivided into two: firstly the
material itself, generally indicated as peat; and secondly its physiographic or geomorphological
setting (the landscape units) which are given a wide variety of names but are generally known as
peatswamps.
These two aspects have received appropriate attention in the literature, but often in isolation from
each other. Failure to recognize the need to study and manage the two entities together has been
a reason for disappointing reclamation efforts. There is a very good historical reason why the two
aspects have been studied separately.
Peat, as a material, has been studied in the past mainly by chemists and geologists because of its
potential for industrial or energy purposes. They have not studied it as a medium to plant growth in
its natural condition and environment. Peat has received some attention in the past from
horticulturists and gardeners, but the study of peat as a soil to be used for agricultural purposes
and managed within a farming system or land utilization type is relatively new.
The peatswamps, as physiographic units, have long been studied by biologists and related
scientists and recently they have become a focus of attention for environmentalists. Here too there
has been a strong input from biological science.
From the above it should be clear that peat and peatswamp should not be considered as being
synonymous and care should be taken to use these terms in their proper context. The situation
seems even more complicated when the scientific terminology commonly used is analysed. To
avoid misunderstanding and misinterpretation of the literature, it is necessary to elaborate on the
exact meaning of the terms peat and peatswamp.
Peat
Peat is traditionally defined as being synonymous with turf being partially carbonized vegetable
tissue formed in wet conditions by decomposition of various plants and mosses. This restricted
definition, including only materials which are entirely of vegetative origin, conflicts with several
established soil classification systems. In older soil classification systems, peat soils are usually
defined as soils having more than 65 percent organic matter. There is thus general confusion on
the exact definition of peat and peat soil so modern classification systems, which we use in this
Bulletin, try to avoid these terms. The term organic soils is used which covers a much wider range
of materials than peat or peat soils as outlined above.

12

There are several reasons why, in this Bulletin, we adopt broader definitions than the traditional
ones outlined above. First, apart from conflicting with existing soil classification systems, the
adoption of the term peat soils with its restricted meaning would conflict with our objective, which is
to indicate effective ways and means of reclamation and development of low-lying marshy or
swampy lands. These, though largely peat, also include soils which are transitional between
organic and mineral soils. Secondly, true peat (100 percent organic matter) has a low marginal
potential for agricultural development so it would be illogical to devote a full bulletin to the
management of such soils. Finally, areas of peat generally occur in association or in complex with
soils in which the mineral component varies greatly. In general, the greater the mineral content the
greater the potential for agriculture. A pragmatic approach is therefore needed and this justifies
widening the area of interest to include all soils defined as organic soils. These are in general soils
that have more than 50 percent organic matter in the upper 80 cm. They include soils which were
termed muck, peaty mucks and mucky peats in the past. In general the terms peat, peat soils and
organic soils are synonyms in this Bulletin, distinctions only being made where necessary. For
practical purposes this means that the Bulletin encompasses all organic soils defined as Histosols
in the US Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1975).
Peatswamps
In the literature, peatswamps are frequently referred to as being wetlands, but as indicated by
Schwerdtfeger (1980) a peatland classification is not the same as a wetland classification. The
latter has a wider context and includes several types of which the most common are defined by
Websters Collegiate Dictionary as follows:
Wetlands
Large or small bodies of open water surrounded by wet mineral soils as well as peatland.
Moor
A boggy area of waste land, usually peaty and dominated by grasses and sedges.
Bog
Wet spongy ground, poorly drained, rich in plant residues, having a specific flora such as sedges,
heaths and sphagnum.
Marsh
A tract of soft land usually characterized by monocotyledons.
Mire
A marsh or bog.
Fen
Low land partly or wholly covered with water.
It is clear from these definitions that all these wetlands could include peat, and to a wider degree
organic soils. This may be why these terms are commonly used though they are almost
synonymous, the choice being left to the individual. There is, however, some tendency for adoption
of particular terms by individual disciplines. To some extent too, national or regional preferences
are influencing this choice.

13

Tropical peats
In broad terms there is no clear-cut scientific reason why tropical wetlands with organic soils
should be managed differently from those in temperate regions. There are, however, practical
differences between tropical wetland and other wetlands which influence management. The nature
of the organic soils is different, because the plants from which the peat is formed are different. In
the tropics, trees are frequently involved as opposed to sedges and sphagnum moss in temperate
regions. The large wood content of tropical organic soils requires special management, particularly
during initial reclamation.
Perhaps of crucial importance is the difference in climate characterized by the high rainfall, high
evapotranspiration, and very high mean annual temperatures in tropical areas. Surplus rainfall and
high temperatures are perhaps the most important features distinguishing tropical peat areas from
those of temperate regions. The climate has a direct bearing on peatswamp characteristics for
example hydrology. It also has indirect effects on the peat itself through vegetation species. On the
other hand, temperature has a direct influence on the rate of oxidation of the peat material. Climate
has therefore an important influence when selecting management procedures.
How do we draw the line between tropical and other peats? The characteristic woody nature of
tropical peat deposits, the high precipitation and high temperatures do not necessarily coincide
with geographical boundaries. If tropical peats were defined as being those between the tropics of
Cancer and the tropics of Capricorn, it would leave out large areas of organic soils with features of
tropical character. Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1975) defines tropical organic soils as those
with isomesic
1
or warmer iso-temperature regime. This leaves out the organic soils of the mid-
latitudes (the subtropics) with mesic, thermic or hyperthermic temperature regimes. Such organic
soils are in a sense intermediate between those of the tropical belt and those of temperate regions.
They are agriculturally of importance and experience of reclamation accumulated for the last 50
years in various regions can be put to good use and transferred to the tropics.
1
Mesic. - The mean annual soil temperature is between 8C and 15C, and the difference
between mean summer and mean winter soil temperature is more than 5C at a depth of 50 cm or
at a lithic or paralithic contact, whichever is shallower.
Thermic. - The mean annual soil temperature is between 15C and 22C, and the difference
between mean summer and mean winter soil temperature is more than 5C at a depth of 50 cm or
at a lithic or paralithic contact, whichever is shallower.
Hyperthermic. - The mean annual soil temperature is 22C or higher, and the difference between
mean summer and mean winter soil temperature is more than 5C at a depth of 50 cm or at a lithic
or paralithic contact, whichever is shallower.
If the name of a soil temperature regime has the prefix iso, the mean summer and winter soil
temperatures for J une, J uly and August and for December, J anuary and February differ by less
than 5C at a depth of 50 cm or at a lithic or paralithic contact, whichever is shallower.
Isomesic. - The mean annual soil temperature is between 8C and 15C.
Isothermic. - The mean annual soil temperature is 15C or higher but lower than 22C.
Isohyperthermic. - The mean annual soil temperature is 22C or higher.
14

Based on such practical considerations, tropical and subtropical peats are defined by arbitrary
boundaries at the latitudes 35 degrees North and South. This includes the whole African continent,
most of South America, including the whole of Brazil and Uruguay where there are large areas of
organic soils. Important peat areas in the southern states of Florida and North Carolina in the USA
are also included.
In Central Africa there are organic soils at high altitudes (over 2 000 m). It is debatable whether
such soils with an almost temperate climate should be regarded as tropical peats, even though
they are geographically found within tropics. They are, however, included since reclamation
experience of these soils is badly lacking, and it makes sense on purely scientific grounds.
In conclusion Tropical Peats, the subject of this Bulletin, are defined as all organic soils in the
wetlands of the tropics and subtropics lying within latitudes 35 degrees North and South including
those at high altitudes.

15

2. DISTRIBUTION OF TROPICAL PEAT

2.1 Extent

2.1 Extent
The extent of peat in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in developing countries, is only
known approximately. Estimates of total global resources of peat conflict for several reasons:
i. Repetition of source error - Information is copied from the literature and accepted without
checking or referring to the level of accuracy of the data supplied.
ii. Mapping scale errors - Information is taken from small scale soil maps, such as the
FAO/UNESCO World Soil Map at 1:5 million scale. Such maps can only show areas with organic
soils if they are extensive. Smaller areas are frequently shown in association with Hydromorphic
soils or Gleysoils without indication of the percentages of the organic components in the
associations. In some cases the existence of an organic component is not distinguished at all.
iii. Classification error - Mapping of organic soils depends on the local classification. Some
countries only recognize organic soils if of significant depth or extent, others incorporate shallow
mucky and peaty soils with hydromorphic soils.
iv. Nature of source - Organizations mainly dealing with land evaluation for agriculture and
organizations whose objective is the assessment of peat deposits for energy purposes, have
different interests to serve and their mapping approaches often differ and are incompatible.
As well as these basic sources of error figures are commonly misquoted because acres are
confused with hectares (as in Ekono 1981, for the USA). Finally in some cases, where there is
insufficient knowledge, rough estimates have been made by those supplying the information.
Information from the developing world is frequently updated as is shown by the regular increase in
reported extent of organic soils from such countries during recent decades. Table 1 summarizes
known information on global resources of organic soils including those in tropical areas. Peats
falling within the scope of this Bulletin are estimated in the last column. This data compiled by Bord
na Mona (1984) has been checked against information from a variety of sources (Lucas 1982;
Ekono 1981; Kivinen and Pakarinen in a report to the 6th Int. Peat Congress at Duluth 1980;
Driessen 1977; Andriesse 1974) and in a few cases amended. The information, in particular that
for tropical countries is likely to be revised as more reliable data becomes available. Present
information indicates that throughout the world organic soils cover 436.2 million hectares of which
35.8 million hectares (8.2 percent) are in the tropics and subtropics.
The area may be much larger. Kivinen and Pakarinen (1980) suggest that total global resources
cover 420 million hectares and they believe that it may approach 500 million hectares. The author
is inclined to agree with this because the resources of organic soils in the Amazon basin and in the
wet equatorial belt of Africa are under-estimated. Table 2 gives estimates of the extent of organic
soils in tropical and subtropical regions.
16

The figures in Tables 1 and 2 for South East Asia are probably over-estimates. In the authors
opinion, based on substantial experience in the region, the figures for Indonesia in particular tend
to be exaggerated because they are based on air-photo interpretation. Subsequent mapping has
revealed that much of the land interpreted as swamp is occupied by mineral soils.
In Africa, Beadle (1960) indicates that in Uganda alone there are already 6 400 square kilometres
of permanent swampland and as much land temporarily inundated in the wet seasons. Part of this
land is likely to be peat, but how much can only be guessed.
The study of peat resources in the Amazon basin is only just beginning but early reports indicate
vast areas of organic deposits (Suszcynski 1984). There are 270 reported occurrences along the
Atlantic coast of Brazil. This leads the author to believe that the total area of peat deposits in the
tropical and subtropical belt will in the end prove to cover at least 40 million hectares constituting
about 11 percent of the world total.
Table 1 GLOBAL RESOURCES OF ORGANIC SOILS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION (source Bord na
Mona 1984)
Country Area (ha) Estimated % in Tropics
Western Europe
Austria 22 000
Belgium 18 000
Denmark 120 000
Finland 10 400 000
France 90 000
FRG 1 110 000
Great Britain 1 580 000
Greece 5 000
Iceland 1 000 000
Ireland 1 180 000
Italy 120 000
Luxembourg 200
Netherlands 280 000
Norway 3 000 000
Spain 6 000
Sweden 7 000 000
Switzerland 55 000
25 986 200

17

Eastern Europe
Bulgaria 1 000
Czechoslovakia 30 750
GDR 489 000
Hungary 30 000
Poland 1 300 000
Romania 7 000
Soviet Union 150 000 000
Yugoslavia 100 000
151 957 750

Africa
Angola 10 000
1
100
Burundi 14 000 100
Congo 290 000 100
Guinea 525 000 100
Ivory Coast 32 000 100
Lesotho - -
Liberia 40 000 100
Madagascar 197 000 100
Malawi 91 000 100
Mozambique 10 000
1

Rwanda 80 000 100
Senegal 1 500 100
Uganda 1 420 000 100
Zaire 1 000 000
1
100
Zambia 1 106 000 100
4 856 500

18

Asia
Bangladesh 60 000
China 4 200 000 30
Fiji 4 000 100
Indonesia 17 000 000 100
India 32 000 100
Israel 5 000 100
J apan 250 000
Korea (DPR) 136 000
Malaysia 2 500 000 100
Papua New Guinea 500 000
1
100
Philippines 6 000 100
Sri Lanka 2 500 100
Thailand 68 000 100
Vietnam 183 000 100
24 886 500

Central America
British Honduras 68 000 100
Costa Rica 37 000 100
Cuba 767 000 100
El Salvador 9 000 100
Honduras 453 000 100
J amaica 21 000 100
Nicaragua 371 000 100
Panama 787 000 100
Puerto Rico 10 000 100
Trinidad and Tobago 1 000 100
2 524 000

19

South America
Argentina 45 000
Bolivia 900 100
Brazil 1 500 000 100
Chile 1 047 000 10
Colombia 339 000 100
Falkland/Malvinas Is. 1 151 000
French Guyana 162 000 100
Guyana 813 880 100
Surinam 113 000 100
Uruguay 3 000 100
Venezuela 1 000 000 100
6 173 000

North America
Canada 150 000 000
USA-Alaska 49 400 000
USA-S of 49 N 10 240 000 25
209 640 000

The Pacific
Australia (Queensland) 15 000 100
New Zealand 150 000 30
165 000

1
Authors estimate

20

Table 2 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE AND REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF TROPICAL ORGANIC
SOILS
Location Estimated extent
Million hectares Global % Tropical %
All tropical and subtropical regions 35.80 8.21 100
S.E. Asia (including Papua) 20.26 4.65 56.6
Caribbean 5.67 1.30 15.8
Amazonia 1.50 0.34 4.19
African Continent (not subdivided) 4.86 1.11 13.58
South China 1.40 0.32 3.9
Other regions 2.11 0.49 5.9
The South East Asian region comprising areas surrounding the South China Sea and areas in
Papua-New Guinea contain the largest expanse of peat deposits, together forming 57 percent of
all known tropical peat resources. The South China Sea is a large geosynclinal basin, around the
littoral of which peat has accumulated in a similar way to former geological times, when eventually
coal and lignite resources were formed. The second most important area is the Amazon basin and
the basins bordering the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean (Venezuela, Guyanas, Florida).
In the wet equatorial belt of Africa a distinction can be made between the areas flanking the Gulf of
Guinea, another large depressional area, and those in Central Africa where peat formation has
followed recent geological uplift, rift formation and volcanism. Some of the peat areas in Central
Africa are at high altitude where conditions are more like those found in temperate regions. The full
extent of the areas bordering the Gulf of Guinea is not known but, because conditions are similar
to those found in South East Asia, it is surmised that they are probably extensive in Gabon, Congo
and Zaire.
Peats of tropical areas when compared with those found in temperate regions are insufficiently
studied. Those in Florida which are of subtropical nature, have perhaps been studied most
extensively, in particular their agronomic aspects (Phillips 1985). The results of these studies are of
considerable importance to tropical peats at large.
Preliminary basic studies on properties of tropical peats and their agricultural potential in Indonesia
are described by Polak (1941). Studies were discontinued during the Second World War and it was
not until the nineteen fifties that agronomic studies restarted on tropical peats in South East Asia,
mainly in Malaysia (Coulter 1957). Peat research stations were opened at Klang in Peninsular
Malaysia, and at Stapok in Sarawak. Results of some 20 years of agronomic research carried out
in these stations are now available to serve the region (Kanapathy and Keat 1970; Kanapathy
1976 and 1978; Kueh 1972; Tie and Kueh 1979).

21

Investigations into the more fundamental characteristics of tropical peat swamps, abandoned
during the Second World War were taken up again in the early nineteen sixties, in Malaysia by
Anderson (1964), and in Indonesia in the nineteen seventies (Subagyo and Driessen 1972;
Driessen and Rochimah 1977). The latter studies were prematurely terminated and have not
restarted. In most other tropical countries peat research is little developed, or non-existent. The
behaviour of organic soils and peatswamps upon reclamation has received very little attention,
even in Malaysia where research efforts were mainly concentrated on agronomic aspects.
The research conducted at Klang and Stapok and that mentioned earlier in the Florida Everglades
has valuable applications for other tropical regions. Once it has been established through careful
classification which peat and peatswamps are comparable, it will be possible to extrapolate and
apply the information elsewhere. For this reason the peat materials and their environment must be
adequately characterized, defined and classified first. Much of this Bulletin is devoted to such
topics in Chapters 3 and 5.

22

3. FORMATION OF PEATS

3.1 Introduction

3.1 Introduction
Before starting to plan the reclamation of peatswamps it is wise to gain a proper insight into the
mode of formation of the deposits and the conditions which have led to their development. The
recognition of the present stage of natural peat formation is also very valuable for assessing its
potential for agriculture. Discussion of the formation or genesis of peat soils is made easier by first
making a distinction between the actual formation of the organic materials, and the process of their
accumulation. The former is caused by biochemical processes, whereas the latter is mainly a direct
function of the environmental conditions, the climate and ecosystems (peatswamps, bogs or mires)
in which the peat is formed, and the climate.
Organic materials only accumulate under certain conditions. For peat to form it is essential that the
production of biomass (organic materials) is greater than its chemical breakdown. Not all organic
materials are classed as peat. For practical reasons litter, being a special type of organic material,
is excluded from our discussion.
Peats are generally considered to be partly decomposed biomass (vegetation). They show a wide
range in degree of decomposition. Kurbatov (1968) briefly summarizes 35 years of research into
the formation of peat as follows: The formation of peat is a relatively short biochemical process
carried on under the influence of aerobic micro-organisms in the surface layers of the deposits
during periods of low subsoil water. As the peat which is formed in the peat-producing layer
becomes subjected to anaerobic conditions in the deeper layers of the deposit, it is preserved and
shows comparatively little change with time. According to this theory the presence of either
aerobic or anaerobic conditions decides whether any biomass will accumulate and in what form.
Distinction is made by Kurbatov (1968) between forest peat which is more aerated and therefore
more decomposed, and peats formed under swampy conditions with strongly anaerobic conditions.
In forest peat, lignin and carbohydrates appear to be completely decomposed so it generally has a
low content of such organic compounds, whereas under swamp conditions peats are characterized
by high contents of cutin and the presence of much unaltered lignin and cellulose (Table 3).
Actually, Kurbatovs forest peat is much the same as thick litter deposits.

23

Table 3 COMPOSITION OF SWAMP AND FOREST PEAT AS % DRY ORGANIC MATTER
(source Kurbatov 1968)
Fraction
Swamp peat Forest peat
Carex-swamp
30% decomposed
Reed-swamp
40% decomposed
Birchwood
55% decomposed
Bitumen 3.3 1.1 8.8
Humic acids 32.2 33.6 52.2
Hemicellulose 15.0 8.6 1.0
Cellulose 3.5 3.7 0.0
Lignins 12.9 18.6 0.0
Cutin 11.9 5.2 16.0
Not determined 21.2 29.2 22.0

This Bulletin concentrates on the development of peat in swampy conditions, since most peats in
the Tropics belong to this type. Anaerobic conditions, which prevent the micro-biological activity
needed for the chemical breakdown of organic materials are generally assumed to be largely
responsible for the accumulation of partly decomposed biomass in the form of peat. The anaerobic
conditions are created by a specific hydro-topography whether marsh, swamp, bog or mire.
Properties of such hydro-topographic units depend on many environmental factors, including
climate, landform, local geology and hydrology, but they all have severe toxicity others have
advanced theories of high sulphur and sodium content reducing oxidation. A high sodium content
is also indicated as being responsible for the development of peat in the atolls of the Maldives
(Hammond 1971).
Figure 1. Fundamental topo-hydrological situation for peatswamp development


The process of peat formation as a result of waterlogged conditions is called paludification. The
major factors playing a role in this process are discussed below.

24

According to Moore and Bellamy (1974) peat growth is initiated if the water balance at a site is
characterized by the equation:
INFLOW =OUTFLOW +RETENTION
Modifying it for the climatic factor (Fig. 1) the equation reads:
INFLOW +PRECIPITATION =OUTFLOW +EVAPOTRANSPIRATION +RETENTION

Peat growth starts within the retention volume, peat acting as an inert body displacing its own
volume of water. Peat accumulating in the initial depression is called primary peat. As peat
accumulates beyond the level at which the water is drained from the basin, it no longer acts as an
inert mass but as an active reservoir holding a volume of water against drainage. The development
of primary peats reduces the surface retention of the reservoir. Systems of this kind are found
throughout the world, except in the most arid climates. Secondary peats are those that develop
beyond the confines of the basin or depression (Fig. 2). Tertiary peats are those that develop
above the physical limits of groundwater, the peat itself acting as a reservoir holding a volume of
water by capillary forces up above the level of the main regional groundwater-table. This reservoir
forms a perched water-table fed only by precipitation.
Fig. 2. Profile of a ridge raised mire (source Moore and Bellamy 1974). The height of the
component copulas depends in part on the area of the mire and in part on the climate

Tertiary peat
Secondary peat
Primary peat
25

Systems producing secondary and tertiary peats are found only in climates in which retention
values are high. Such conditions are frequently found in the cool wet temperate and boreal regions
of Canada, Eire, Scotland and Northern Europe where peat is encroaching onto the hills forming
blanket bogs. In wet equatorial and monsoon climates evapotranspiration is usually too great to
cause the development of secondary and tertiary peats unless there is excessive rainfall, well
distributed over the year, combined with favourable topography with a complete lack of drainage
giving continuous wet conditions. Such conditions are found for example in the coastal lowlands
surrounding the Sunda Flat (Malaysia/Indonesia) and in many of the other areas within the tropics
listed in Tables 1 and 2. The topography is invariably basin-shaped with natural drainage being
blocked by natural barriers. Common types of landscapes include:
i. Saucer-shaped inner parts of islands in river deltas, which are surrounded on all sides by natural
river banks or incipient leves.
ii. Lagoons, which at their natural outlet are blocked by marine or riverine sediments.
iii. Cut-off meander bends (oxbow lakes).
iv. Fossil stream beds in braided river systems.
v. Small tributary valleys blocked by mineral or organic debris at their junction with the main river.
vi. Large coastal basins between major streams blocked to seaward by marine deposits (clays with
mangrove vegetation, or sand dunes) and along the rivers by riverine deposits (leves).
vii. Depressions in river valleys separated from the main stream by random deposition of alluvial
deposits caused by frequent and erratic stream bed changes that are often related to fast and
intensive deposition of high silt loads.
In temperate and boreal areas many depressions now filled with peat were formed at the end of
the last glaciation making these peats less than 10 000 years old. Surprisingly, most peats in the
tropics are also less than 10 000 years old. Coastal peats in South East Asia are generally less
than 6 000 years old (Andriesse 1974; Driessen 1977). Dating of peat samples from Sarawak by
the
14
C method indicates a maximum age of 4 300 B.P. (Anderson 1964). Those of Florida date
back 4 400 years (Lucas 1982). This strong agreement in age has a causal relationship because
melting of the ice at the beginning of the Holocene resulted in marked changes in sea level, which
affected low-lying coastal regions throughout the world, changing the depositional behaviour of
rivers particularly in the estuaries and deltas.
The hydro-topography of tropical swamps on high ground as in central Africa (Rwanda, Burundi,
and to a lesser extent in Kenya and Uganda) is largely influenced by recent volcanism which has
blocked many interior valleys (Floor and Muyesu 1986). Some valleys are blocked by lava flows of
very recent age and, because the lava is hard, the basins are difficult to drain. The age of these
peat deposits is more related to periods of volcanic activity than to climate changes at the end of
the glacial periods. Peat areas at high elevations are generally of small size because large alluvial
depressions are rare.

26

The quantity and nature of the peat accumulating in a depression are very much related to
depositional behaviour of the streams affecting the depression. If, for example, streams change
their silt load, say seasonally, or there are other longer term fluctuations, the organic materials are
contaminated with mineral deposits. Changes in the stream bed can also influence the actual site
where mineral deposits accumulate. The author experienced conditions in South East Asia where
deep almost pure peat is being covered by mineral deposits because of deforestation of the
catchment. Deforestation causes erosion of mineral topsoil and increases the silt load of the river.
It also increases the risk of flooding in downstream peat areas.
The admixture of mineral deposits with peat is highly significant for potential use and requires
attention when undertaking reclamation.
Many peat researchers in the temperate regions hold the view that the mobility of the bog water is
the most important factor controlling the edaphic conditions within a swamp (Kulczynski as quoted
by Moore and Bellamy 1974, p.56). Before discussing influence of water flow, however, the
properties of the water itself are briefly examined.
The type of vegetation and the characteristics of the developing peat depends strongly on the
nature of the water which is feeding the ecosystem. Traditionally, eutrophic, mesotrophic and
oligotrophic conditions are distinguished. Eutrophic conditions are characterized by neutral
reactions (pH of 6-7) and a high content of minerals mainly calcium carbonate. Under oligotrophic
conditions there are few minerals, calcium and magnesium are particularly lacking and the pH is
low. Mesotrophic conditions are intermediate.
Water in a peat ecosystem can be either eutrophic, mesotrophic or oligotrophic depending on its
source. But a gradual change from initial eutrophic conditions to oligotrophic conditions in the final
stages of peatswamp development is very common. The sources of water and the swamps related
to them can be subdivided into three groups (Kulczynski quoted by Moore and Bellamy 1974, p.
56):
Rheophilous type
These are swamps developing in mobile groundwater. In such cases water flows in from
surrounding land and because it is enriched by cations leached from the surrounding soil the
ecosystem is eutrophic and the developing organic soils are of the eutrophic type.
Transitional type
In this situation water no longer enters the system by surface flow but there is still some
underground inflow from seepage. Amounts of incoming nutrients are therefore intermediate in
quantity and the vegetation is poorer and less diverse than under eutrophic conditions. The
resulting peat is mesotrophic in nature.
Ombrophilous type
Under these conditions water entering the system is derived only from precipitation and is
therefore very low in nutrients. The water is acidified and lacks Ca, Mg and K, and consequently
the vegetation is very poor giving rise to the oligotrophic organic peat soils which are extremely low
in nutrients.

27

Table 4 MEAN VALUES OF THE CONCENTRATION OF MAJOR IONS IN WATERS FROM PEAT
SWAMPS IN WESTERN EUROPE AND SCANDINAVIA (source Moore and Bellamy 1974)
Major Ions
pH HCO
3
Cl SO
4
Ca Mg Na K H Total
Hydrological Mire
1

Type 1 7.5 3.9 0.4 0.8 4.0 0.6 0.5 0.05 0 10.25
2 6.9 2.7 0.5 1.0 3.2 0.4 0.4 0.08 0 8.28
3 6.2 1.0 0.5 0.7 1.2 0.4 0.5 0.02 0 4.32
4 5.6 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.04 0.01 2.85
5 4.8 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.07 0.03 1.70
6 4.1 0 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.04 0.14 1.58
7 3.8 0 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.04 0.16 1.20
Extreme rich fen 7.7 2.3 0.2 0.4 1.8 0.9 0.2 0.02 -
2
5.9
Transitional fen 5.8 0.9 0.1 0.03 0.9 0.02 0.05 0.01 - 1.9
Intermediate fen 4.8 0.6 0.01 0.06 0.6 0.03 0.08 0.01 0.02 1.4
Transitional poor fen 5.5 0.1 0.04 0.04 0.1 0.03 0.06 - - 0.38
Intermediate poor fen 4.4 0 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.08 - 0.4 0.29
Extreme poor fen 3.9 0 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.02 0.05 - 0.13 0.40
Moss 3.8 0 0.04 0.13 0.04 0.05 0.09 0.01 0.16 0.50

1
Types 1-7 indicate eutrophic to increasingl y oligotrophic conditions
2
- denotes less than 0.01 milli-equivalents per litre
The amount of minerals in the water has a marked effect on the species of plants and the plant
associations a swamp can support. Thus where plants are rooting in the mineral subsoil and so
can take up sufficient nutrients (eutrophic conditions) - plant life is rich and abundant. The initial
stage of peat development (primary peat) is such a situation. At the next stage (secondary peat)
inflow of nutrients diminishes because of the rising surface of the peat and the mineral subsoil
gradually becomes beyond rooting depth. Deficiencies in nutrients limit the plant species able to
survive. The most severe conditions of nutrient deficiency are reached at the third stage of tertiary
peat formation in which the surface of the peat has risen above the surrounding land thus
preventing any lateral water seepage into the upper layers of the peat which is fed by precipitation
alone so the influx of nutrients is very small. At this stage vegetation has become extremely poor in
species and shows retardation in growth. Table 4, based on average values of many peat bogs in
western Europe, illustrates the general chemical impoverishment of the environments.

28

The various stages that can be distinguished in the development of peat swamps are illustrated in
Figure 3 which is based on a model by Moore and Bellamy (1974) who in turn were much
influenced by studies of mire ecosystems by Kulczynski. As already indicated the flow of water is
extremely important for the type of peat developing, and since changes in water-flow signify the
change from one stage to another we discuss the various stages in some detail.
Figure 3. Model of the succession of mire types (source Moore and Bellamy 1974)

29

Stage 1
During the initial deposition of peat material in flowing water there are two alternative conditions. In
the first, there is a large flow of water bringing in an amount of sediment from outside. This, in
combination with a slow rate of peat formation because of strong oxygenation of the system
through the large influx of water, results in the production of a heavy sinking peat, and the water
flow is concentrated near the surface. In the second, there is a small water flow and less material is
added from outside so, with a faster rate of peat growth, a light, floating peat is produced and the
water flows below a floating mat.
Stage 2
The accumulation of peat tends to canalize the main flow of water within the basin, leaving some
areas (hatched in Fig. 3) which are subjected to the effects of moving groundwater during periods
of excessive flow only. Again two alternatives are recognized: first, where the whole peat mass is
inundated, and second where the peat mass is not inundated and is floating.
Stage 3
The continued vertical and horizontal growth of peat causes the largest part of the basin to be
beyond the influence of inflow. Water supply is mainly restricted to rain falling directly on the
swamp surface with some seepage from surrounding areas. Only those areas immediately lying
along the main drainage tracts within the swamp may show a slow continuous flow.
Stage 4
Continuing peat growth leaves most of the swamp unaffected by moving water but inundation will
occur when the water-table in the basin rises as a result of heavy rainfall.
Stage 5
The peat surface has risen so it is no longer affected by seasonal fluctuations of the groundwater.
The dome-shaped peat surface possesses its own perched water-table fed by rainwater.
The stages (1-3) in which the system is fed to some degree by water from the surrounding areas
gives rise to so-called topogenous peats. Whereas the late stages (4-5) in which almost all the
minerals available are re-cycled within the ecosystem, give rise to ombrogenous peats.
Although this model is based on numerous studies in western Europe and other temperate
regions, it can be applied to tropical regions as is shown in schematic form in Figure 4 by an
example of the successive stages in the development of deep peatswamps in coastal areas
(Andriesse 1974). This is based on field information obtained from surveys in the Sarawak
Lowlands, Malaysia, by Anderson (1964) and the author. Here too the development of primary,
secondary and tertiary peats can be recognized, and a division can be made into topogenous and
ombrogenous stages. Anderson (1964) also provides evidence of former islands of low elevation
now completely covered by tertiary peat deposits.
Figure 4 illustrates that in a strong depositional environment, as is often found in a monsoonal or
semi-arid climate, the evenly spread accumulating mineral deposits will slowly raise the floor of the
basin and prevent complete blockage of drainage. In such cases peat development is either
absent or found only in small depressions when favourable hydro-topographic conditions are
present.
30

Many peat deposits in tropical areas show in cross-section the various stages described. The
bottom layers are rich in plant species and are in general richer in plant nutrients than the overlying
layers. There is generally a gradual impoverishment in the mineral content of the peat, particularly
in the major elements, calcium, magnesium, potassium and phosphorus. Depth of peat is therefore
an important indicator of fertility. The type of peat, whether topogenous or ombrogenous, gives
clues to the fertility to be expected.
Peatswamps can have very contrasting types of flora. The current vegetation, which is not
necessarily the same as that of the past, generally reflects the age or stage of development of the
peat and the climate. A vertical cross-section across a peatswamp reveals the succession of plant
associations which must be regarded as the original materials of the peat. These layers from top to
bottom could, for example, show the following succession: trees; shrubs; grassy perennials (sedge
grass, saw-grass) forming a dense mat; large perennials protruding from shallow water and
possibly still rooting in underlying mineral soils; rooted aquatics with floating leaves; floating
aquatic plants, algae and plankton.
Figure 4. Stages in formation of peatswamps in South East Asia (source Andriesse 1974)
The vegetation layers commonly follow the stages in development recognized in the previous
section. During Stage 1 (Fig. 3) algae, weeds and mineral deposits are produced. In successive
stages as organic residues accumulate, conditions become more favourable for the growth of
reeds, sedges and other perennials which retard water flow further. The diminishing influx of
nutrients available for vegetative growth leads to impoverishment of the system and in the later
stages of development only the more acid-loving plants are able to survive. The decomposing
biomass produces inorganic and organic acids which tend to accumulate in the ecosystem as the
neutralizing effect of calcium carbonate in the incoming water from surrounding land is no longer
effective. Examples of acid vegetation include specific plant associations dominated by heath,
sphagnum moss and many other acidophile plants.
There are numerous papers on the ecological and botanical aspects of organic soils and botanists
have developed procedures to identify former vegetation associations by microtome analyses of
peat fibres and pollen analysis.
It is beyond the scope of this Bulletin to provide detailed information on every possible vegetation
type. It is well, however, to realize that present vegetation cover can be a sound indicator of the
development stage of the peatswamp and that the vegetation of the various underlying peat layers
can give major clues to the mode of peat formation and its relative richness of plant nutrients.
In classifying peat, use is often made of the nature of original material, this being either moss-like
(Sphagnum), grass-like (sedges, saw-grass, papyrus), reeds, bush or forest. For reclamation
purposes such distinctions are relevant and they are dealt with under the appropriate heading in
Chapter 4.
In conclusion, notes are given on the rate of accumulation of peats. First there is no essential
difference between the mode of formation of peatswamps and peats in tropical and temperate
areas. In both cases climate plays a decisive role in the dynamics of the processes involved.
Because of climate, the rate of build-up of barriers by silt in rivers is greatest in the tropics. Also,
the much larger amounts of water generally passing through the tropical systems (rainfall of 4 000
mm compared with say 700 mm in a temperate region) and the seasonal differences in
temperature regimes considerably influence water regime.
31

Apart from the difference in dynamic processes, the kinetics of energy influx and its dissipation are
vastly different in the tropics when compared with temperate zones. This has a large effect on the
rate of accumulation of peat because biomass production is many times greater than that in
temperate regions. On the other hand oxidation and decomposition are also much enhanced in the
tropics by higher temperatures. There are numerous studies on rates of peat accumulation and
there appear to be many factors involved. Lucas (1982) in a review of a number of studies,
indicates that it generally requires between 600 and 2 400 years for 1 m of peat to accumulate with
an average of 1 500 years. These studies are mainly related to boreal and temperate climates and
indicate varied conditions.
From studies by Anderson (1964) on the forest peat of Sarawak it can be calculated that the
deepest layers of peat (4 300 years old) accumulated at a rate of 1 m in 214 years, those 3 900
years old accumulated at a rate of 1 m in 333 years, but those laid down in the last 2 300 years
took 455 years for 1 m to accumulate. These figures indicate that peat in tropical climates
accumulates at least 3 times as fast as in temperate areas. They also show that, as in temperate
regions, the rate of accumulation is related to the stage in development. This is logical since, with
increasing impoverishment of the ecosystem, biomass accumulation will be slowed down, and as a
consequence also peat accumulation. Tropical peats in South East Asia appear to be mainly of the
forest type. The vertical succession in the coastal lowlands (Anderson 1964) is commonly
characterized by mangrove species at first (Stage 1) followed by transitional, brackish water
communities in later stages. These change to true freshwater swamp communities which in turn
are finally replaced by the a poor Shorea albida monostand on the ombrogenous raised peat
domes.
Although forest peat is the rule rather than the exception in the coastal lands of the wet tropical belt
this is not necessarily always so. As always the type of peat depends on the stage of development,
site characteristics and climate. The dominance of forest-type peats in the tropical lowlands tends
to be replaced by a Cyperacea type of vegetation (saw-grass, papyrus) when passing to a
subtropical climate, whereas sedges and reeds develop almost anywhere depending on the hydro-
topography of the site. Peats at high elevations in the tropics, say at over 2 000 m, are generally of
a grassy and mossy nature. In Burundi/Rwanda, peat contains Sphagnum and attains
characteristics of the peats of temperate regions.

32

4. THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL PEATS

4.1 Introduction

4.1 Introduction
Peat materials can be characterized in various ways depending on the purpose for which they are
being described. For example, evaluation of peat materials as a source of energy requires
emphasis on different characteristics than those needed to assess its agricultural potential.
Reclamation of peat requires knowledge of different properties, including those that put emphasis
on the nature of the peatswamps rather than the peat material itself. Keeping in mind the many
purposes for which data on peat and peatswamps is required, the most relevant characteristics are
listed in Tables 5 and 6. Table 5 concentrates on the physical and chemical characteristics of the
peat materials; Table 6 is concerned with the topo-hydrological conditions of the peatswamps.
Table 5 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIC SOIL MATERIALS OF RELEVANCE FOR
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Physical properties Chemical properties
Moisture relationships Composition
water retention organic compounds
available water elemental
hydraulic conductivity
water holding capacity Acidity
Bulk density Exchange characteristic
non-specific cation exchange capacity
specific exchangeable cations
Porosity Organic carbon status
Texture (loss on ignition) Nitrogen status
Irreversible drying Phosphorus status
Swelling and shrinking Free lime (CaCO
3
)
Sulphur status
Trace elements with emphasis on Cu

33

Table 6 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF PEATSWAMPS
Geomorphology Hydrology
Topographic situation Water sources
Surface configuration Quality of water
Elevation of surface Position of natural drainage channels
Elevation of underlying mineral soil

In the discussion below we use data on tropical peat resources whenever it is available, but in the
absence of adequate data from the tropics we have drawn on information from temperate regions.
As indicated earlier one of the common causes of reclamation failure is the lack of recognition of
the difference between the properties of mineral and organic soils. This extends to the use of
analytical procedures. For this reason much attention is given in the following sections to the
analytical methods used to measure characteristics and the differences between parameters.
These are frequently confused in the literature and elsewhere leading to misinterpretation and
mismanagement. It also seems desirable to pay some attention to management early in the text so
the fundamental issues in characterizing peats in relation to management are properly recognized.

4.2.1 General
4.2.3 Bulk density
4.2.4 Porosity

4.2.1 General
The physical properties of organic soils are of particular relevance to water management purposes and for
this reason they are discussed at some length. Organic soil materials consist of four components, mineral
material, organic material, water and air. The characterization of the physical properties of organic materials
is made difficult by the changes in the proportions of the four components as a result of reclamation. There
is another complication. Traditionally the study of physical properties was more the domain of soil
mechanics and soil engineering than of soil chemistry. The former disciplines express characteristics of
materials on a volume basis, whereas chemists commonly use weight ratios. There is a tendency at present
to use volume ratios, because it is more practical to work with them. It is beyond the scope of this Bulletin,
however, to discuss weight/volume relationships in organic soils in much detail, and the reader is referred to
the guidelines given by Skaven-Haug (1972), who has worked out the mathematical relationship between
the different expressions for water content and the general expressions for volumetric relationships for the
four components of organic materials. A synopsis is given in Appendix 2.
The characteristics are discussed in a more or less logical order. Because of the strong interdependence of
the various physical properties, it is difficult to discuss each individual characteristic independently. It is thus
necessary to make frequent cross-reference.
34

Information on the water content of organic soils is extremely important in reclamation. In particular
it is needed for the design of efficient drainage layouts. There are various methods of determining
the water content of organic soils. Each of them gives variable results in different kinds of organic
soils, often with a different order of magnitude. Farnham and Finney (1965) compare three
different methods (Table 7) on three different kinds of organic materials fibric, mesic and sapric
types (Chapter 5).
Table 7 THE COMPARATIVE WATER ABSORBING AND WATER RETAINING CAPACITIES
OF THREE ORGANIC SOIL HORIZONS (source Feustal and Byers 1936, as quoted by
Farnham and Finney 1965)

Kind of organic soil
horizon
Fibric Mesic Sapric
Maximum moisture holding capacity % 1057 374 289
Moisture equivalent % 166 112 110
Water required to saturate 100 cm of dry material (g) 101 91 99
Water required for moisture equivalent of 100 cm
3
of dry
material (g)
16 27 38
Weight of 100 cm
3
of dry material (g) 11 27 39

In Table 7, the maximum moisture or water holding capacity is the amount of water the soil retains
against gravity, based on the oven-dry weight at 105C. It can also be defined as the quantity of
water held by a soil as a function of the height of the soil above the surface. The moisture
equivalent (Table 7) is determined by placing the soil in a perforated box and centrifuging it at a
force of 1 000 times gravity for 40 minutes. The third method (Table 7) measures the amount of
water required to saturate a standard volume of dry peat (100 cm
3
) and thereafter measure its
moisture equivalent. Table 7 shows that there are great differences in the results of the various
methods, but irrespective of the method, water contents in fibric materials always appear to be
appreciably higher than in sapric materials. The degree of decomposition and also botanical origin
are clearly an influence.
A further method preferred by soil scientists is the measurement of water retention values using
pressure plate and pressure membrane apparatus. This method is superior to the others because
it shows great differences in water release characteristics between the various organic materials
(Table 8), and it is therefore discussed in detail below in the sections on water retention and
available water.

35

Table 8 THE WATER RETENTION PROPERTIES OF THREE DIFFERENT ORGANIC SOILS
(source Dyal 1960, as quoted by Farnham and Finney 1965)

Kind of organic soil horizon
Fibric Mesic Sapric
Water retention 1/10 bar (%)
1
570 193 163
Water retention 1/3 bar (%) 378 150 144
Water retention 15 bar (%) 67 84 100

1
Determined by pressure plate and pressure membrane procedure based on oven-dry weight

Water retention
Water retention values are particularly important in the management of organic soils. Table 8
shows clear differences depending on the degree of decomposition. There is much confusion
about the moisture retention values being expressed in several ways: as a percent by volume; as
percent of the over-dry weight; or as the percent of the wet weight. Boelter and Blake (1964) show
that not only is it necessary to express the water contents of organic soils on a volume basis
because of their varied bulk densities, but because of the volume reduction occurring on drying,
water contents must also be expressed on a wet volume basis as taken in the field. For example,
the water content of fibric horizons at all suctions, when expressed on an oven-dry basis, are
greater than those of mesic horizons. These in turn are greater than those of sapric materials.
Mineral soil materials usually contain considerably less water than organic materials at all suctions.
However, using the same water contents, expressed on a volume basis (the amount of water lost
expressed as the volume of water per unit volume of soil in bulk) fibric horizons appear to contain
least and sapric materials most of all organic materials. A mineral soil would probably contain a
volume of water of the same order of magnitude as the peats at the higher tensions. This feature is
well illustrated by comparing Table 8 with Figure 5. This figure shows that the undecomposed
sphagnum moss (fibric material) has the lowest water retention values, because the latter are
expressed on a percent volume basis, whereas in Table 8 values are highest for this type of peat
at low tensions, because water content is expressed on an oven-dry weight basis. The large
variation in water retention between the materials is a function of the porosity and hydraulic
conductivity. Coarse fibric materials have large pores whereas the most-decomposed sapric
material has relatively small pores but not necessarily a smaller pore volume. Another observation
which must be made is that the pF curves shown in Figure 5 are remarkably flat, a characteristic
which appears to be common in peat soils particularly in the range 0.04 to 0.33 bar suction.
Driessen and Rochimah (1977) made a similar observation on pF curves of coastal lowland peat
from Borneo which had 79-91 percent by volume at a suction of 0.01 bar, 75-89 percent by volume
at 0.1 bar and 71-85 percent by volume at 0.33 bar. Fibric peats apparently lose much of their
retained water at low suctions. Water appears to be increasingly held as the degree of
decomposition increases.

36

Figure 5. Water retention curves for several northern Minnesota peat materials (source
Lucas 1982)
Plate 1. Vegetable growing on beds, by Japanese settlers on 1.5 m thick peat in Brazil,
practising sprinkler irrigation to prevent desiccation. Note the original primary forest in the
background
Available water
Agricultural management requires information on the difference between the quantity of water
retained at field capacity and the water retained at the permanent wilting point. Both values are
measured quantitatively by the mentioned pressure plate and pressure membrane method
(moisture retention or pF analysis), field capacity being the amount of water held at a suction of
0.33 bar or at a pF of 2.2 (the pF being the logarithm of the height of water in centimetres). Wilting
point is the moisture content at 15 bar section or pF 4.2. Although theoretically the difference
between pF 2.2 (0.33 bar) and pF 4.2 (15 bar) should give an indication of the amount of water
available to the plant, in practice under field conditions, the quantity of water in organic soils
available to the plant appears to be much less. For management purposes and in terms of water
available to plants, two properties differentiate mineral and organic soils. First the volume of solid
particles is much less in organic soils than in mineral soils and second the amount of water
retained at very low tensions is much greater for organic soils than for mineral soils. Experience in
Florida shows that productivity decreases markedly as the store of available water falls below 30
percent of the maximum available water (Lucas 1982). The tension at this moisture content is
about 5 bar. This observation is worth checking under tropical conditions where drought conditions
are more severe. The author notices in Brazil that J apanese immigrants used sprinkler irrigation for
vegetable growing to keep the surface layer moist in the dry season. This prevents the start of
irreversible drying and partly rectifies deficiency in moisture, although the water-table was only at
30 cm depth. This clearly indicates, however, that water availability and capillary action in peat
soils and mineral soils are not directly comparable. Peat soils behave more like the very light-
textured soils than like heavy-textured ones. Much fieldwork still needs to be done on the
availability of water held at low tensions and the nature of the capillary fringe above the water-
table.
Hydraulic conductivity
The rate of movement of water through the soil is highly relevant to drainage problems. It is
controlled by several factors. The type of peat, degree of decomposition and bulk density influence
hydraulic conductivity and they provide a good basis for its assessment (Boelter 1974). Sapric
horizons of some Canadian peats (Irwin 1968, quoted by Tie and Kueh 1979) have very low
permeability in the order of 0.36 to 0.036 cm/h, which is less than that of many fine textured soils,
but Soepraptohardjo and Driessen (1976) report rapid horizontal hydraulic conductivity but slow
vertical conductivity for some peats in Indonesia. Lucas (1982) indicates that, in general, fibrous
peats have moderate rates of water movement while decomposed and herbaceous peats often
have low values. This corroborates the findings of Irwin. Rates less than 0.36 cm/h are too slow for
successful agricultural development. Laboratory studies on Holland Marsh mucks in Ontario State,
USA, give hydraulic conductivity values of 22, 18 and 4 cm/h for depths of 0-15, 15-30 and 30-45
cm respectively. Florida peat soils (12-21 cm depth) were found to have a hydraulic conductivity
ranging from 29-67 cm/h depending on soil series. Horizontal hydraulic conductivity rates can be
faster than vertical rates if the profile has a decomposed subsoil, but Clayton et al. (1942) conclude
in a study of water control of the Florida Everglades, that vertical movement of water is greater
than horizontal movement and this could be related to orientation of the saw-grass roots which
were generally vertical.
37

Apart from the sources mentioned, there is little other data from the tropics. It is, however, clear
that for a proper estimate of the hydraulic conductivity many factors must be studied and the
influence of each on water movement evaluated.
Fibric materials in tropical peats commonly exhibit high hydraulic conductivity, which gradually
diminishes as the peats decompose. Decreasing pore space and higher water retention in
developing sapric materials affect the hydraulic conductivity considerably. The fact that gradual
changes in hydraulic conductivity can be expected in decomposing peat following reclamation
must be borne in mind.
Water holding capacity
The amount of water held by a soil is partly a function of the height above the water-table. There
are several methods to measure this quality. The American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) uses a procedure that measures the moisture held by a 22 cm high column; Finnish
scientists use a 10 cm
2
tube holding a column of peat. Tube and soil are immersed in water until
they reach constant weight. For dry peats, this may require several days. The tube is then placed
in a vertical position for two hours to allow excess water to drain. Other workers use metal
containers with 5 X 5 X 2 cm dimensions and a metal screen on the bottom. After saturation the
containers are placed in a Bell jar and the soil allowed to drain. Water holding capacities measured
this way are greater than those obtained by the ASTM and Finnish methods (Lucas 1982).
The difference in weight between the wet and the oven-dry soil (105C) is the moisture held, so the
values are expressed on a dry-weight basis. Water holding capacity values show marked
differences. The weight of water held in fibric horizons may be as much as 20 times the weight of
the solid-particles, whereas that held in cultivated sapric horizons contain less than twice the
weight. If the water holding capacity is expressed on a volume basis these differences are much
less apparent. This is clearly shown in Table 9. Thus, the difference between values of water
holding capacity expressed on an oven-dry weight basis (water content percent dry basis in Table
9) can be used to distinguish between stages in decomposition and peat types. There is not much
information available on water holding capacity of typical tropical peats. Tay (1969) mentions
values for Malaysian coastal peats which are usually woody and fibric at depth, of 15 to 30 times
their own weight. Ehrencron, quoted by Andriesse (1974), determined the water holding capacity of
two West Borneo peats as being 322 and 275 percent, values which are considered low and which
are probably related to cultivated peat with sapric characteristics.
Table 9 DRY WEIGHT AND WATER CONTENT OF SATURATED PEATS (source Lucas 1982)

Peat types
Sphagnum Fibrous reed-sedge Decomposed reed-sedge Peat humus
Peat weight g/l
1
88 160 240 320
Water content g/l
1
930 890 835 780
Total weight g/l
1
1018 1050 1075 1100
Water content % wet basis 91 85 78 71
Water content % dry basis 970 554 346 242
1
g/l indicates grams per litre

38

4.2.3 Bulk density
Bulk density is perhaps the most important intrinsic characteristic of peat because many other
properties are closely related to it. For this reason it is used as a parameter for classifying peat at
high categorical levels (Chapter 5). Bulk density however depends on the amount of compaction,
the botanical composition of the materials, their degree of decomposition, and the mineral and
moisture contents at the time of sampling. The actual method of determining bulk density is an
important consideration in evaluating data. The bulk density of an organic soil is the weight of a
given volume of soil usually expressed on a dry weight basis in grams per cubic centimetre. Values
range from 0.05 g/cm
3
in very fibric, undecomposed materials to less than 0.5 g/cm
3
in well
decomposed materials. If expressed on a wet volume basis, which is the mass per unit wet bulk
volume of soil that has been dried to constant weight at 105C (in other words the weight of 100
cubic centimetres of dry material in grams) the values have a totally different meaning. It is
therefore important to note which method has been used. To complicate the matter further other
researchers report bulk density in terms of mass per unit volume but after a standard packing
procedure and the values obtained are of greater magnitude than the first mentioned. There is little
point in reporting all bulk density values known for tropical peats, because type of peat and degree
of decomposition play an important part in the differences noted. For this reason only some
general indications are given.
Andriesse (1974) reports mean bulk densities of 0.12 and 0.09 g/cm
3
for Sarawak (Malaysia) peat.
Driessen and Rochimah (1976) corroborate these findings and indicate that fibric tropical peats in
Indonesia commonly have bulk densities of less than 0.1 g/cm
3
and those of the well decomposed
sapric peats have values greater than 0.2 g/cm
3
. Tie and Kueh (1979) specifically mention the bulk
density of a well-decomposed sapric peat at the Stapok Peat Research Station in Sarawak. This
peat, with a loss of ignition of 95 percent, has bulk densities of 0.15 and 0.13 g/cm
3
at depths of 0-
15 and 15-30 cm respectively. The bulk density values reported for the uncultivated Florida peats
are within this range. Cultivated soils around the Agricultural Research and Education Centre,
Belle Glade, however, have topsoils (0-15 cm) with a bulk density of 0.35 g/cm
3
and subsoil (45-60
cm) densities of 0.18 g/cm
3
. These higher densities are no doubt caused by cultivation and
compaction of the surface layers upon drainage. This appears to be a general feature of most
tropical peats under natural conditions as surface layers are generally more sapric than subsurface
layers. This is the effect of climate, height of water-fable and oxidation.
Bulk density measurements are of practical importance in interpreting soil analytical data
particularly those indicating fertility levels. Chemical data are commonly expressed as parts per
million (ppm) or percentage on a 100 g dry-soil basis. The comparison between the fertility level of
a mineral soil with bulk density of 1.5 g/cm
3
with the fertility level of an organic soil with a bulk
density of 0.1 g/cm
3
is not realistic unless the great difference in bulk densities is taken into
account. Otherwise it would indicate a level 15 times its true value for the organic soil. Analytical
values for organic soils must be recalculated on a weight per volume basis, using bulk density as a
correction factor.
Some research workers determine the specific density (particle density) which indicates the true
densities of the solid peat material. Its measurement is complicated and tedious and is traditionally
done by a picnometer. However, there are other direct and indirect methods (Skaven-Haug 1972).
Its value is influenced by the amount of mineral matter present in the organic materials. Driessen
and Rochimah (1976) quote specific density values ranging from 1.26 g/cm
3
to 1.80 g/cm
3
for peats
in general. They determined values in Indonesia of 1.4 g/cm
3
for the lowland peats of an
ombrogenous and oligotrophic nature. Specific density values do not have a direct practical
application. Care should be taken to avoid confusion with values for bulk density.
39

4.2.4 Porosity
Total pore space (TPS) largely determines the water retention. As indicated earlier fibric horizons
have a high rate of water movement because of the large pores usually present. Large pores
collapse on progressive decomposition and total pore space also decreases. It is possible to
determine total porosity by using bulk density and specific density values in the following formula:
TPS in 100 cc of soil =[100 (SD - BD)] SD
in which SD is specific bulk density and BD non-specific bulk density.
Driessen and Rochimah (1976) calculated total pore space using these parameters for tropical
lowland peats in Indonesia and concluded that the total porosity depends primarily on the bulk
density of the material (Table 10). Boelter (1974) indicates that fibric peats in their normal state
commonly have a total porosity of 90 percent by volume, whereas sapric materials commonly have
less than 85 percent pores. The findings of Driessen and Rochimah appear to confirm these
values. It is important to realize that on drainage the porosity changes drastically.
Table 10 CALCULATED TOTAL PORE SPACE (% vol.) FOR TROPICAL LOWLAND PEATS IN
INDONESIA (source Driessen and Rochimah 1976)

SD (g/cm
3
)
1.30 1.40 1.50
BD (g/cm
3
) % volume % volume % volume
0.10 92.3 92.9 93.3
0.15 88.5 89.3 90.0
0.20 84.6 85.7 86.7
0.25 80.8 82.1 83.3
The texture of organic materials is determined on both the organic and the mineral parts of the soil.
The method of determination of size fractions of the organic part of the material is given in Chapter
5, while the texture of the mineral part is determined by the usual granulometric method after
removal of the organic material. A quick method to establish the amount of mineral matter in an
organic soil is by loss on ignition. In this method the sample is incinerated after oven-drying at a
temperature of 800C (some, for example Kanapathy (1976), use 480C). Not all of the loss on
ignition is caused by the oxidation of organic matter. Mineral material after drying to 105C
contains chemically- and physically-bound water which dissipates upon further heating. Also
organic materials contain a small amount of chemically combined mineral matter. Skaven-Haug
(1972) quoting various sources indicates that slightly transformed, presumably pure sphagnum
peat has an ash content between one and two percent. For tropical peats consisting of pure
organic materials a presumed ash percentage of one percent seems reasonable. In the case of
mineral matter weight losses on heating due to loss of water and in some cases by volatilization of
calcium carbonate, are more difficult to assess. Pure mineral matter should give a weight loss of
less than one percent but this depends very much on the nature of the mineral material.
40

Skaven-Haug (1972) indicates values of 0.4-1.3 percent for sand and silt and values of 3.9-6.0
percent for very fine clay material. When a sample contains lime, losses due to generation of
carbon dioxide amount to approximately half the weight of the lime. For example, an approximate
lime content of 3-5 percent gave ignition losses of 1.5-2.5 percent.
After the corrections mentioned above, the loss on ignition is an important practical parameter.
With sufficient samples it can be used to estimate the amount and distribution of mineral matter in
a peat bog both vertically and laterally so that behaviour upon drainage can be predicted.
The nature of the mineral component in organic soils has a bearing on soil fertility and agricultural
potential and it must therefore be analysed. In addition, subsidence plays an important role during
reclamation (Chapter 7), and is closely related to the amount and nature of the mineral matter in
the organic material.
Most organic soils shrink when dried but swell when re-wetted, unless they are dried to a threshold
value beyond which irreversible drying occurs (section 4.2.7). Shrinkage calculated as a
percentage of the original volume ranges from 90 percent for aquatic peats to 40 percent for fibric
peats. Canadian peats, commonly show the greatest shrinkage where the bulk densities are lowest
and the content of gelatinous materials highest (Maas, as quoted by Lucas 1982). This is probably
also true for lowland coastal peats in Indonesia as is indicated in Table 11. Organic soils appear to
become less affected by drying after they have been cultivated for some time. This is partly related
to the increased decomposition and gradual change from a fibric to a more sapric nature. The
wood content of the peat influences shrinkage as the wood acts as a stable skeleton reducing
shrinkage of the whole. This was so in Florida where moss peats and most fibrous peats shrink the
least and sedimentary plastic mucks shrink the most. In all probability the amount of mineral matter
in organic soil and the nature of the decomposed organic materials influence shrinkage most. This
explains the large differences reported in Florida where saw-grass peat shrank 20-25 percent,
semi-aquatic mucks 10-15 percent, woody mucks 30-50 percent and mangrove mucks about 40-
50 percent (Lucas 1982).
Table 11 THE EFFECT OF DRYING ON FOUR SURFACE SOILS FROM A SEQUENCE NEAR
TAMBAN, CENTRAL KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA (source Driessen and Suhardjo 1976)
Profile Culti vation
period
(years)
Field
bulk
density
Bulk
density
after
dryi ng
Shrinkage
% volume
Field
moisture
content %
weight
Re-moistened
moisture
content % of
FMC
PD 11 6 0.28 0.86 67 301 28
PD 12 3 0.23 0.70 67 354 29
PD 13 1 0.12 0.60 80 705 15
PD 14 0 0.13 0.85 85 557 10

41

Irreversible drying occurs after periods of intensive drying and is typical of many peat soils. Surface
layers of organic materials in many reclaimed and drained peatswamps exhibit this behaviour.
After exposure to the sun, the materials become rather like coffee grounds, and are very difficult to
re-wet. This may cause severe drought stress in shallow rooting crops.
There are several explanations of the cause of the property. Coulter (1957) attributes the
hydrophobic nature of dried peat to the presence of a resinous coating which presumably forms
upon drying. He suggests this coating prevents the reabsorption of water. There is some doubt
about this. For example, Driessen and Rochimah (1977) did not find such coatings in Indonesian
peats and the author has never seen them. Lucas (1982), quoting Puustjarvi and Robertson,
indicates that acid, humified peats exhibit the greatest resistence to re-wetting because of their
carboxyl and phenolic hydroxyl groups, and high lignin content. Consistent with this theory is the
observation that changes in sphagnum peats are usually small because they are low in lignins, but
that the condition occurs very markedly in vascular and hypnaceous peats with large pores. Most
tropical peats belong to the latter group. Re-wetting resistence has also been explained as due to
adsorbed air films and iron coating around the organic particles.
Resistence to re-wetting also appears to be related to bulk density. Thus irreversible drying is
marked in organic soils with low bulk density but those with high bulk densities are comparatively
easy to re-wet. Several investigators report complete re-wetting where soils have high bulk
densities (greater than say 4.2 g/cm
3
). Peats reaching the stage of irreversible drying show a
marked loss of water holding capacity which can be as much as 40-75 percent in the case of peats
in the USA.
The discussion on physical properties is perhaps best closed by summarizing some of the
fundamental peat research findings on physico-chemical properties arrived at by the USSR Peat
Institutes. The need to develop new technological processes for various industrial uses of peat has
spurred USSR research workers to investigate moisture characteristics, and the physico-chemical
structural and rheological properties of peat materials. This has produced much information on the
basic micro-structures and molecular composition of peats and their changes during production,
processing and dehydration. Such information can also provide clues to the behaviour of peat
materials when reclaimed. It also sheds light on other physical and chemical properties which are
more readily explained using this background information.
Volarovich and Churaev (1968) describe peat as a complex, heterogeneous, poly-dispersed
system consisting of both true solutions of low and high molecular weight, hydrophobic sols and
hydrophilic semi-colloids in a dynamic state of dispersion at equilibrium. The structure of the peat
colloids is determined by the chemical composition of the compounds formed during the
decomposition of vegetable matter, whereas the coarse-dispersed fraction is composed of plant
remains in the form of insoluble and high co-polymers of cellular tissues. Peats can be divided into
two kinds:
High moor peat
This, comparable to most dome-shaped lowland tropical peats of ombrogenous oligotrophic
nature, has a large hydrophilic humic material content (humic acids and hemicellulose). An
increasing degree of decomposition results in an increase in hydrophobic components. This
explains the stronger irreversible drying in sapric materials than in fibric materials.

42

Low moor peat
This peat of eutrophic nature is uncommon in the tropics and appears to have a smaller content of
hydrophilic materials. The colloid fraction mainly consists of humates of polyvalent metals forming
compact coagulated aggregates.
The behaviour of colloids in peat is strongly determined by the kind of adsorbed cations, which
depend on salt content and acidity which in turn depend on the nature of the water and the mineral
supply. In high moor peats, where water supply is maintained by precipitation adsorbed metal
cations are less important.
The hydrophilic nature of high moor peat is reflected by the large content of bound water which is
directly related to the content of hydrophilic colloids, the maximum values of both occurring at a
degree of decomposition of 20 to 30 percent. Further decomposition results in an increase in
hydrophobic material as the bitumen content increases.
Investigations by Rebinder, quoted by Volarovich and Churaev (1968) indicate that water in peat
can be divided into three categories: physically and chemically bound water; capillary and film
water; and immobilized water.
Physicall y and chemically bound water
This is absorbed at the solid-liquid interface by the active groups of high molecular weight
compounds. The energy of adsorption by Van der Waals forces, or hydrogen bonding, ranges from
0.1-0.3 up to 5-10 kcal/mol. Contents range from 40-70 percent of the total water in raw peat of
which 10-15 percent is very tightly bound, possessing bond energies greater than 1 kcal/mol.
Because this physically and chemically bound water is mainly tied to compounds of high molecular
weight, there is a good correlation between the amount of bound water and the content of
hydrophilic material. This is not so in low moor peat where the hydrophilic characteristics depend
also on the composition of the adsorbed cations and the pH. Physically and chemically bound
water also includes water held by osmosis. This water is responsible for the swelling of hydrophilic
colloids which have structural lattices forming partitions permeable to water but impermeable to the
larger molecules of compounds of high molecular weight.
Capillary and film water
This is retained by forces of negative and wedge pressure at the air-water interface. The bond of
energy is <0.2-0.3 kcal/mol. If there is no air in the soil, capillary and film water becomes free water
without a surplus bond energy.
Immobilized water
This is held in peat by purely mechanical forces and its bond energy is negligible. It comprises
intracellular water, entrained on cell structures and the water in closed pores. Dispersion,
compression or destruction of the structure may result in conversion of this water to free water.
The bound water in peat consists mainly of capillary and immobilized water. Raw peat holds 200-
500 percent immobilized water and up to 250-400 percent capillary water. When the peat is little
decomposed, intracellular water forms the main portion of the immobilized water. Water entrained
by the colloids increases upon decomposition. The total amount of immobilized water becomes
constant when the peat is 30-40 percent decomposed. As decomposition continues the amount of
capillary water decreases, because of the destruction of plant remains and increasing compaction.

43

In highly dispersed systems such as peat, moisture transfer can be considerably influenced by
colloidal-chemical processes and by surface phenomena at the interfaces. It is therefore not only a
hydro-mechanical but also a physico-chemical problem. Experiments have indicated that changes
in peat infiltration coefficients are associated with swelling and colloidal-chemical changes which
occur simultaneously. Increasing pH and hydrophilic nature of the peat causes development of the
gel structure, arresting infiltration. Reduction of pH and compact coagulation of the colloids results
in increased permeability. All these factors cause deviations from Darcys Law.
The phenomenon of moisture conductivity in peat is no less complex. Investigations into drying
indicate that the first drying stage is characterized by the removal of free water and of water from
large pores. On further drying, the forces of capillary contraction increase and weakly bound
intracellular and immobilized water is squeezed out. The transfer and removal of moisture in
microcapillaries brings about a change in the transport mechanism and a reduction in the drying
rate. This change corresponds to the first critical point of a drying curve. After removal of the
mechanically bound water, the rate of drying is reduced still further. This is followed by the removal
of physico-chemically bound water. This stage coincides with a second critical point. At such a
moisture content, highly dispersed samples show a change in the rate of shrinkage due to
increasing forces of molecular interaction with the removal of water and with convergence of the
particles. The removal of moisture appears to follow a strict sequence determined by the bond
energies. Resulting changes influence the strength of the peat. Thus at moisture content greater
than 150-200 percent when bonding is related mainly to capillary action, the strengths of blocks of
peat from high and low moor are approximately equal and depend on the pore volume. The
maximum strength of the peat is achieved at a moisture content approaching that of the physico-
chemically bound water. With further dehydration, irreversible changes in high molecular
compounds take place and the peat becomes more fragile. This explains the coffee grounds and
powdery peat structure formed in surface layers of reclaimed peat soils as a result of drying in the
sun (Section 4.2.7).

4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Composition
4.3.3 Acidity
4.3.6 Nitrogen
4.3.7 Phosphorus
3
)
4.3.9 Sulphur

4.3.1 Introduction
In the past the chemical characterization of peat materials concentrated more on the compound
organic constituents and the elemental composition, than on derived chemical properties such as
exchange characteristics. This is because the methods were developed in the traditional peat
mining countries in temperate regions. They were more interested in peat as a source of energy
than as a medium for plant growth. More recently, industrial use of peat has instigated a new
interest in its chemical properties, the study of which is presently being helped by modern
analytical techniques. In this Bulletin we only concentrate on basic chemical composition when it is
of importance for a better understanding. Attention is mainly focused on the important derived chemical
properties affecting agricultural potential, agricultural management and the behaviour of peats upon
reclamation.
44

4.3.2 Composition
Organic compounds
The chemical composition of peat materials is predominantly influenced by the parent vegetation,
the degree of decomposition and the original chemical environment. Peat science traditionally
distinguishes the following main organic constituents grouped into five fractions which can be
determined separately:
a. Water soluble compounds.
b. Ether and alcohol soluble materials.
c. Cellulose and hemicellulose. It is possible to separate cellulose from hemicellulose by extracting
the residual sample with 2 percent HCl at 100C for five hours under a reflux condenser. The
amount of hemicellulose is estimated by multiplying the extracted sugar by 0.9.
d. Lignin and lignin-derived substances. This fraction is estimated by hydrolysis with strong
sulphuric acid of the residue after the three fractions above have been removed.
e. Nitrogenous materials or crude proteins.
Table 12 gives representative examples of the chemical composition of a variety of peats (moss,
grass, sedge and forest peat) from temperate and tropical countries. The figures are mainly for
sub-surface layers which have not yet completely decomposed. The content of water-soluble
compounds, mainly polysaccharides, mono-sugars, and some tannins, generally varies between
five and ten percent depending on the stage of decomposition. These substances are the first to
leach away on decomposition and highest contents are therefore found in the least decomposed
materials. The figures in Table 12 reflect this but they also show that the original content of water
soluble compounds probably depends on type of vegetation. The ether and alcohol extracts,
determined separately by some workers, contain fatty acids, wax-like components, resins and
nitrogenous fats, and some waxes, tannins, various pigments, alkaloids and soluble carbohydrates
respectively. The amounts are strongly related to original vegetation. For example, Sphagnum
peats may contain as much as 15 percent of soluble carbohydrates, reeds and sedge peats less
than 5 percent (Lucas 1982). This fraction usually increases with increasing age of the peat. The
cellulose and hemicellulose fraction decomposes easily and the content in the original vegetation
is therefore usually greater than that in the derived peat. Again, the parent plant community
influences the amounts, with woody peats commonly having a low content and papyrus having as
much as 40 percent (Table 12). The general range is between 5 and 40 percent. The lignin and
lignin-derived materials commonly constitute the largest portion of the peat because they increase
in amount on decomposition as other materials are removed. Lignin is fairly resistant to microbial
attack. The original vegetation also influences the content. Ranges from 20 to over 50 percent are
possible.
Tropical forest peats in particular appear to have considerable amounts of lignin and lignin-
derivates. Values of 75 percent for the Indonesian coastal lowland peats (Table 12) are not
uncommon and similar values (56-73 percent) are found in Malaysia in comparable peats (Coulter
1957). The fact that tropical peats commonly have large contents of lignin and lignin-derived
products is of some consequence for agriculture. Studies by Flaig (1968) on the effect of humic
substances on plant metabolism indicate in particular that degradation products of lignin such as
those with a phenolic character can cause interferences with essential processes and
photosynthesis, even when present in very small amounts. Finally, the nitrogenous constituents
which are small in comparison with the other fractions and mostly proteinaceous in nature. Total
nitrogen may vary from 0.3-4.0 percent (on a dry weight basis). Because of its importance for
agriculture nitrogen content is discussed in more detail elsewhere.
45

Table 12 CONTENTS OF PRINCIPAL ORGANIC COMPOUNDS OF TROPICAL AND
TEMPERATE PEATS (% dry weight) (sources
1
Lucas 1982;
2
Ravikovitch 1948;
3
Hardon and
Polak 1941)
The more or less traditional fractionation of organic compounds described above does not
separate humic substances such as humic acids, fulvic acids and humins. Humic acid is separated
by using 1 percent NaOH and subsequent acidification, the humic acids being the compounds
insoluble in acid. The humins are not extracted by the NaOH solution but can be readily digested
with cold 72 percent H
2
SO
4
. Such humic substances consist mainly of aromatic complexes and
nitrogenous compounds chiefly composed of amino-acid residues. The possible origins of the
aromatic complexes are lignin, tannins and polyphenols of the vegetable respiratory systems,
whereas the amino-acid complexes seem to originate mainly from the cytoplasm of dead micro-
organisms (Kurbatov 1968).
The contents of the above components are important for metabolic processes in plants. It is
known, for example, that humic acid is an active auxin, promoting plant growth. Its effectiveness is
however probably better shown in mineral soils with relatively little humic acid than in peats which
are abundant in this substance.
Elemental composition
As shown in Table 13, from Lucas (1982), there is generally a wide variation in mineral
composition between different peats, but the principal constituents other than carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen and oxygen are either silicon or calcium. The silicon usually comes from wind-blown
minerals or washed-in sediments and is therefore small in amount. The calcium content can be
large in eutrophic environments. Together with magnesium this element in its ionic form is strongly
adsorbed onto the colloidal organic particles. Contents of iron, aluminium, sodium and sulphur
reach high levels in some peats. This is usually caused by particular environmental conditions
which operated during the paludification period. As a result of environmental changes the various
layers of peat deposits often show differences in elemental composition. It is not clear whether
tropical peats have elemental compositions essentially different from temperate peats. It is
suggested, however, that since tropical soils commonly have larger sesquioxide contents than
soils of temperate regions, that tropical peat-forming environments and the peats themselves might
generally reflect such a difference by higher iron and aluminium contents.

46

Table 13 RANGE AND AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF IMPORTANT ELEMENTS IN ORGANIC
SOILS (source Lucas 1982)
Element
Percent range
(oven dry)
% Typical average
Eutrophic Peats
lime rich
Oligotrophic Peats
lime poor
Aluminium Al 0.01 to 5.0 0.5 0.1
Barium Ba 0.0006 to 0.3 0.005
Boron B 0.00001 to 0.1 0.01 0.0001
Calcium Ca 0.01 to 6.0 2.0 0.3
Carbon C 12.0 to 60.0 48.0 52.0
Chlorine Cl 0.001 to 5.0 0.10 0.01
Cobalt Co 0.00 to 0.0003 0.0001 0.00003
Copper
1
Cu 0.0003 to 0.01 0.001 0.0005
Hydrogen H 2.0 to 6.0 5.0 5.2
Iron
2
Fe 0.02 to 3.0 0.5 0.1
Lead Pb 0.00 to 0.04 0.005 0.001
Magnesium Mg 0.01 to 1.5 0.3 0.06
Manganese Mn 0.0001 to 0.08 0.02 0.003
Molybdenum Mo 0.00001 to 0.005 0.001 0.0001
Nickel Ni 0.0001 to 0.03 0.001 0.0005
Nitrogen N 0.3 to 4.0 2.5 1.0
Oxygen O 30.0 to 40.0 32.0 35.0
Phosphorus P 0.01 to 0.5 0.07 0.04
Potassium K 0.001 to 0.8 0.1 0.04
Silicon Si 0.1 to 30.0 5.0 0.5
Sodium Na 0.02 to 5.0 0.05 0.01
Sulphur S 0.004 to 4.0 0.5 0.1
Zinc
3
Zn 0.001 to 0.4 0.05 0.005
1
Cupriferous bogs in Canada contained nearly 0.3% total Cu.
2
Samples with bog iron present could contain more than reported in this estimate.
3
6.7% of zinc has been reported present in the New York soils containing toxic amounts of zinc.

47

4.3.3 Acidity
The pH of organic soils is related to the presence of organic compounds, the exchangeable
hydrogen and aluminium, iron sulphide and other oxidizable sulphur compounds. In contrast with
mineral soils, the presence of organic acids largely determines the acidity, and the presence of
mobile or hydrolysable aluminium is less important. The range of acidity in organic materials is very
wide. High-lime peats of eutrophic nature can have a pH of over 6, as, for example, in some peats
in Florida (Lucas 1982) and low moor peats in the Netherlands. In conditions where there has been
infiltration of brackish water the pH can be as high as 7.8 as in the Maldives where peat has
developed in the inner part of atolls which had strongly saline initial conditions (Hammond 1971).
On the other hand, peat can be very strongly acid where it contained pyritic materials which have
been oxidized upon reclamation. The pH of such peats can reach values of less than 2.
Tropical peats of ombrogenous and oligotrophic nature, which include most lowland tropical peats,
are commonly acid or extremely acid with a pH range in water of 3 to 4.5. Variations within this
range are caused either by admixtures of mineral soil which generally increase the pH, or by the
specific location in the peatswamp. Surface layers of the dome-shaped peat deposits in the
lowlands of Borneo have an average pH of 3.3 for the thickest peat whereas the shallow peat near
the edge has an average pH of 4.3. This is consistent with findings elsewhere that in ombrogenous
peats the environment becomes increasingly deficient in minerals so the youngest peats forming
the uppermost layers, are poorest in cations causing extreme acidity. The pH of peat deposits can
often give clues to mode of formation, type of peat and possible agricultural potential. It is an
important parameter which can easily be determined. The natural pH should, however, be
measured in the field because of the risk of oxidation in some peat soils of sulphur compounds
which can drastically alter pH.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
On decomposition organic matter produces a variety of organic compounds as discussed. These
can exhibit exchange properties which play an important role in the agricultural management of
soils, and in particular in manipulating the chemical fertility. The exchange capacity of both mineral
and organic soil materials depends on the number of negatively charged exchange sites. These
adsorp cations Ca, Mg, K and Na which replace the hydrogen ions at the sites. It should perhaps
be remarked here that in organic materials there is another type of cation adsorption by so-called
organo-metallic compounds which are responsible for the fixation of copper and zinc. In general,
however, the ion adsorption and exchange is associated with the hydrophilic colloids of the peat,
namely the humic acids and hemicelluloses (Volarovich and Churaev 1968). The main one is the
carboxyl radical. Apparently the sites located inside loose particles of hydrophilic colloids take part
in the ion exchange as well as sites on the main surfaces. This not only explains the high
exchange capacity usually found in peats but also the length of time (one to two hours) it takes to
reach equilibrium.
There are various methods to determine the CEC of soils and since there is no international
agreement it is difficult to compare results. In addition the CEC of peat is highly pH-dependent.
This is because the hydrogen ion remains tightly associated or fixed with the functional group in
acid materials and does not exhibit exchange properties. A third problem is that CEC is greatly
influenced by drying, reductions ranging from 20-70 percent have been reported.

48

The acidity of the exchange medium appears crucial. Studies by Helling, Chesters and Coey
quoted by Lucas (1982) show 73 me/100 g at pH 3.5, 127 me/100 g at pH 5.0, 131 me/100 g at pH
6.0, 163 me/100 g at pH 7.0 and 215 me/100 g at pH 8.0. The cation used in the exchange
medium is also of importance. Exchange efficiencies are reported to be Na<K<Ca<Ba. Barium at
pH 6.5-7.0 is commonly used as an exchange medium.
Other methods include that of Volarovich and Churaev (1968) which measures calcium adsorption
by fresh peat. Investigations on eutrophic peat gave adsorption values of 100-180 me/100 g of dry
matter at pH 5.5-6.5, whereas oligotrophic peats, which include most tropical peats, showed an
exchange capacity of only 10-20 me/100 g. These Russian peat scientists claim that these values
give a better indication of the exchange capacity of peat under natural conditions than the barium
method.
A study of the composition of the adsorption complex has also shown that in pure peats of low ash
content, there is a close relationship between the adsorbed calcium and the pH of the medium, the
calcium content expressing the main properties of the peat better than the botanical characteristics
or the degree of decomposition. Mehlich (1942) also studied this relationship and obtained pH
values of 3.7, 4.5, 5.5, 6.4, 7.0 and 7.5 at calcium saturation percentages of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and
100 respectively.
At a pH of 7.0, little-decomposed organic soils show CEC values of about 100 me/100 g and highly
decomposed peats of sapric nature have values around 200 me/100 g. The difference is no doubt
due to the large amount of lignin-derivates formed upon advanced decomposition giving many
exchange sites.
Table 14 gives CEC values of representative peats from tropical and temperate regions. The value
for the Ivory Coast indicates the problem of comparing values obtained by non-standardized
methods.
Table 14 CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY VALUES (CEC) AT pH 7 OF REPRESENTATIVE
PEATS FROM TEMPERATE AND TROPICAL REGIONS (source
1
Lucas 1982;
2
Tie and Lim
1976;
3
Suhardjo and Widjaja-Adhi 1977;
4
Lassoudire 1976)
Type of peat Location CEC in mlgr.
Sphagnum
1
Finland 140
Sedge
1
Finland 70
Woody
1
Finland 100
Saw-grass
1
Florida, USA 208
Forest (woody)
2
Malaysia 106
Forest (woody)
3
Indonesia 125
Forest (woody)
4
Ivory Coast 23.0 (other method)
Although the CEC values for organic materials appear to be large in comparison with those of
common mineral soils this must be considered in the light of the low bulk density of the peaty
materials. For proper comparison, values must be reduced by a factor related to the difference in
bulk densities. Lucas (1982) illustrated the agricultural importance of expressing CEC on a volume
basis rather than on a weight basis as follows (Table 15):

49

Table 15 COMPARISON OF CEC VALUES ON A WEIGHT AND PER VOLUME BASIS (source
Lucas 1982)
Soil type CEC by weight
me/100g
CEC by volume
me/100 cc
Loam soil 12 14
Sphagnum peat 100 8
Woody peat 90 14
Muck 200 60

On a volume basis, the same amount of lime would be required for the loam soil as the woody peat
to make the same change in the percentage calcium saturation. On a weight basis the woody peat
appears to require 7.5 times more than the loam soil.
Exchangeable cations and base saturation
The exchangeable cation status of organic materials is difficult to indicate since different cations
are complexed to differing degrees by the organic compounds. Trivalent cations are more strongly
adsorbed than monovalent or divalent ones, but their selectivity of peat for hydrogen ions is much
greater than for the metal ions. It is generally agreed that the two cations, H and Ca, usually
occupy most of the exchange sites (Lucas 1982), but this is not always so. Peat in Sarawak of an
oligotrophic and ombrogenous nature, investigated by Tie and Lim (1976), appears to have much
larger values for exchangeable Mg than for calcium. It seems therefore that local conditions can
change the general dominance of calcium.
The proportion of the total CEC taken up by Ca, Mg, K and Na is commonly known as the base
saturation value, the remainder of the CEC being the acid part (H and Al). It has already been
remarked that pH and calcium saturation are strongly related. This can be said also for the base
saturation in general. Differences are caused by several factors, namely the form and the amount
of pH dependent organic compounds, the difference in the dissociation constants of the humates
and the amount of other cations. Of the latter the amount of exchangeable aluminium is of
particular importance. This is discussed in more detail in relation to lime requirements in Chapter 8.
Base saturation values vary not only as a result of pH differences but also according to the kind of
peat. Low moor eutrophic peats which are saturated with water of a high mineral content, often
show values greater than 100 percent with calcium dominant. Oligotrophic high moor peat, of low
pH, appears to be saturated with hydrogen and base saturation values of less than 10 percent are
common (Tie and Lim 1976).
The percentage of organic carbon in peat is probably of most value to those interested in it as a
source of fuel. Its assessment is needed also for agricultural purposes, particularly for calculating
the C/N ratio of the material. The C/N ratio indicates the degree of humification of the peat and the
likelihood of nitrogen consumption by micro-organisms when the peats are fertilized on
reclamation.

50

Table 13 indicates that the organic carbon content of peat can vary from 12-60 percent. This large
range reflects the kind of organic materials, the stage of decomposition and probably also the
analytical method used. Most information from agricultural scientists is based on the Walkley Black
wet oxidation method, which is not a true measure of total organic carbon. Because of
inconsistencies in analytical procedures it is only possible to make some general observations on
reported carbon contents.
Ekono (1981) in their review of peat as a source of energy indicate organic carbon values of 48-50
percent in slightly decomposed (fibric) peat, 53-54 percent in moderately decomposed (mesic)
peat, and 58-60 percent in highly decomposed (sapric) peat. They conclude that although highly
decomposed peats have higher organic carbon values than less decomposed ones, the difference
on decomposition is never more than 10 percent.
Kanapathy (1976) in his research on peat soils in Malaysia found values ranging from 58 percent
in the surface soils to 25 percent in subsoils. Perhaps there is some admixture of mineral soil in the
lower layers but higher carbon content in the surface samples also reflects decomposition.
Studies by Tie and Lim (1976) in Sarawak show a range of 20-38 percent whereas values of
around 50 percent are given for Indonesia. Both studies, however, indicate a higher content of
organic carbon in the surface horizons of deep peat soils than in shallow ones. This may be
consistent with the fact that the uppermost layers of deep peat are usually ombrogenous and
oligotrophic in nature with a large component of ligneous woody materials whereas the shallow
peats are more mesotrophic in nature containing fewer such materials.
It is interesting to study the relation between loss on ignition and percentage of organic carbon.
Shallow peats always have a higher ratio of loss on ignition to percentage carbon content than
deep peats. In Sarawak (Tie and Lim 1976) the ratio is 4 for the shallow peat, to 2.5 in the deep
peat; values of around 2 appear to be most common.
In this connection it is interesting to note that Soil Taxonomy (Chapter 5) uses organic carbon
content to distinguish organic soils from mineral soils. In Soil Taxonomy 12 percent organic carbon
is taken to be equivalent to 20 percent organic matter. Thus a ratio of approximately 1.65 is used.
Evidence from oligotrophic tropical peats indicates that the use of a ratio of 2 or more probably
reflects the actual situation better.
4.3.6 Nitrogen
The nitrogen content of peat soils is of considerable importance to agriculture. Most of the nitrogen
is in the organic form but small quantities of nitrate are usually present in better drained soils in
which organic materials oxidize rapidly. The micro-Kjeldahl method is most commonly used to
determine nitrogen. As is the case with organic carbon the nitrogen content can also vary widely
showing a range of 0.3-4.0 percent (Table 13). According to Lucas (1982) peats developed from
reeds, sedges and trees are generally two to four times higher in nitrogen than those formed of
Sphagnum mosses and Eriophorum sedges which contain less than 1 percent even though the
original plant materials contain 1-5 percent. In the Everglades there is an opposite effect. Here,
saw-grass contains 1 percent nitrogen and its peat residues 3 percent. No doubt, the degree of
humification and relative accumulation of nitrogenous compounds, such as proteins, are important
factors in creating such differences. Ravikovitch (1948), in his study on the Huleh valley peats in
Israel, indicates that the nitrogen percentages of the peats are high, ranging from 1.53-2.87
percent, whereas the nitrogen content of the papyrus (the original vegetation) was only 0.56
percent. He did not find any nitrates or nitrites and attributes the absence of the former to the
anaerobic conditions.
51

Hammond (1971), in his study of the Maldive peats, found values of 2.3 percent in the surface.
These he considered moderate levels. Values decreased with depth to 1.5 percent in the lowest
layer. This gradual decrease in nitrogen content, with depth, appears to be a general characteristic
of all peats as this was also found to be the case in South East Asia. Kanapathy (1976) found values of
1.88 in the surface to less than 1.50 below 60 cm depth. It should be noted, however, that these figures are
expressed on a dry weight basis. Considering that the bulk densities of surface layers are commonly greater
than those of sub-surface layers because of the effect of decomposition, it is reasonable to assume that
when the nitrogen contents are expressed on a volume basis the conclusion may have to be reversed. In
this connection Driessen (1977) is worth quoting: A normal peat soil with bulk density of 0.1 g/cm
3
and a
nitrogen content of 2 percent contains only 2 000 kg N/ha in its upper 10 cm (assumed wood-free), whereas
a mineral surface horizon with only 0.5 percent N but a bulk density of 1 g/cm
3
contains 5 000 kg/ha. In this
light, values for nitrogen content of over 2 percent which are generally considered to be high should be
considered as low. Similar misinterpretations of analytical results are repeatedly made in the literature. The
problem of assessing the required nitrogen levels in peat soils for crop production and the changes in
nitrogen contents following reclamation is dealt with in detail in Chapter 8.
Nitrogen levels in surface layers of deep peats are generally higher than those in shallow soils. Tie
and Lim (1976) found values of between 0.50 percent and 2.05 percent in the topsoils of shallow
peat but values of 1.10-1.67 percent in those of deep ones. These findings are supported by work
carried out by Suhardjo and Widjaja-Adhi (1977) on similar peats in Indonesia, in which the surface
layers (30 cm thick) of deep peats appeared to have higher levels of nitrogen than those of shallow
peat (1.98 percent as opposed to 1.13 percent). Thus with increasing age, or development, the
nitrogen content of the peat seems to increase independently of the degree of decomposition. This
seems illogical as it is generally assumed that the most recent peat layers are poorest in nutrients
(oligotrophic surface layers as opposed to eutrophic sublayers). The differences cannot be
explained by attributing them to differences in bulk density. It is also inconsistent with the
observation that surface layers commonly have a higher proportion of ligneous materials
characterized by high C/N ratios and responsible for the higher levels of organic carbon noted
above (Section 4.3.5). Comments made by Hardon and Polak (1941) might offer some
explanation. They argue that the tropical ombrogenous oligotrophic peat already contains an initial
high content of lignin, but a low content of cellulose. Micro-biological activity characterized by
nitrification and cellulose destruction removes much of the original nitrogen, the remaining nitrogen
being largely present in the lignin, the proportion of which increases as the peat decomposes.
4.3.7 Phosphorus
Organic soils in virgin conditions usually have very low phosphorus contents. Table 13 indicates a
range of 0.0-0.5 percent on a dry weight basis but the average for oligotrophic peats, common in
the tropics, is less than 0.04 percent. Most phosphorus is present in the organic form and must be
mineralized first before it is available to the plant. A problem in comparative studies is that organic
phosphorus is not included in standard analyses. Available phosphorus values depend very much
on the extraction method used. The general problem of expressing analytical values on dry weight
instead of as volumes also once again makes it difficult to make valid general observations. Total
phosphorus levels in oligotrophic peats from Sarawak range from 400-1 000 ppm (0.004-0.01
percent). Similar peats in peninsular Malaysia reported by Kanapathy (1976) have values of 0.002-
0.006 percent whereas those in Indonesia are around 0.006 percent. Tie and Keuh (1979) quoting
work by Wall found clear indications that in coastal swamps phosphorus levels decrease both with
depth and with the thickness of the peat deposits. This may be related to the causes of similar
trends in nitrogen content.

52

3
)
The amount of free lime in peat soils is commonly negligible. Some eutrophic peats have free
calcium carbonate mainly derived from shells. In other peats small amounts of calcium carbonate
originating from marl or limestone, or from bicarbonate-saturated solutions are found. Lime-rich
peat soils are extremely rare in tropical countries, and they are only developed under exceptional
conditions. One such case is in the Maldives where peats have developed in the inner basins of
coral reefs. The lime content of such peats can be over 1 percent, which is less than the average
level of 2.0 percent found in eutrophic peats. The average level of calcium in oligotrophic peats
and thus of most tropical peats is less than 0.3 percent. The problems caused by excessive lime
rarely arises in tropical peats.
4.3.9 Sulphur
Some peat soils are well known for their high sulphur contents. Peats in tropical coastal lowlands,
for example those of the Orinoco delta of Venezuela, often contain considerable amounts of
sulphur often in the form of pyrite (FeS
2
). This mineral forms under anaerobic conditions during the
initial stage of peatswamp development in the presence of brackish or sea-water and becomes
lodged in the root channels of existing vegetation. Pyrite formation is also very common in papyrus
swamps in East Africa. High sulphur contents in peats are commonly associated with mineral soils,
the so-called potential acid sulphate soils, either underlying the peat or formed in mineral layers
within the peat. As well as the areas mentioned above, all coastal regions in the tropics with peat
soils are suspect. In the special case of the peat in the Huleh Valley, Israel (Ravikovitch 1948),
gypsum accumulated during the process of paludification. This has caused SO
3
levels of as much
as 7 percent in the organic materials. The presence of sulphur compounds in the organic materials
can lead to strong acidification of the peat after drainage and reclamation. This acidification is
caused by the oxidation of the materials upon exposure to air. If sufficient free calcium is present,
calcium sulphate (gypsum) forms and this neutralizes the acids. In most situations, however,
calcium is not present and the pH of the soil falls, in some circumstances to 2.0 or less inhibiting
the growth of most vegetation.
The presence or absence of sulphuric materials in organic soils is used to classify peats according
to the Soil Taxonomy (Chapter 5). This is useful in practice because high sulphur levels (generally
above 1 percent) indicate potential difficulties when the peats are reclaimed. This is discussed in
more detail in Chapter 7.
Organic materials are commonly deficient in micronutrients frequently causing crop failures after
reclamation. This is caused by the formation of organo-metallic compounds. The carboxyl and
phenolic groups found in decomposing peat are important functional groups for bonding metals.
The attraction order has been found to be Cu>Pb>Zn>Ni>Co>Mn>Ca>Ba. This is why copper is
deficient in most crops in newly reclaimed peat. The copper content in virgin organic soils ranges
from 2 to 20 ppm, values too low for satisfactory growth of most crops (Lucas 1982). There are few
analyses available for copper or trace elements in tropical peats. Tie and Lim (1976) report that
Sarawak peats contain only 1 ppm Cu and that Morgan-extractable copper is almost absent. Zinc,
iron and manganese were 14, 49 and 43 ppm respectively (0.1 N extractable), but 5, 35 and 50
ppm respectively in Morgans extract. The lack of standard analytical methods makes it difficult to
compare reported levels. The Peat Research Institute of Finland advocates the use of Morgans
extract, but Sarawak peats gave the best recovery of added copper with EDTA (1 percent)
followed by 0.1 N HCl.
53

Analysis for copper in virgin lowland peat from Indonesia by a neutron activation technique gave
values of 20, 11, 8 and 3.3 ppm respectively in layers at depths of 5-10, 10-20, 80-90 and 120-140
cm. Drained and cropped forest peat had much lower values of 2.5,1.3, 2.3 and 1.2 ppm
respectively for layers of comparable depth. It is significant that copper is highest in the upper
layers. This may be because copper is constantly recycled by successive generations of
vegetation and saved from leaching (Driessen and Sudewo 1977). The role of trace elements and
in particular that of copper in agricultural management is discussed in more detail in Chapter 8.
The biological activity of organic materials is related to the kinds and amounts of micro-organisms
present. Micro-organisms play a dominant role in the decomposition and mineralization of organic
matter and since these processes appear to contribute most to peat wastage following reclamation
and drainage, it is appropriate to pay some attention to them. The broader aspects of the process
of peat wastage and subsidence is described and discussed in detail in Chapter 7.
Waksman (1942) conveniently subdivides micro-organisms in peat soils info three groups:
i. Organisms present during the initial stage of decomposition of fresh organic deposits. Most of
these belong to the actinomycetes, fungi and bacteria largely responsible for rapid decomposition
of freshly accumulated materials at the surface. In particular they play a role in the degradation of
cellulose, hemicellulose and some of the proteins. As indicted in Chapter 3 the initial aerobic stage
in peat development is followed by an anaerobic stage characterized by the presence of different
micro-organisms.
ii. Organisms which develop and remain present in deeper peat for most of the time that the peat is
below the groundwater-table. These organisms like anaerobic conditions and obtain the oxygen
they require from the organic materials which they oxidize and decompose. They produce gasses
rich in hydrogen (such as methane) and sulphides. Most of the waste products are derived from
the decomposition of cellulose, proteins and other complex organic compounds.
iii. Organisms which become active when the peat is drained and so aerated. They are dominantly
fungi, aerobic bacteria and actinomycetes similar to those present in the initial stage which
decompose the remaining organic materials, the lignins, most resistent to degradation.
According to Volk (1973) 58-73 percent of the reported subsidence in the Everglades peats is the
result of microbial activity, and there is no reason to assume that this would be different in tropical
peats. In fact most workers agree that because of the higher temperatures in the tropics microbial
activity increases substantially. It is possible to assess quantitatively the number of bacteria
present in peat soils. Waksman and Stevens (1929) record counts in New J ersey for high lime
peats, sampled at depths of 30 and 120 cm, with 350 000 and 100 000 organisms per gram
respectively and 32 million to 1.6 million respectively at corresponding depths in peat in Florida.
Both these sets of figures show a decrease with depth. This is not always so as is indicated by
counts in low lime peats containing mostly acid resistant anaerobic bacteria. Such soils had 100
000 organisms per gram near the surface compared to 2 million at a depth of 240 cm. The quantity
of organisms, however, tends to decrease with increasing pH. Azotobacter (nitrogen fixing
bacteria) and nitrifying and cellulose decomposing bacteria were absent in these lime-poor
oligotrophic peats. However, azotobacter may be present at the higher pH values usually found in
eutrophic peats.

54

Tate (1980) shows that depth has a considerable effect on microbial activity. He studied carbon
metabolism on various compounds at depths of 0-10 and 60-70 cm. There were in general
considerable changes with oxidation of the substrates, but the changes in the contribution of each
substrate to total aerobic respiration were more moderate. It is interesting that, although a
measurable decline in aerobic oxidation was observed at the depths studied, considerable aerobic
respiration was still occurring between 60 and 70 cm depths. This supports the hypothesis that
aerobic microbial activity occurs to much greater depths in organic soils than in mineral soils,
probably as a result of greater diffusion of oxygen in the former. Interesting extrapolations can be
made from this data by comparing microbial activity at various soil depths and the effect of water-
table depth on subsidence rate. Subsidence rates appear to vary linearly with depth of the water-
table, but microbial activity declines between the soil surface and 60-70 cm depth. The subsidence
rates are almost the same however at each soil depth, although the microbial activity at 60-70 cm
is only 40 percent of that at the surface. Comparison of changes in bulk density with variation in
microbial activity resolves this discrepancy. Tate (1980) also shows that cropping of organic soils
influences the overall carbon oxidation rates. This is particularly so under grassland which
contributes fresh organic materials to the soils. Crops which are removed such as sugar cane did
not show such effects. In general, water-table control appears to be the optimum method to control
decomposition, and subsidence of organic soils.

4.5.1 Geomorphology
4.5.2 Hydrology

The hydrological and topographical characteristics of peatswamps are of particular importance to
those interested in water management aspects. The hydro-topography must be adequately known
before any attempted reclamation. This is necessary whatever the purpose of reclamation. The
properties discussed below are subdivided into two groups dealing with the geomorphological and
hydrological aspects respectively (Table 6).
4.5.1 Geomorphology
Topographic situation
The topographic situation characterizes the position of the peatswamp in relation to surrounding
landscape units. The following situations are found in the tropics.
a. Deltaic peatswamps
b. Coastal basin peatswamps.
c. Lagoonal peatswamps.
d. Small inland valley peatswamps.
e. Major valley peatswamps.
f. Meander bend peatswamps.
g. Isolated small bottomland peatswamps.
h. Atoll peatswamps.
This list does not cover every possible situation and the units can be subdivided or others added if
the need arises. In Chapter 5 examples of such geomorphological units with their horizontal and
vertical dimensions are given in Figures 12 to 17.
55

Description and definition of the geomorphological setting provides a useful background and gives
some indication of the properties of the organic materials likely to be found. Chapter 3 describes
the close relationships between the mode of formation and the characteristics of the organic
deposits. If in the preliminary stages of peatswamp investigations the type of swamp is
established, it is then easy to list the likely characteristics of that particular type of peatswamp that
need detailed investigation in subsequent stages.
Surface configuration
The size and form of the swamp, its areal extent and limits should be surveyed so the possibilities
and scale of reclamation can be considered in context. For many reasons it is not advisable to
reclaim and develop peatswamps piecemeal. Piecemeal reclamation invariably results in difficulties
with water management. A scheme can only be evaluated properly when the peatswamp is seen
as a whole. It is then possible to commence reclamations in the right order and in the right places.
The surface configuration needs to be known well and this requires mapping of the entire swamp
at an adequate scale. A scale of 1:50 000 is usually satisfactory for reconnaissance purposes, but
scales of 10 000 or larger are needed to plan properly.
Elevation of surface
Surface elevation in relation to established benchmarks gives important clues to drainage
possibilities. Many peatswamps in the tropics have a dome-shaped surface. The central parts of
many tropical swamps, for example the large mature coastal swamps of South East Asia, rise
many metres above the normal flood level of the nearby rivers. The highest part of the dome is in
some cases eccentric and close to the river. Detailed level surveys are thus essential for the
design of effective arterial drainage. Figure 6 gives cross-sections of Sarawak coastal
peatswamps. They show the domed and ombrogenous nature of the swamps. The Sungei Assan
section shows that small hillocks have been completely blanketed by peat. Little information is
available on the nature of valley peats. The oligotrophic and ombrogenous nature of most valley
peats in South East Asia can usually be easily assessed, but, where surrounded by hills it is not
always possible to appreciate their raised dome-shaped nature at first sight. Figure 7 illustrates
valley peat in Rwanda. Here the peat is partly covered by mineral, possibly colluvial, material and
has raised surfaces at its margins bordering the hills. There is no evidence of doming. Such
situations are also quite common in inland valley peats in Indonesia and Malaysia (Andriesse
1974).
Figure 6. Peat profiles in the Rajang delta and Baram river (source Anderson 1964)
Figure 7. Pedo-topographical cross-section of valley peat in Rwanda (source Grontmij 1978)
The microtopography of peat surfaces is often irregular and hummocky. In areas with grassy
vegetation, a type of gilgai topography as a result of tussock development is common. Run-off
after flooding often induces small-scale gullying in the soft organic materials. This effect can be
accentuated by reclamation efforts. In forest peat areas the aerial roots of many swamp trees form
stools which can be more than 50 cm higher than surrounding land surface which is frequently
flooded. Microtopography, whatever its origin, makes it difficult to level the land surface accurately
during the initial survey because constant adjustments are needed.

56

Elevation of the underl ying mineral soil
The underlying mineral materials can also have a very undulating surface (Figs. 6 and 7). In
reclamation this can interfere with artificial drainage. On drying out the peat surface subsides
irregularly because of the differences in the thickness of the deposits and the degree of
decomposition. This gives a changing surface configuration different to the original.
Knowledge of the elevation of underlying mineral materials is valuable when assessing the
maximum drainage depth. Because drained peat deposits will eventually disappear, the drainage
lay-out and depth has to be adjusted from time to time. It is essential to know at what stage gravity
drainage will fail and pumping will be required to keep groundwater at a satisfactory level. Figure 8
illustrates such a situation. In coastal areas the elevation of the peat surface and that of the
mineral subsoil and their relationship to the mean sea level are of particular interest. The risks of
salt- or brackish water incursion as a result of subsidence must be assessed. Where the surface of
the mineral subsoil is below the mean sea level, a situation which is quite common in some areas
because of the strong link between sea level changes and peat development (Chapter 3), the risk
of salt incursion are very great.
In the initial surveys of the peatswamps, levelling of the surface should therefore be backed up by a survey
of the peat depth so that two types of contour maps can be drawn, one showing the surface of the peat
before drainage and one predicting the situation when the peat has disappeared.
Figure 8. Possible stages in peat subsidence after drainage (source Andriesse 1972)
Fig. 9. Extent of surface peat deposits greater than 3 m thick at Negril in Jamaica (source Robinson
1980)
57

58

Figure 9 shows a lagoon in J amaica where peat has developed behind coastal coral-sand bars
cutting-off drainage to the sea. The irregular depth of the peat, which possibly reflects the surface
of an underlying limestone with karst features, is shown by the peat depth contours. From this
sketch map it is possible to visualize the irregular landscape surface with many local hollows which
would arise after the peat had disappeared.
4.5.2 Hydrology
Water sources and quality
The nature and quality of the water in peatswamps is relevant to its potential use in agriculture and
in other ways, for example, its quality as drinking water. The sources of the water should be
carefully investigated and its quality should be analysed by traditional methods.
Water from swamps containing large amounts of organic deposits are usually brown to black
stained and very clear. The typical coffee coloured characteristic of water from peatswamps has
given rise to many river names, for example, Rio Negro in Brazil, and the many rivers in Malaysia
and Indonesia with the name Sungei Merah (brown river) or Ayer Hitam (black water).
Investigations in Brazil show that such water contains organic substances which are alleged to
have an antibiotic action making the water sterile. Some rivers show few signs of micro-biological
activity and have no algae or fish. Drainage water from oligotrophic peats is very low in nutrients
and this by itself may be sufficient reason for the low biological activity. Drainage water from
eutrophic peats may have 50 ppm or more of basic cations (Ca, Mg, K and Na), but water from
oligotrophic peats generally contains less than 5 ppm.
Waters with high conductivity readings (<1 000 mmhos/cm or 640 ppm of salt) are most likely
contaminated from brackish sources. It is best not to use them for irrigation. Sprinkler irrigation is
common practice on drought-prone peat soils in climates with prolonged dry periods.
Some acid waters from peatlands carry excessive amounts of iron compounds which precipitate as
sludge when water of higher pH is met. The author has noted marked accumulations of such
materials in drains on the fringes of fresh water coastal swamps where they pass into brackish-
water Mangrove/Nipah swamps. These iron precipitates sometimes clog drainpipes completely.
Water from peatswamps can also introduce plant diseases and nematode infections if it comes
from stagnant streams or ponds. Water stagnation causes the accumulation of decomposition
products of the peat which when sufficiently concentrated is noxious to plants. Some peat water
may contain sulphates toxic to many plants because of the oxidation of pyrite in drained peats.
Peat water, particularly water from oligotrophic tropical peats is usually of low quality as drinking
water. It is deficient in most trace-elements particularly iodine.
Position of natural drainage channels
In many peatswamps it is difficult to trace the original drainage lines. In the rainy season, when
most of the peatswamps are partly inundated, it is often difficult to locate drainage channels. The
so-called floating peats are particularly difficult in this respect. There is a good example of these in
the Yala swamps bordering Lake Victoria, Kenya. Here, a layer of partly decomposed peat 10 to
20 cm thick and an underlying dense rootmat, float on the subsurface water in the wet season
(ILACO 1975). In such circumstances the peat surface collapses when deep drainage is
attempted.

59

Topographical surveys should therefore try to locate the main drainage lines, because they can be
used as outlets in drainage scheme design. Existing natural drainage lines usually indicate the
local presence of shallow peat because the better drainage has resulted in a higher decomposition
rate of the peat. In some instances it is possible to locate such drainage lines on air photographs if
they are sufficiently large scale, by using differences in vegetation as indicators. This method has
been used successfully in Sarawak.

60

5. CLASSIFICATION

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Historical
5.4 Conclusions

5.1 Introduction
The classification of peats and organic soils poses many problems. As indicated in Chapter 1, this
Bulletin is primarily directed at management aspects of organic soils related to agricultural use and
productivity. The management of peats, however, not only depends on the character of the peat
soil as a growing medium for plants, but also on the environment, particularly the topographical
situation and climate. Characterization and classification of organic soils without regard to the
physical environment in which they are found tends to over emphasize the agronomic aspects
rather than the required overall management. Hydrological aspects of management should receive
proper attention, so the classification of organic soils should cover both pedological and
topographic or geomorphological aspects.
5.2 Historical
The study of peatlands as a special form of wetlands has always been very much the domain of
naturalists, more specifically botanists and biologists. Peat science is an established flourishing
sector of the biological sciences, as is shown by the activities of the International Peat Society with
its many national branches. The proceedings of the four-yearly International Peat Congresses
record a wealth of information on the activities of national peat research institutes, other
organizations and individual research workers throughout the world. It is perhaps unfortunate,
however, that most of the papers do not deal with agronomic aspects and few deal with tropical
countries. Peat science is best developed in the USSR, Finland, Ireland, the two Germanys,
Canada and the USA. It is often, however, of a fundamental nature or oriented towards the use of
peat for fuel or other industrial purposes. The USA is probably an exception to this. Most papers on
the agricultural use of peat are found in soil science and agronomy journals. Most of our
knowledge of peat and peatlands comes from northern Europe and North America where large
peat bogs have been reclaimed for centuries.
Since inputs from several disciplines are required for management purposes, this Bulletin
discusses classification problems at some length. The main aspects of the various classification
systems are dealt with below.
An excellent review of peat classifications by Farnham (1968) was further expanded by Farnham
and Finney (1965). These papers with their recommendations for improvement have strongly
influenced the subsequent classification of Histosols in Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1975)
which is being further developed and expanded to serve as an international system.

61


5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.6 Classifications based on physical characteristics

5.3.1 Introduction
Existing classification systems are based on:
i. Topography and geomorphology.
ii. Surface vegetation.
iii. Chemical properties of the peat.
iv. Botanical origin of the peat.
v. Physical characteristics of the peat.
vi. Genetic processes within the peatswamp.
The following discussion is cross-referenced to Chapters 3 and 4.
Topographical classification systems deal primarily with aspects of landscape. The hydrological
conditions, the origin of the peatswamp, the nature of the accumulated material are all related to
topography, so topographical classifications are useful for indicating possible limitation on
reclamation and necessary management procedures.
A typical example of a topographical classification is that used in Ireland in which the distinction is
made between Blanket Bogs and Raised Bogs. Blanket Bogs are moderately deep accumulations
(average 2.6 m thick) on gentle to strong slopes. Raised Bogs are deep peats (average 9 m thick)
developed on flat central plains (Hammond 1981).
Weber (quoted by Farnham and Finney 1965) divided German bogs into three types based on
surface configuration, namely low moor, transitional moor and high moor. In this scheme low moor
occupies the low ground (bottom lands), whereas high moor is found at higher elevations, in very
similar fashion to the raised bogs of the Irish classification. High moor rises above the original
groundwater level, the present groundwater level being maintained by the peat itself. Low moor
starts to develop in the presence of groundwater and alluvial sediments rich in nutrients (Fig. 2)
forming primary peat. In the high moor stage the only source of nutrients is precipitation, the
surface being beyond the influence of flooding and secondary and tertiary peats are formed. There
is thus a strong link with the genetic origin of peatswamps and topography.
Classifications based on mode of occurrence use terms such as Marine and Freshwater Swamps,
Valley Peats and Upland Swamps. Anderson (1964) and Andriesse (1974) attempted to classify
tropical peats in Malaysia using topography. Andersons scheme takes into account the nature of
vegetation as the term Mixed Freshwater Swamp Forest indicates. Andriesse, however, advocates
a classification of peatswamps purely on their geomorphological setting (the physical
environment).
62

Peatlands or swamps can be classified according to the present vegetation cover, as is done in
Canada and northern Europe. For our purpose, such systems are of interest only if there is a
relation with management requirements and, particularly, reclamation problems. The costs of
clearing and accessibility of the land are affected by the vegetation. The vegetation cover is often a
key indicator of other, not immediately obvious, inherent characteristics of significance when
assessing potential agricultural use. In this way vegetation could serve a useful purpose as a
parameter in classification.
Several classification systems are based on chemical properties, not so much on the properties of
the peat material itself as on properties of the environment. The distinction into eutrophic (nutrient
rich), mesotrophic (moderately rich) and oligotrophic (nutrient poor) organic soils applies to both
the peat material and to the hydrological conditions. There is a strong link between chemical
classification systems and mode of origin and topographic situation. Eutrophic peat environments
are characterized by flooding with nutrient rich water, whereas oligotrophic peats are fed by
nutrient-poor water, mainly precipitation, so such peats must already have grown above the flood
level of nearby rivers.
Peats can be classified on their inherent chemical properties as well as their general chemical
environment. Such classifications are mainly based on the fractionation of organic chemical
compounds. Peats are classified in this way using the amounts of water-soluble substances; the
ether and alcohol soluble substances; the cellulose and hemicellulose content; the lignin and
lignin-derivatives and the nitrogenous constituents. Though these properties are used mainly to
assess the potential of the peat material for industrial use they can also be used to predict
decomposition rate which in turn often reflects fertility for agricultural purposes. They influence
exchange characteristics, leaching and fixation of fertilizers and in particular the availability of trace
elements.
The botanical origins of peat features highly in several classification systems. Frequent reference
is made in the literature to Sphagnum peat which is extensive in temperate and tundra regions. It
occurs also in the tropics at high altitudes, for example, in Rwanda/Burundi. Peats can be divided
into major vegetation types such as moss peat, sedge peat, heath, saw-grass peat, Cyperacea
peat and forest or woody peats. One of the problems of this type of classification is that peat
deposits are often characterized by vertical sequences or layers of peat of different vegetative
origin, each layer indicating a specific stage in the development of the deposit. In Sarawak, for
example, it is common to find remnants of original mangrove vegetation at the deepest level,
overlain by transitional brackish-water forest species, passing upwards into a freshwater swamp
vegetation near the surface (Anderson 1964). An understanding of the botanical composition of
peat is valuable because many of the other characteristics of peat are related to it. For example,
peats developed from reeds, sedges and various trees are generally two to four times richer in
nitrogen than those from Sphagnum mosses and Eriophorum sedges (Lucas 1982). Lignin content
is likewise often related to botanical origin. Woody peats generally contain low contents of
cellulose and hemicellulose and large amounts of lignin. Since cellulose and hemicellulose
decompose easily and lignin is the resistant fraction, the proportion of the latter increases as the
peat decomposes, particularly in woody peats. Reed and sedge peats do not decompose readily. It
is therefore essential to know the vegetative origin of the peat for management purposes. Its origin
has a bearing on decomposition rate, and thus on reclamation procedures. The wood content is
also significant when considering the economic feasibility of reclamation and potential use.
63

5.3.6 Classifications based on physi cal characteristics
Probably the first worker to classify peat on physical properties was Von Post who developed a
field method to indicate stages of decomposition. The Von Post scale (Table 16) recognizes 10
steps; little decomposed fibrous, light-coloured peat being defined as H1, whereas the well
decomposed, colloidal, dark-coloured material at the other end of the scale is indicated as H10.
Root fibres, wood residues and degree of moisture are also indicated. This scheme, although it is
still widely used, particularly in northern Europe, suffers from two shortcomings. First, it is
subjective in application, and second there are too many categories. However, modern
classification systems including Soil Taxonomy have adopted the principle of using decomposition
stages to characterize peat materials. In Soil Taxonomy the Von Post scale has been narrowed
down to three stages, namely the fibric, mesic and sapric types which are quantitatively defined by
analysis of fibre content and size to remove the subjective bias.
Other morphological criteria, including colour, amount of mineral matter, structure and thickness of
the deposits are used in modern systems to characterize peat soils. Schemes based on these
criteria are particularly valuable in the assessment of the agricultural value of peat.
Classifications using assumed genetic processes are based mainly on the climate under which
peat was formed and changes in the peat, including those as a result of a soil forming process,
after reclamation. In the Russian system genetic origin is used at a high categorical level. Terms
like Temperate Peats or Tropical Peats, however, are not very helpful in management practice, nor
do they indicate possible agricultural use. Changes caused by reclamation and soil forming
processes can be very rapid and short-lived, particularly in the tropics, so they are not useful as
classifying parameters.
5.4 Conclusions
The overview of classification systems in the sections above leads to some conclusions. There are
many classification systems, each geared to the objectives of the disciplines responsible for their
development. Many of these systems were set up in isolation, often nationally. This gives them a
local bias and an emphasis on known conditions. Some confusion is caused because a common
terminology is used by these classifications but with different connotations.

64

Table 16 THE VON POST SCALE OF HUMIFICATION (source Ekono 1981)
Symbol Description
H1 Completely undecomposed peat which, when squeezed, releases almost clear water. Plant
remains easily identifiable. No amorphous material present.

H2 Almost entirely undecomposed peat which, when squeezed, releases clear or yellowish water.
Plant remains still easily identifiable. No amorphous material present.

H3 Very slightly decomposed peat which, when squeezed, releases muddy brown water, but from
which no peat passes between the fingers. Plant remains still identifiable, and no amorphous
material present.

H4 Slightly decomposed peat which, when squeezed, releases very muddy dark water. No peat is
passed between the fingers but the plant remains are slightly pasty and have lost some of their
identifiable features.

H5 Moderately decomposed peat which, when squeezed, releases very muddy water with a very
small amount of amorphous granular peat escaping between the fingers. The structure of the
plant remains is quite indistinct although it is still possible to recognize certain features. The
residue is very pasty.

H6 Moderately highly decomposed peat with a very indistict plant structure. When squeezed, about
one-third of the peat escapes between the fingers. The residue is very pasty but shows the
plant structure more distinctly than before squeezing.

H7 Highly decomposed peat. Contains a lot of amorphous material with very faintly recognizable
plant structure. When squeezed, about one-half of the peat escapes between the fingers. The
water, if any is released, is very dark and almost pasty.

H8 Very highly decomposed peat with a large quantity of amorphous material and very indistinct
plant structure. When squeezed, about two-thirds of the peat escapes between the fingers. A
small quantity of pasty water may be released. The plant material remaining in the hand
consists of residues such as roots and fibres that resist decomposition.

H9 Practically fully decomposed peat in which there is hardly any recognizable plant structure.
When squeezed it is a fairly uniform paste.

H10 Completely decomposed peat with no discernible plant structure. When squeezed, all the wet
peat escapes between the fingers.

B1 Dry peat

B2 Low moisture content

B3 Moderate moisture content

B4 High moisture content

B5 Very high moisture content

65

Note: The moisture regime of each peat sample is estimated using the above scale of 1-5 and
symbol B (derived from Swedish blthet = wetness).
Farnham and Finney (1965) suggest that the most significant fault of many classification schemes
is their failure to provide taxa, especially in the lower categories that lend themselves to mapping.
There are many theoretical classification schemes which try to explain the origin of peat, but they
do not lend themselves to the presentation of recognized classification units on maps. This is
mainly because they lack the necessary information to recognize the taxa in the field by well-
defined characteristics. A more pragmatic approach was suggested and this has since led to the
development of a classification of organic soils, the essentials of which have been used by Soil
Taxonomy. Soil Taxonomy, however, is concerned only with the classification of organic materials
in a pedological sense so it does not solve the problem of classifying the environmental setting,
which is essential for management purposes.
The International Peat Society (IPS) established a working group for Peat and Peatland
Classification in 1973 with the aim of developing a framework for a universal classification of virgin
peat. The use of the word virgin suggests that the aim was not a classification which would be
useful to agronomists. They are mainly concerned with the management and characteristics of
peat which has been reclaimed and is no longer virgin. The IPS initiative led to the proposal of the
scheme in Figure 10 at the 6th IPS Congress in 1980 in which three properties are used: botanical
composition, degree of decomposition and the trophic status (nutrient richness) of the peat.
According to Kivinen (1980), the system outlined in Figure 10 could be applied to most types of
virgin peats in boreal and temperate regions and even those in the tropics. The framework,
however, is only a start and requires further refinement and subdivisions according to local
conditions and research requirements. The IPS proposal mainly deals with peat material rather
than peatlands. Schwerdtfeger (1980) tried to rectify this shortcoming and suggested a system
which would combine both the classification of peatlands or mires on the one hand, and the
classification of organic soils on the other. Such a combined system would serve our needs, but,
because of its complexity, an integrated system of this kind is difficult to develop on a global scale.

66

Figure 10 A proposed general classification scheme for peat

Source: Kivinen (1980)

67

It is not within the scope of this Bulletin to discuss existing classifications. Ideally, however, a
classification used as a tool for management should:
i. Adequately describe and characterize the organic materials and the landscape to be reclaimed.
ii. Supply sufficient information for producing resource management plans and allow the technical
pros and cons of reclamation to be weighed against each other, thus leading to balanced
decisions.
iii. Allow insight into the limitations on reclamation so that any difficulties in soil and water
management can be foreseen and adequately forestalled.
There is at present no ideal classification. The basic information essential to developing such a
system is lacking in most tropical and developing countries, where workers should therefore
endeavour to collate and process all relevant data on organic soils and their environments. To this
effect attention is drawn to the lists of essential data in Tables 5 and 6. In the meantime as
developments go ahead it is essential that ways are found to serve present needs.
Soil Taxonomy is one of several classification schemes of organic soils. It is the most
comprehensive and its applied principles of classification appear to suit our purpose best. The
legend to the Soil Map of the world (FAO/Unesco 1974) distinguishes only one Great Soil Group,
the Histosols, which is divided into three subgroups - Eutric Histosols (those with high fertility),
Dystric Histosols (those of low fertility) and the Gelic Histosols (those with permafrost). This
system, though useful for indicating the occurrence and distribution of large expanses of organic
soils on a regional basis, is not adequate for providing essential information for management. It is
therefore not further discussed and we concentrate here on the Soil Taxonomy system.

5.6.1 Introduction
5.6.2 Fibrists
5.6.3 Hemists
5.6.4 Saprists
5.6.5 Folists

5.6.1 Introduction
Organic soils are distinguished by Soil Taxonomy as the Order of Histosols (Gk. histos; tissue).
Soils are classified as Histosols, if either more than half of the upper 80 cm of soil is organic, or if
organic soil material of any thickness rests on rock or fragmental material having interstices filled
with organic materials. The second criterion has been set up to permit the inclusion in the Histosols
of shallow organic soils in uplands that have no water-table. These latter soils are outside the
scope of this Bulletin.
The general definition of Histosols requires adequate qualification of the terms organic and organic
materials.

68

Organic materials
These are defined as materials that, if saturated for long periods or are artificially drained, have 18
percent or more organic carbon if the mineral fraction contains more than 60 percent clay. If the
mineral fraction contains no clay, the minimum content of organic carbon is 12 percent. With clay
contents between zero and 60 percent soils should have proportional contents of organic carbon
between 12 and 18 percent (for example, 30 percent clay is related to 15 percent organic carbon).
Such soils are commonly termed mucks and peats. If never saturated with water for more than a
few days, organic carbon content should be over 20 percent.
Three basic kinds of organic soil materials are distinguished, namely the Fibric, Hemic and Sapric
materials, according to the degree of composition of the original plant material. In the definition of
these three types of materials fibre content is the main criterion and for this reason it is necessary
to firstly define fibres.
Fibres
These are fragments of plant tissue, excluding live roots, large enough to be retained on a 100-
mesh sieve (openings 0.15 mm in diameter). The tissues should have retained recognizable
cellular structure of the original plant. Sieving is done after dispersion with sodium
hexametaphosphate. Fragments which are larger than 2 cm in cross-section, or in their smallest
dimension, are called fibres only if they are decomposed enough to be crushed and shredded with
the fingers. This excludes pieces of wood larger than 2 cm, which are regarded as coarse
fragments comparable to gravel and stones in mineral soils.
The degree of decomposition of organic materials is indicated by the content of fibres. In highly
decomposed materials, fibres are almost absent. Slightly decomposed materials have more than
50 percent by volume, the remainder may be wood. Moderately decomposed materials have a
high fibre content but they break down easily by rubbing and crushing. For this reason the
percentage of fibres that do not break down when rubbed gives the most realistic field estimate of
the degree of decomposition. Bulk density, an important physical characteristic particularly for
management purposes, is more closely related to content of fibre after rubbing than in the
undisturbed condition. In the field, an estimate is made by rubbing a small volume of wet material
between thumb and fingers about ten times with firm pressure. The rubbed material is then
moulded into a ball, broken and examined with a hand lens of times ten magnification. Many soils
can be classified on fibre content solely by field examination but in marginal cases the test for
solubility in sodium pyrophosphate can be used. Here, after rubbing in the laboratory, the materials
are dispersed in sodium pyrophosphate and washed on a screen as described in Appendix 1.
Where the results of the solubility and rubbing tests conflict the former take precedence. Having
defined the term fibres it is possible to quantitatively describe the three forms of organic materials
whose characteristics are summarized in Table 17.

69

Table 17 CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIC MATERIALS ACCORDING TO THEIR DEGREE
OF DECOMPOSITION (source Soil Taxonomy)
Fibric Hemic Sapric
Wet bulk density <0.1 0.07-0.18 >0.2
Fibre content 2/3 vol. before rubbing
3/4 % vol. after rubbing
1/3-2/3 % vol. before
rubbing
<1/3 vol.
before rubbing
Saturated water content as
percent of oven-dry material
850->3 000 450->850 <450
Colour light yellowish brown
or reddish brown
dark greyish brown to
dark reddish brown
very dark grey
to black

Fibric (L. fibra; fibre)
These soil materials commonly have a bulk density of less than 0.1, an unrubbed fibre content
exceeding two-thirds of the volume, and a water content, when saturated, ranging from about 850
percent to over 3 000 percent of weight of oven-dry material. Their colours are commonly light
yellowish brown, dark brown or reddish brown. The colour of the sodium pyrophosphate extract on
white chromatographic paper has values and chromas of 7/1, 7/2, 8/1, 8/2 or 8/3 (Munsell
notations).
Hemic (Gk. hemi; half)
These soil materials are intermediate in degree of decomposition. Bulk density is commonly
between 0.07 and 0.18 and the fibre content is normally between one-third and two-thirds of the
volume before rubbing. Maximum water content when saturated ranges from about 450 to 850
percent.
Sapric (Gk. sapros; rotten)
These soil materials are the most highly decomposed. Bulk density is commonly 0.2 or more, and
the fibre content averages less than one-third of the volume before rubbing. Maximum water
content when saturated normally is less than 450 percent on the oven-dry basis. The colour of the
sodium pyrophosphate extract on chromatographic paper is below or to the right of a line drawn to
exclude blocks 5/1, 6/2 and 7/3 on the Munsell Colour Charts (Appendix 1).
Apart from the three materials in Table 17, Soil Taxonomy distinguishes other soil horizons
including limnic materials, which include both organic and inorganic materials. These were
deposited in water either by precipitation, through the action of aquatic organisms such as algae
and diatoms, or they are derived from underwater and floating aquatic plants. They include
coprogenous earth (sedimentary peat), and inorganic diatomaceous earth, and marl. Their
occurrence does not play a significant role in the classification of organic soils at high categorical
level and is therefore not further discussed. Most occur at the interface between true organic
deposits and mineral deposits.
Soil Taxonomy also recognizes humilluvic materials, which is illuvial humus accumulating in the
lower horizons of some acid organic soils where they have been drained and cultivated. The illuvial
humus has a younger
14
C age than the overlying organic soils. This material is of little importance
for our purpose and is not discussed further.

70

Boelter (1969) illustrates convincingly that many important physical characteristics of peats such as
water retention, water yield coefficient, and hydraulic conductivity are related to degree of
decomposition measured by means of fibre content and bulk density. The distinction into Fibric,
Hemic and Sapric materials has therefore been adopted as a very important criterion to subdivide
Histosols into the suborders of Fibrists, Hemists and Saprists. The problem over what depth or
thickness of layers peat of fibric, hemic or sapric nature are classified is addressed as follows.
In general and for practical reasons an arbitrary control section has been established for
classifying Histosols. It is either 130 cm or 160 cm thick, depending on the kind of material,
provided that no rock, or rock-like material, thick layer of water or frozen soil occurs within those
limits (the last criterion is of no relevance in tropical areas). In tropical situations a control section of
160 cm thickness is normally used. Layers of water may be thin or thick, ranging from a few
centimetres to many metres. Water is taken as the base of the control section only if the water
extends below a depth of 130 cm or 160 cm, depending on the kind of material above it. Such
considerations are important for classifying floating organic materials. For more detailed
information the reader is referred to the full text of the Soil Taxonomy. The control section is
divided somewhat arbitrarily into three tiers, the surface, Subsurface and bottom tiers.
i. The surface tier is the upper 60 cm if the material has a bulk density of less than 0.1, otherwise
the surface tier is the top 30 cm, exclusive of surface litter or living mosses. If the surface is
covered by mineral soil because of addition by men or natural causes such as flooding or volcanic
eruptions the material is considered part of the surface tier, even if it is more than 30 cm thick and
the depth is measured from the top of the mineral layer.
ii. The subsurface tier is 60 cm thick, unless the control section ends in rock, or water is found
within this depth. In either of these situations the subsurface tier extends from the base of the
surface tier to the base of the control section. It includes any unconsolidated mineral layers that
may be present within those depths.
iii. The bottom tier is 40 cm thick unless the control section stops within the maximum span (160
cm), because of the presence of rock or water.
For our purposes it is relevant also to characterize the nature of the soils below a depth of 160 cm,
particularly if organic materials extend beyond this depth. Wastage initiated by drainage will
eventually bring deeper layers within the control section. It should be remembered that Soil
Taxonomy aims primarily at classifying the agronomic aspects and the current situation. We,
however, are also interested in the feasibility of sustained drainage and the conditions which
develop after reclamation. This requires knowledge of the nature of the peat layers at depth.
The order of Histosols can now be properly characterized. As indicated the general rule is that,
unless the surface tier has a bulk density of less than 0.1, a soil is classified as a Histosol if half or
more of the upper 80 cm is organic, and that it is classed as a Histosol without regard to thickness
of organic material if this rests on rock. If the bulk density is very low, less than 0.1, three-quarters
or more of the upper 80 cm must be organic. Figure 11 outlines schematically the classification of
Histosols down to the subgroup level. It includes only the subgroups found in the tropics.
5.6.2 Fibrists
These materials mainly consist of weakly decomposed plant remains which are not destroyed by
rubbing. Their botanical origin can be readily recognized and they consist either of partly
decomposed wood or of remains of mosses, grasses, sedges and papyrus, or mixtures of both. In
older American classifications they were called Bog Soils. Fibrists tend to have the lowest bulk
density (less than 0.1) and lowest ash content of all the Histosols, though there are some
exceptions, for example those found near volcanoes which have received falls of ash.
71

Not all Fibrists occur in the tropics. Those relevant to this study are Histosols that have been
saturated with water for 6 months or more of the year or are artificially drained. Fibric soil materials
are (i) dominant
1
in the organic part of the control section if there is a mineral layer (or layers) 40
cm or more thick whose upper boundary is in the subsurface or (ii) dominant in the subsurface tier
if there is no continuous mineral layer 40 cm or more thick whose upper boundary is in that tier.
They do not have a sulphuric horizon whose upper boundary is within 50 cm of the surface and do
not have sulphidic materials within 1 m of the surface (see for definitions under Hemists). Only the
Great Groups Tropofibrists and Medifibrists are found in the tropics.
1
Dominant; in this context, means the most abundant. If only two kinds of organic materials are
present, the fibric materials occupy half or more of the volume. If there are both hemic and sapric
materials as well as fibric, the fibric materials may occupy less than half of the volume but occupy a
greater volume than either the hemic or sapric materials.
Tropofibrists
These are Fibrists with an isomesic or warmer iso-temperature regime. They have a mean annual
soil temperature of 8C or higher and have greater than 5C difference between the mean summer
and mean winter soil temperatures at a depth of 30 cm. They occur in coastal mangrove swamps
and other coastal swamps and in closed depressions of intertropical areas. If drained and
cultivated, subsidence due to decomposition is rapid. If a sulphuric horizon occurs within 50 cm
from the surface or sulphidic materials are found within 1 m depth the soils are excluded from the
Tropofibrists, even though the organic materials may be dominantly fibric. They are excluded
because the actual or potential acidity (acid sulphate conditions) is considered the most important
property and Histosols with such materials at such depths are grouped in the suborder of Hemists.
The central concept of the Typic subgroup of Tropofibrists is soil with thick, continuous, fibric
organic materials. Thin layers of mineral material may restrict the movement of water drastically
and where such layers occur the soils are regarded as intergrades to Fluvaquents. Soils with thick
mineral layers (between 5 and 30 cm thick) within organic materials or with more than one thin
layer of mineral material in the control section below the surface tier are also excluded from the
Typic Tropofibrists and are placed in the Fluvaquentic subgroup. If mineral layers more than 30 cm
thick occur with their upper boundary in the control section below the surface tier, the soils are
placed in the Terric subgroup. The other subgroups of the Tropofibrists recognized are the Hemic,
Hemic Terric, Hydric, Limnic, Lithic, Sapric and Sapric Terric subgroups. Their recognition is based
on presence of hemic, and limnic materials and water within the control section.
Medifibrists
These are the Fibrists of mid-latitudes. Their temperature regime is mesic, thermic or hyperthermic.
They have a mean annual soil temperature that is 8C or higher and mean summer and mean
winter temperatures at a depth of 30 cm that differ by 5C or more. Their moisture regime is aquic
1

unless the soils have been drained. If these soils are drained and cultivated under the present
technology the organic materials will decompose and disappear either slowly or rapidly, depending
on management and the temperature. Eventually, within some decades Medifibrists, if drained and
cultivated will be replaced by mineral soils.
1
Aquic moisture regime. The aquic (L. aqua; water) moisture regime is a reducing regime that is
virtually free of dissolved oxygen because the soil is saturated by groundwater or by water of the
capillary fringe. Some soil horizons, at times, are saturated with water while dissolved oxygen is
present, either because the water is moving or because the environment is unfavourable for micro-
organisms, for example, if the temperature is less than 1C such a regime is not considered aquic.
For differentiation in the highest categories of soils that have an aquic regime, the whole soil must
be saturated.
72

The central concept of the Typic Medifibrists is a soil that has thick, continuous fibric materials and
little or no impedence to movement of water. Other subgroups of the Medifibrists are recognized
using the same criteria as used for the Tropofibrists (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11. Outline of the classification of Organic Soils (Histosols). Source Soil Taxonomy
(Soil Survey Staff 1975)
Notes
*) equivalent of 20% organic matter

**) equivalent of 30% organic matter

***) TROPO - mean annual soil temp. (at 30 cm) of 8 degr. C. or more, less than 5 degr. C.
difference between mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures

MEDI - mean annual soil temp. (at 30 cm) of greater than 8 degr. C., difference between
mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures more than 5 degr. C.

****) All organic soils with sulfidic horizon within 50 cm surface in HEMISTS
All organic soils with sulfuric materials within 1 m from surface in HEMISTS
5.6.3 Hemists
These are primarily Histosols in which the organic materials have been decomposed enough that
the botanical origin of as much as two-thirds of them cannot be readily determined or the fibres can
be largely destroyed by rubbing between the fingers. The bulk density is usually between 0.1 and
0.2 g/cm
3
. The hemists have an aquic or peraquic
1
moisture regime, that is, groundwater is at or
very close to the surface nearly all the time unless artificial drainage has been provided. The level
of the groundwater may fluctuate but seldom drops more than a few centimetres below the surface
tier. Histosols that have a sulphuric horizon or sulphidic materials are included with the Hemists
without regard to the stage of decomposition of the organic materials. Hemists were called Bog
soils in an older American classification system.
1
Very commonly, the level of groundwater fluctuates with the seasons. The level is highest in the
rainy season, or in the autumn, winter or spring if cold weather virtually stops evapotranspiration.
There are soils, however, in which the groundwater is always at or very close to surface. Examples
are tidal marshes and closed, landlocked depressions fed by perennial streams. The moisture
regime in these soils is called peraquic. Although the term is not used as a formative element for
names of taxa, it is used in their descriptions as an aid to understanding their genesis.
The Hemists within the tropics are Histosols saturated with water for 6 months or more of the year
or they are artificially drained, and have one or more of the following features:
i. Dominantly hemic soil materials in the organic part of the control section if a mineral layer (or
layers) 40 cm or more thick has an upper boundary in the subsurface tier.
ii. They have hemic soil materials dominant in the subsurface tier if there is no continuous mineral
layer 40 cm or more thick that has its upper boundary in that tier.
iii. They have a sulphuric horizon with its upper boundary within 50 cm of the surface or sulphidic
materials within 1 m of the surface.

73

Sulphuric horizons and sulfidic materials are defined as follows:
i. Sulphuric horizons are composed either of mineral or organic soil material that has both a pH
less than 3.5 (1:1 in water) and jarosite mottles (the colour of fresh straw that has a hue of 2.5Y or
yellower and chroma of 6 or more). They form as a result of artificial drainage and oxidation of
sulphide-rich minerals or organic materials. Such horizons are highly toxic to plants and virtually
free of living roots.
ii. Sulphidic materials are waterlogged mineral or organic soil materials that contain 0.75 percent or
more sulphur (dry weight), mostly in the form of sulphides and that have less than three times as
much carbonate (CaCO
3
equivalent) as sulphur. Sulphidic materials accumulate in a soil that is
permanently saturated, generally with brackish water. The sulphates in the water are biologically
reduced to sulphides as the soil materials accumulate. Sulphidic materials are most common in
coastal marshes near the mouths of rivers that carry non-calcareous sediments, but they may
occur in fresh-water marshes if there is sulphur in the water. If the soil is drained, the sulphides
oxidize and form sulphuric acid. The pH, which normally is near neutrality before drainage, may
drop below 2. The acid reacts with the soil to form iron and aluminium sulphates. The iron
sulphate, jarosite, segregates and forms the bright yellow mottles that characterize a sulphuric
horizon. The transition from sulphidic materials to a sulphuric horizon normally requires a very few
years. A sample of sulphidic materials, if air dried slowly in shade for about 2 months with
occasional remoistening, becomes extremely acid. For quick identification in the field, a sample
can be oxidized by boiling in concentrated H
2
O
2
and measuring the drop in pH.
The suborder has seven groups of which only four are important in the tropics, the Tropohemists,
the Medihemists, the Sulfohemists and Sulfihemists.
Tropohemists
Hemists of intertropical regions. They may occur in coastal swamps or in closed depressions. They
have an isomesic or warmer temperature regime. The mean annual soil temperature is 8C or
higher and there is a difference of less than 5C between the mean summer and mean winter soil
temperatures at a depth of 30 cm. Soils with sulphidic materials or a sulphuric horizon are
excluded and are placed in the other great groups (Sulfo- and Sulfihemists).
The division of the Tropohemists into subgroups is based on similar criteria to those indicated for
the Tropofibrists. - The hemic subgroups of the Tropofibrists are, however, replaced by fibric
subgroups (Fig. 11).
Medihemists
Hemists of the mid-latitudes with temperature regimes characterized by a mean annual soil
temperature of 8C or higher and mean summer and mean winter soil temperature at 30 cm depth
which differ by 5C or more. Their moisture regimes are aquic unless the soils have been artificially
drained. Their organic materials are derived from woody or herbaceous plants or mixtures of the
two. If drained and cultivated the organic materials decompose and disappear to be replaced by
the underlying mineral soils after some decades. Soils with a sulphuric horizon or a sulphidic
horizon are excluded from this great group which is subdivided in similar fashion to the Medifibrists
(Fig. 11).

74

Sulfihemists
These are known as potentially acid sulphate soils (cat clays) that are dominantly organic. They
have sulphidic materials within 1 m depth and have not been drained. They can have any fibre
content, decomposition stage being overruled by the potential acid sulphate conditions. They are
mainly found in coastal swamps, near the mouths of rivers or in deltas of rivers that carry
sediments with a low content of carbonates. As yet the only subgroup recognized is the Typic
Sulfihemists which are those acid sulphate soils which are dominantly organic. They have a
sulphuric horizon developed as a consequence of draining sulphidic materials originally present in
the organic deposits. They are extremely acid and toxic to most plants, colours are mostly nearly
black and have straw coloured mottles of iron sulphate (jarosite) within 50 cm depth. They occur in
similar topographic situations to the Sulfihemists, but are drained, either artificially or naturally if
they occupy old coastal plains. They have a wide range of fibre content and most of them have an
appreciable amount of mineral material within the control section. The presence of a sulphuric
horizon is their key feature. Sulfohemists are rare and all so far identified have been classed as
Typic Sulfohemists, no other subgroups have yet been recognized.
5.6.4 Saprists
This suborder is characterized by almost completely decomposed plant remains, the botanical
origin of which cannot be observed directly. The soils are usually black in colour and tend to have
a bulk density of over 0.2 g/cm
3
. The groundwater-table tends to fluctuate within the soil. Aerobic
decomposition of original materials is advanced. The Saprists were classified as Bog soils in the
previous American classification.
Saprists are Histosols that are either saturated with water for 6 months or more of the year, or have
artificial drainage and satisfy the following:
i. Sapric materials dominant in the organic part of the control section if mineral layer(s) 40 cm or
more thick have an upper boundary in the subsurface tier.
ii. Or have sapric materials dominant in the subsurface tier if no continuous mineral layer 40 cm or
more thick has its upper boundary in that tier.
iii. Have no sulphuric horizon with its upper boundary within the upper 50 cm or sulphidic materials
within 1 m depth.
The great groups relevant to our study are the Troposaprists and the Medisaprists. The basic
difference between these is mainly temperature regime as already outlined for the Fibrists and the
Hemists. Their mode of occurrence is very similar and their division into subgroups is based on
similar criteria to those used for the Tropofibrists, Medifibrists and Hemists to which the reader is
referred.
Soil Taxonomy repeatedly indicates that the Hemists and Saprists eventually disappear when
drained. This also happens to Fibrists, through the same processes of oxidation and subsidence,
but decomposition is not as advanced as in the Hemists and Saprists. Because of temperature
differences between Medi and Tropo great groups the latter tend to disappear fastest.

75

5.6.5 Folists
The suborder of Folists are the more or less freely drained Histosols that consist of organic
horizons generally indicated as litter, over rock or rock debris. In the earlier American classification
they were classified as Lithosols. They are not further discussed here.
The above outline of the classification of Histosols aims to stimulate use of the system in
developing countries. It is by no means complete, however, so there is a need to expand upon it.
The lower categories need particular attention for use in tropical countries. Detailed information on
chemical characteristics, on the nature of the mineral part of the organic materials, for example
texture, must be used for a further subdivision. Lucas (1982) mentions the use of parameters such
as texture of mineral subsoil, presence of iron, kind of limnic material, depth of peat, soil reaction
(pH) and soil temperature class for a separation at family level. In the USA, however, they use
properties such as pH, temperature class, depth and the mineral soil texture within and/or below
the organic soil layer at series level. It should be emphasized that, by definition, the Histosols are
allowed to contain a considerable amount of mineral matter and for practical management
purposes it is important to realize the difference between a soil with no mineral material and a soil
with say 40 percent mineral matter. At a high level of classification such differences are not
immediately obvious. Loss on ignition is therefore regarded as a key parameter which is easily
analysed and which should be used as an important diagnostic feature in any system set up
locally. Knowledge of both the depth and nature of peat beyond the 1.6 m control section and of
the underlying material is essential to enable predictions of the behaviour of peat soils upon
drainage and to estimate the lifespan of this wasting resource. Local systems should be geared to
management requirements, including water control, so they should modify and supplement Soil
Taxonomy.
There is as yet no classification that adequately characterizes the physical environment of organic
soils as an aid to the development of appropriate management procedures and methods of water
control.
Moore and Bellamy (1974) devised a method using the concept of templates to describe and
characterize wetlands or mires using the climate and geomorphological setting. They mainly dealt
with temperate peats and environments unlike those found in the tropics. Although the
methodology appears suited to our purpose, it needs to be adapted to tropical conditions. Based
on experience in many tropical countries, mainly in South East Asia, we try here to show how such
a system could be developed specifically for tropical conditions and for management planning.
The following examples illustrate how a physiographic approach can bring some order to the many
tropical ecosystems in which peats develop. They also give detailed insight into drainage needs
because hydrological conditions can often be deduced from the physiographical setting. It is
suggested that on a regional or national basis others can attempt to classify existing ecosystems
using this approach. Figures 12 to 17 are examples in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the
Philippines and Brazil.

76

Figure 12. Deltaic dome-shaped peatswamps
Figure 13. Coastal dome-shaped basin peatswamps

Figure 14. Lagoonal peatswamps
77

Figure 15. Small inland valley peatswamps merging into basin swamps (coastal position)
78

Figure 16. Isolated peatswamps in major valleys
79

Figure 17. Atoll peat deposits (partly saline)
80

The physiography is presented by plans and cross-sections giving a three dimensional impression
of the geomorphological units. Detailed information can be added when available. Diagrams of this
kind are of considerable aid to planners not acquainted with the field situation. They enable them
to visualize the reclamation problems involved.
Finally, it is emphasized that basic investigations into peat deposits, their characterization and
classification must be a concerted effort of the several technical and agricultural disciplines
involved in both reclamation and subsequent use of the land. Without proper co-ordination and
comprehension of the specific requirements of each discipline, work will be done in professional
isolation. This frequently leads to failure and frustration.

81

6. AGRICULTURAL POTENTIAL

6.1 Introduction

6.1 Introduction
Any assessment of potential agricultural use should first focus on several basic issues. Agriculture
as considered here encompasses arable use (the growing of the widest possible range of annual
crops), horticulture (perennial crops in general, and fruit trees in particular), pastural use (grassland
and fodder crops) and silviculture (commercial growing of trees).
An assessment of land use potential should take into account both the characteristics of the peat
as a growing medium and the character of the peatswamps as a whole. In peat soils the
improvement of drainage is usually the first step toward the creation of good growing conditions for
crops. Artificial drainage, however, has several undesirable side-effects of which subsidence of the
land surface is but one. These changes affect the physical and economical feasibility of peat
reclamation on a sustained basis, and they therefore must be given prime attention in potential use
assessment. It is thus necessary to distinguish between use potential for the years immediately
after reclamation and the potential under conditions that develop eventually.
A proper evaluation of the suitability of peats for a particular crop under fixed conditions first
requires judgement on which characteristics of the peat and the peatswamps should be taken into
account. The nature and range of any limitations for a certain use can then be assessed. Because
of the dramatic changes that take place with peat wastage it is sensible to evaluate the potential
use of the mineral soil beneath the organic materials taking into account the predicted
environmental conditions after wastage. These can be markedly different from the original ones.
This chapter deals largely with the process and methodology of evaluating peat soils and
peatswamps and their suitability for various uses. Because of the complexity of the technical
problems involved in reclamation and related management we have tried to divorce these aspects
from the issues directly related to the evaluation of potential use. Technical problems of
reclamation is dealt with separately in Chapter 7 and agricultural management is covered in
Chapter 8.
There are diverse opinions on the suitability of peat soils for general agricultural use Coulter (1957)
at one extreme, suggested that peat in peninsular Malaysia should be disposed of as rapidly as
possible by removal, burning or deep drainage with the ultimate aim of using the underlying
mineral subsoil for growing wet rice. This view is still heard in some quarters. Preservationists
favour keeping most peatswamps in their natural state as nature reserves, because they are
unique ecosystems with a specialized but threatened flora and fauna. Andriesse (1974) describing
the tropical peats of South East Asia expresses the moderate compromise view that agriculture
should only be allowed in areas which can be permanently drained at reasonable cost without
endangering the environment. Other, generally deep peat areas are best left in their natural state
for the possible development of silviculture.

82

The reclamation of peatswamps has always been a matter of some controversy. In the past
agricultural development has avoided them for various reasons, usually disease risk, particularly
malaria which kept the population from settling near the swamps. In the past, the main reason for
draining peatswamps was probably to improve communications rather than to increase agricultural
productivity. As a result of initial drainage, the land surface subsided and drainage conditions
deteriorated. The environment became less healthy for the local populace necessitating rigorous
reclamation. The history of the reclamation of the Pontion swamps, now the Agro Pontino in Italy
follows this pattern. Development, which started in 312 B.C. with the construction of the Via Appia,
was not completed until early this century when it finally became arable land and fit for permanent
settlement. Another reason for draining swamps was turf cutting and use of peat as a source of
energy. This took place in Europe starting in the Middle Ages becoming an important means of
heating in towns until it was replaced by coal and oil during the 19th and 20th centuries. Peat is still
used today in many countries but mainly for fuelling electricity power plants. Because of its relative
importance as an alternative energy source in some developing countries the use of peat materials
for energy is dealt with specially in Chapter 9.
The agricultural use of tropical peat is commonly viewed with great scepticism. Pons and Driessen
(1975) summarize the findings and opinions of most research workers in South East Asia. They
express the view that the poor chemical and physical properties of oligotrophic lowland peat soils
in South East Asia indicate a very low suitability for any agricultural use. Traditional reclamation
disturbs the existing equilibrium which leads to rapid chemical exhaustion of the soil and to
strongly increased compaction and decomposition of the peat. The deep, oligotrophic lowland
peats produce most biomass if left under forest vegetation, and if managed carefully, exploitation
of the forests is possible; a view endorsed by Andriesse (1974). They a brogue that modern
agriculture is only possible with uneconomical capital inputs. In many countries, however, peat
soils are more highly rated than mineral soil as a medium for intensive cropping. This is particularly
so for vegetable growing (Cassidy 1968).
Stephens (1969), reviewing the drainage problems of peats in Florida, explains the apparent
contradiction of very low suitability on the one hand versus high suitability on the other as follows:
this peat, when drained, properly fertilized, and augmented by minor elements, breaks down into
an excellent soil. Today, these soils, together with the mucks, make up one of the richest
agricultural regions on earth. This indicates that after various conditions have been met peat can
become an excellent medium for plant growth. The difficulties arise in the realization of the
conditions required. Improvement of drainage appears feasible at first sight, but once oxidation and
subsidence have started, keeping drainage at satisfactory levels to match the rate of subsidence
can become a technical and financial nightmare. For this reason many peat researchers take the
view that before starting to drain, think twice.
Nevertheless, in many countries peatswamps form a substantial land resource to which politicians
and development planners alike are attracted because of several positive aspects, for example;
the location, often along major rivers or in deltas; the flat nature of the land, presenting no erosion
hazard; the feasibility of irrigation; and the low population density. Pressure is greatest where
population growth leads to demands to open up new agricultural land. In such areas interest is
often directed to the vast tracts of swampy lands, hitherto untouched. If they are near large
population centres offering a ready market for vegetables and fruit, the reclamation of peaty
swamps is a lucrative alternative to hauling truck crops from remote areas. These latter areas may
have better and more sustained conditions for the growing of the crops, but they are economically
less attractive. When assessing agricultural suitability the sustainable economic feasibility should
be taken fully into account.
83

Land evaluations based on economic considerations are by nature short-lived because the
conditions influencing commodity prices and the farmers costs can change rapidly. The latter can
be to some degree unpredictable if sustained reclamation costs have to be covered by farmers.
There are, however, conditions which would make the agricultural use and reclamation of
peatswamps unavoidable and sometimes even desirable. Full understanding of the limitations can
help to limit unrealistic expectations. In this way failure can possibly be avoided. The following
sections outline procedures for assessing the agricultural potential of peats.

6.3.1 Introduction

6.3.1 Introduction
A proper initial survey is the only sound base from which the future use of a peatswamp can be
evaluated. Data supplied by such a survey should give indications on the immediate limitations for
the proposed agricultural use. These can then be checked against crop requirements. Any
proposals for improvement should be the considered outcome of such a matching procedure.
Thereafter, the socio-economic consequences and feasibility of the intended use, with or without
improvements, can be properly assessed. This procedure is more or less the same as outlined in
an FAO Bulletin (FAO 1983). Both parallel and two-stage approaches can be used. In the first the
initial survey covers simultaneously the physical conditions of peat and peatswamp and relevant
socio-economic factors. In the second approach the physical landscape features are studied
initially followed by socio-economic studies in a subsequent phase. The first approach has the
advantage of integration of effort and gives feedback from an interchange of information between
the various disciplines involved. It is, however, costly and difficult to organize, so in many cases it
is probably more efficient to evaluate the physical situation first and thereafter consider the various
technical alternatives which can then be evaluated in their socio-economic context. The suggestion
is made that an initial rapid appraisal is made before deciding to proceed with more detailed
studies.
A clear distinction must be made between the agricultural value of the organic materials, and the
suitability or potential of the peatswamp for agricultural development. Severe wetness is commonly
the first serious limitation to cropping in swampland, and drainage is a prerequisite for most
agricultural developments. Appraisal of the potential for the provision of adequate drainage is a
priority. In this connection the term Reclamation Potential is introduced to parallel the term
Agricultural Potential which is used in the restricted sense of the agricultural suitability of the peat
materials only. The initial survey should, as far as possible, assess both potentials. The following
survey procedures are suggested.
Organization
The area to be studied should firstly be reconnoitered using a scale between 1:50 000 and 1:100
000 depending on its size. Figure 18 illustrates how such a quick survey can be accomplished
along transects. The position of the transects depends on the configuration and type of the
peatswamps. Satellite images or air-photographs, if available, give important clues to
configuration, vegetation and risk of flooding. The extent of the latter may vary with the season.
84

Surveying is helped by easy access so the best season should be chosen for swamp
investigations. The end of the driest season is usually the best time. It is always worth checking the
extent of flooding of the peat at the rainy season when the highest local floods are expected. If it is
not possible to visit the area at this time indicators or signs of flooding should be used later.
Vegetation can be a great help, by the distinct marks left on trees (Plate 2) indicating the highest
water levels during the wet season. These often remain clearly visible during the following dry
season. If air-photographs are not available contoured maps are needed to supply the basic
topographic information for the survey.

85

Plate 2. Flood levels from the wet season remain visible on the tree trunks during the dry
season, South Irian Barat (Indonesia)
Figure 18. Location of observation lines in initial field surveys of peatswamps

Survey parameters

86

The initial survey should concentrate on the following aspects:
Nature of peat
a. Fibric, mesic or sapric (decomposition stage).
b. Woody or non-woody.
c. Mineral soil component (quantity, layered, non-layered or dispersed).
Depth of peat
This is best recorded using locally decided depth classes. These, for example, could be 0-50 cm
(very shallow), 50-100 cm (shallow), 100-150 cm (moderately deep), 150-200 cm (deep), >200 cm
(very deep). Initial subsidence after reclamation might be as much as 50 cm, leaving in the case of
shallow peat only a few centimetres of peat after initial drainage. The quantity of the mineral
component also influences the thickness of the peat soil after subsidence.
Nature of underlying materials
Texture (clays, loams or sands) and character (fertile, infertile, marine with shells).
Presence of sulphidic materials
a. In the organic deposits.
b. In the underlying mineral soil (potential acid sulphate conditions).
Salinity of groundwater
Levels of conductivity measured with a normal electric conductivity meter.
Depth of groundwater
Date of measurement should be carefully noted, because of seasonal fluctuation.
Sampling
Samples of the organic and mineral materials should be taken at various selected depths and at
various distances from the main drainage channels or the coast. They should be taken at field
moisture content in air-tight containers or plastic bags for subsequent laboratory analysis.
The range of possible analyses is large (Table 5) but for an initial appraisal of fertility the following
should suffice:
- loss on ignition,
- pH,
- texture (organic and mineral component),
- test on presence of pyrite (drying/wetting method on field moist samples or chemical methods
such as total oxidizable sulphur),
- nitrogen content percent,
- carbon content percent,
- bulk density (field condition, undisturbed),
- cation exchange capacity (CEC),
87

- exchangeable cations Ca, Mg, K, Na, H and Al,
- available phosphorus.
Topographic information
The topographic data to be collected along the transects in the initial survey are as follows:
Levels of surface configuration
These should be related to a benchmark. They can then be correlated with known flood and mean
water levels in the main drainage channels, and in some circumstances with mean sea level.
Data on hydraulic conductivity
Vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivities are useful determinations but they are not often
readily available. Crude information can be obtained relatively easily by installing a drain and
measuring the water-table depth at increasing distances (piezometer method).
Subsidence
Where possible any information should be obtained from local inhabitants on the rate of
subsidence after the installation of drains, however rudimentary.
Flooding and inundations
Settlers near the swamps are often a good source of information on incidence, size and
persistence of flooding.
Agricultural suitability rating
The results of the initial survey can be used to evaluate the potential suitability of the land for
various agricultural uses. In this process it is first necessary to rate the various soil characteristics
or limitations recognized in the district. Favourable and unfavourable characteristics and qualities
are evaluated by either a scoring or point system (the quantitative approach) or by the use of
descriptive terms such as good, moderate, bad and serious (the qualitative approach).
Many countries have developed such land capability rating systems mostly for mineral soils. Most
systems are based on the presence or absence, severity and number of limitations on the
husbandry of selected crops. Some suitability ratings also take into account the type of
management and farming skills, whether, for example, traditional, improved traditional or with input
of modern technology.
Soil limitations can also be grouped as permanent or non-permanent depending whether they can
be removed or overcome by management. Fertility and wetness are examples of non-permanent
limitations; soil depth or texture of permanent ones.
Because of the specific characteristics of organic soils they need specially designed capability or
suitability systems. Table 18 outlines such a system developed for the oligotrophic lowland peats
of Sarawak which can be regarded as being representative of peat soils in South East Asia. The
capability classes in Table 18a are based on the number and severity of soil limitations for general
cropping purposes (Table 18b). The ratings shown in this table are based on local experience and
are expressed in qualitative terms (minor to very serious). The system serves as an example of
how to recognize and interpret the various limitations of organic materials and how to use these
assessments to arrive at a proper rating system for a selection of crops.
88

A general assessment of capability classes for agricultural purposes is not sufficiently detailed for
individual crops or a range of crops. For this, it is necessary to match the capability class assigned
to each soil type to the specific soil requirements of the particular crop or range of crops to be
established. The specific soil conditions taken into account should be those necessary to give a
satisfactory and sustained yield performance. Appendix 3 gives tables indicating soil requirements
for a wide range of common crops in South East Asia and in Sarawak in particular.
The matching or correlation of soil capability class with the indicated specific requirements gives a
number of suitability ratings for relevant crops or ranges of crops as shown in Table 19. Land is
either unsuitable (U), conditionally suitable (C - conditions are given), marginally suitable (M) or
suitable (S). The reason for placing soils in the recognized suitability classes is indicated by letter
symbols which are also used for the capability subclasses (see Table 18b).
Table 18 ASSESSMENT OF CAPABILITY CLASSES FOR ORGANIC SOILS BASED ON LIMITATIONS
TO CROP SUITABILITY AS USED IN SARAWAK (MALAYSIA) (source Maas et al. 1979)
a - Number and severity of limitations for each capability class
Class
Number of limitations
Minor Moderate Serious Very serious
1 0-1 0 0 0
2 2-3 1 or its equivalent 0 0
3 >4 2-3 or their equivalent 1 or its equivalent 0
4 - 4 2-3 or their equivalent 1
5 - - >4 >1

b - Limitations to crop suitability on organic soils
Symbol Type of limitation
Degree of limitation
None Minor Moderate Serious Very serious
a Depth to sulphidic layer
1
(cm) >100 75-100 50-75 - -
f Fertility of the organic layer Medium
(loamy
2

muck)
- - Very low (peat
or sandy muck)
-
g Depth to
groundwater-table
(cm)
natural - - 30-60 0-30 -
drained 60-100 - 30-60 >100 -
h Degree of decomposition Hemic-
sapric
- - Fibric -
i Inundation hazard (frequency
and duration)
None Infrequent,
short
Frequent,
short
Infrequent, long Frequent and
long or
submerged
n Nature (texture) of mineral
subsoil at 50-100 cm depth
Fine loamy
to clayey
Sandy to coarse
loamy
-
o Depth of organic layer (cm) - - 50-100 >100 -
s Salinity of groundwater
(mhos/cm)
<1 000 - - 1 000-4 000 >4000
1
Depth after reclamation; allow 25 cm more for subsidence of virgin organic soils.
2
The clay content of the mineral component must be greater than 18%.

89

A somewhat different approach in peatland appraisal and estimation of suitability is used in the
USA. Here the Soil Conservation Service has developed guidelines to be used when organic soils
are considered for forestry or agriculture. In contrast with the system developed and used in
Sarawak, which is basically a qualitative system because of the lack of quantitative crop-
performance data, the USA uses a penalty system for recognized limitations. In this system the
higher the score, the poorer the suitability. As in the Sarawak system, location, farm size and
sociological influences are not considered; thus in both cases there is an emphasis on physical
conditions of the land. Table 20 outlining the American system, shows that essentially both
systems recognize the same limitations for crop growth, the differences
Table 19 LAND AND CROP SUITABILITY CORRELATION AS USED FOR PEAT SOILS IN SARAWAK
(MALAYSIA) (source Maas et al. 1979)
1. = Wetland rice 8. = Sugar cane 15. = Coffee
2. = Upland rice 9. = Fodder crops 16. = Fruit trees
3. = Maize, sorghum 10. = Forage crops 17. = Coconut
4. = Soya bean, vegetables 11. = Pineapple 18. = Cashew
5. = Groundnut, tapioca 12. = Cocoa 19. = Sago
6. = Watermelon 13. = Oil palm 20. = Rubber
7. = Banana 14. = Pepper, papaya

* Letters refer to type of limitations (subclass) given in Table 18.

** S - Suitable (minor and major soil conservation measures are required for slopes of 12-25
and 25-33 respectively).

(S) - Suitable for small-holder and subsistence farming only.

M - Marginally suitable (this is mainly deemed to reflect the low nutrient availability thereby
restricting productive agriculture).

C - Conditional on: 1. non-flood season (e.g. annual on flood-prone areas);
2. feasibility of flood irrigation;
3. tolerant or suitable cultivars (e.g. padi on weakly saline soils);
4. slightly improved drainage (e.g. shallow rooting crops on shallow
peats); or
5. permanently saturated condition (e.g. wetland rice on sulphidic soils).

C4M - Conditionally marginal, the number in the centre stipulates the condition (see C).

U - Unsuitable. differences being mainly in the rating of those limitations.

90

It should again be emphasized that the examples given deal only with the agricultural potential or
suitability of the peat as a growing medium in field conditions. They do not cover socio-economic
factors, nor do they pay attention to possible weed and soil-borne pest problems. It is assumed in
the examples that drainage can be provided. The Sarawak system, in particular, is far from being
an evaluation on which the economic feasibility of crop production can be assessed. The USA
system being based on long-term experience and quantitative analysis of crop production on the
various types of peats, could serve a useful purpose locally elsewhere. There are often, however,
big differences in conditions in most developing countries so only the broad outlines of the system
can be copied. The detailed ratings should be thoroughly adapted to local conditions.
Table 20 MANAGEMENT SUITABILITY FOR SPECIFIC CROPS ON ORGANIC SOILS IN THE
LAKE STATES OF NORTH-EAST, USA (source Lucas 1982)
Physi cal feature
Penalty rating for extended use
Corn Pasture Cool season carrots,
celery beets, onions
Short season l ettuce,
radish, cabbage, spinach
Sod
Growing Degree days above 50 F.
Above 3 000 0 0 0 0 0
2200-3000 20 10 10 10 10
Below 2 200 50 20 20 20 20
Thickness of organic material
Above 130 cm 0 0 0 0 0
90-130 cm 5 5 10 10 10
40-90 cm 10 10 25 25 25
Underlying material 40-127 cm
depth

Loamy 0 0 0 0 0
Clayey 5 5 5 5 10
Sandy 10 10 10 10 10
91

Coprogenous 20 20 20 20 20
Marly 30 15 15 15 15
Rock 50 30 50 50 50
Surface texture 0-40 cm depth
Muck, mucky peat 0 0 0 0 0
Peat 20 20 20 20 30
Marl 40 40 40 40 40
Flooding during growing season
None 0 0 0 0 0
Slight 20 5 20 15 15
Frequent 70 20 70 50 50
Wood fragments >10 cm in
diameter within 127 cm depth

0-1% 0 0 0 0 0
1-10% 5 0 10 10 20
10-25% 10 5 10 20 50
Above 25% 25 10 40 40 100
Soil reaction (pH) in 0.01 M
CaCl
2

(0-40 cm depth)

92

Below 4.0 20 20 20 20 20
4.0-5.0 10 10 10 10 10
5.0-7.0 0 0 0 0 0
Above 7.0 10 5 10 10 10
Acid sulphate below pH 3.5 75 75 75 75 75
Salinity (mmhos/cm)
0-4 0 0 0 0 0
4-8 20 20 20 20 20
8-16 50 50 50 50 50
Above 16 75 75 75 75 75

Total penalty score and suitability group
0-15 No limitations
20-30 Minor limitations
35-45 Moderate limitations
50-60 Severe limitations (high reclamation costs)
65-80 Severe limitations (forage only)
85-120 Indigenous crops only
Above 120 Not advisable for agriculture

93

It is probable that the greatest obstacle to the economic evaluation of peat reclamation for cropping
is the correct assessment of the feasibility of drainage on a sustainable basis. In the developed
countries the reasons for draining swampland have often been multipurpose and reclamation has
been a long historical process of learning and adjustment. Mistakes were made and lessons learnt.
In the developing countries the decision-making process is frequently geared by different motives.
Here rapid changes in socio-economic conditions have resulted in a demand for land and have
needed quick action. Much of the drainage of peatlands in the developed countries would never
have been attempted if the consequences could have been predicted. Reclamation of similar areas
in the developing world can therefore learn much from their experience accumulated over the
centuries.
An assessment of the Reclamation Potential, which for historical reasons has not played much of a
role in the developed countries except during the last 50 years, should play an important role in
developing countries if mistakes are to be avoided. As indicated reclamation potential should be
assessed separately, and be based on different parameters from those used for the assessment of
the Agricultural Potential.
Reclamation Potential
An assessment of the reclamation potential should try to answer the following questions:
a. Is it possible to drain the swamp by gravity? If so, what will be the maximum depth at which
adequate drainage can be provided without having to resort to costly pumping?
The sustainability of adequate drainage is strongly related to the present elevation of the land
(peat) surface, the rate of subsidence of the surface after drainage, and the elevation of the
underlying mineral deposits or rocks. The data collected on these levels in the initial survey should
provide sufficient insight. In the case where the level of the underlying mineral material is above
the level of the main drainage outlet, it is possible to drain the peatswamp beyond the stage where
the peat has completely disappeared. In cases where the mineral subsoil lies below the level of the
main drainage outlet, gravity drainage must eventually be replaced by pumping or the land must be
abandoned (Fig. 8).
b. What is the expected life time of agricultural land in the reclaimed area?
Life expectancy of the agricultural use of the reclaimed peat depends on the nature of the peat
(including the proportion of mineral material) and its likely rate of oxidation and subsidence. These
factors are in turn related to climate (temperature) and depth of drainage. For example, much of
the present area of organic soils in the upper Everglades of Florida (USA) will have become too
shallow, as a result of subsidence, to support profitable agriculture by the turn of the century. This
will come about approximately 75 years after drainage to an original depth of about 3 metres. The
overriding problem of subsidence is discussed in detail in Chapter 7. In the assessment of
reclamation potential the rate of subsidence features strongly as a negative factor.
c. What is the danger of infiltration by saline water in surface and groundwater?
The possibility of infiltration of saline water is an important factor in assessment of coastal
freshwater peatswamps. Here, where the main drainage outlets are tidal, artificial drainage and
accompanying subsidence are a hazard.

94

d. What are the prospects of continuing agricultural production on the non-peaty subsoils once the
peat cover has disappeared?
To answer this question the nature of the underlying material must be known and taken into
account and it should also be assessed to what extent agricultural production can continue.
Conditions may have changed so much by then that gravity drainage, for example, might no longer
be possible and will have to be replaced by a polder system.
e. What is the incidence, magnitude and nature of flooding in the area to be reclaimed?
The risks of flooding are best assessed when the nearby rivers are in spate. This could result from
high rainfall upstream, from local rainfall or from a combination of the two. Sustained drainage of
swamps is not possible without the installation of dykes where the flood levels of main drainage
outlets are frequently high. The economic evaluation of measures to be taken depends greatly on
the frequency and size of the floods. The author has noted in several schemes a disproportion
between the effort spent on draining peatland and the attention given to flood control. This is in
many cases so because a swampy area can be partly drained by private enterprise but flood
control measures are beyond the scope of individual farmers.
The reclamation of peatswamps is not just a matter to be decided on the strength of the
agricultural suitability and the reclamation potential of the area directly involved. Reclamation
means drainage, the effects of which are felt in the land around. Unwanted side-effects in fringe
areas may include changes in water regime causing flooding or changes in salinity from fresh to
brackish water or the reverse in former salt water ecosystems (mangroves). These changes may in
turn influence economic activities such as fishing, which might upset the economic feasibility of the
whole reclamation effort. Such considerations are discussed in detail in Chapter 10.
There are many limitations to the agricultural use of peat soils. Added to these are the problems
caused by reclamation of which the subsidence initiated by drainage, a prerequisite for most
agricultural enterprises, is perhaps the most serious.
Each peatswamp should be carefully surveyed to collect basic data for a land use evaluation.
Because of the complexity of the reclamation problems and the ever-changing characteristics of
the peat after reclamation, an economic evaluation of reclamation for agriculture is difficult. Much
depends on the scale of the proposed operation, its size, location and the specific nature of the
swamp. Each project needs an individual approach. Some broad general guidelines can be given.
i. No peatswamp should be artificially drained before a careful assessment is made of the benefits
and disadvantages based on a well planned initial investigation.
ii. Piece-meal development of large peatswamps should be avoided if possible. Spontaneous
settlement followed by unorganized reclamation and drainage often results in greater future
problems than solved in the short term by reclamation.

95

iii. The main options for potential use should be studied carefully. These could be:
- To retain the present natural conditions which might be primary forest. Forest products could be
exploited on a small scale with a policy of silvicultural measures to ensure sustained production.
- Use for agricultural purposes after improvement involving drainage, and possibly flood control.
There are various possibilities for agriculture including shallow drainage with an adapted cropping
system and choice of crops (annual and perennial), moderate drainage to allow a wider range of
crops, and rigorous deep drainage. Shallow drainage avoids the risk of rapid subsidence and
enhances the life span of agricultural use, moderate drainage gives more kinds of use choices but
faster subsidence. It costs more to maintain drainage and agricultural life expectancy is shorter.
Deep drainage leads to rapid peat wastage and is only recommended if the underlying soil is of
very high quality.
There is a vast array of crops which can be grown profitably on peat soils, the choice is decided
mainly by climate and marketability. Growth performance depends very much on the chemical
fertility and physical conditions for growth. There is no reason why most crops cannot be grown on
peats given the required improvements. Here the economic feasibility plays the most important
role, though technical problems such as the instability of top-heavy perennial tree crops remain a
limitation. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 8.
It should be carefully considered when making decisions that peat soils reclaimed at high costs will
ultimately disappear leaving a changed landscape. The changes can be drastic, sometimes
forming lakes.
Once the decision is made to proceed with development many potential problems can be
forestalled and prevented by adopting correct management procedures in both reclamation and in
the subsequent agricultural enterprises. Management aspects are discussed in the following
chapters.

96

7. RECLAMATION PROBLEMS

7.1 Introduction

7.1 Introduction
The reclamation of peatswamps should be multidisciplinary but in practice this is often not the
case. The data collection and research described in previous chapters dealing with the formation,
characteristics, classification and agricultural potential of peatswamps is carried out by biologists,
chemists, geographers and pedologists. The reclamation of peatswamps, however, traditionally
involves civil and/or technical engineers and hydrologists. The agricultural activities following and
accompanying reclamation are then again in the sphere of the agricultural scientists. Last but not
least it is the farmer who takes decisions at farm level and often, particularly in developing
countries, carries the burden of the initial efforts in swamp reclamation.
The constraints in reclaiming peatswamps are therefore often experienced by those who are least
scientifically equipped to understand the nature and cause of the problems. It is the nature and
case of reclamation problems that are discussed in this chapter and frequent reference is made to
the background information given in Chapters 1-6.
For practical reasons, the problems involved in the reclamation of peatswamps are divided into:
temporary, mainly the initial problems of land clearing and land preparation, and permanent or
recurring problems. These can be subdivided into social and technical problems of land and water
management, and agronomic problems related to cropping.
This chapter is devoted more to the recurrent or permanent constraints which are very difficult or
impossible to remedy, rather than to the initial temporary problems which are often of a technical or
economical nature and more easy to overcome. Emphasis is on the permanent constraints of a
social and technical nature, whereas problems related to cropping will be specifically dealt with in
Chapter 8.

7.2.2 Clearing
7.2.3 Burning
7.2.4 Organization

Commonly the first phase of reclamation is drainage to reduce the periods of waterlogging and
hence improve the soil bearing strength. This is necessary to improve accessibility, particularly if
heavy equipment is to be used in the subsequent provision of access roads, land clearance,
installation of major drainage canals and land preparation. Although the present day reclamation of
peats in temperate regions utilizes machinery, in tropical areas it is still often very difficult to get
heavy equipment to peatswamps. Here most operations, particularly the initial ones, have to be
carried out by hand.
97

Irrespective of whether the initial drainage is done by machine or hand, the nature of the peat and
the vegetation it carries are the main problems to be taken into account. If the peat is very woody,
operations will be slow and costly. In the lowland peat of Borneo, woody peat (with large
undecomposed logs) took 10 times the amount of labour to dig drains than relatively non-woody
peat (Plate 3). It is therefore important to know the content, nature and depths of any woody
components prior to starting reclamation (Chapter 6, Initial survey).
The initial installation of drains at strategic positions allows access for equipment either by
temporary road or narrow gauge railway. The latter is often also used for timber extraction in
tropical lowland peats without the provision of any land drainage. Because of this flexibility in use,
it can be installed relatively quickly and cheaply, where it is most needed (Plate 4).
Peat has a low to very low surface bearing strength of between 0 and 40 kPa. This is too low for
even light modern farm machinery which has a ground pressure of about 50 kPa. Lighter machines
bog down because of high rolling resistance and slip. An alternative to narrow gauge rail tracks are
roads with a raft base. Thick branches or small logs laid side by side on the low hummocky relief of
the peat surface provide a buoyant base on which an earth track can be established. These
provisional paths are often important in any initial reclamation by providing access for both labour
and equipment. Without a raft base, dumping earth onto peat has little effect, particularly if mineral
subsoil is only found at considerable depth. Roads constructed without such rafts will be short-lived
and can disappear overnight because of sinking.
Plate 3. Large fragments in peat increase the labour costs of digging drainage channels.
Central Kalimantan, Indonesia
Within the framework of this Bulletin it is neither possible to give detailed designs for structural
works in peatswamps, nor is it the intention to give engineering specifications for the required
drainage layout, beyond some general information of practical importance. As this chapter
discusses problems of reclamation, routine water control measures are dealt with in Chapter 8.
Some remarks should however be made on specific problems of making ditches in organic
materials. Ditches in peat soils erode rapidly when the velocity of drainage water is greater than
about 1.50 m per second. This value varies slightly depending on the nature of peat; fibric
materials behaving differently from more sapric materials. Unfortunately there are no values for
tropical peats. Gradients of ditches for gravity drainage should not be over 3 , again this value
has not been checked empirically. Erosion of ditch sides can be a severe problem. They preferably
should be of a 1:1 design to enhance stability. But again the nature of the peat and size of the
canal or ditch are important parameters, for example narrow lateral ditches with vertical sides up to
90-120 cm deep are satisfactory in fibric materials but these measurements are unsuited to the
more unstable aquatic organic materials, even when containing large amounts of wood (Plate 5).
The stability of ditch banks and the protection of slopes can be improved by growing shrubs, low
trees or deep rooting grass which will not grow under water and so not choke the ditches. Tall, top-
heavy trees are unsuited because of problems of poor anchorage in peat.
The problems of making ditches and preventing leakage through their sides when the outside
water- table is higher than the water level in the drains are inherent in porous peats. They are
mentioned here without further discussion as are the problems caused when making slopes and
ditches by dumping relatively heavy, mineral soil material, taken from below the peat, on the soft
spongy peat surface. These are problems of soil mechanics and hence outside the scope of this
Bulletin.

98

Plate 4. Narrow gauge railway used for logging in large peatswamp in Sumatra, Indonesia,
with author engaged in initial field survey
Plate 5. Eroding main drain in deep woody peat, West Kalimantan, Indonesia
7.2.2 Clearing
The clearing of vegetation is often difficult, and is another obstacle to reclamation. Unstable, wet
surfaces with low bearing strengths make the use of bulldozers or tractors with winches
impossible. Vegetation in tropical countries is commonly dominated by trees or thick brush (Plates
6 and 7), which is difficult to remove by hand.
Clearing should be carefully programmed to avoid the clearance of too large an area at any one
time as once drainage has been provided and vegetation removed the peat will start to
decompose. Further, as the surface of peat dries the fire hazard increases. Clearance and
drainage should never embrace more land than can be put to immediate use.
Clearing involves the removal of trees, stumps and roots. Where large trees are present their
stumps are very difficult to remove. The piling up and burning of cleared vegetation should be
avoided but if necessary should only be done under carefully controlled conditions as a fire within
the peat, once started, can carry on for months and may last a full dry season.
Because of the large range of peat characteristics and the variety of conditions under which the
swamps are reclaimed it is impossible to give full details of equipment that can be used. In
developed areas, where the peat is drained and of high trafficability (bearing strength) and the
vegetation is characterized by trees or shrubs of less than 5 cm diameter, tractors fitted with a front
mounted bulldozer blade can be used to push down the vegetation. The land can then be turned
over with a breaking plough (Lucas 1982).
Generally, in developing countries the clearing and removal of vegetation is done entirely by hand.
In countries with a pronounced dry season, the danger of starting fires in the peat necessitates the
removal of coarse vegetation debris by stockpiling the stumps and leaving them to rot for a number
of years. During a recent reclamation project in Brazil, the stockpiled wood was gradually removed
for firewood by local settlers living on the periphery of the swamp. Such a practical use might be
recommended where relatively small interior valleys are reclaimed by private companies and there
is a shortage of firewood in the neighbouring already settled hills (Plate 8).
Plate 6. Primary forest vegetation of deep peat with logging track, West Kalimantan,
Indonesia
Plate 7. Bush vegetation of deep peat with initial clearing for drainage, Brazil.
Plate 8. Piles of wood from the original vegetation left to decay i n a lagoonal peat reclaimed
for sugar cane, Brazil.

99

7.2.3 Burning
Frequently surplus vegetation is disposed of by burning. This is traditional practice in peat
reclamation by the local population in South East Asia. Apart from being a rapid way of removing
the cut vegetation, the ashes improve the fertility of the peat in the initial years of cropping. In
some localities, it also quickly disposes of the surface fibric layers, which are unsuitable for tillage.
However, the fertilizing effect is quickly lost and common practice is either a reburn of peat or
abandoning the area following a shifting cultivation pattern. Such frequent burns can lead to rapid
lowering of the peat surface, but more directly, it can lead to intensive peat fires when not properly
controlled. Usually, the local population are adept at preventing this but the danger lies with non-
traditional farmers. These are commonly unacquainted with the local conditions and by copying the
methods of the locals are unaware of making reclamation errors and thus create havoc by
uncontrolled burns and too deep drainage. Controlling peat fires is extremely difficult. One method
is to dig a drain around the fire down to the wet soil but compacting the peat by mechanical means
is more effective. The use of high-pressure water, if available, is satisfactory when the fire is small.
The removal of wood and roots, particularly if present in great quantities (Plate 9) is a time
consuming and costly activity. Lucas (1982) indicates that the cost of clearing a woodland site may
be 30 times more than the cost of a grass covered site. Most tropical peats are forested in their
natural state and in some instances clearance may be uneconomic.
7.2.4 Organization
It is general practice in South East Asian countries that the major drainage system for the initial
phase of reclamation is developed by a Government Agency such as the Ministry of Public Works
or a Drainage and Irrigation Department. Subsequent installation of field drainage systems and
land clearance is accomplished by the settlers. These activities should be carried out according to
a prepared blueprint under strict rules and regulations. Rapid settlement of peatswamps lacking a
co-ordinated effort and planning can lead to disastrous results. Whereas Government-sponsored
reclamation projects sometimes fail because of the lack of or only belated recognition of the erratic
behaviour of peatswamps when reclaimed, the opposite may be experienced when autochthonous
settlers, by tradition locally knowledgeable of the behaviour of their peats, initiate reclamations with
success. The success of the reclamations by the local population is often because no use is made
of machines and only shallow drainage is practised. Further, most reclamation is carried out on
shallow peat bordering main rivers because here the problems are less than on deep peat. The
behaviour of peat after drainage, and the problems this creates, is discussed in the following
section.

7.3.1 Subsidence

7.3.1 Subsidence
Subsidence or the lowering of the surface of reclaimed peat is undoubtedly the greatest problem
when attempting to sustain agricultural activities. It is caused by changes in conditions brought
about by drainage. Waterlogged and anaerobic peat in the natural swamp becomes aerobic when
drained. The aerobic conditions lead to biological oxidation or mineralization of the organic
deposits.
100

Peat subsidence has several serious consequences. Drainage must be regularly adapted to new
levels and conditions, otherwise inundation and flooding will recur. The rooting systems,
particularly of perennial species become exposed (Plate 10), and top-heavy crops such as coconut
palms and to a lesser degree oil palms start to lean over and are partly up-rooted (Plate 11).
Roads and other structures become unstable, and as the drainage progressively breaks down,
their surfaces become hummocky.
Environmental effects will occur beyond the peatswamp confines; nutrient outflow will increase as
the peat decomposes, and there will be an increase of CO
2
released into the atmosphere.
Plate 9. High wood content of deep peat in coastal basin swamps in West Kalimantan,
Indonesia. Vegetation is cassava (tapioca)
Plate 10. Exposure of root system of palm caused by 5 years subsidence of moderatel y
deep peat (less than 2m thick), Brazil
The rate of subsidence depends on several independent and some interrelated factors of which
oxidation of the organic materials is the most significant. The factors listed by Lucas (1982) can be
grouped into the following categories:
i. Processes causing the removal of organic materials: oxidation, burning, wind erosion and water
erosion.
ii. Processes causing consolidation of materials: compaction, shrinkage and dehydration.
iii. Factors accelerating or influencing the processes mentioned under i. and ii. are: depth of
drainage (height of water-table), character of the organic materials, the cropping system employed
including irrigation, and the climate, particularly the temperature regime.
iv. geological subsidence is an independent factor which would also play a role when artificial
drainage was not provided.
The subsidence of peat surfaces has been a problem ever since cultivators started to drain peat.
There are long records of subsidence of reclaimed peats in both the Netherlands, where
reclamation started between the 9th and 14th centuries (Schothorst 1977), and in the Fens of
England where reclamation started in the 17th century (Darby 1956). Probably the best records on
subsidence are available from the much more recent reclamation of the Everglades in Florida,
USA, where subsidence has been monitored from the beginning in 1924 (Stephens 1956 and
1974; Stephens and J ohnson 1951; Stephens and Speir 1969; Stephens et al. 1984). Reports on
subsidence also come from Eastern Europe (Murashko 1969) and more recently from the tropical
regions of South East Asia (Andriesse 1974; Driessen and Rochimah 1977; Driessen and Sudewo
1977) and Africa (Euroconsult 1984).

101

Plate 11. Palms leaning due to insufficient achorage after subsidence of deep peat,
Sarawak, Malaysia. (Photo by Dept. of Agriculture, Sarawak).
Subsidence rate
Worldwide subsidence rates vary from less than 1 to more than 8 cm per year. Whereas some
peats in the Netherlands have subsided by only 2 m in about 1 000 years, peat in the Everglades
(Florida) has subsided by 1.8 m in only 54 years (1924-1978). The organic soils of the
Sacramento-San J oaquin delta of California subsided by 1.8 to 2 m in less than 30 years. Records
on peat subsidence in South East Asia (lowland oligotrophic coastal peats) indicate 50 cm to 1 m
in the initial years after reclamation with a subsequent decrease to less than 6 cm per year. Table
21 gives the reported rates of subsidence for sites worldwide.
It is clear that there is a vast range in the rate of subsidence dependent on peat composition,
drainage depth and history of reclamation. Figure 19 illustrates how in the Netherlands subsidence
rate was influenced by a change from gravity drainage to pumping once the peat surface fell below
the mean sea level. Energy initially supplied by windmills, followed by the use of steam pumps
made it possible to keep the swamps dry. The rate of peat subsidence in the Netherlands was
small compared with rates experienced elsewhere mainly because the depth of drainage was
maintained through the centuries at only 20-50 cm for mainly pasture use. However with deeper
and improved drainage (water-table control throughout the year) the yearly subsidence rate of 1.7
mm was accelerated to 6 mm. Field experiments indicate that a 40 cm draw down of the level in
ditches over a period of 20 years resulted in a total surface subsidence of 23 cm. In the first two
years the subsidence proceeded very rapidly, constituting 44 per cent of the total for the 20 year
period, subsequently the subsidence rate decreased to a constant 7 mm per year. This initial rapid
subsidence upon provision of drainage is noted in most countries.
Table 21 MEASURED RATES OF SUBSIDENCE OF ORGANIC SOILS FOR SPECIFIC SITES IN
DIFFERENT AREAS (source Lucas 1982)
Location of site Annual subsidence
rate
(cm/year)
Cumulative
subsidence
(cm)
Time
period
(year)
Average depth to water-
table
(cm)
California Delta (2
sites)
2.5-8.2 152-244 26
Louisiana (estimated) 1.0-5.0
Michigan 1.2-2.5 7.6-15 5
New York 2.5 150 60 90
Indiana 1.2-2.5 7.6-15 6
Florida Everglades 2.7 147 54 90
(2 sites) 2.7-4.2 19-29 7 60
Netherlands 0.7 70 100 10-20
(2 sites) 1.0-1.7 6-10 6 50
Ireland 1.8 90
Norway 2.5 152 65
England 0.5-5.0 325 (by 1932) 84
348 (by 1951) 103
Israel 10
USSR (Minsk bog) 2.1 100 47
102

A knowledge of the expected subsidence rate is important in order to plan adaptations to the
drainage system, estimate the lifetime of the organic soils, and assess the optimum land use.
Subsidence rate is dependent on many factors, some of which can be changed and it is therefore
necessary to discuss in detail the most important processes so that management plans can be
developed which optimize the life expectancy of the peat deposits.
Oxidation of peat
Oxidation is generally taken to be the most important process causing loss of organic materials.
Burning as a form of accelerated oxidation is mainly caused by man, and can be easily controlled
or prevented. Water erosion and wind erosion are more difficult to control but are of little
significance in tropical areas. Lucas (1982) reports from Canada that wind erosion has been one of
the predominant causes of wastage, and losses of over 3 cm are noted during severe storms. The
removal of peat by scouring in drainage channels, is locally important and coastal erosion occurs
where peat is exposed on the shore (Andriesse 1974). In the tropics however none of these forms
of peat removal compares with oxidation in lowering the surface level.
Oxidation is a biochemical process intensively studied by Waksman and Stevens (1929) and
Waksman and Purvis (1932). In laboratory studies they found different rates of decomposition in
peats of different chemical composition and in peats containing different micro-flora and micro-
organisms. Samples of Florida low moorpeat were decomposed by 15 percent at 28C in 18
months under optimum moisture conditions of 50-80 percent. Above and below this moisture
range, decomposition rates rapidly diminish. Wet and dry cycles also appear to stimulate
decomposition. Bacteria are commonly most numerous in drained low moor peats and less
numerous in highly acid high moor peat. However, when the latter are limed, manured, and
cultivated, microbial populations increase to about the same as low moor peat under similar
drainage conditions, and decomposition rates increase likewise. Organisms responsible for
decomposition are most active above 5C. Soil microbial activity generally doubles for each 10
degree increase in temperature and soil temperature is therefore an important factor in determining
subsidence rates, particularly for tropical areas where temperatures remain in the 25-30C range.
Depth of drainage is another important factor governing the rate of oxidation and it was studied by
Schothorst (1977) in the Netherlands. Stephens and Stewart (1977) developed a mathematical
model linking drainage depth and soil temperature that could be used to estimate subsidence of
low moor peat in different climates. Figures 20 and 21 give the results of these studies; Figure 20
indicates the strong correlation between subsidence rate and average depth of the water-table,
and Figure 21 depicts the relationship between expected annual subsidence with the two main
variables soil temperature and depth of drainage. The latter graph is based on the mathematical
model which was developed for organic soils with a mineral content of less than 15 percent and
bulk density of approximately 0.22 g/cm
3
. Muck soils with higher mineral content and bulk density,
will have subsidence rates between one-half and three-quarters of those shown on the graph. The
model is only tentative and based on limited field and laboratory data, but, in the absence of
empirical information, can be used to quantify subsidence caused by mineralization. Details of the
model are given in Appendix 4.

103

Figure 19. Relation between evolution in water management and subsidence of peat surface
in the Netherlands

104

Figure 20. Rate of subsidence compared with water-table depth for organic soils in Indiana,
Florida Everglades and the Netherlands.

105

The two Netherlands lines show total subsidence and subsidence attributable to biological
oxidation.
The linear regression equations are:
a. Florida, Y =0.0643X - 0.259
b. Indiana, Y =0.0344X - 0.429
c. Netherlands (total subsidence) Y =0.0281X - 0.581
d. Netherlands (oxidation subsidence) Y =0.0134X - 0.291
Where Y is the predicted subsidence in cm per year, and X is the average depth to water-table in
cm
Figure 21. Annual subsidence of organic soils at various water-table depths and soil
temperatures

Consolidation and shrinkage
Peatland subsides after drainage not only because of a loss in organic matter but also because of
a loss in volume. Schothorst (1977) recognizes the following components in subsidence:
i. shrinkage due to physical processes. The withdrawal of moisture from the surface layers by
evapotranspiration may cause high moisture tensions in the root zone resulting in a decrease in
volume of those layers (above the phreatic surface).
ii. Oxidation through biochemical processes as explained above.

106

iii. Consolidation or compression due to a mechanical process. When the groundwater level is
lowered, the buoyant force of water is lost in the upper layers. The deeper layers then have to bear
an increased weight of 1 g per cm
2
per cm of draw down of the groundwater-table. This causes
compression by the soil layers below the phreatic surface. Consolidation is often divided into a
primary phase and a secular phase. The former is largely a function of the rate of water escape
from and through the peat mass. This can be very high in the initial phases of drainage because of
the high permeability of raw peat. When permeability decreases as a result of consolidation the
primary hydrodynamic phase becomes almost constant. Secular consolidation continues long after
the primary phase has stopped to play its initial important role and may in the end account for half
the total loss in volume. It was previously generally assumed in the Netherlands that the
decreasing volume of peat above the water-table was controlled more by shrinkage and
compression than by oxidation. This was the case because of the ubiquitous grass cover.
Schothorst, however, found that 20 percent of the subsidence could be ascribed to irreversible
shrinkage, 28 percent to compression (subject to elastic rebound and recovery) and 52 percent to
oxidation. These results are in agreement with the general findings elsewhere that oxidation is the
main cause for soil subsidence. It is important to note that compression and irreversible shrinkage
will gradually decrease from an initial peak but that oxidation of organic materials will continue at a
more or less constant rate until a new lowering of the water levels in ditches is necessary. This
corroborates previously mentioned findings in tropical countries.
Bouman and Driessen (1985) argue that the subsidence after drainage or reclamation is the sum
of the effects of settling, shrinkage and mineralization. For this reason the mathematical model
developed by Stephens and Stewart (1977) to estimate subsidence is only valid for the
mineralization component, because it disregards the effects of shrinkage and compaction. They
prefer to employ two models to predict overall subsidence for tropical areas by fusing the
Stephens-Stewart model for the mineralization component and the Murashko equation (Murashko
1969, Appendix 4) for the consolidation component independent of climate. By adding the two,
total subsidence under tropical conditions can then be approximated. Figures 22 and 23 give the
total subsidence thus computed for an imaginary tropical peat over 20 years of drainage in relation
to bulk and particle densities, and initial drainage depth respectively. Figure 24 indicates the
computed partial subsidence rates for consolidation and mineralization. This shows the
considerable influence of consolidation on subsidence in the initial years and the long term effects
of continued mineralization.
The crops grown and their cultivation requirements influence the rate of subsidence through
various processes:
Water management
A comparison of subsidence rate under sugar cane, vegetables and pasture, using a given water-
table depth, showed the annual rate of subsidence under sugar cane to be about 30 percent less
than under pasture or vegetable crops (Snyder et al. 1978). Though in previous studies no
conclusive evidence is available to show that the type of crop has a direct bearing on subsidence
rate. Indirect effects are probably much more significant. Each crop has an optimum water-table
level dependent on rooting habits, resistance to drought and wetness. Climatic conditions; rainfall,
wind, evaporation and temperature are important parameters for calculating water requirements.
Table 22 shows the minimum optimum depth of water-tables for a range of vegetable crops grown
on various peats in the USA and England (Snyder et al. 1978). The range is large and varies from
30 to 90 cm depth. Sugar cane grown in the Everglades in Florida requires a water-table at 75-90
cm depth for optimum growth and quality but in experiments it was found that with a water-table at
38 cm depth the crop produced only 5 percent less sugar than the best yields obtained with a
water-table at 75 cm depth. For one variety the best yields were obtained with a water-table at 38
cm depth.
107

In the Netherlands water-tables under grassland are usually maintained at between 30 and 50 cm
depth which produces much smaller rates of subsidence than if crops requiring a much lower
water-table are grown. A large subsidence rate will be experienced in tropical regions where tree
crops are to be grown with extensive, deep rooting systems which demand deep drainage. Depth
of drainage influences the rate of subsidence and therefore choice of crop or land use is indirectly
related to the rate of subsidence.
Land management
A system of raised beds in conjunction with higher water-tables could be used to extend the life of
peat deposits. Figure 25 demonstrates this and shows how two crops can be grown in adjacent
rows each with an optimum depth of water-table. However, the system may be short lived if
decomposition of the peat on the ridges is faster than in the drains. Although the system is
successfully practised by J apanese farmers in Brazil (Plate 1) they do not grow a crop in the
furrow.
Use of fertilizers
The high acidity and low levels of plant nutrients in peat demands the use of lime and fertilizer for
crop growth. The change from oligotrophic to more eutrophic conditions as a result of fertilization
changes the microbial activity and hence the rate of mineralization (Chapter 4; section 4.3). The
use of fertilizers therefore tends to accelerate decomposition. However, McGreevy and Farrell
(1984) found in incubation experiments few lasting effects in ombrotrophic peats after an initial
stimulation. In reed-swamp peat, decomposition was even reduced by liming to pH 6.5. General
statements on the effect of liming are therefore dangerous as there are other factors to be
considered. The dilemma of using fertilizers or not can be illustrated by the following example.
Schothorst (1977) records studies in the Netherlands on the improvement of gross yield of grass
through deeper drainage. The improvement could be attributed to the availability of more nitrogen
as a result of the decomposition of peat to a greater depth. The deficiency in nitrogen occurring in
grassland with shallow drains can also be corrected by more costly N-fertilization. The choice
between either deeper drainage with its risk of accelerated subsidence or the use of costly N-
fertilizer is often difficult.
Cropping system
The cropping system influences the amount of compaction of the soil surface. The regular
harvesting of intensively grown vegetables, particularly if heavy machinery is used, makes heavy
demands on surface structure and consistency. Where annual crops are grown there are often
short fallow periods. The surface temperature in these exposed peats can reach 70C in the
tropics as peat is a very poor conductor of heat. As well as encouraging the formation of
desiccated hydrophobic granules (coffee grounds) or dust, this also increases the rate of
oxidation. Bare peat surfaces, low humidity and high temperatures can lead to spontaneous peat
fires. A permanent groundcover would prevent this.

108

Fig. 22. Subsidence (S
t
) of tropical peat in relation to bulk and particle densities (source
Bouman and Driessen 1985)

Note:
r =dry mass of unit volume of undisturbed soil
r
s
=solid matter (particle) density

109

Fig. 23. Subsidence (S
t
) of tropical peat in relation to initial drainage depth (source Bouman
and Driessen 1985)

110

Table 22 MINIMUM DEPTH TO WATER-TABLE (CM) FOR MAXIMUM YIELDS AND QUALITY OF
VEGETABLE CROPS GROWN ON ORGANIC SOILS (source Snyder et al. 1978)
Crop Florida Everglades
1
Indiana
2
England
3
Minn.
4

Beans, snap 45-60 - - 45
Beets (red) - 70 - -
Cabbage 45-60 65 - 60
Carrots - 65 - 60
Cauliflower 60 - - 30
Celery 45 65 45-55 45
Corn, sweet 60-70 75 - 60
Kale - - 60 + -
Lettuce 75-90 - - 75
Onions 45-60 75 - 90
Peas 45-60 - - -
Potatoes 45-60 65 40-50 60
Spinach - 65 - -
Tomatoes 45-60 - - 60
Escarole 60-75
5
-
Endive 60-75
5
-
Radishes 35-40
5
45
Parsley 35-40
5
-

1
Eight water-table treatments: 75 cm with overhead spray, 30, 53, 75, 100, 120 cm, fluctuating,
120 cm with overhead spray (the experiment was replicated).
2
Three water-table levels, two replications, 40, 70 95 cm.
3
Water-tables ranged from 25 to 95 cm (unreplicated).
4
Five water-table depth treatments: 30, 60, 90, 120, 150 cm (unreplicated).
5
No data have been found on these crops, and depths given are estimates under average
Everglade conditions.

111

Figure 24. Partial subsidence rates (consolidation and mineralization) for tropical peat
(source Bouman and Driessen 1985)

Note: S
m
=subsidence due to mineralization

112

The success of agriculture on peat soils depends on the choice of land use. This choice dictates
the required drainage depth though in some localities the water levels in peatswamps are
governed by the needs of peripheral areas.
Figure 25. The influence of raised beds which allow a higher water-table and hence reduce
the oxidation of organic soils (source Snyder et al. 1978)
The cropping systems in common use today inevitably cause some subsidence. There is a wealth
of historical evidence that once drainage has started subsidence commences and unless the
swamps are inundated again the peat will eventually disappear. Radio-carbon studies have
indicated that 30 cm of peat which took 400 years to develop can easily be destroyed in less than
10 years because of injudicious drainage.
The rate of subsidence can, however, be regulated and slowed down by proper water control and
good land management. The careful choice of crop is the best way by which the rate of subsidence
can be minimized.
There should be continued collaboration between drainage engineers and agricultural scientists to
look for optimum ways of controlling the subsidence of peat by appropriate water, land and crop
management. The search for new crops or new varieties to be grown profitably in more
waterlogged conditions and a continuation of the work into the water-table requirement of crops
should be major parts of the research programmes aimed at improving the management of
reclaimed peatswamps.
In the tropics there is little locally gathered data on the water management requirements in relation
to widely grown crops. Traditionally the emphasis has been on the short term problems of fertilizer
requirements rather than on water-control measures, which are more important in the long run.
It is difficult to set up satisfactory experiments to look into the optimum depths of the groundwater-
table for specific crops. The following serves as an example: expensive and comprehensive water-
table studies have been carried out in the Everglades in Florida since 1958 (Harrison et al. 1963),
but they have proved unsatisfactory. It is difficult, even when using intricate designs, to maintain a
range of pre-determined water-tables in plots arranged in a 3 x 3 Latin square on a 24 acre block.
Subsequent studies have shown that the drainage of the peats overlying limestone is considerably
affected by sub-surface flows through the peat-rock interface (Casselman and Green 1972). Mole
drainage appears to have little effect on these flows along the interface. Piling the plots or building
concrete walls down to the more or less impermeable subsoil have to be established, but even
then hydraulic pressure from high water-tables in neighbouring parcels influence the plots with
lower water-tables. In the absence of reliable tropical field studies and taking into consideration the
difficulties encountered elsewhere, the alternative is to use lysimeters. These concrete tanks, if
built of about 150 x 300 x 150 cm size, can each be used for 3 separate plots of 150 x 100 cm size
for crop studies. When filled with organic soil water-tables are maintained by an exterior water
levelling container connected by a 1 cm internal diameter plastic pipe. Water-levels in the levelling
container are maintained by a valve with holes in the container immediately above the desired
water level for overflow. Holes should be drilled into the concrete tanks at the soil surface level to
allow surface drainage (Pate and Snyder 1979).

113

8. AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Crop Choice
8.5 Correcting Acidity by Liming
8.6 Fertilizer Use
8.7 Crop Protection

8.1 Introduction
Before cropping commences the farmer has to make important decisions which profoundly affect
the subsequent operational management. First he has to choose the crop; the operational
requirements generally follow from this. Such operational requirements at farm level include:
i. Water management in relation to crop moisture requirements.
ii. Tillage and land preparation.
iii. Liming or acidity control.
iv. Fertilizer use.
v. Crop protection.
This chapter covers many topics because of the intrinsic variability in organic soils, climatic
conditions, crop choice and land utilization policies. Socio-economic factors such as quality of farm
management, capital investment, land tenure and the organization of water management in
drainage, contribute to the complexity of the issues concerned. It is only possible to highlight
information which is generally applicable and useful for practical field operations, and details
relating to conditions that are found only locally in tropical peat soils are left out. There is therefore
no comprehensive discussion on specific crop requirements.
Many standard management practices used on mineral soils are also applicable to organic soils so
they are not discussed in detail. Emphasis is placed on all aspects of agricultural management
specific to conditions prevailing in organic soils.
8.2 Crop Choice

8.2.2 Choice of crops under improved drainage with water-table at less than 40 cm depth

Crop choice is dependent upon many factors of which suitability of soil is but one. For most
farmers profitability is the overruling factor, but in the case of reclaimed peatswamps there are a
number of factors which influence or limit the freedom of choice and which are beyond the control
of the farmer.
In the case of large peatswamps reclaimed by a Government, or government agency, the potential
land use has been decided early in the scheme. Large-scale reclamation schemes need careful
overall planning and the control of drainage cannot be left to the individual farmer. However, within
the limits set by the controlling body it is possible to have some influence on water control at the
farm level by such means as stop boards, but generally the margins are small. It is, therefore, the
114

depth to which the groundwater is maintained in the reclaimed area that largely controls and limits
the choice of crop.
In cases where an individual farmer endeavours to reclaim small stretches of swamp, he has more
room for taking his own decisions. However, if his land is part of a much larger swamp he has the
moral, if not legal, obligation not to disrupt farming activities on fields lying downstream. Such
conditions are frequently found in long narrow interior valleys especially when under private
ownership. In such cases it would be sensible to look for more participants in a concerted
reclamation effort which would ensure a balanced development of the complete swamp. It would
be unwise to develop one part of the same swamp for deep rooting crops demanding a drainage
depth of say 90 cm, if on a neighbouring farm attempts are made to keep the water level at 40 cm
for pasture development. Crop choice is also influenced by independent climatic factors and socio-
economic considerations such as marketability, which are liable to fluctuations.
Peat soils are remarkably versatile in their suitability for crop growth. They have few inherent
qualities which limit growth, although they require intensive and often costly improvement to
natural conditions to make cropping profitable. Profitability is again largely dictated by the local
economy.
Peat is a good stoneless rooting medium, it has large moisture retention capacity and hence
transplanted crops establish themselves much faster than on mineral soils. Cultivations are easier
than on mineral soil, even under exceptionally wet conditions. There are, however, also serious
limitations to cropping:
i. Waterlogged conditions, requiring drainage.
ii. Very low chemical fertility, requiring large applications of fertilizers.
iii. High acidity, requiring liming.
iv. Low trafficability, preventing intensive mechanized farming.
Most of these limitations can be remedied but sometimes only with capital investment. In some
localities improvements are economic but in others the necessary improvements are prohibitively
costly.
Most countries have already developed or should develop their own peat suitability ratings,
adapted to local conditions, taking into account the limitations mentioned and based on local
economic considerations (Chapter 6). A very general guideline, based on experience in South East
Asia, and which can be adopted elsewhere with similar conditions, is to limit farming to peats which
are less than 2 m thick. Greater thicknesses, particularly those with a low level of management,
usually have insurmountable problems. This depth requirement can be adjusted to fit local
situations and where the input levels of water control, fertilization and crop protection are high
deeper peats can be contemplated.
Although factors mentioned play an important role in crop choice, they are specific to a locality and
should be studied and evaluated for each site.
Despite this complexity of factors, it is possible to discuss crop selection by looking at the various
land use options possible under three systems of water-table management; natural conditions,
somewhat improved drainage but with shallow water-tables (less than 40 cm depth), and with deep
drainage (water-tables generally greater than 60 cm depth).

115

There is an increasing interest in developing an adapted form of agriculture which leaves the
peatswamps largely in their natural state. Crop selection is directed to finding suitable swamp-
adapted plant species of economic value. This type of farming would to a large extent solve the
problem of subsidence (Shih et al. 1982). The main crops suited to such conditions are:
Sago
Sago (Metroxylon sagus, a smooth variety, and Metroxylon rumphii, the thorny variety) is grown in
the natural peatswamps of Sarawak and elsewhere in the Malay-Indonesian archipelago under
wild and semi-wild conditions. There is evidence that the crop could give reasonable returns, and
organized production on a large scale could be lucrative. The produced starch can be used, as a
food, by industry and as a raw material for the production of methanol. As a result of better
vegetative dry matter production per day and a longer period of closed canopy, the sago palm is
superior in potential to cassava and rice (Ahmed and Sim 1976).
Raffia
The raffia palm (Raphia spp.) and papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), indigenous species in African
peatswamps, can be grown commercially provided that local markets are available and the range
of its industrial use can be widened.
Rice
Rice is probably the most swamp-adapted foodcrop. Wild rice (Zizania aquatica and Zizania
palustris), of which a number of varieties are commercially grown in North America, even as far
south as Florida, appears to offer good possibilities under the right climatic conditions in natural
peatswamps. This rice, famed as a gourmet accompaniment for wild duck and game, also has a
ready market as a dietary food because it is a good source of thiamine, riboflavin and nicotinic acid
(Morton et al. 1980). Wild rice needs some regulation of water-tables for optimum growing
conditions although it thrives in waterlogged conditions. Aeration of the water is however essential
and regular flooding with oxygenated water is beneficial. The optimum pH is between 7.5 and 8.0
which excludes most tropical peats unless they occur near a brackish water source in the fringe
areas between mangroves and freshwater swamp forest. For a number of reasons the
domesticated rice (Oryza sativa) requires very good water-table control and is therefore not
suitable for peatswamps. It is discussed under the section dealing with conditions of shallow
drainage.
Wetland taro
Another starch foodcrop, wetland taro (Colocasia esculenta, var. aquatilis) has many wetland
cultivars. It is grown in and around the Pacific as well as in India and Africa in similar locations to
wetland rice. Larger plantings require field levelling, puddling by ploughing, disking, harrowing and
grading. It is also necessary to have constant water circulation to avoid footrot. Since many tropical
peatswamps, particularly in their centres, have deoxygenized water, favourable conditions only
occur near their edges where peat merges into mineral deposits. Nutritionally taro is a better
choice of crop than rice, as the amino acid content is as high as in potatoes and the crop should be
grown more widely in wetlands.

116

Miscellaneous crops
Water celery (Oenanthe javanica), water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica), and the Chinese water
chestnut (Eleocharis tuberosus) when grown commercially, require some expertise and the
vegetable crops are limited by location and marketability. Water chestnuts, like rice, are grown in
fields covered with 5-10 cm depth of water. Tubers can be eaten in salads and soups, the juice has
antibiotic uses and the sedge can be made into matting although it is not very durable.
Most crops, including those mentioned above, require a plentiful supply of oxygen in the water, and
relatively eutrophic conditions for good growth. The true tropical lowland peats of an oligotrophic
nature are often not suitable and the best conditions are found in shallow peat and in those with an
appreciable amount of mineral matter.
8.2.2 Choice of crops under improved drainage with water-table at less than 40
cm depth
Pasture
By far the greatest area of reclaimed peatswamps in temperate regions is used for pasture and
these only require the water-table to be lowered to about 40 cm depth. In the Netherlands a water-
table depth of about 40 cm has been maintained for centuries which has minimized the rate of
subsidence. The largest area of peat in the Florida Everglades is used for pasture, particularly St
Augustinegrass (Stenotaphrum secundatum). Apart from requiring shallow drainage, grassland
use does not necessitate intensive mechanization which is characteristic of large scale vegetable
growing. Pastures can be used for direct grazing but the high water-tables lead to low surface
bearing strength and pastures are unsuited to frequent and heavy traffic. In the tropics pastures on
deep oligotrophic peats require high levels of fertilizer application and therefore the nature of the
peat should be carefully examined and likely improvements considered in the light of local
economic perspectives, before large scale pasture development is contemplated. Conditions will
most likely only be favourable in a few selected localities. The growing of fodder crops such as
Napier grass is probably locally more attractive than grazing. The careful selection of grass species
also counteracts the effects of poaching and in Florida, St Augustinegrass is used effectively in this
capacity.
Rice
Rice (Oryza sativa) has received much attention as being the crop most adapted to swamp
conditions. The cultivation of rice on true tropical peats of oligotrophic nature has a number of
drawbacks of which the most important are sterility, causing empty panicles, and the crops
dependence on good water control. Although the latter is only essential for obtaining high yields,
the former is often the cause of complete failure. The cause of sterility is not exactly known
although copper deficiency probably plays a major role and dressings of copper can alleviate the
problem. Driessen and Suhardjo (1976) suggest that copper deficiency retards the inactivation of
the toxic phenols and causes male sterility. However, J apanese work by the Central Agricultural
Experimental Station and reported upon by Miyake (1982) indicates that the disorder is caused by
harmful substances produced by delayed and incomplete decomposition of organic materials. He
postulates that disorder can be cured by drainage improvement. Both findings may be
complementary, in that it is possible that retarded decomposition causes the formation of copper-
fixing organic compounds, and thus, by stimulating the decomposition rate by drainage, the same
effect would be obtained as a copper dressing. In both cases good management is required.
117

Rice fields in peatswamps where water levels are not adequately controlled may be frequently
inundated by undrained rainwater and floodwaters become too high; such periods may be followed
by periods of water shortage causing drought stresses in the crop. Rice growing on peat, though
having some potential, therefore requires good water management involving both drainage and
irrigation, and consequently level fields. The generally low or very low fertility of the majority of
tropical peats, added to the problems of water control and sterility makes rice growing unprofitable
in most countries, unless good management can be given and well-tried adapted cultivars are
used.
Vegetables
In many countries organic soils are highly regarded for vegetable growing because of their
excellent physical properties as a medium for plant growth. The choice of which vegetables to
grow is dictated by many factors some of which (climate and locality) cannot be influenced by
management. The minimum depth of water-table required for maximum yield and quality also limits
the crop choice. Depth of water-table is often standard over large areas. Table 24 and Appendix 3
give indications of vegetable crops which can be grown with shallow drainage (water-table at less
than 60 cm depth). The ultimate choice however often depends on the demand and price.
Some tropical and sub-tropical crops such as chili, soya bean and tobacco should also be
mentioned here because their method of cultivation is comparable with that of vegetables. They
can also be grown successfully on peat soils with shallow drainage.
Where peatswamps are in areas remote from large population centres, vegetable growing is not a
commercial proposition particularly for rapidly perishable leafy vegetables. Non-perishable crops
which can be stored and/or dried can often be grown profitably some distance from a market.
Horticultural crops
In temperate regions, particularly in the Netherlands, horticultural cropping is favoured on peat
soils. Here the expansion of the horticultural industry was largely based on the excellent qualities
of the local peat soils. Sandy mineral soil, from nearby riverbanks or dunes, is often mixed with the
surface soil further improving the inherently good physical characteristics of the peat (Hidding
1982). In J apan mineral soil dressing is also practised for wet rice cultivation (Miyake 1982).
Transplanting horticultural crops is easy and successful in peat because of the good root balls
formed by the plants. Horticulture can be profitable in the tropics on oligotrophic peats, drained to
50 cm depth, assuming a good local market and an adequate level of management.

118

Table 24 MINIMUM WATER-TABLE DEPTH FOR MAXIMUM YIELD AND QUALITY OF CROPS
GROWN ON ORGANIC SOILS (source Lucas 1982)
Crop Florida Indiana
(Depth in cm)
Minnesota
Beans 45-60 - 45
Beets (red) - 71 -
Cabbage 45-60 66 60
Carrots - 66 -
Celery 45 60 45
Corn 45-75 75 60
Lettuce 75-90 - 75
Mint - 75 -
Onions 45-60 75 90
Potatoes 45-60 66 60
Parsley 35-40 - -
Radish 35-40 - 45
Pasture-sod 30-50 45 -
Sugar cane 60-75 - -
Deep drainage is defined as greater than 60 cm depth but some crops require a depth greater than
90 cm (Table 24 and Appendix 3).
Perennial crops
The growing of perennial crops, particularly plantation crops on tropical peats, has been under
study in Malaysia for some time (Kanapathy 1978; Tie and Kueh 1979). One of the most difficult
problems to counteract is the poor root anchorage provided by the soft peat, especially for crops
such as coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and rubber (Hevea
brasiliensis) (Plates 10 and 11) which become top-heavy when mature. Peat subsidence, a
consequence of intensive drainage, uproots the shallow-rooting trees causing them to lean
progressively and eventually topple. This problem can be partly alleviated by using dwarf varieties.
Attempts are currently underway to breed a dwarf oil palm for this purpose (Dolmat et al. 1982).
It is only where the peat is shallow (less than 2 m thick) and contains an appreciable amount of
mineral matter that such crops are feasible. Thus deep oligotrophic peats are unsuited because of
low fertility and poor anchorage though small subsistence farmers may have marginal success
when world prices are favourable.
Fruit trees and horticulture
The yield potential of some promising perennials and previously mentioned annuals grown on
deep oligotrophic peat in South East Asia is shown in Table 25. This potential is only realized
under very good management and with high inputs of fertilizers. The economic feasibility is
therefore low.
119

Large-scale banana (Musa spp.) growing in the Ivory Coast with drainage at 80-100 cm depth on
acid oligotrophic coastal peat, comparable with the lowland peats of South East Asia, indicate that
yields in the first years are in the range of 25-30 t/ha but could eventually reach a level of 35-40
t/ha. However, initial investments are higher than on other soils and banana cultivation on peats is
difficult and demands good management (Lassoudire 1976). In general this is true for most
horticultural crops grown on tropical peats. Sarawak sources (Tie and Kueh 1979) indicate a high
potential for mulberry (Morus alba) which, however, would require the initiation of a local silk
industry.
In general many fruit crops, though performing well, are plagued by bird damage, insect pests,
nematode and disease problems. Therefore, these crops also need a high level of crop protection
for success.
Food crops
Root crops require well drained conditions to prevent tuber rot and large inputs of fertilizer. Under
subsistence farming peat burning is traditionally practised to ensure adequate potassium levels but
because this exacerbates wastage it should not be encouraged. Cassava (Manihot esculenta) or
tapioca, yielding up to 50 t/ha with good management, is an important food crop on well drained
deep oligotrophic peat in the tropics.
Miscellaneous field crops
A number of perennial or semi-perennial crops are difficult to place in the categories mentioned
above. Of these pineapple (Ananas comosus) has a very good potential, because it both flourishes
in the acid conditions prevalent in peat soils, and it is relatively low growing and not susceptible to
being uprooted at maturity. The Malaysian pineapple industry is based predominantly on deep
oligotrophic peats.
Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) is grown successfully on the Everglade peats in Florida and
on deep coastal peats in southern states of Brazil, the latter for methanol production. Good
management and assured markets are prerequisites to the economic feasibility of sugar cane
growing.
Summary
While drained peats form an excellent growing medium for many crops it is only through the
development and employment of specific technology for each crop that the inherent potential can
be realized. In many countries the capital investment necessary for improvement is too high and
management levels too low to justify reclamation.

120

Table 25 YIELD OF SOME PROMISING CROPS ON PEAT IN SARAWAK AND WEST
SELANGOR, MALAYSIA (source Tie and Kueh 1979)
Common name Botanical name Sarawak West Selangor
Yield (t/ha)
Pineapple Ananas comosus 40.0 fresh fruit 40.0 fresh fruit
Tapioca (cassava) Manihot esculenta 50.0 fresh fruit 49.0 fresh tuber
Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum 0.7 dry leaf 1.0 dry leaf
Groundnut Arachis hypogaea 1.0 dry seed 3.5 fresh nuts
Soya bean Glycine max 1.5 dry seed -
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata 2.1 dry seed -
Bambara groundnut Vigna subterranea 1.5 dry seed -
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor 1.5 dry seed 2.5 dry seed
Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas 14.0 fresh tuber 24.0 fresh tuber
Castor oil Ricinus communis 2.5 dry seed -
Ginger Zingiber officinale 15.0 fresh rhizome 15.0 fresh rhizome
Okra Hibiscus esculentus 6.0 fruit fruit 15.0 fresh fruit
Oil palm Elaeis guineensis 19.0 fresh fruit bunch -
Sago Metroxylon sagus 6.0 dry starch -
Coffee Coffea liberica 1.7 fresh berries -
Annatto Bixa orellana 2.0 dry seed -
Mulberry Moms alba 13.0 fresh leaf 7.5 dry leaf

8.3.3 Irrigation

The provision and maintenance of adequate water control systems in peatswamp reclamation
require two distinct types of management; one at the individual farm level and another for the
peatswamp as a whole. The latter is responsible for major constructions such as dams, dikes,
levees, canals and main ditches, whereas the farmers are usually responsible for the construction
and maintenance of farm ditches and/or field drains.
The aim of water control systems is both to provide adequate drainage for optimum crop yield and
to maintain the water-table at an optimum depth to prolong the life of the organic soil. Initially
stagnant surplus water must be drained away, thereafter the water-table should be lowered to and
maintained at a depth where crop growth becomes possible. However, the peat should never be
allowed to dry out to such an extent that irreversible drying will set in. In tropical areas, where the
climate is characterized by a pronounced dry season, drainage facilities should be supplemented
by irrigation, so that in periods of drought water levels can be maintained at the desired height by
infiltration. An adequate source of irrigation water must therefore be available.

121

The reclamation of small swamps within a farm or group of farms is usually carried out by the
farmer or farmers concerned. Large swamps are usually reclaimed by public bodies. This Bulletin
describes the reclamation management required at farm level and does not describe at length the
engineering requirements for large reclamation schemes. The problems of co-ordinating and
integrating drainage requirements of many individual farms must not be underestimated. Further,
with regard to swamp drainage on an individual basis, the effects on groundwater levels and risk of
flooding on neighbouring farms, should be borne in mind.
The size of open drains is related to the amount of rainfall which must be removed and the height
of the groundwater-table to be maintained. Climate, in particular rainfall, and the lateral and vertical
hydraulic conductivity of the peat are the most important criteria in drainage design.
Generally, the nearer the water-table is held to the optimum depth for the individual crop, the better
the yield. Tie and Kueh (1979) quote recommendations for drains at 90-150 cm depth at 100-200
m intervals together with field drains at 50-80 cm depth, placed at right angles to the main drains at
15-30 m spacing. Tay (1969) describes a similar system used by the Drainage and Irrigation
Department of Malaysia for peat less than 1.5 m thick (Fig. 26). For thicker peats a system of ring
and feeder drains is recommended (Fig. 27). Such systems do not allow irrigation in periods of
drought. In Indonesia a system is used which allows both drainage and irrigation by utilizing the
tidal differences in water levels of the main canals (Fig. 28). The system works as follows: during
high tides water enters the canal system backing up and raising the fresh water in the system so
that parts of the land can be irrigated by submersion. During low tides the water levels in the
system fall, including the main tertiary and field drains. Owing to the relatively long length of the
system, not all of the drainage water is discharged to the river. To catch this, water tanks are
constructed at strategic points to be filled during the next tide. This water is conveyed to the
system when the next fall in water level reaches its minimum at the bottom of the tertiary drains. In
practice, serious siltation occurs in the tanks, but where the silt load in rivers is low the system is
feasible. However, it is only through the provision of structures such as tidal gates, sluices and
pumps that good use can be made of a combined irrigation and drainage system in coastal
lowlands. As a means of water control at field level stop-boards are widely used in tertiary drains.
The height of the water-table can then be easily adjusted within limits to suit the need of the
individual crop and growing period.

122

Figure 26. Drainage system for relativel y shallow (<1.5 m) peat (source Tay 1969)

The land is divided by main drains (1.5 m deep, 1.2 m wide) into rectangular blocks of 200 x 600
m. Within each block, secondary (1.2 m deep, 0.9 m wide) and field (0.9 m deep, 0.6 m wide)
drains are constructed.
In Florida an increasing use is made of corrugated plastic tubing to replace field drains. This is
easier to install than clay tiles, although it may be more expensive. Drain pipes should be 10-30 m
apart depending on the permeability of the peat, the rainfall and the cropping system. Observations
of water levels at about 2 m intervals between the pipes give information on the efficiency of the
subsurface drains. These dipwells can be made out of 1.5 m long by 10 cm diameter downspouts
with a stabilizing collar placed 30 cm from the top (Lucas 1982).
The disadvantages of tile drainage are their vulnerability to silting up with either organic or iron
oxide compounds, the cost and their possible disruption by tree roots. Mole drainage is an
alternative method but its effectiveness depends on the nature of the peat. In finely-divided
materials mole channels soon close up and become ineffective. An advantage of underdrainage is
that the tiles can be used to irrigate in times of drought by reversing the direction of water flow in
the main open ditches or canals, but its success depends on soil permeability and the smoothness
of the field surfaces.

123

Figure 27. Drainage system for deep peat (> 1.5 m) (source Tay 1969)

A large circular drain is constructed round the land with feeder drains proceeding inwards to the
centre.

124

Figure 28. Combined drainage and irrigation system using tidal differences (source ESCAP
1978)

8.3.3 Irrigation
The amount of water available to plants at critical periods in their growth is crucial to obtaining
good yields. For optimum growing conditions it is therefore necessary to monitor moisture
conditions in the peat soil. Neither excess nor insufficient water should be present in the rooting
zone. This is particularly so for high-quality vegetable crops that demand large investment of
capital and labour for optimum production. The peat surface should never be allowed to dry out
and frequent watering may be necessary in dry periods. Where this cannot be maintained
manually, overhead sprinkler devices, drip irrigation or surface flooding is necessary. Subsurface
irrigation, as explained above, is generally favoured because of low costs and there are no
problems with the quality of water sources (low alkalinity or salinity hazards). Overhead irrigation is
necessary wherever fields are not level. A great many systems, catering for many varied local
conditions, are in use, each with merits and handicaps. The factors to be considered when
choosing equipment are labour costs, ease of handling, damage to crops, water distribution
patterns and field puddling. Water used for irrigation should preferably have a conductivity of less
than or 750 mmho/cm (650 ppm of salt)

125

Good tillage on peat avoids breaking down the peat particles to dust. Too much tillage leads to
wind erosion of the fine particles and rapid dessication in dry spells.
Organic soils are inherently loose structured and require little power to cultivate, although
variations occur because of the relative proportions of mineral particles and wood. Too many wood
fragments prevents good ploughing and large fragments have often to be removed by hand. Deep
ploughing is often carried out in temperate countries, particularly in the Netherlands, to mix the
peat with underlying mineral soil, frequently sand. This mixing of sand and peat creates an
excellent medium for plant growth and also increases the bearing capacity. If the mineral subsoil is
clayey it is more difficult to obtain a good mixture, but clay admixtures have greater adsorption
power for fertilizers. In J apan the system of topsoil dressing of deep peat soils with mineral
materials is well established for padi cultivation.
The physical characteristics of peat often require adjustments to conventional ploughing
equipment. Peat can be too loose for ploughing so that it is pushed by the plough rather than
inverted.
In the tropics, high wood content and hummocky peat surfaces are often the main obstacles in
preparing a good seedbed. Mechanization is difficult because of the lack of levelling equipment
and manual tillage is therefore often practiced. Perennial crops or those requiring root stock
propagation are therefore favoured by the tropical subsistence farmer rather than crops produced
from seed.
In temperate regions, farming on peat soils is highly mechanized, while in developing countries
conditions are generally unsuited to mechanized farming. Large-scale mechanized farming is often
not cost-effective on the majority of tropical peats and much of the mechanized equipment is not
discussed here.
It is common practice to plant on ridges or raised beds, particularly in the case of vegetables.
Damage from waterlogging after heavy rains coupled with inefficient drainage can be avoided in
this way. The danger of desiccation is however enhanced and in certain climates the soil surface
has to be irrigated frequently (Plate 1).
To overcome the problem of uprooting with top-heavy perennial tree crops or palms, the crops in
Malaysia are planted by the double hole, or hole-in-hole method. A hole of 1 m
2
and 30 cm deep is
dug in the freshly reclaimed and drained peat. Within this large hole an oil palm seedling is planted
in a normal size planting hole of 45 cm diameter and 35 cm deep. As the surface of the peat
subsides because of shrinkage and compaction, the base of the young palm becomes level with
the peat surface. By this method the impact of the first rapid and intensive subsidence of about 40
cm in two years can be cushioned. Subsequent subsidence is rather slow and of less significance.
There has been very little research on cultivation techniques on tropical peats, probably because
most peats appear to be economically unsuited for large-scale cultivation. The exception is for
pineapples but apart from this there has been little stimulation to research.

126

8.5 Correcting Aci dity by Liming


The acid or very acid condition of many tropical peat soils does not suit most commercial crops.
Liming is therefore a prerequisite for most agricultural enterprises. The relationship between acidity
and base exchange characteristics in peats has been described in Section 4.2.
Many crops require a pH of over 4.5 for optimum growth. A few, such as pineapple and sago, like
the low pH of peat soils. The amount of lime required depends on the natural acidity of the peat
and the specific requirement of the crop. It is impossible to indicate here specific lime requirements
for the great variety of crops which can be grown on peat soils. However, some general points can
be made.
Many soil testing laboratories use buffer solutions to help estimate lime requirements. Some of
these solutions are not suitable for organic soils as they were developed for mineral soil with
different exchange characteristics. Mehlich (1942) developed a suitable test using a pH 6.6 buffer
containing triethanolamine, acetic acid, ammonium chloride and sodium glycerophosphate. Liming
was recommended if soil in the buffer was less than pH 5.5 (Lucas 1982). It should be added that
lime recommendation also depends on the crop grown.
Natural pH values and optimum CaCO
3
content of peat for agriculture is confusing because the
type of peat is rarely given when results are discussed. The amount of lime required per unit
change of pH varies for different soils depending on exchange characteristics. The proportion of
mineral matter and the amount of exchangeable Al are both important. Generally a pH rise of 0.1
can be achieved by thoroughly mixing 0.7 t/ha of limestone to a depth of 15 cm. Lassoudire
(1976) reports that an application of 5 t/ha of lime raised the pH one unit in coastal peat of the
Ivory Coast. Similarly in Sarawak an application of 5 t/ha raised the pH from 5.7 to 6.6. However,
the depth to which the pH increase is effective is also important as indicated in Table 26, based on
liming studies with blanket bogs in Ireland which are chemically similar to oligotrophic peats in the
tropics.
Table 26 EFFECT OF LIME AND FERTILIZER ON THE NUTRIENT STATUS OF THE SOIL
(source OToole 1968)
1
Ca, P and K as ppm in wet peat
OToole (1968) showed that generally very large amounts of limestone are required to substantially
increase the pH throughout the rooting depth. Tropical oligotrophic peats where the pH is between
3.5 and 4.0 require at least enough lime to raise the pH one unit for most field crops including
vegetables. Corn and alfalfa need a pH of 4.6-5.0 and onions require a pH of at least 4.3. In
Sarawak, Tie and Kueh (1979) indicate that maize, groundnut and tapioca (cassava), grown on
peat limed to a pH of 4.6, yielded significantly better than crops grown on unlimed peat of pH 3.2.

127

Several factors modify the critical pH for good plant growth, including the crop sensitivity to active
calcium content. In general, organic soils with low Fe and Al contents can have an optimum pH
value as low as 4.5 for certain crops, whereas peat soils containing appreciable amounts of Fe and
Al have an optimum pH value approaching 5.0 for the same crops.
Liming to neutral state is expensive and unnecessary. It may affect the availability of trace
elements and over-liming may influence denitrification, producing toxic levels of nitrate-nitrogen.
OToole (1968) showed that where an adequate supply of nitrogen fertilizer is applied to pasture
the pH can be maintained at lower levels than where no applications are given. The influence of
liming on the dry matter output of a mixed grass-clover sward is shown in Figure 29. Comparison
with data in Table 26 illustrates that the best results are obtained when 2.5 t/ha of calcium
carbonate is applied which raises the pH to 4.8.
Figure 29. Effect of calcium carbonate on dry matter output from a surface seeded grass-
clover sward (source OToole 1968)
Liming an acid peat to a pH of over 5.2 appreciably depresses the phosphate recovery and large
quantities of calcium, and in the case of dolomite application also magnesium, may interfere with
the absorption of potassium by the plants. It is sometimes alleged that liming increases the rate of
decomposition of peat but the results of research give variable results and are inconclusive. The
type of peat probably plays an important role (section 7.3; subsidence).
Tie and Kueh (1979) give general recommendations for liming deep oligotrophic lowland peats of
South East Asia based on the work of several researchers in Malaysia. They indicate that
pineapple and sago need no liming, as does tapioca (cassava) if the initial pH is above 4.0 but at
pH 3.5 and below, 5.0-7.5 t/ha of ground dolomite is recommended. Most other crops, like sweet
potato, maize, groundnut, soya bean, sorghum, coffee and napier grass require between 5 and 10
t/ha of ground dolomite. This order of application is very costly, particularly as to maintain the pH at
the required level necessitates an annual application of about 1.25 t/ha.
In many cases, therefore, liming is a prerequisite for profitable farming. The optimum pH values
and rates of application to achieve this vary considerably from crop to crop and between different
types of peat. When assessing adequate levels of liming local experimentation is important as
optimum pH levels are partly dependent on local economic factors.
There are two main materials used for liming; limestone, which is relatively pure CaCO
3
with less
than 1 percent MgO, and dolomite, a CaCO
3
and MgCO
3
mixture containing over 15 percent MgO.
The pure materials act faster to raise the pH than the dolomitic ones though the latter supply
magnesium which is deficient in many peats. Proximity to source and transport costs of these bulky
materials often determine the local choice of materials. Occasionally marl, which usually has
admixtures of mineral material, and coral lime are used locally. In all cases to be effective, the
limestone and related materials need to be finely ground to pass through a 100 mesh sieve.
Lime when applied to peat soils is relatively immobile and a thorough mixing to the required depth
is therefore important. This is laborious to achieve manually and even with mechanized means
several diskings will be necessary. In the tropics, the low level of mechanization leads to inefficient
liming at the field scale. Where deep mixing is necessary, split applications can be given, one half
ploughed under, the other top dressed after ploughing. Split applications also allow the use of both
pure and dolomitic limestone.
128

8.6 Fertilizer Use

8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Burning
8.6.9 Conclusions

8.6.1 Introduction
One of the most important factors that has prevented large scale use of peat soils in the tropics is
the very low chemical fertility. Oligotrophic peats, which areally are the most important in the
tropics, are inherently poor in all plant nutrients. Eutrophic or mesotrophic peats, which are locally
important, contain more nutrients than oligotrophic peats but they also need manuring or artificial
fertilizers for commercial farming. This section concentrates on oligotrophic peats since their
nutrient requirements have been studied in the tropics, particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia.
Studies of the chemical fertility and nutrient deficiencies of peats have received more attention
than either the more important physical changes of peat soils upon drainage, and the water
management of drained peats. Nutrient deficiencies are easier to remedy than some of the
detrimental physical changes caused by reclamation. The interest in the nutrient requirements of
peats probably reflects the parallel interest in the case of mineral soils where it is often the most
important constraint to improvement.
8.6.2 Burning
Reclaimers and settlers of peatswamps realized the importance of fertilization of peat soils from
the beginning. They initially fertilized by burning the peat, and this practice survives among
traditional farmers employed in shifting cultivation. Kanapathy (1976 and 1977) has shown that
burning is beneficial in increasing the pH value from 3.5 to occasionally over 5 which is desirable
for food crops such as maize. Burning also adds potassium to the soil and changes unavailable
phosphorus, stored in the organic compounds of the peat, into available forms.
Other added benefits of burning include the increase in rate of decomposition caused by the rise in
pH, producing an increase in nitrogen stored in the peat. Polak and Supraptohardjo (1951)
demonstrated that heating peat to between 105 and 128C produced a flux of ammonia, to which
maize showed a marked response. Finally, burning releases copper compounds, usually fixed in
peat, causing these soils to be frequently deficient in copper for most crops.
The beneficial effects of peat burning are, however, short-lived and after only two years another
burn is needed to support cropping. Regular burning leads to a rapid lowering of the peat surface,
causing problems of waterlogging and often ultimately to abandoning agricultural activities. Where
sustained agriculture is the aim, burning should be stopped, though at present it is often the only
means available for the poor traditional farmer to maintain his subsistence agriculture. The regular
use of fertilizer is the only way to sustain agriculture on these soils but ultimately however the peat
will disappear (Chapter 7).

129

Each crop has individual nutrient requirements and it is therefore difficult to discuss specific details.
Instead an attempt is made to provide general fertilizer guidelines and principles for peat soils.
Rates of fertilizer-use depend on both the cropping and type of peat present. Where there is no
local research work available, the peat type needs to be identified and the specific requirements of
the crop reviewed. Then it is possible to apply the results of research work done elsewhere to the
local circumstances.
Most information on fertilizer-use on tropical peats has either been carried out in the Everglades,
Florida (eutrophic and mesotrophic peats), or on the oligotrophic coastal peats of Malaysia and
Indonesia. Basic research on oligotrophic peats in temperate climates, particularly that on nitrogen,
can also be applied to tropical peats.
Admixtures of mineral material, which can be up to 50 percent of organic soils (Histosols) can have
profound effects on the behaviour of peat soils. Extrapolation of research findings, particularly on
fertility status, should never be attempted if the research results are not accompanied by an
accurate analysis of the soils in question.
The nitrogen status of peat soils is discussed in section 4.2, where it is shown that the total
nitrogen content ranges widely because of differences in both the nature of peats and their
decomposition rate. Generally, total N contents are high when compared with mineral soil.
However, the amount of N available to the plant is important. While available N is indirectly
determined by factors influencing the total N content other factors such as temperature, moisture,
aeration and acidity play a role. The latter three affect the activity of soil organisms responsible for
the breakdown of the organic compounds. The effect on soil N of liming Irish blanket bog soils
decreased after a short time (OToole 1968). Chew et al. (1976a and b), in a study of the effect on
nitrogen of liming oligotrophic peats under napier grass in Malaya, discovered an almost identical
decrease in response to liming in the uptake of soil N. The availability of N is also affected in time
by liming. This is because the easily decomposed nitrogenous components of the peats are
mineralized first and relatively quickly after liming, leaving the less easily decomposed forms of
organic N (Hardon and Polak 1941). Liming has the primary effect of raising the pH and any other
effect on nitrogen liberation may be short-lived.
The carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio of peat is important in assessing the available N content. In tropical
organic materials C/N values lower than 16 are commonly regarded as indicative of soils where
nitrogen stress will form a constraint to crop growth. However, temperature also plays a role. In
temperate or colder regions available N varies with the season because of changing microbial
activity.
Available N content is also considerably influenced by drainage depth. In the Netherlands a
drainage depth of 50 cm requires N-fertilization for good pasture growth whereas this is not
necessary with deeper drainage. Likewise trials in the USA also indicated that no response to N
fertilizer was found with deep drainage as opposed to a 10-67 percent yield increase, dependent
on crop type, experienced when shallow drainage is practised (Table 27).
It should be noted that nitrification proceeds rapidly under high temperatures and nitrite poisoning
may affect forage crops. These, when consumed by ruminants, may in turn be responsible for
nitrite poisoning and death of the animals.

130

Table 27 AVERAGE YIELD RESPONSE TO NITROGEN DRESSINGS ACCORDING TO DEPTH
OF WATER-TABLE (source Lucas 1982)
Crop Years in test Water-table at 40 cm % Yield increase Water-table at 60 cm Water-table at 80 cm
Corn 7 43 6 2
Potatoes 4 67 9 4
Onions 5 23 3 2
Peppermint 5 10 6 3

General recommendations for the application of the nitrogen on peat soils to fit all conditions are
difficult to give. Rates in the USA vary from 0-200 kg/ha. Generally more emphasis is given to
phosphorus and potassium fertilization.
From experimental work in Malaysia and Indonesia on many crops, it is agreed that nitrogen is
required in quantity by all crops except legumes. A range of rates are specified but Tie and Kueh
(1979) give the following rates of nitrogen application for oligotrophic lowland peats of South East
Asia:
Vegetables including long beans, French beans, green pepper and chilli - 280 to 560 kg/ha,
cucumber - 560 kg/ha.
Soya bean, groundnut and cowpea - 45 to 78 kg/ha.
Maize - 180 kg/ha (on shallow peat with 20 percent mineral matter).
Tapioca - 200 kg/ha.
Tobacco - 140 kg/ha.
Pineapple - 280 to 420 kg/ha (depending on variety).
Oil palm appears to be negatively affected if ammonium sulphate is applied in dressings greater
than 5 kg per tree. This quantity would also stimulate a high uptake of phosphate which is
detrimental to the plant (Kanapathy 1978).
Cattle manure or slurry is traditionally used as a fertilizer on pastures in the Netherlands. In J apan
the application of farmyard manure or compost appears beneficial (Miyake 1982). In general, rice
on peat soils receives rates of 40 kg/ha of nitrogen as it is assumed that the fertilizer acts as a
starter in the initial growth stage and that large amounts of ammonium nitrogen will be released
from the peat under submerged conditions (Miyake 1982).
In conclusion, the application of nitrogen fertilizers to crops grown on peat is dependent on a great
many variable factors. For each situation and type of peat rates should be carefully assessed by
trial. However, it is important to note that, without adequate nitrogen the response to other supplied
elements will be small. This is particularly the case with oligotrophic peats.

131

The total phosphorus (P) content of tropical peat is generally low, but as is the case with nitrogen,
we are more concerned with its availability. In oligotrophic peats in the tropics, available
phosphorus content is generally larger than in upland soils. This is mainly caused by the low
phosphate fixation experienced in these peats due to very low levels of Al and Fe. Most
phosphorus is present in the organic form and upon mineralization this becomes readily available.
Peats which have been drained and farmed for some time may increasingly develop phosphate-
fixing powers upon decomposition, because of a relative accumulation of Al and Fe compounds in
the mineral admixture. For this reason added phosphate may become partly fixed.
Available phosphorus values in peat soils are difficult to determine. This is an analytical problem
inherent to the characteristics of organic soils. It is important to realize that each type of peat may
require its own specific interpretation dependent on the extraction method used. The experience
with oligotrophic peats in South East Asia indicates that phosphate requirements for most crops
are not high. There can be considerable difference between deep and shallow peats. Perennials
planted on peats less than 1 m thick may find their phosphorus source in the mineral subsoil. Type
and depth of peat are therefore important variables.
General recommendations are again difficult to make because of the large variability in conditions
and crop demand, for example, pineapple requires less than one tenth of the amount of
phosphorus than it requires of nitrogen that is 14-28 kg/ha. Tapioca one quarter of the demand for
nitrogen, thus 50 kg/ha, whereas vegetables require more than half the nitrogen requirement.
Table 28 gives the general phosphorus recommendations used for organic soils in the USA.
Table 28 PHOSPHORUS FERTILIZER RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A RANGE OF CROPS
BASED ON AVAILABLE SOIL PHOSPHORUS (source Lucas 1968)
ppm of available soil phosphorus
1
Phosphorus recommended
(kg/ha)
5 112
5 10 90
10 20 67
5 20 30 45
5 10 30 40 34
10 20 40 50 22
20 30 50+ 60+ 17
30+ 40+ - - 11

Blueberry Alfalfa Cabbage Broccoli
Buckwheat Asparagus Carrot Cauliflower
Clover Barley Cucumber Celery
Grass Bean Endive Onion
Oat Corn Lettuce Tomato
Rye Mint Parsnip
Soya bean Pea Potato
Pasture Radish Pumpkin
Sudan grass Spinach
Turnip Sugar beet
Wheat Table beet
1
Extracted with 0.018-N-acetic acid, using one part air dried soil (by weight) with 10 parts of extracting
solution
132

Most peat soils, particularly the oligotrophic types, are deficient in potassium (K). While much of
the K found in peat soils is readily available, once it is used up, K deficiency becomes severe.
Traditional subsistence farmers try to supply the required potassium for food cropping by burning.
As is the case with nitrogen, insufficient drainage affects potassium uptake. Shallow drainage
aggravates the deficiency, and responses to K fertilizer are good. Experience in temperate
climates with most crops grown on peat soils indicates that potassium is the most important
nutrient for crop production.
There are a number of important properties of potassium in relation to organic soils:
i. K fixation, which is noticeable in many mineral soils, is absent.
ii. Peat soils, although having a high cation exchange capacity, do not readily adsorb
exchangeable K.
iii. A large proportion of the total available K is always present in the soil solution and is therefore
strongly mobile and prone to leaching. Losses therefore, can be substantial particularly under
waterlogged conditions.
It appears unwise to try to build up the K content of a soil by saturating the exchange complex as is
often practised in mineral soils. In tropical peats, with high rainfall, potassium will be strongly
leached. Tests for potassium requirement are therefore difficult, since potassium mobility appears
to be much greater when high rates of K are applied to soils that test high in potassium. Fertilizer
recommendations based upon soil tests must be modified to correct leaching, heavy rainfall or
flood conditions. Some recommendations for vegetables on USA peat soils are given in Table 29.

133

Table 29 POTASSIUM FERTILIZER RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A RANGE OF CROPS BASED
ON AVAILABLE SOIL POTASSIUM (source Lucas 1968)
ppm of available soil potassium
1
Potassium recommended
(kg/ha)
80 560
200 448
80 320 359
80 160 440 269
80 200 300 580 179
50 200 300 410 690 112
150 285 390 490 780 67
250 345 450 550 840 34
300 400 500 600 900 0

Barley Bean Alfalfa Broccoli Celery
Blueberry Clover Asparagus Cauliflower
Grass Corn Cabbage Onion
Oat Mint Carrot Potato
Rye Pea Cucumber Sugar beet
Pasture Soya bean Lettuce Table beet
Wheat Sudan grass Parsnip Tomato
Sweet corn Radish
Turnip Spinach

1
Extracted with 1-N-neutral ammonium acetate (1 part soil to 20 parts extract)
It should be noted that potassium requirements in temperate regions vary considerably with the
crop. This is also the case in tropical crops, of which, particularly, tobacco, pineapple and legumes
are highly demanding, and frequently in excess of nitrogen requirements.
Because of the high potassium content in both the ash from fruit bunches of oil palm and from
plant debris of crops such as sugar cane, it is good practice to return these materials to the land as
a source of potassium fertilizer. Such materials also raise the pH. The liberal use of dolomitic
limestone for correcting acidity increases the need for potassium to counteract the effect of high
levels of magnesium. In such cases purer forms of limestone should, if possible, be used for liming.
Usually, calcium and magnesium are not deficient in tropical peats. Calcium deficiency is unlikely
wherever the total Ca exceeds 0.5 percent. However, high levels of K, Na and/or NH
4
can induce
Ca and Mg deficiencies. The Ca/Mg ratio can also influence deficiency, and even when the lower
threshold value of 0.5 percent is surpassed, calcium deficiency can still develop. In coastal peats
of South East Asia, where the magnesium contents are relatively high, this aspect is particularly
important.
Experimental evidence indicates that the benefits from liming are more a result of the increase in
pH and the de-acidifying effects of this than to rectification of any calcium or magnesium
deficiencies.
134

This is certainly the case with maize which requires a much higher pH than the usual value of 3.5
found in tropical oligotrophic peats. The relative growth of maize is therefore not a good indicator of
the nutrient status of organic soils, although it is often used as such for mineral soils. Lim et al.
(1973) advocate the use of grasses as indicators of nutrient status in organic soils though grasses
can be insensitive to deficiencies in micro-nutrients.
Copper, iron, boron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc have been shown to be deficient in
organic soils for many crops.
Copper
Copper (Cu) deficiency, especially in cereals, has been reported to occur on peat soils throughout
the world and tropical peats are no exception. The reclamation disease found in oats and rye
grown on freshly reclaimed peat soils in Germany and the Netherlands in the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries is well known. A similar failure to produce grains was found to occur in
Indonesia and Malaysia (Polak 1941; Coulter 1957; Driessen and Sudewo 1977). Remarkably,
only wet rice appeared to be affected and not dry rice. The cause of sterility is still not fully
understood. Driessen and Sudewo (1977) tentatively attribute it to the presence of certain organic
compounds, notably polyphenolic lignin degradation products, which hinder directly or indirectly
(through copper fixation) one or more essential enzyme-catalyzed carbohydrate transformations.
The fact that dry rice seems to be unaffected even when growing on the same peat on which wet
rice shows severe deficiency, coupled with findings from J apan where drainage tends to cure the
sterility (Miyake 1982), may indicate that wet conditions somehow appear to be related to the
release of such toxic organic compounds. Ennis and Brogan (1968), have shown that humic acids
are likely toxic compounds.
In Malaysia, other crops as well as cereals, are prone to copper deficiencies; notably oil palm,
sugar cane, tapioca and coconut (Kanapathy and Keat 1970). Green die-back commonly
encountered in pineapple appears to be caused by Cu deficiency. The different response of plants
to Cu is associated with the type of enzyme in the plant. Cereals respond to Cu because of the
ascorbic acid oxydase which requires Cu in order to function in photosynthesis, whereas in forage
crops the relationship between Cu and molybdenum content is important for livestock feeding.
Molybdenum is taken up in toxic amounts when the Cu content is low and the molybdenum is
higher than 3.0 ppm.
It is difficult to assess the need for copper by soil analysis. Much depends on the method of
extraction and total copper values are poor indicators. The need for copper can be predicted, to an
extent, by the Cu content of the foliage. Under deficient conditions the content of the plant is
usually less than 6 ppm (Lucas 1982).
Copper deficiency can be corrected by several copper compounds but copper oxide and copper
sulphate are mainly used in agriculture. Lucas (1982) recommends the use of about 10 kg/ha for
low- and medium-response crops and 20 kg/ha for highly responsive crops. Oligotrophic peats in
the tropics require larger quantities up to 35 kg/ha but this dosage will last for at least 5 years as
the residual effect is good. The best method of application for wet rice is uncertain. Spraying of
Bordeaux mixture (CuSO
4
-solution) in the generative phase of the wet rice is however promising.

135

Iron
Iron (Fe) deficiencies arise in peats with a notably low Fe content. Its occurrence appears to
depend partly on the crop. In many wet mineral soils Fe-content can become excessive due to
reducing conditions but generally the oligotrophic peats in the tropics are so low in iron, particularly
the centres of the peat domes, that iron deficiency is common in a range of crops including pepper,
coffee, tapioca, grasses and legumes. Severe chlorosis is the common symptom. Iron deficiency
can be overcome easily by foliar sprays of ferrous sulphate solution (0.5-1.5 percent w/w). Drilled
iron sulphate at the rate of 50-100 kg/ha prevents chlorosis in cereal crops (Lucas 1982).
Boron
Boron (B) deficiency occurs in both alkaline and acid peats. It is commonly found in highly
sensitive temperate vegetables such as cauliflower, beet and celery, but in the tropics boron
deficiency is not so common. Alfalfa appears to be affected as also does oil palm and boron
deficiency has been noticed in coffee (Tie and Kueh 1979). Deficiencies can easily be corrected by
foliar sprays (sodium borate) of not more than 0.1-0.4 kg/ha of boron. Soil application of
tetraborate effectively controls boron deficiency in oil palm.
Manganese
Manganese (Mn) deficiency in tropical peats is rare, because it very much depends on soil
reaction. It is usually found only in eutrophic peats with a pH of over 5.5. Most tropical peats are
oligotrophic, with a pH of less than 4.5, and frequently 3.5. Generally, manganese deficiency will
therefore only occur after heavy liming. If this happens, it is easily corrected by applying
manganese bearing materials as a foliar spray or mixed with other nutrients and broadcast at rates
not exceeding 5 kg/ha of manganese. Another option is to acidify the soil with a sulphur
compound.
Mol ybdenum
Molybdenum (Mo) deficiency is associated with soils of low pH (less than 5.5). Soils rich in free
oxides are often deficient in available molybdenum. There are no reports on molybdenum
deficiency on tropical peats in the literature studied. This may reflect the facts that tropical peats
are commonly low in Fe and crops usually grown on peat soils are not Molybdenum-sensitive.
Zinc
Zinc deficiency is normally only apparent in soils with a pH greater than 6.5 or on peat soils which
have been heavily limed. Large applications of phosphorus fertilizer and poor drainage can also
induce zinc deficiency. As is the case with molybdenum there is no evidence that zinc deficiency is
a problem in tropical peats.
8.6.9 Conclusions
Trace element requirements are most pronounced for copper (nearly always) and iron (frequently).
Although levels of other trace elements present few problems there is little detailed information and
it is possible that, when more tropical peat is brought under cultivation and the crop range is
extended, deficiencies not observed at present may develop. The likelihood of such development
will depend largely on liming practices and fertilizer use. Over-liming should be avoided, a pH of
4.5-5.0 is adequate for most crops. Nitrogen and phosphorus applications should not be excessive.
136

8.7 Crop Protection

8.7.1 Weed control

8.7.1 Weed control
Weeds enjoy the excellent growing conditions in peat soils and their abundance is a nuisance,
particularly in freshly reclaimed peats. Weeds compete for space, light, moisture and nutrients and
also act as hosts for pathogens, insects and nematodes. They reduce the quality and yield of crops
and interfere with harvesting. Weed control therefore needs attention.
In temperate regions weeds are removed either mechanically or by herbicides. Manual removal is
costly, but in some cases it is necessary because either the crop is too dense to allow machinery
or herbicides affect the quality of the crop. This is particularly the case with vegetable growing
where yields of leafy vegetables may be affected by broadleaf weedkillers. Some of the most
effective weedkillers are highly toxic which influences not only the crops grown but also the
broader environment. Peat absorbs chemicals readily and undesirable toxicity can accumulate.
The choice of effective weed controls is thus very much for the individual farm manger to decide,
because the economics of each particular technique depends on local conditions and crop.
In the tropics heavy weed infestation is also common. Wee, quoted by Tie and Kueh (1979),
reports that weed infestation of pineapples on peat soils in Malaya decrease yields by 20-40
percent. For non-vegetable crops many weedkillers are effective but their use is often limited by
economics. Crops on organic soils require larger applications of chemicals than those on mineral
soils (2 to 3 times the amount given on mineral soils is not uncommon). The choice of the herbicide
is important because many are short-lived. Pre-emergence types are more effective than
incorporative ones.
In most tropical countries, even in Malaysia where labour costs are relatively high, it is still cheaper
to carry out weed control by hand than by other means.
The control of soil-borne pests and diseases is particularly desirable on peat soils. In their natural
state organic soils usually have low populations of anaerobic micro-organisms tolerant of the
inherent acid conditions. Once the soils are drained, limed and fertilized an excellent medium is
created for the rapid spread of new soil fauna and flora. Tie and Kueh (1979) indicate that many
crops in the South East Asian peats are affected by fungal collar rot, root rot, white root and
serious nematode attack. Bacterial wilt is common in crops such as chilli, tomato and ginger.
There are several methods of controlling soil-borne diseases and pests. Fumigation and
sterilization by gasses or steaming are used in the Netherlands in intensive systems of horticultural
cropping (vegetables, potplants and flowers). High costs are a disadvantage and steaming and
some fumigants such as dichloropropene, methyl bromide, methyl isothiocyanate and chloropicrin
destroy a large proportion of the soil micro-organisms responsible for supplying available nitrogen
to the plant. More nitrifying bacteria are killed than the ammonifiers and therefore a build up of
ammonia can occur after fumigation, which retards some crops, particularly vegetables.

137

Crop rotation, including a clean fallow, can be effectively used against soil-borne pests such as
nematodes. The use of flooding to combat soil pests was studied in Florida (Genung 1976) with
remarkably good results. Table 30 illustrates the effect flooding had on important arthropods and
oligochaetes. Both prolonged clean fallow and flooding caused evident reductions of populations of
all the organisms including such predatory forms as Carabidae, Dermaptera, Formicidae and
Chilopoda. Flooding under the 4-2-4 weeks alternation shows a much larger reduction of both soil
pests and predators as well as oligochaetes than did either of two clean fallow treatments.
The key factor in controlling pests by flooding appears to be the length of inundation. Soil-borne
pests and diseases in tropical peats can probably be effectively controlled by flooding. Water
control is one of the most important aspects of the agricultural management of peat soils and it is
therefore often possible to artificially create floods to control pests. It is relatively cheap, highly
effective, also eradicates some weeds, and unlike fallow systems no land has to be taken out of
production.
Table 30 INFLUENCE OF FLOODING AND CLEAN FALLOW ON ERADICATION OF MAJOR SOIL-
BORNE PESTS (source Genung 1976)
CWW =Corn wireworm CW = Cutworms Cbd. =Carabidae Swbg. =Sowbugs
SPWW = Sou. potato wireworm Cyd. = Cydniade Dmpa. = Dermaptera Pred. Dip. =Predatory Diptera
W.Gbs. =White grubs Ten. =Tenebrionidae Cent. =Centipedes Olig. =Oligochaetes

1
White grub (Bothynus subtropicus Blatchley) mortality percentages under simulated flooding in a
replicated and randomized laboratory trial was as follows: 0 hrs flooded (check) 5%, 24 hrs flooded
7.5%, 48 hrs flooded 25%, 72 hrs flooded 65%, 96 hrs flooded 95%.

138

9. ENERGY USE OF PEAT

9.1 Introduction
9.4 Peat Production

9.1 Introduction
Peat has been used as a form of energy for at least 2 000 years. It was useful as an alternative to
firewood for cooking and heating in temperate and boreal regions of Europe, in particular Ireland,
England, the Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Poland, Finland and the USSR. The increasing use
of gas and oil as cooking and heating fuels during the 20th century resulted in a diminishing use of
peat for such domestic purposes. The high demand for electricity, however, locally stimulated the
development of large electric power plants fuelled by peat. Peat appeared especially competitive in
the 60-200 MW power plants which necessitated the reclamation of vast areas of peat for large
scale peat extraction, particularly in Ireland, Finland and the USSR. Specialized technology was
developed for these reclamation efforts. Recently, peat has been used for electricity generation in
small units in the range of 20-1 000 kW.
As well as these energy uses, peat is mixed with mineral soil in horticulture to increase the
moisture holding capacity of sands, to increase the water infiltration rate of clayey soils, and to
acidify soils for specific pot plants. Industrial uses include the extraction of valuable hydro-carbons
(Table 31), and in the building industry it can be used as an insulator because of its poor heat
conducting properties. Such uses are however relatively minor in relation to the large scale
extraction for energy purposes on which this chapter concentrates.
Extraction of peat for energy purposes as an alternative to relatively expensive imported fossil
fuels such as oil and natural gas, has become particularly attractive to developing countries since
the first fuel crisis in the nineteen seventies. There often appears to be a strong natural link
between the extraction of peat for fuel and agricultural development. The latter either succeeds
extraction when the peat deposits are exhausted or both enterprises are carried out
simultaneously. It is likely that in the near future it will become possible to employ very small
generators fuelled by peat for water control and water-table management in peatswamps used for
agricultural purposes. If this can be done it would perhaps be economical and, from an income-
generating point of view, desirable to stimulate integrated development of peatswamps.
Peat extraction is only one land use option for peatswamps and often competes with other land
use alternatives such as agriculture or preservation. In places peat extraction is desirable where
the underlying mineral substrate is of good quality for arable use.
The economic viability of peat as a fuel depends on local conditions including availability of other
fuels, labour, material costs, transportation distances, climatic conditions and the possible scale of
operation. Peat utilization can have socio-economic impacts on rural areas and this should be
considered during the land evaluation process which includes future agricultural uses of reclaimed
wetlands. A discussion of the issues in the development of peatswamps for extraction therefore
forms part of this Bulletin.

139

The technology for peat extraction in the tropics is limited and must rely on the wealth of
information from the developed countries, mainly in temperate regions, where peat extraction has
been practised for centuries. For up to date technical information reference has been made to
studies carried out by Ekono (1981), Bord-na-Mona (1984) and Euroconsult (1984 and 1985).
The following sections describe the concepts and principles of evaluating the quality and quantity
of peat resources, the planning of peat production, and finally the preparation of peatswamps for
extraction and the related problems.

9.2.3 Ash content
9.2.6 Minor factors

Peats vary greatly in character partly depending on the state of decomposition of their plant
remains and for this reason the Von Post scale of humification is commonly used to characterize
peats (Table 16). Weakly decomposed peat is poorly suited to combustion, and therefore peat
should be at least moderately decomposed (group H5) for use as a fuel.
Table 31 IMPORTANT INDUSTRIAL USES OF PEAT AND RELATED PRODUCTION
PROCESSES (source Euroconsult 1984)
Raw material Process Primary products Secondary products
Well decomposed (milled peat, sod peat,
briquettes)
Pyrolysis Coke
Tar
Pyrolysis gas
Metallurgic coke
Activated carbon
Neutral oil
Raw phenols
Raw acids
Raw alkalis
Gasification Synthetic gas
Water gas
Generator gas
Oil products
Hydrogen gas
Methane
Methanol
Ammonia
Hydrogenation Crude oil
Gas
Oil products
Extraction Raw waxes
Raw resins
Humic acid salts
Peat residue
Synthetic waxes
Fatty alcohols
Fatty acids
Humic acids
Oxidation Organic acids
Peat residue
Oxalic acid
Higher organic acids
Weakly decomposed (milled peat, sod peat) Hydrolysis Hydrolysis products
Peat residue
Food yeast
Alcohol
Furfural
Chemical activation Activated carbon
Heat treatment Absorption materials
Purification, fertilization Horticultural peat

140

The carbon and hydrogen contents of peat are significant for its use as a fuel. During
decomposition carbon and nitrogen typically increase whereas oxygen and hydrogen decrease
(Table 32). However, relative amounts of the various organic compounds in peats such as
carbohydrates, humic acids, lignin and bituminous materials (Table 12) affect the intensity of the
three phases of combustion commonly distinguished in thermo-analytical studies.
9.2.3 Ash content
Inorganic substances in peat deposits vary quantitatively as well as qualitatively and they affect the
ash content which is a useful parameter when assessing the value of peat for fuel. Peats with a
large content of mineral soil have a high ash value. The range of ash values in good quality peat is
from 1-7 percent, but peats with values up to 14 percent are used for fuel. Analyses of some
Indonesian peats are compared with those of peats from Finland and the Netherlands in Table 33.
These figures show the wide range of ash values that can be present in the same areas, probably
caused by admixtures of mineral soil.
Table 32 THE MOST IMPORTANT ELEMENTS IN PEAT ACCORDING TO DEGREE OF
DECOMPOSITION (source Ekono 1984)
Element Degree of decomposition according to Von Post
Slightl y decomposed
peat H1-2
Moderatel y decomposed
peat H5-6
Highl y decomposed peat
H9-10
Carbon 48-50
1
53-54 58-60
Hydrogen 5.5-6.5 5-6 5.0-5.5
Nitrogen 0.5-1 1-2 1-3
Oxygen 38-42 35-40 30-35
1
Percent weight in dry solids
Table 33 EVALUATION OF PEAT FOR FUEL PURPOSES (source Euroconsult 1984)
1
Moisture content is as received and is not representative of the bog as a whole.
2
Dry basis.
3
Samples analysed by Shell Laboratories, Amsterdam.
4
Samples analysed by PPTM-Bandung.
5
Samples analysed by Ekono, Finland.
6
Ekono (1981).
Proportions of SiO
2
and Al
2
O
3
which raise the melting point of the ash often exceed 50 percent of
the total ash content. CaO and Fe
2
O
3
tend to lower melting points. The sulphur contents of peat is
usually low (0.1-0.4 percent as indicated in Table 34), although according to Table 13 values can
be as high as 4 percent while Indonesian peats vary between 0.03 and 0.74 percent. Most peat
therefore has a sulphur content comparable to oil which has a content of no more than 0.3-0.4
percent. This in turn is much lower than the sulphur content of coal and lignite (1-3 percent). Peat
is therefore environmentally as acceptable as oil for use as a fuel.

141

Table 34 GENERAL CHEMICAL AND FUEL PROPERTIES OF A RANGE OF FOSSIL FUELS
(source Lindstrm 1980)
Coal Lignite Peat Wood
Chemical composition
Carbon (C) weight % 76-87 65-75 50-60 48-55
Hydrogen (H) weight % 3.5-5.0 4.5-5.5 5-7 6-7
Oxygen (O) weight % 3-11 20-30 30-40 38-43
Nitrogen (N) weight % 0.8-1.2 1-2 0.5-2.5 <0.6
Sulphur (S) weight % 1-3 1-3 0.1-0.4 0.02-0.06
Fuel properties
Volatile matter weight % 10-50 50-60 60-70 75-85
Ash weight % 4-10 6-10 2-15 0.1-2.0
Melting point of ash C 1100-1300 1100-1300 1100-1300 1350-1450
Bulk density kg/m
3
728-880 650-780 300-400 320-420
Effective calorific value of dry substance MJ /kg
1
28-33 20-24 20-23 17-20
1
1 MJ /kg =239 Kcal/kg
1 MJ /kg = 430 Btu/lb
Three types of commercial peat are commonly distinguished: milled peat having a moisture content
of 40-50 percent, air-dried sod peat with a moisture content of 30-40 percent and, artificially dried
compressed peat briquettes with a moisture content of 10-20 percent. Milled peat is commonly
produced by large scale mechanized peat extractions, whereas the other two are produced on a
smaller scale by manual, semi-mechanical or mechanical methods, either in dry or in wet
conditions.
Milled peat is a heterogeneous mixture of loose peat particles which are cut from the surface of the
peatswamp. The particle size, which varies with the production method, peat type and degree of
decomposition, is between 3 and 8 mm. The peat is cut at 0.5-2.0 cm depth, spread uniformly
across the surface of the peatswamp and allowed to dry in the wind and sun. Because of its low
bulk density and relatively high moisture content, the calorific value of milled peat per unit volume
is low, restricting its economic transport distance.
Air-dried sod peat is a manually or mechanically compressed fuel. The size and shape of the
product, which may be either cylindrical or brick shaped, is dependent on the production method.
Hand-cut sod peat is about 125 x 125 x 300 mm (Plate 12), whereas mechanically produced sod
peat is 10-30 cm long and 5-10 cm, in diameter. Compression takes place during production and
the sods shrink further and harden during air-drying by the wind and sun. Air-dried sod peat has a
higher calorific value per unit volume than milled peat and can therefore be transported more
economically.
Artificially dried and compressed peat briquettes or pellets are uniformly sized and thus easier to
handle than either milled peat or sod peat. Milled peat is mechanically compressed to form the
briquettes which are similar to bricks in size, whereas pellets are 3-30 mm according to the
machine used. The milled peat raw material varies in moisture content from 40-55 percent and
must be artificially dried to between 10 and 20 percent to produce either briquettes or pellets. The
calorific value of both briquettes and pellets is high per unit volume and they can therefore be
transported economically over longer distances than either sod or milled peat.
Plate 12. Hand-cut sod peat from a trial in West Kalimantan, Indonesia
142

The combustion properties of commercial peats can be determined from their moisture content,
their bulk density, their calorific value and their volatile substances. Table 35 lists these properties
for the three forms of peat in comparison with wood and lignite. The moisture content of processed
peats is variable and this influences their combustion properties and calorific values.
Manufacturers try to keep stockpiles at a moisture content of 40-55 percent. Internal heating of the
stockpiles usually starts at 50-100 cm depth and the moisture content can then drop to 10-20
percent. Internal heating can occasionally result in spontaneous combustion which can be
prevented by cutting off the supply of oxygen either by covering with plastic sheets or by enlarging
the stockpile. In the tropics internal heating and spontaneous combustion are considerable
problems.
The bulk density of milled peat is low and depends on the stage of decomposition of its fibres (86-
212 kg/m
3
in Finnish peats). Compression which usually occurs on stacking is partly reversible
when the weight is removed.
The calorific value per unit volume of milled peat is in the range 3.35-4.19 GJ /m
3
and is only one
quarter to one sixth that of coal and about one tenth that of oil. The calorific value of peat dry
matter is primarily dependent on the type of peat, degree of decomposition and ash content. Figure
30 illustrates the relationship between moisture content, ash content and calorific value. The
calorific value of oven-dried peat is generally about 20 MJ /kg, but at the operating moisture content
of 30-40 percent the calorific value is only about 10 MJ /kg. On this basis an estimate can be made
of the total energy value of a peat deposit of known volume assuming a certain bulk density and
field moisture content. For comparison the average effective calorific values of different fuels are
given in Table 36.
Table 35 COMBUSTION PROPERTIES OF PEAT, WOOD AND LIGNITE (source Ekono 1981)
Peat Wood Lignite
Milled Sod Briquettes Biomass
Effective calorific value of dry matter (MJ /kg-mean) 18-22 18-22 18-22 18-19 20-24
Effective calorific value at operating moisture content (MJ /kg-mean) 7-12 11-14 17-18 12-13 11-14
Volatile substances (% dry matter-mean) 65-70 65-70 65-70 75-85 50-60
Bulk density at operating moisture content (kg/m
3
) 300-400 300-400 700-800 320-420 650-800
Operating moisture content (%) 40-55 30-40 10-20 30-35 40-60

In addition, the following factors which affect handling, should be considered:
- flow properties
- unwanted material (wood, minerals, fibres, etc.)
- corrosive properties (acidity)
- particle-size distribution

143

Figure 30. Relationship between moisture content, ash content and calorific value of peat
(source Ekono 1981)

Table 36 AVERAGE EFFECTIVE CALORIFIC VALUES OF DIFFERENT FUELS (source Ekono 1981)
Fuel Moisture content in dry matter
in operation
Bulk
density
Effective calorific value at operating
moisture content
% kg/m
3
MJ/kg GJ/m
3

Peat
briquettes
15 750 17.0 12.0
Peat pellets 15 750 17.0 12.0
Peat pellets 30 550 14.0 7.7
Milled peat 45 350 10.5 3.7
Sod peat 35 350 12.8 4.5
Crushed coal 9 800 25.0 20.0
Anthracite 5 870 29.3 25.4
Heavy fuel oil - 950 40.6 39.0
Light fuel oil - 950 42.7 41.0

144

9.2.6 Minor factors
Particle-size distribution and flow properties affect the fuel properties of peat. Optimum size-
distribution is not known but dust must be avoided as it creates unhealthy working conditions and
may self-ignite. The proportion of the fine material in peat should therefore be low. On the other
hand coarse fractions and fibric materials cause handling difficulties and therefore a high
proportion of medium sized particles seems favourable. For this reason the best peats for fuel are
probably those with moderate decomposition (mesic peats). Particle-size distribution should be
considered in relation to bulk density and air space as large air spaces favour internal heating in
the pile.


Resources are estimated during an initial survey. When assessing the peat for energy purposes,
the following properties should be assessed: degree of decomposition, depth, amount and size of
wood fragments, nature of underlying deposits (with a view to land use after extraction) and
feasibility of drainage. Samples are taken for analysis to determine the properties shown in Table
33. Loss on ignition should also be measured to help interpret the values obtained for ash content.
While the physical conditions of the peat and the peatswamp are important considerations during
the initial survey, assessment should also be made of factors such as the climate, accessibility,
socio-economic and environmental impact of the extraction as part of the economic feasibility.
Climatic data
Peatswamps have to be drained prior to extraction and there needs to be adequate conditions for
drying the peat production. Meteorological data on rainfall amounts and distribution, evaporation,
sunshine hours and radiation, will show the best periods during the year for drying.
In addition to the excess rainwater which must be drained from the peatswamp the equivalent of
180-190 mm of water must be evaporated from the drying beds during one drying period. Tropical
areas, particularly those in the wet equatorial belt, have a high annual rainfall, often in excess of 3
000 mm, and there is no pronounced dry season with rainfall of less than 60 mm monthly.
Nevertheless, peat can be dried quickly even under such a wet climate. Supardi (1983) found that
under these conditions sod peat can be dried to a moisture content of 15-20 percent in a relatively
short time (Fig. 31). Once irreversible drying sets in, which occurs within a few days, heavy rainfall
has little effect on the peat sods. In J amaica preliminary trials, however, indicated that a drying
period of 30 days in the dry season was needed to reduce the moisture content from 90 percent to
35-40 percent. In the wet season, when 20-50 mm per day is not uncommon, it proved impossible
to dry sod peat below 50 percent moisture (Robinson 1980). Climatic studies should therefore
always be followed by field trials.
Feasibility of drainage
Many of the factors influencing the practicalities of drainage are studied during the initial survey.
The outfalls through which drainage water will be removed require investigation as does the
possibility of intercepting or damming external water and avoiding unwanted mineral sediments.
These factors depend to a large extent on the water regimes of local rivers, creeks and swamps.
The water regimes have to be analysed from hydrometric data and a hydrological evaluation of the
terrain undertaken. On this evaluation depends whether a system of dry excavation or wet
excavation (dredging) is adopted.
145

Accessibility
Because of the large volumes of peat to be removed, accessibility is a more important
consideration in peat extraction than in reclamation for agricultural development. In many cases
access by water is the simplest method but the need for navigation should not interfere with water
control measures. Roads serve a useful purpose but their construction is often difficult because of
the difficulty of building foundations (see section 7.2). In mountain peats, roads are probably the
best solution as there are sufficient quantities of earth-fill readily available.
Post-extraction agricultural activities
This factor is again emphasized because it is frequently forgotten in feasibility studies. In order to
fully evaluate the site, information must be gathered on the potential agricultural suitability of the
mineral substrate and the water regime that will prevail after peat extraction.
Socio-economic consequences
Problems of land tenure and resettlement before and after extraction need attention. In many
countries peat extraction is legally regarded as mining and as such can cause land ownership
problems. A possible influx of labour by migration of population must be given new employment
once peat extraction is exhausted. These long term effects require proper evaluation.
Environmental impact
The environmental aspects of peatswamp development are an important part of any feasibility
study and are dealt with in detail in Chapter 10.
9.4 Peat Production

9.4.1 Introduction
9.4.2 Clearing
9.4.3 Ditching

9.4.1 Introduction
The raw peat which may contain as much as 95 percent water, must initially be drained to release
as much free water as possible and to give sufficient bearing strength for the peat to carry men
and machines. The peat surface is cleared of vegetation and is cambered to give run-off and to
provide an area on which the processed peat can be dried by wind and sun. The spacing of the
drains depends on the production method, but lies in the range 15-50 m. Drained bogs usually
have a moisture content of 89-91 percent.
When the peatswamp is sufficiently drained production can commence. In temperate regions this
takes 5 to 7 years. Under a hot tropical climate the initial drainage period could possibly be much
shorter. There is as yet little experience but there are indications that a 2 year drainage period
might be sufficient.

146

Figure 31. Influence of rainfall on sod peat drying in West Kalimantan, Indonesia (source
Supardi 1983)
Traditionally peat has been cut by hand and was labour intensive. Mechanical production started in
the mid-19th century when Hasselgren developed a moulding machine to improve sod peat quality.
As greater quantities of fuel were required, technology was adapted and modified in the various
peat producing countries to suit local climatic conditions and peat types. Today, while peat
production is still carried out by hand locally, it is often a capital-intensive and highly mechanized
process which is cheaper than either deep coal mining or oil production.
Since the majority of tropical peats are mainly derived from trees and contain partly decomposed
logs, branches and roots, the wood content is higher than in most temperate peats. Although wood
content varies locally depending on the stage of decomposition of the peat, new mechanical
methods of extraction will have to be developed for such materials.
Preparation of peatswamps for extraction includes the following stages; surface clearance,
ditching, clearing of stumps and the formation of the cutting area according to the extraction
methods to be used.
9.4.2 Clearing
All timber, including the crowns of trees, are gathered and removed by methods described in
section 7.2. The trunks can be used for making the rafts for road foundations. Other woody
materials can be made into chips if there is a local market. Burning should be avoided.
9.4.3 Ditching
In most of Europe, the first stage in any peat development is drainage which is carried out by
various types of ditchers. Usually 70 hp tractors are used with a ditching unit attached. The tractors
often have tracks rather than wheels to reduce bearing pressure. Hydraulic excavators are used in
both temperate and tropical countries. In Indonesia they are used in conjunction with manual
cutting of hard timber fragments. Chain-saws, used widely for forest clearance can replace the
hand-saw for these large logs. Although this method is slower and more labour intensive than the
use of ditching machines, it is nevertheless equally successful.
In general, the draining and ditching of tropical peats appear to be more difficult than in temperate
countries. Often the machinery used is poorly adapted to tropical conditions. Some Burundi peats
are exceedingly difficult to drain by conventional methods because the water levels of the main
drainage outlets are often much higher than the bottom of the swamp to be drained. Pump
drainage as developed in the Netherlands is needed.
The large amounts of contained wood (Plate 9) provide good fuel but where it is in large pieces it
can damage the extraction machinery. Where peat is dug by hand this limitation does not apply,
although the removal of large fragments from the fine-textured peat is very time consuming and
may be prohibitively costly. Small trees and branches can be crushed into the peat layer to a depth
of 40 cm using deep millers. This mechanized removal of wood on a large scale however is still to
be tested under tropical conditions. Heavy timber can be removed by a stumpdrag, mounted on a
digging machine. Such a drag can clear to one metre depth at a time. The large amounts of timber
lifted from a tropical peat may cause storage and/or transportation problems if the materials cannot
be used locally. Burning is not a satisfactory alternative.

147

During the nineteen twenties and thirties a system was developed in the USSR to produce hydro-
peat from bogs containing large amounts of wood. The system consisted of flushing the peat with
pressurized water which transformed it into a viscous but fluid slurry. The slurry was carried or
pumped to drying pans and spread out in a uniform layer of prescribed thickness. Peat sods were
then made when the slurry dried. The system is no longer used in the USSR, but is still used in
Sweden (Lindstrm 1980). In temperate countries there are wood shredding machines able to
handle the woody peat. However, their efficiency in dealing with tropical peat containing bigger
quantities of harder and larger fragments of timber must still be assessed.
The nature of the peat and the climate of the swamp are important factors to be considered when
deciding on the method of extraction, the type of peat to be produced and consequently the size
and layout of the extraction field. In tropical countries both climate and peat type differ from those
in temperate regions where the extraction systems have been developed. Stockpiles of sod peat
are commonly located where there is easy and economic access to them and hence the location
changes as to whether the ground is frozen in winter or not. In Ireland storage systems are
therefore different to those in Finland or the USSR where the climates are much colder.
Dry sod production (dry extraction)
Where sod peat is to be extracted by hand the development of the peatswamp is easy. It is
important to install a drainage system usually with field drains at say 20 m intervals. It is sensible
only to drain deeply (down to 1.50 m) in areas that will be excavated within about 5 years of
drainage. Disregard of this rule enhances decomposition and the risk of fire. After completion of
the initial field preparation for the first 5 years of extraction, drainage should be recommenced after
about 3 years allowing 1 to 2 years for workable conditions to develop. After the first 1 m layer has
been cut, it is possible to deepen the drainage and cut the second layer. Only where it is
impossible to lower the water-table so that extraction must be done by dredging is it possible to
waive provision of drainage 1 to 2 years ahead of excavation. Sod peat production can be carried
out as described below and as shown in Figure 32, the tools used are illustrated in Figure 33.
The surface layer of variable thickness (30-60 cm), commonly contains undecomposed roots and
plant remains so is not suitable for sod peat production. It is therefore removed in strips one metre
wide, and placed on the side of the secondary drain (Fig. 32B). Sod peat is then excavated with a
special cutting tool producing a pre-arranged size of sod, generally about 40 x 10 by 10 cm thick.
The cut sods are placed on top of the original surface layer placed on the side of the drain (Fig.
32C). When the one metre strip has been cut down to a depth of about a metre the next layer can
be cut. When there is sufficient space created in the widening drain the original surface layer can
be dumped at the bottom of the drain and the sod peat placed on this (Fig. 32D and E). Layers of
sod peat should be loosely packed to allow air-circulation for rapid drying. This may take 4-5
months under temperate conditions but the experience in Rwanda has been that 2-2.5 months is
enough. Local climate is of considerable importance but to speed up drying the piles can be turned
after about 3 weeks.
Mechanized systems of dry sod production are varied according to local conditions, and there is no
experience of them in the tropics. Treatment here is therefore brief but a few principles must be
given. Drainage should be installed about 2 years before excavation. Climate, especially rainfall,
influences the length of this period. The surface layer must be removed as in the manual operated
system but the surface must be levelled. The levelling can be done by the same machines which
carried out the ditching. Extraction is usually carried out in strips 20-40 m wide, which are drained
by open ditches 1.0-1.3 m deep. The peat should not be allowed to become too dry prior to
excavation because it can slow or stop the machines. However, machines seldom have the power
to cope with moisture contents over 83 percent. Peat should have a value greater than H5 on the
Von Post scale. Well humified peat (H9 and H10) produces sods which crumble easily and
therefore these peats, which produce excellent fuel, are best excavated by the milled peat system.
148

Mechanization requires high capital investment and is only cost-effective in large scale extraction.
Production of 20 000 tons is possible in about 300 working days using machines which would take
30 000 man days manually. Removing wood fragments is the main constraint to mechanized
production so the semi-mechanized field press system is probably the most feasible for tropical
peats. In this system the peat is dug out by a hydraulic excavator and put into a towed field press
machine powered by a 60-80 hp tractor which must have a crawler gear. The field press is towed
by the tractor to a level storage area, away from the excavation site. While travelling, an agitator in
the press, operated from the tractor power take-off, breaks up and macerates the peat. At the
storage site a screw arrangement in the press, again operated by the power take-off, extrudes the
peat through a rectangular orifice and spreads the sods on the ground behind. A sod marker marks
off the sods into 375 mm lengths. The hydraulic excavator can if necessary be replaced by manual
digging of the peat but in both cases timber must be removed. The woody nature of tropical peats
may be the major constraint in peat production particularly for developing fully mechanized
systems.
Wet sod production
In manually operated systems, shallow drainage is only required for preparing the drying site. The
peat is dredged manually by using buckets or tins, the material is thereafter thoroughly mixed and
spread over the drying beds in a layer 20-25 cm thick. After initial drying, the peat mass can be cut
into blocks of required size and piled-up for further drying. This method requires a large area and is
very labour intensive with about 100 kg of dry turf produced per man/day.
In mechanized capital intensive systems, the traditional bagger is widely used. This excavates
the peat to a depth of 2-7 m, macerates it and spreads it out to dry. Other methods include screw
cutters, which excavate the peat with a 40-130 mm diameter screw cutter making a 400-1 000 mm
deep angled cut into the surface. It macerates the peat and extrudes it behind the machine.
Neither of these machines operates efficiently where the peat contains a lot of large hardwood
fragments. Where this occurs major modifications are necessary. Disc cutters, however, use a disc
900-1 400 mm in diameter to excavate the peat from a 400-600 mm cut. They cut through wood
and fibres and thus can be used on woody and fibrous deposits.
The main constraint in fully mechanized wet production systems is the large drying areas required.
A rule of thumb is that 1 tonne of dry peat needs 75 m
2
of drying space under average drying
conditions. Under ideal conditions the area needed is less (15 m
2
). Further, the peat should be of
homogeneous quality and not contain clay lenses. Dry sod systems are therefore better suited to
relatively small areas.
Milled peat production
This is a full y mechanized process invol vi ng:
Milling
The top 0.5-1.5 cm layer of peat is milled or pulverized in beds commonly 20-40 m wide but up to 3
km in length.
Mixing
The milled peat layer is mixed and turned by spoon harrows until the harvesting moisture of 40-50
percent is reached. The number of harrowings necessary obviously depends on the weather, 2-3
days is commonly sufficient, but in unstable weather it can take weeks.
Ridging
The milled peat is collected into one pile or ridge in the centre of each field.

149

Harvesting
The peat is put into stockpiles. Three methods are used, the Peco, Haku and Harvester methods
(Fig. 34).
a. In the Peco method, the peat is first collected into ridges along the length of the
fields at 10-20 m intervals. The ridges are then moved sideways by a self-loading
10-20 m long transporter onto stockpiles at 100-400 m intervals. Stockpiles can be as long
as 0.5-3.0 km, depending on the length of the fields, and are 4-6 m high but having a small cross-
section of 20-40 m
2
. The milled peat can be transported to the margins of the bog by special
vehicles or a narrow gauge railway.
b. In the Haku method, the ridges are loaded by Peco type transporters on to bog trailers and
carried to stockpiles which are often sited next to a road. These stockpiles can have a volume of
10 000-50 000 m
3
with a height of 15 m. Because of tight compaction the temperature seldom rises
over 50C and the risk of fire or self-ignition is low. Tropical conditions will no doubt give a higher
fire risk than that prevailing in temperate regions.
c. The Harvester method uses self-loading trailers or harvesters to collect the peat and carry it to
stockpiles at the end of the fields. Stockpiles are smaller, 6-8 m high and with a volume of 2 000-3
000 m
3
. Because the material is loosely piled there is a danger of internal combustion.
The choice of harvesting method depends on the peatswamp, peat quality, demand and type of
machinery available. Harvesting can also be carried out pneumatically and in this case 5-15 ton/ha
can be harvested daily in thin layers from the dry upper part of the milled peat. The economic
feasibility of each method should be assessed for each swamp individually.
Milled peat is commonly used for fuelling large power stations of up to 120 MW and as a raw
material for briquettes. The number of harvests a year depends on the climate. In Ireland, where
there is an annual production period of 4-5 months there may be 12 harvests, while in Finland with
a shorter but consistently drier production period 16 harvests may be collected. In the tropics there
would undoubtedly be many more. In the experience of the author, good milled peat could be
obtained after only 3 hours of intense drying in Kalimantan, Indonesia. The scale at which milled
peat must be produced at these drying speeds is an obvious constraint. In contrast with manual
and semi-mechanized sod peat production, which are labour intensive, milled peat production
requires high capital investments. Manually-produced milled peat may be recommended in tropical
regions where the supply and cost of labour is not limiting (Plate 13).
The main constraints on milled peat production in the tropics are:
a. Wood contents of up to 50 percent as in the coastal lowland oligotrophic peats of West
Kalimantan, Indonesia.
b. Unstable weather making mechanical harvesting uncertain.
c. Self-combustion. In the tropics moisture content of the peat may fall below 40 percent, which
may cause the peat to disintegrate into dust. This material can explode when reaching the power
station.

150

Figure 32. Manual method of cutting sod peat (source Unger 1981)

151

Figure 33. Excavation tools for preparation of sod peat
A. PEAT CUTTER

B. LIFTING SPADE

152

C. FLAT CUTTER

Figure 34. Production layout for milled peat according to the Haku and Peco stacking methods
(source Lindstrm 1980)

153


9.5.2 Slow disposal
9.5.4 Reclamation of freshly exploited peat deposits

In connection with peat extraction there remain a number of issues to be discussed related to the
planning of present and future utilization of peatswamps. Some brief remarks on the relevant basic
considerations are made.
Plate 13. Manually prepared milled peat on an experimental scale in coastal basin peat in
West Kalimantan, Indonesia
During the planning of peatswamp development choices have to be made between the various
possible uses. Firstly, peatswamps can be reclaimed for agriculture, for peat extraction or for a
combination of the two. Secondly, it is possible today to develop peatswamps for peat extraction
followed by agriculture on the cut-over peatland. A third possibility is to opt for preservation in the
natural state or to abandon the cut-over peatland and let it revert to near-natural conditions, and
the possibility of renewed peat formation. Any plan using these options should be considered in
relation to national economic factors. Extraction causes rapid diposal of peat. Under agriculture
slow disposal is usual.
The view is held that since peat will, in time, decompose, oxidize and disappear when used for
agriculture, why not profit from it by excavating and selling it. Such views are justified if the
underlying mineral substrate produces soils of excellent quality for agriculture, and present day
economic factors are overruling. It is further justified if the peat is oligotrophic so that fanning will
never be economic. However, the physical conditions of the cut-over peatswamp may be such that
drainage required for agriculture will be difficult and costly to provide. Therefore before such a
decision is taken the feasibility of these options should be carefully studied.
9.5.2 Slow disposal
Extraction of peat will either be subsequently followed by agriculture or not depending on the
nature of the underlying material and the hydro-topographic conditions prevailing after extraction.
In the case of planned agricultural developments after excavation it is important to consider leaving
a certain thickness of organic materials over the mineral substrate. This is particularly necessary
when substrates are infertile sands. The incorporation of decomposed organic material into the
coarse textured mineral materials will improve structure, water holding capacity, and general
growing conditions. It may be advisable to opt for high water-tables to preserve the thin layer of
peat on the mineral subsoil and in such cases land use has to be carefully chosen. In many of
these cases pasture has to be recommended.
The natural conditions of peatswamps and their specific locations play a key role in decisions
regarding possible land use. Peatland is often associated with remnants of river terraces underlain
by infertile sands. In the tropical lowlands of South East Asia this combination is widespread.
Coastal peats in lagoons often border infertile dune sands or old beach ridges. Peats here could
be used as soil improvers and a peat excavation industry could be created. Transport costs though
are high and it is doubtful whether peat contributes much to the fertility of these sands. Irreversible
drying of the peat lumps if allowed would not improve structure, whereas oligotrophic peats would
not improve the chemical fertility of the sands. Generally in small inland valley peatswamps,
surrounded by infertile mineral soils, it is more economical to reclaim the swamps for fodder grass
154

and to use the manure produced by the cattle to fertilize and improve the soils of the neighbouring
hills, than to excavate the peat and transport it to the hills. This kind of land-use planning attempts
to integrate the potential of both the peatswamp and the adjacent land.
Similarly, the large coastal lowland peatswamps of South East Asia are commonly fringed by thin
peat and a belt of mineral materials forming river levees. A combination of agricultural activities on
the mineral soils and shallow peat coupled with extraction of the peats thicker than 2 m is a
possibility. The areas of deep peat after excavation to a minimum thickness of 1 m could be then
used for agriculture or silviculture. The sustainability of drainage has an important bearing here.
In countries with meagre resources of arable land the agricultural use of peatswamps should take
precedence over peat extraction, particularly where located near large centres of population. In
such cases valuable arable land is under pressure from urban and industrial sprawl.
9.5.4 Reclamation of freshl y exploited peat deposits
The reclamation of newly exploited and cut-over peats for agricultural use requires methods which
are as yet untried under tropical conditions. In western Europe, cut-over bogs have been brought
into cultivation for over a century, but most are of the high moor type where gravity drainage is no
problem. Experience, however, indicates that it is highly desirable to leave at least 0.5-1.0 m of
peat overlying the mineral substrate, or to incorporate this in the underlying mineral substrate. In
the tropics lowland bogs are commonly underlain by potentially-acid sulphate materials, and the
soils lack sufficient buffering capacity to neutralize the acids formed. Such conditions should be
identified at an early stage in planning.
The option to leave peatswamps untouched and in their natural state, or allowing them to revert to
a natural state after peat extraction is more appropriately discussed in Chapter 10.

10. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF RECLAMATION

10.1 Introduction

10.1 Introduction
Previous chapters have indicated that peat has many uses. Only on a geological time scale can it
be regarded as a renewable resource
1
. Once extracted it can be used for many industrial
purposes and is a raw material for the production of chemicals. However its most important uses
are in agriculture and as an alternative source of energy.
1
Estimates of annual peat growth today vary between 0.5 and 1.0 mm and the subsidence rates of
drained peat are of the order of 1.5-3.0 cm annually. Thus while the subsidence rate is 15 to 30
times the growth rate, peat cannot be defined as a renewable energy source.
Technological developments make it increasingly more attractive to use peat and peat products as
relatively cheap and clean fuel. It has a low sulphur and ash content whereas the carbon dioxide
emitted to the atmosphere by combustion is about 10 percent lower than for coal (Table 34).
Combustion is the conventional way to make energy from peat. However, new advances in
thermochemical conversion (liquefaction) and biochemical conversion (anaerobic fermentation to
methane) may make it possible to produce convenient fuels from peat, at a competitive cost, for
heating or running internal combustion engines.

155

There is no question that, in the near future, peat will be increasingly used as a solid fuel on a
large scale. This will be dependent on production and transport costs in relation to the prices of
other fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas or coal. In the future peats will be increasingly used in the
tropics for such purposes as soon as the reclamation methods have been developed. There is also
the growing demand for arable land to feed the increasing population of many developing
countries. Food cropping on the flat surfaces of reclaimed peatswamps is attractive in relation to
the alternative steep hill sides where the risk of erosion seriously limits the cropping potential.
The need to produce more food, augmented by the demand for more energy, creates the stimulus
to reclaim the vast peat areas in the tropics which are often the last untapped land resources. It is
unwise to ignore these demands and it is pragmatic to accept that the peatswamps will be
increasingly exploited in the future for agriculture, including pasture, forestry and extraction.
On the other hand environmentalists are warning against large scale exploitation and are
attempting to preserve these unique ecosystems as much as possible. There is still time to ponder
the question of what is the most sensible use of these natural resources. If peatlands are to be
preserved, it is probably sensible for exploitation to go hand in hand with conservation.
The following sections will stimulate thought and debate. Their aim is to provide information on the
land use alternatives and options, on the basis of which rational decisions on resource planning
can be taken.


A distinction is made between regulating functions, production functions, information functions and
miscellaneous functions.
It is obvious that the peatswamps of the world play a significant role in the global cycles of carbon
dioxide and water.
The carbon cycle
Peatlands developed during the last 10 000 years or so, constitute a large reservoir of carbon. The
amount of carbon involved has been estimated by various sources, but the accuracy is dependent
on the reliability of the assessment of global peat resources. Sjrs (1980) estimates the world
content of carbon in peat to be in the order of 300 x 10
9
tons, whereas Moore and Bellamy (1974)
arrived at a figure of 150 x 10
9
. The latter was based on 230 million ha of world peat resources
while present-day estimates are approximately 500 million ha; Sjrs values are therefore probably
more realistic. Based on the fact that the atmosphere contains about 700 x 10
9
tons of carbon in
the form of CO
2
, the deposition of carbon in peat has been an important, albeit very slow process.
The accumulation rate is dependent on climate which showed much variation in post-glacial
periods, the mid-postglacial period being least favourable. It is assumed by Sjrs (1980) that the
world accumulation today of 90 x 10
6
tons yearly, based on climatic factors, is three times the
average increment for the whole post-glacial period. Other authors give values of 210 x 10
6
tons
per year, but their basic assumptions are probably incorrect. This Bulletin cannot cover this kind of
discussion, nor be the arbiter but it should be noted that there are large discrepancies in the
estimated values because of differences in basic assumptions. Sjrs indicates that the yearly world
accumulation of carbon in the form of peat is very small in comparison with the estimated 100 x 10
9

tons annual ecosystemic world turnover of carbon. It is also much smaller than the annual
156

combustion of fossil carbon (coal, oil, natural gas and, as yet, only small quantities of peat)
amounting to about 5 x 10
9
tons, and also of less importance than the transfer of carbon dioxide
from the air to the slightly undersaturated sea, estimated at about 2.5 x 10
9
tons of carbon per
year. It is concluded by Sjrs (1980) that although peatlands are a considerable long-term
reservoir for carbon, their role for the short-term turnover of CO
2
is almost negligible. The global
ecosystemic turnover of carbon would hardly be affected at all by destruction of the peatlands as
accumulating ecosystems, other ecosystemic changes on earth being far more important.
Winkler and DeWitt (1985) in discussing environmental impacts of peat extraction in the United
States, look at the possible disruption of the global balance in carbon dioxide cycling if all peat
resources were burned in a relatively short period. Studies of this nature must be supported by
factual and quantitative information. Sjrs adheres to the view that it would seem out of the
question that more than a fraction of the global peat resources would ever be exploited by man,
since so much is virtually inaccessible, and even more, is economically unexploitable due to
excavation difficulties and transport costs. It would also be economically unrealistic to use most
peatlands for agriculture or forestry due to cool climate, low nutrient content and unsuitable,
physical characteristics. Therefore, although burning peat contributes to the contemporary global
rise in atmospheric CO
2
, its contribution will remain subordinate to that of other fossil fuels.
Further, a substantial increase in the CO
2
content of the air by heavy burning of peat in situ is a
theoretical possibility only.
Moore and Bellamy (1974) have said that it is speculative science fiction to say that burning the
500 x 10
9
tons of peat resource will increase the greenhouse effect and alter the global climate.
Resource planning must be based on hard facts and not this kind of speculation.
Global climate
Widespread drainage of peatlands for forestry, in temperate regions, decreases their
comparatively high albedo, especially in winter. This effect would not be important in the tropics as
peats are already forested in their natural state. However, a change to arable land after
reclamation would have the opposite effect of increasing the albedo. This may have a local effect
on climate but the climatic impact on a global scale is negligible.
The hydrological function
There is considerable evidence that peatswamps have an important regulating or controlling
function on the hydrology of entire catchments. The main hydrological argument regarding the
value of peatswamps is that peat acts as a reservoir, increasing the surface retention (storage
capacity) of the landscape. Assessing their importance is difficult because of problems of
quantifying the hydrological processes. In their natural conditions peatswamps act as a balancing
reservoir smoothing the pattern of outflow during periods of heavy rainfall and drought (dry and wet
monsoons). The reclamation of peat through drainage maintains the reservoir function and there
will in fact be a greater controlling effect on run-off than in the undrained condition. The natural
swamp is almost fully charged for most of the year otherwise conditions for peat growth would not
exist. Drained peat can store more water initially and so control flash floods. However, drainage
ultimately destroys the sponge effect of the peatswamp and the reservoir function is eventually
lost. All these factors must be taken into account and carefully weighed if the catchment control
argument is going to be used as a factor in land use planning.
Adsorpti ve function
Unmodified peat and peatland ecosystems can adsorb elements and compounds which have been
released in toxic amounts into the environment. When peat is removed these adsorptive properties
are lost and severe environmental degradation can result. Often heavy metals such as mercury,
lead, cadmium, arsenic, zinc and selenium are tied up in peat deposits. Through the years the
developing peat both adsorbs airborne and waterborne metals and then they are distributed in
various ways throughout the peat. Peatswamps in this way act as natural filters in catchments.
157

Studies in Finland and Sweden have indicated that high levels of the heavy metals mercury and
lead in lakes are attributable to the drainage of peatlands upstream. Likewise toxic selenium levels
were found in ditches from drained peatlands in the western United States (Winkler and DeWitt
1985).
The release of heavy metals upon drainage is of concern because they are toxic to many
organisms. Toxicity is a matter of concentration and therefore the levels of heavy metals and their
possible release through drainage and extraction should be studied in order to fully evaluate the
environmental effects upon reclamation. For tropical countries such a precaution is especially
necessary where proven deposits of heavy minerals occur in the country rock of catchment areas,
or where the nature of the country rock gives reasons to suspect contamination with such metals.
Burning peat containing concentrations of heavy metals also releases them into the environment.
In this connection the adsorption of organic pollutants such as PCBs and other polycyclic
hydrocarbons used in agriculture and for controlling pests and diseases, must be mentioned.
These materials when used upstream may concentrate in the peatswamps downstream.
Concentrations may become toxic when such peats are burned as turf. Very little is known about
the cycling, life span and hazardous effects of these elements, but the role of peatlands as natural
reservoirs of toxic deposits should be borne in mind and duly investigated.
Peat holds concentrations of nutrients for varying lengths of time. These nutrients are released by
peatland drainage and in North Carolina (USA) run-off from drained peatland had three times the
nitrogen and 28 times the phosphorus concentrations found in run-off from undrained peatland
(Winkler and DeWitt 1985). The sudden release of stored phosphorus from peat into surface
waters can cause eutrophication of neighbouring lacustrine, riverine and estuarine systems.
However, since most peats in the tropics are oligotrophic with very low concentrations of nutrients,
their drainage water is almost sterile and eutrophication of surface waters is unlikely to occur. It
could however arise in the case of eutrophic peats, and in peats which are easily fertilized and
used for intensive agriculture such as vegetable growing.
Buffering function
In coastal areas the buffering function of peatswamps between the salt- and fresh-water systems is
particularly important. The natural edge between fresh-water and salt-water marshes for example
between Mangrove and Nipah swamps, is changed upon drainage and subsequent disruption of
the peatswamp hydrology. This drainage results in the conversion of run-off from a non-point-
source from a natural peatland, to a point-source in drainage ditches, and contributes to the
problems of already over-loaded estuarine ecosystems. Intrusion of salt-water into fresh-water
wells in low-lying areas as well as fresh-water intrusion into delicately balanced salt-water estuary
and deltaic ecosystems may occur. As a result of the latter, ecosystems essential to the survival of
some forms of fisheries, such as shrimps, may be destroyed or irrepairably damaged.
There are many examples of these risks. The hydrological and related buffering function of
peatswamps is dictated by their location and position in the landscape. It is important to realize the
natural function of peatswamps before decisions are taken to destroy them.
It should be clear that where small interior valleys are concerned, the regulating functions operate
within the watershed. Large coastal swamps, however, can also influence peripheral marine
ecosystems and in general ecosystems beyond the confines of the water catchment, and impacts
of reclamation can even be regional in scale.

158

Peatswamps in their natural state are generally poor producers of food. Oligotrophic peats harbour
few plants supplying food for fauna because of the very low fertility level of the environment. Fauna
is therefore scarce and that which exists is specialized to survive under conditions of low food
supply. Certain specialized plant species are of commercial value, such as the raffia palm and
papyrus of some African swamps, supplying important raw materials for the local population.
Natural forest products may therefore be important sources of income. Valuable timber such as
Ramin and Merbau occur profusely in the coastal oligotrophic peatswamps of South East Asia.
Although the products from natural peatswamps are generally of little importance their local value
may be relatively significant.
Peatswamps are unique ecosystems harbouring many species of flora and fauna not found
elsewhere. It is difficult to evaluate the importance of the preservation of ecosystems with all their
in-built genetic possibilities stored in the specialized bio-forms. However, history teaches us to be
careful and not to waste natures capital stored in the genetic resources, and since reclamation will
no doubt destroy much of this part of natures inheritance it would be wise to count the losses
before embarking on ventures which may in the end cost more than preservation. A pragmatic and
realistic approach would be to set aside sufficient area for preservation purposes to be decided
upon by authorities competent in this field.
Tropical peatswamps play an important and generally well-known role in the survival of migratory
birds although this is not always acknowledged. The specific function which peatland plays is worth
studying for tropical regions. From the general paucity in food one would surmise that the real
oligotrophic peats of the coastal regions play a relatively minor role. Generally there are richer
wetlands nearby which could be used, if needed. But as indicated there is little information to
substantiate this.
Peatswamps finally have a social function in that they often form areas for recreation, in particular
near large concentrations of population. Although this function is not yet much developed in
tropical countries, it is nevertheless a function which in some localities is an important alternative
use.
The study of the natural functions of peatswamps leads to an assessment of the environmental
impacts caused by their reclamation. The following checklist which is not complete and does not
cover all possible conditions may serve a useful purpose by indicating areas justifying attention:
- toxic metal release from peat,
- eutrophication of surface waters,
- increased run-off water (disturbance of hydrological balance),
- impacts on flooding and local fisheries,
- release of organic pollutants,
- changes of salt- and fresh-water systems,
- changes in groundwater supply,
- air pollution and fires.
Added to these are impacts which are inherent to the removal of the swamp and the peat, namely:
- loss of genetic resources (flora and fauna),
- loss of production functions,
- loss of the social function.

159

Most of these impacts have already been discussed above.
A third set of impacts, the evaluation of which is difficult, because of their ambiguity, is formed by
environmental changes which are both positive and negative. As an example environmental health
may be mentioned.
For centuries swamps have been drained and reclaimed because of their apparently poor living
conditions. Incidence of malaria is often correlated with presence of swamps. This undoubtedly is
true and draining the swamps may improve living conditions for the local people. It is, however,
interesting to note that contrary to popular belief, peatswamps in their natural conditions are not
necessarily a potent source of human disease. For example Beadle (1960) found that the two most
important malaria carriers in Africa (Anopheles gambiae and A. funestus) do not breed in the
interior of swamps though they are often found in open pools, footprints and other small hollows
around the edges. An important factor which prevents some mosquitoes and not others from
breeding in swamps, is the low concentration of oxygen in the peaty water. Larvae of A. gambiae
have difficulty in surviving under anaerobic conditions. Shading is another factor that could deter
egg laying. Peatswamps are therefore not always a potent source of malaria. Other swamps
probably are. The problem of bilharzia (schistosomiasis) is rather different. Here, the snail
Biomphalaria sudanica, which can carry Schistosoma mansoni, plays a major role as for example
in Uganda. These snails have no difficulty in surviving under anaerobic conditions. They do not
move very quickly nor spread far and the foci of infection are generally confined to small areas of
water which people converge for washing and collecting water, or for fishing. Drainage of such
swamps may result in the snails spreading over large areas and the impact of drainage on a
variety of other diseases should be carefully assessed prior to reclamation.
Sanitary health also warrants study. The settlement of people in peatswamps carries problems of
supplying drinking water, and disposal of sewage. The settlement of people from hilly areas, used
to running water, in an environment of stagnant water is accompanied by adaptation problems
concerning disposal of human faeces. This can cause epidemics of gastro-enteritis and related
diseases and the death of many children unaccustomed to the new environment. Likewise adults
may die because of other diseases for which no natural resistance was built up. Both aspects
deserve attention and therefore environmental impact studies are often needed if a full assessment
of the consequences of draining a peatswamp is required. In fact it should form part of a feasibility
study carried out prior to implementation of peatswamp development. It is strongly recommended
that a broad environmental assessment is made in an early stage of planning. Often costly
feasibility studies can then be forestalled. It could form part of the initial survey discussed in
section 6.3.
Such studies should be based on independent data. They should indicate present values and
functions and their current (natural) sustainable potentials, together with the values and functions
pertaining after large scale reclamation. Alternative uses and any mitigating measures should also
be studied. Where development objectives are known and decided to meet demands it is realistic
to search for and indicate other means by which these objectives could be met.
If the objective is to investigate the potential of a peatswamp for agriculture because of pressure
for arable land there may be other land nearby more or equally suited which could be used
instead. Likewise, a demand for sources of energy may be met by indicating means other than
reclaiming peatswamps. In the final analysis the various options on use should be carefully
weighed on their merits so that a rational decision on land-use planning can be made.
In conclusion, appropriate legislation is often lacking in many countries so that peatswamp
development often proceeds without adequate initial investigation.

160

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ahmed, M.I. and Sim, E.S. 1976. Utilization of peat soil for sago palm cultivation in Sarawak. 3rd
Asean Soil Conference, Kuala Lumpur.
Ahti, E. 1984. Fertilizer-induced leaching of phosphorus and potassium from peatlands drained for
forestry. Proceedings of the 7th International Peat Congress, Dublin 3:153-163.
Allison, R.V. 1947. The significance of water conservation in the agricultural development of South
Florida. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 59:8-16.
Amadieu, J . 1974. La culture marachre sur tourbe en pays tropicaux. Bulletin Agricole du
Rwanda 7.
Anderson, D.L. 1985. Sugarcane fertilization on muck and sand lands in South Florida. Research
Report, EV-1985-6, University of Florida.
Anderson, D.L. 1985. Crop soil fertility recommendations of the Everglades Soil Testing
Laboratory. Research Report, EV-1985-10, University of Florida.
Anderson, J .A.R. 1964. The structure and development of peat swamps of Sarawak and Brunei.
Journal of Tropical Geography 18:7-16.
Anderson M.S. 1968. Peat and muck in agriculture in the United States. Transactions of the 2nd
International Peat Congress, Leningrad (Ed. R.A. Robertson) 2:625-630. HMSO, Edinburgh.
Andriesse, J .P. 1974. Tropical lowland peats in South-East Asia. Royal Tropical Institute,
Amsterdam, Department of Agricultural Research, Communication No. 63.
Azevedo, A.L. 1954. The technology of peaty soils in Mozambique and Angola. Transactions of the
5th International Congress of Soil Science, Leopoldville 3:398-401.
Baden, W. 1968. Combined utilization of bogs for crop and peat production. Transactions of the
2nd International Peat Congress, Leningrad (Ed. R.A. Robertson) 2: 801-808. HMSO, Edinburgh.
Beadle, L.C. 1960. The swamps of Uganda. Shell Public Health and Agricultural News 3.
Belkevich, P.I. and Chistova, L.R. 1968. Exchange capacity of peat with respect to alkali and
alkaline-earth metals. Transactions of the 2nd International Peat Congress, Leningrad (Ed. R.A.
Robertson) 2: 909-918. HMSO, Edinburgh.
Beverly, R.B. 1981. Nutritional survey of the Everglades vegetable industry. Proceedings of the
Florida State Horticultural Society 97:201-205.
Boelter, D.H. 1968. Important physical properties of peat materials. Proceedings of the 3rd
International Peat Congress, Quebec: 150-156.
Boelter, D.H. 1969. Physical properties of peats as related to degree of decomposition.
Proceedings of the Soil Science Society of America 33:606-609.
161

Boelter, D.H. 1974. The hydrologic characteristics of undrained organic soils in the Lake States. In:
Histosols, their characteristics, classification and use (Ed. M. Stelly), Soil Science Society of
America Special Publication No. 6:33-46.
Boelter, D.H. and Blake, G.R. 1964. Importance of volumetric expressions of water contents of
organic soils. Proceedings of the Soil Science Society of America 28:176-178.
Bord na Mona. 1984. Fuel peat in developing countries. Study report for World Bank, Dublin.
Bouman, S.A.M. and Driessen, P.M. 1985. Physical properties of peat soils affecting rice-based
cropping systems. Proceedings of Workshop on Soil Physics and Rice, International Rice
Research Institute: 71-83.
Brown, J .L., Malterer, T. and Farnham, R.S. 1984. Surface and subsurface sampling of organic
soils. Proceedings of the 7th International Peat Congress, Dublin.
Burdine, H.W. and Guzman, V.L. 1965. The response of some green celery varieties to pH
adjustment with sulphur on Everglades organic soil. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural
Society 78: 148-155.
Burdine, H.W. and Guzman, V.L. 1969. Celery cultivar responses to pH adjustment on Everglades
organic soil. Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Science 94:520-523.
Burdine, H.W. and Hall, C.B. 1974. Nitrate and nitrite content of carrots grown on the organic soils
of the Everglades area of Florida. Proceedings of the Florida Soil and Crop Science Society 33:34-
36.
Burdine, H.W. and Hall, C.B. 1976. Carrot responses to fertilizer levels on Everglades organic
soils. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 89:120-125.
Burdine, H.W., Hall, C.B. and Hicks, J .R. 1977. Responses of some leafy vegetables to varying
fertility levels on Terra Ceia Muck. Proceedings of the Florida Soil and Crop Science Society
36:46-51.
Casselman, T.W. 1973. Response of open pit water level to water table fluctuations in Everglades
organic soils. Proceedings of the Florida Soil and Crop Science Society 32:125-127.
Casselman, T.W. and Green, V.E. 1972. Plastic lined mole drains in organic soils. Proceedings of
the Florida Soil and Crop Science Society 31:12-15.
Cassidy, J .C. 1973. Weed control in vegetables on peat soils. Scientific Horticulture 24: 68-72.
Chateauneuf, J .J . 1981. Tourbes du Sngal. Rapport de Mission dExpertise. B.R.G.M. Orleans.
Cheong, S.P. and Ng, S.K. 1977. Copper deficiency of oilpalms on peat. Proceedings of the
Malaysian International Agricultural Oilpalm Conference, Kuala Lumpur, 1976. The Incorporated
Society of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.
Chew, W.Y., J oseph, K.T. and Ramli, K. 1978. Influence of soil-applied micronutrients on cassava
(Manihot esculenta) in Malaysian tropical oligotrophic peat. Experimental Agriculture 14:105-111.
162

Chew, W.Y., Williams, C.N. J oseph, K.T. and Ramli, K. 1976a. Studies on the availability to plants
of soil nitrogen in Malaysian tropical oligotrophic peat. I. Effect of liming and pH. Tropical
Agriculture 53: 69-78.
Chew, W.Y., Williams, C.N. and Ramli, K. 1976b. Studies on the availability to plants of soil
nitrogen in Malaysian tropical oligotrophic peat. II. Effects of N.P.K. and micronutrients. Tropical
Agriculture 53: 79-87.
Clayton, B.S., Neller, J .R. and Allison, R.V. 1942. Water control in the peat and muck soils of the
Florida Everglades. Florida Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin No. 378, Gainsville, Florida.
Cole, A.J . 1968. Grass production on cut-over raised bog-nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
requirements. Proceedings of the 3rd International Peat Congress, Quebec.
Cole, A.J ., Mulqueen, J . and Hammond, R.F. 1980. Effects of mixing cut-over raised bog peats and
underlying sub-soils on the growth of carrots and clover. Irish Journal of Agricultural Research 19:
1-16.
Cole, A.J ., Murphy, W.E. and Poole, D.B.R. 1979. Effect of stocking rates and cobalt and copper
supplementation on the performance of bullocks on shallow peatland. Irish Journal of Agricultural
Research 18:195-209.
Coulter, J .K. 1957. Development of the peat soils in Malaya. Malaysian Agricultural Journal 40:
188-199.
Cox, R.S. 1957. Anthracnose, an undescribed disease of celery in the Everglades. Plant Disease
Reporter 41:790-793.
Darby, H.C. 1956. Drainage of the Fens. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Davis, J .H. 1946. The peat deposits of Florida, their occurrence, development and uses. Florida
Geological Survey Bulletin No. 30.
Deuse, P. Contribution ltude des tourbires du Rwanda et du Burundi. Rapport IRSAC
(Treizime rapport 1960-64).
Dolmat, M.T., Hassan, A.H. and Zakaria, Z.Z. 1982. Development of peat soil for oil palm planting
in Malaysia - Johor Barat Agricultural Project as a case study. Palm Oil Research Institute of
Malaysia Bulletin No. 5:1-17.
Driessen, P.M. 1977. Peat soils. In: Soils and Rice. International Rice Research Institute,
Philippines.
Driessen, P.M. and Permadhy Sudewo. 1977. A review of crops and crop performance on
Southeast Asian lowland peats. Bulletin No. 4, Soil Research Institute, Bogor, Indonesia.
Driessen, P.M. and Rochimah, L. 1976. The physical properties of lowland peats from Kalimantan
and their significance for land suitability appraisal. In: Research on peat and podzolic soils in
Indonesia and their potential for agriculture. Soil Research Institute, Bogor, Indonesia.

163

Driessen, P.M. and Suhardjo, H. 1977. Reclamation and use of Indonesian lowland peats and their
effect on soil conditions. 3rd Asean Soil Conference, Kuala Lumpur.
Dryburgh, P.M. 1978. Scotlands peat resources: an introduction to their potential. University of
Edinburgh, School of Engineering.
Dusky, J .A. 1982. Herbicides for celery, lettuce and carrots in the Everglades agricultural area.
Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 95:339-342.
Dusky, J .A. 1983. Weed management in celery in the Everglades agricultural area. Proceedings of
the Florida State Horticultural Society 96:93-96.
Dusky, J .A. 1984. Weed control in root crops grown on organic soils. Proceedings of the Florida
State Horticultural Society 97:168-171.
Ehrencron, V.K.R. 1949. Orienterende potproeven met zuur bosveen uit Borneo. Landbouw 21:
481-504.
Ekono. 1981. Report on energy use of peat. Contribution to U.N. Conference on New and
Renewable Sources of Energy, Nairobi.
Ennis, M.T. and Brogan, J .C. 1968. Fixation of copper by humic acid. Transactions of the 2nd
International Peat Congress, Leningrad (Ed. R.A. Robertson) 2:929-940. HMSO, Edinburgh.
ESCAP. 1978. Proceedings of 3rd regional symposium on the development of deltaic areas,
Bangkok. United Nations Publication, Water Resources Series No. 50, New York.
Euroconsult. 1984. Etude de la matrise deau des sols tourbeux des primtres Somalac dans la
rgion du lac Alaotra et de lentretien mcanis des rseaux hydrauliques de ces primtres.
Repoblika Demokratika Malagasy, Entreprise Socialiste Somalac.
Euroconsult/CESEN. 1985. Peat as a potential alternative source of energy. ADB Rural and
Renewable Energy Development Study in Kalimantan.
Euroconsult/DGIS. 1984. Preliminary assessment of peat development potential. Final Report.
Republic of Indonesia/Kingdom of the Netherlands.
FAO. 1973. The development of some soil fertility programmes in Mardi, Malaysia. Technical
Assistance Report No. 3223.
FAO. 1983. Guidelines: land evaluation for rainfed agriculture. FAO Soils Bulletin No. 52.
FAO/Unesco. 1974. Soil map of the World, 1:5 million, 1: Legend. Unesco, Paris.
Farnham, R.S. 1968. Classification of peat in the USA. Transactions of the 2nd International Peat
Congress, Leningrad. (Ed. R.A. Robertson) 1:115-132. HMSO, Edinburgh.
Farnham, R.S. and Finney, H.R. 1965. Classification and properties of organic soils. Advances in
Agronomy 17:115-162.

164

Ferda, J . 1968. Reclamation of freshly exploited peat bogs. Transactions of the 2nd International
Peat Congress, Leningrad (Ed. R.A. Robertson) 2:667-674. HMSO, Edinburgh.
Fiskel, J .G.A., Mourkides, G.A. and Gammon, N. 1956. A study of the properties of molybdenum in
Everglades peat. Proceedings of the Soil Science Society of America 20:73-76.
Flaig, W. 1968. Uptake of organic substances from soil organic matter by plants and their influence
on metabolism. In: Progress in Soil Biodynamics and Soil Productivity (Ed. A. Primavesi). Pallotti:
Santa Maria, Brazil: 544-545.
Floor, J . and Muyesu, C.C. 1986. Wetland soils in Kisii district, Kenya, and their suitability for
agriculture and other types of land use. Proceedings of the 7th Annual Meeting of the Soil Science
Society of East Africa, Arusha, 1985.
Forsee, W.T. 1949. The effect of soil pH upon the growth of celery seedlings on the peat and muck
soils of the Everglades. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 62.
Forsee, W.T. 1968. Crop production on peat and muck under subtropical conditions of the Florida
Everglades. Transactions of the 2nd International Peat Congress, Leningrad (Ed. R.A. Robertson)
2: 697-704. HMSO, Edinburgh.
Gascho, G.J . 1977. Silicon status of Florida sugarcane. Proceedings of the Florida Soil and Crop
Science Society 36:188-191.
Gascho, G.J . 1978. Response of sugarcane to calcium silicate slag. I. Mechanisms of response in
Florida. Proceedings of the Florida Soil and Crop Science Society 37:55-58.
Gascho, G.J . and Kidder, G. 1979. Responses to phosphorus and potassium and fertilizer
recommendations for sugarcane in South Florida. University of Florida, Agricultural Experimental
Stations, Bulletin 809.
Genung, W.G. 1976. Flooding in Everglades soil pest management. Proceedings of Tall Timbers
Conference on Ecological Animal Control by Habitat Management 6:165-172.
Green, V.E. 1956. A survey of rice culture on organic soils. Proceedings of the Soil and Crop
Science Society of Florida 16:334-351.
GRONTMIJ . 1978. Mise en valeur et utilisation des sols tourbeux pour la thiculture dans rgions
montaneuses du Rwanda. Rapport dune mission dappui dans les rgions de Cyohoha-Rukeri,
Mulindi et Rugezi. Rpublique Rwandaise, Communaut Europenne.
Guinazu, J .R. 1934. The peat deposits of the region of Fuego. Direc. Minoas y geol., Buenos
Aires, Publication No. 10.
Guzman, V.L., Burdine, H.W., Harris, E.D., Orsenigo, J .R., Showalter, R.K., Thayer, P.L.,
Winchester, J .A., Wolf, E.A., Berger, R.D., Genung, W.G. and Zitter, T.Z. 1973. Celery production
on organic soils of South Florida. Agricultural Experimental Stations, University of Florida, Bulletin
No. 757.
Hammond, R.F. 1971. Survey of peat deposits on Makandudu, Milandu and Forkaidu Islands in
Miladummandulu, North Atoll. Report to the Government of the Maldives. FAO TA3013.
165

Hammond, R.F. 1981. The Peatlands of Ireland. Soil Survey Bulletin No. 35, An Foras Taluntais,
Dublin.
Hanrahan, E.T. 1984. Peat drainage - the consolidation analogy. Proceedings of the 7th
International Peat Congress, Dublin 4:205-214.
Hardon, H.J . and Polak, B. 1941. De chemische samenstelling van enkele venen in Nederlandsch
Indi. Landbouw 17:1081-1093.
Harrison, D.S., Speir, W.H. and Thomas, F.H. 1941. Installation and operation of a set of water-
table plots on an organic soil. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 6,
(1): 3-5.
Helenelund, K.V. and Hartikainen. 1972. In site measurements of undrained shear strength of peat
by helical auger tests. Proceedings of the 4th International Peat Congress, Espoo.
Helenelund, K.V., Lindqvist, L.O. and Lundman, C. 1972. Influence of sampling disturbance on the
engineering properties of peat samples. Proceedings of the 4th International Peat Congress,
Espoo.
Hendrick, E. 1984. Drainage of peat lands for afforestation. Proceedings of the 7th International
Peat Congress, Dublin 3:304-315.
Hidding, A.P. 1982. The use of peat and peat soils for horticulture. In: Proceedings of the
symposium on peat lands below sea level (Eds. H. de Bakker and M.W. van den Berg).
International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement. Publication No. 30:248-255.
Hooghoudt, S.B., van der Woerdt, D. and van Dijk, H. 1960. A physico-chemical investigation into
the causes of the irreversible drying of peat soils and the possibilities of improvement. In:
Irreversibly drying peat soils in the west of the Netherlands. By Hooghoudt, S.B., van der Woerdt,
D., Bennema, J . and van Dijk, H. Versl. Landb. Ondrz No. 66:23, Wageningen.
Hortenstine, C.C. and Forsee, W.T. 1960. Research and application of soil testing for organic soils.
Proceedings of the Florida Soil and Crop Science Society 20: 363-370.
Igarashi, Y., Akazawa, T., Matsushita, K. and Umeda, Y. 1984. Soil characteristics and geohistory
on the Ishikari peatlands, Northern J apan. Proceedings of the 7th International Peat Congress,
Dublin 1: 205-219.
ILACO. 1966. Report on the soil investigations in the Niger Delta Special Area. NEDECO/ILACO,
Kingdom of the Netherlands.
ILACO. 1977. Yala swamp investigation project, final report. Republic of Kenya, Ministry of
Agriculture and National Irrigation Board, Kingdom of the Netherlands.
ILACO. 1978. Land Evaluation with a view to reclamation of the Serba hurta and Kuo swamp
areas, Sumatera, Indonesia. Plantagemaatschappij Serbahuta Ria, Medan.
Ingram, R.L. 1984. The bulk density of North Carolina peats, (USA). Proceedings of the 7th
International Peat Congress, Dublin 4:237-247.

166

J ongerius, A. and Pons, L.J . 1962. Soil genesis in organic soils. Boor en spade 12: 156-168.
Kalmari, A. 1982. Industrial peat program in Burundi carried out by Ekono. Seminar on Peat for
Energy Use, Bandung, Indonesia.
Kanapathy, K. 1976. Fertilizer requirement on peat soils. Malaysian Agricultural Journal 50:292-
307.
Kanapathy, K. 1978. Planting oil palms on peat. Perak Planters Association Journal: 101-107.
Kanapathy, K. and Keat, G.A. 1970. Growing maize, sorghum and tapioca on peat soils.
Proceedings of a Conference on crop diversification in Malaysia: 26-35.
Karesniemi, K. 1972. Dependence of humification degree on certain properties of peat.
Proceedings of the 4th International Peat Congress, Espoo.
Kivinen, E. 1980. Proposal for general classification of virgin peat. Proceedings of the 6th
International Peat Congress, Duluth: 47-51.
Kivinen, E. and Pakarinen, P. 1980. Peatland areas and the proportion of virgin peatlands in
different countries. Proceedings of the 6th International Pea Congress, Duluth: 52-54.
Knecht, T. 1982. Estudo preliminar sobre as ocorrencias de turfa no vale do ribeira de Iguape, Sp.,
Brasilia. Revistu do Instituto Geografico e Geologico, Sao Paulo 3:5-14.
Kueh, H.S. 1972. A review of agronomic results of experiments at Stapok Peat Experiment Station
from 1966 to 1971. Department of Agriculture, Research Branch, Sarawak, Malaysia.
Kurbatov, I.M. 1968. The question of the genesis of peat and its humic acids. Transactions of the
2nd International Peat Congress, Leningrad (Ed. R.A. Robertson) 1:133-137. HMSO, Edinburgh.
Lassoudire, A. 1976. Banana cultivation on hydromorphic soils of the Agneby Marsh in Ivory
Coast. Proceedings of the 5th International Peat Congress, Poznan 3:104-110.
Laurent, M.F., Shih, S.F. and Snyder, G.H. 1983. Stopping subsidence with aquatic crops. Institute
of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.
Lim, C.K., Chin, Y.K. and Bolle-J ones, E.W. 1973. Crop indicators of nutrient status of peat soil.
Malaysia Agricultural Journal 49:198-207.
Lindstrm, O. 1980. The technology of peat. Ambio 9: 309-313.
Lucas, R.E. 1968. Plant nutrient requirements for crops grown on organic soils. Transactions of the
Lucas, R.E. 1982. Organic Soils (Histosols). Formation, distribution, physical and chemical
properties and management for crop production. Michigan State University, Research Report No.
435 (Farm Science).
Maas, E.F., Tie, Y.L. and Lim, C.P. 1979. Sarawak land capability classification and evaluation for
agricultural crops. Technical Paper No. 5. Soils Division, Department of Agriculture, Sarawak,
Malaysia.
167

Maclean, A.J ., Halstead, R.L., Mack, A.R. and J asmin, J .J . 1964. Comparison of procedures for
estimating exchange properties and availability of phosphorus and potassium in some eastern
Canadian organic soils. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 44:66-75.
Maltby, E. 1986. Waterlogged wealth. Earthscan, London and Washington D.C.
McCall, W.W., Davis, J .F. and Lawton, K. 1956. A study of the effect of mineral phosphates upon
the organic phosphorus content of organic soil. Proceedings of the Soil Science Society of America
20:81-83.
McDonnell, J .G. and Farrell, E.P. 1984. An evaluation of techniques for the measurement of
decomposition of peat Proceedings of the 7th International Peat Congress, Dublin 4:358-382.
McGreevy, J .M. and Farrell, E.P. 1984. The influence of lime on some decomposition
characteristics of Irish peats Proceedings of the 7th International Peat Congress, Dublin 3:418-
441.
McNally, G. 1984. Peatland reclamation. Proceedings of the 7th International Peat Congress,
Dublin 4:446-450.
Mehlich, A. 1942. The significance of percentage base saturation and pH in relation to soil
differences. Proceedings of the Soil Science Society of America 7:167-174.
Miyake, M. 1982. Improvement and management of peat soils in J apan. In: Tropical Agriculture
Research Series No. 15. Tropical Agriculture Research Center, Ibaraki, J apan.
Mohr, E.C.J . and van Baren, F.A. 1954. Tropical soils. Van Hoerve, The Hague.
Mohrmann, K.J .M. 1952. Reclaimed peat soils and their agricultural importance. Soil Science
74:57-68.
Moorman, F.R. and Santhad Rojanasoonthan. 1968. The Soil Map of Thailand. Proceedings of the
3rd Malaysian Conference, Kuching, Sarawak.
Moore, P.D. and Bellamy, D.J . 1974. Peatlands. Elek Science, London.
Morrison, T.M. and Caughley, J .R. 1960. Fertilizer requirements in an acid peat. New Zealand
Journal of Agricultural Research 3:1-5.
Morton, J .F. and Snyder, G.H. 1976. Aquatic crops versus organic soil subsidence. Proceedings of
the Florida State Horticultural Society 89:125-129.
Morton, J .F. and Snyder, G.H. 1978. Trial of water celery as an aquatic flavoring herb for
Everglades farmlands. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 91:301-305.
Morton, J .F., Snyder, G.H. and Oele, E.A. Wild Rice 1980. - A promising gourmet crop for the
Everglades. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 93:273-278.
Murashko, A.I. 1969. Compression of peat bogs after draining. In: Land subsidence 2: 535-546.
IAHS-AIHS Publication No. 89:535-546.
168

NEDECO. 1961. Report on the feasibility of diking and draining the peat exploitation areas in the
Ganges Delta and some agricultural aspects of the scheme.
Ng, T.T. and Ahmed, M.I. 1971. Nutrient status assessment of a Sarawak deep peat. Department
of Agriculture, Research Branch, Sarawak, Malaysia.
Nichols, D.S. 1980. Nutrient removal from wastewater by wetlands. Proceedings of the 6th
Nieminen, M., Ranta, J ., Moilanen, A. and Lappi, M. 1984. A basis for the classification of peat for
fuel use. Proceedings of the 7th International Peat Congress, Dublin 2:421-432.
OHair, S.K., Snyder, G.H. and Morton, J .F. 1982. Wetland Taro: a neglected crop for food, feed
and fuel. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 95:367-374.
Okruszko, H. 1984. Agricultural utilization of peatlands. Proceedings of the 7th International Peat
Congress, Dublin 4:451-454.
OToole, M.A. 1968. Lime requirements for pasture establishment on blanket peat. Transactions of
the 2nd International Peat Congress, Leningrad (Ed. R.A. Robertson) 2:743-753. HMSO,
Edinburgh.
Ozaki, C.T. 1955. Phosphorus and potassium requirements of Blackeye Peas grown on
Everglades peaty muck soil. Proceedings of the Florida Soil and Crop Science Society 15:49-52.
Paivanen, J . 1984. Peatland Forestry. Proceedings of the 7th International Peat Congress, Dublin
4:455-465.
Pate, F.M. and Snyder, G.H. 1978. Effect of high water table in organic soil on yield and quality of
forage grasses-Lysimeter study. Proceedings of the Florida Soil and Crop Science Society 38:72-
75.
Pate, F.M., Allen, R.J . and Crockett, J .R. 1980. Fertilization of Roselawn St Augustinegrass
pasture on organic soil. University of Florida, Agricultural Experimental Stations. Bulletin No. 811.
Paul, H. 1954. Phosphorus status of peat soils in British Guiana. Soil Science 77:87-93.
Phillips, N. 1985. The Everglades experience; sixty years of progress. EREC Research report,
University of Florida.
Polak, B. 1941. Veenonderzoek in Nederlandsch Indi. Landbouw 17:1033-1062.
Polak, B. 1950. Occurrence and fertility of tropical peat soils in Indonesia. Proceedings of the 4th
International Congress of Soil Science 2:183-185.
Polak, B. and Supraptohardjo, M. 1951. Pot and field experiments with maize on acid forest peat
from Borneo. Contributions from the General Agricultural Research Station, Bogor No. 125.
Pons, L.J . and Driessen, P.M. 1975. Reclamation and development of waste land on oligotrophic
peat and acid sulphate soils. Proceedings of Symposium on development of Problem Soils in
Indonesia, Jakarta.
169

Portres, R. 1950. Terres organiques tourbeuse de lancien delta de lAgneby (Cte Ivoire) et leur
conduite en culture bannanire. Agronomie Tropicale 5:268-291.
Pyavchenko, N.I. 1968. Basic terminology in bog science. Transactions of the 2nd International
Peat Congress, Leningrad (Ed. R.A. Robertson) 1:111-114. HMSO, Edinburgh.
Rahi, G.S., Shi, S.F. and Myhre, D.L. 1978. Calibration and sensitivity of neutron moisture probe
for Histosols. Proceedings of the Florida Soil and Crop Science Society 38:87-90.
Rahi, G.S. and Shih, S.F. 1980. Soil-water characteristics of Histosols as related to water table
depth. Proceedings of the Florida Soil and Crop Science Society 39:34-37.
Raleigh, G.J . and Guzman, V.L. 1980. Shawnee. A crisphead lettuce adapted to organic soils of
Florida. University of Florida. Agricultural Experimental Stations. Circular S-269.
Ravikovitch, S. 1948. Peat soils and soils rich in organic matter in the Huleh Valley, Israel.
Agricultural Research Station, Bulletin No. 47, Rehovot.
Raymond, G.P., Wood, E.A. and Hollingshead, G.W. 1972. Consolidation of undisturbed fine
fibrous peat. Proceedings of the 4th International Peat Congress, Espoo.
Reynders, J .J . 1962. A brief report on the occurrence of peat in Netherlands New Guinea. Boor en
Spade 12:27-32.
Robinson, E. 1980. Peat as a fuel resource in J amaica, West Indies. Proceedings of the 6th
Roche, P. 1952. Les sols de marais rcemment rcuprs au Lac Alaotra. Agronomie Tropicale
7:43-63.
Roldn, J . 1959. Fertility status of organic soils in Puerto Rico. Journal of Agriculture of the
University of Puerto Rico 43:255-267.
Rypcek, V. 1968. Humic acids as related to plant morphogenesis and toxicity. Transactions of the
Schnitzer, M. and Hoffman, I. 1966. A thermogravimetric approach to the classification of organic
soils. Proceedings of the Soil Science Society of America 30:63-66.
Schothorst, C.J . 1977. Subsidence of low moor peat soils in the Western Netherlands. Institute for
Land and Water Management Research, Wageningen. Technical Bulletin No. 102.
Schothorst, C.J . 1982. Drainage and behaviour of peat soils. In: Proceedings of the symposium on
peat lands below sea level (Eds. H. de Bakker and M.W. van den Berg), International Institute for
Land Reclamation and Improvement. Publication No. 30:130-163.
Schwerdtfeger, G. 1980. Comparison of peatland-classification in different national systems of soil
science. Proceedings of the 6th International Peat Congress, Duluth: 93-95.
Shih, S.F. 1980. Impact of subsidence on water management in Everglades agricultural areas.
Proceedings of the 6th International Peat Congress, Duluth: 473-476.
170

Shih, S.F. and Rahi, G.S. 1981. Seasonal Variations of Mannings Roughness Coefficient in a
subtropical marsh. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 25: (1); 116-
119.
Shih, S.F., Asce, M. and Snyder, G.H. 1982. Water Control and Cropping Alternatives in
Everglades. Proceedings of the Special Conference on Environmentally Sound Water and Soil
Management, American Society of Civil Engineers, Orlando.
Shih, S.F., Stewart, E.H., Allen, L.H. and Hilliard, J .W. 1979. Varibility of depth to bedrock in
Everglades organic soil. Proceedings of the Florida Soil and Crop Science Society 38:66-71.
Shih, S.F., Vandergrift, D.E., Myhre, D.L., Rahi, G.S. and Harrison, D.S. 1981. The effect of land
forming on subsidence in the Florida Everglades organic soil. Proceedings of the Soil Science
Society of America 45:1206-1209.
Shoham, D. and Levin, I. 1968. Subsidence in the reclaimed Hula swamp area of Israel. The Israel
Journal of Agricultural Research 18:15-18.
Sjrs, H. 1980. Peat on Earth: multiple use or conservation? Ambio 9:303-308.
Skaven-Haug, S.V. 1972. Volumetric relations in soil materials. Proceedings of the 4th
International Peat Congress, Espoo.
Smith, G.D. 1965. Lectures on soil classification. Pedologie Special No. 4: 1-135.
Snyder, G.H., Burdine, H.W., Crockett, J .R., Gascho, G.J ., Harrison, D.S., Kidder, G., Mishoe,
J .W., Myhre, D.L., Pate, F.M. and Shih, S.F. 1978. Water table management for organic soil
conservation and crop production in the Florida Everglades. University of Florida, Agricultural
Experimental Stations, Bulletin No. 801.
Snyder, G.H., Morton, J .F. and Genung, W.G. 1981. Trials of Ipomoea aquatica, nutritious
vegetable with high protein- and nitrate- extraction potential. Proceedings of the Florida State
Horticultural Society 94:230-235.
Soepraptohardjo, M. and Driessen, P.M. 1976. The lowland peats of Indonesia, a challenge for the
future. In: Research on peat and podzolic soils in Indonesia and their potential for agriculture. Soil
Research Institute, Bogor, Indonesia.
Soil Survey Staff. 1975. Soil Taxonomy - a comprehensive system. U.S.D.A.
Sokolov, B.N. 1976. Principal trends in the utilization of peat deposits and peat in the USSR.
Proceedings of the 5th International Peat Congress, Poznan: 244-254.
Stephens, J .C. 1956. Subsidence of organic soils in the Florida Everglades. Proceedings of the
Soil Science Society of America 20:77-80.
Stephens, J .C. 1969. Peat and muck drainage problems. J. Irrigation and Drainage Division,
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 95, (IR2): 285-305.

171

Stephens, J .C. 1974. Subsidence of organic soils in the Florida Everglades - a review and update.
In: Environments of South Florida: Present and Past. Memoir 2, Miami Geological Society.
Stephens, J .C. 1983. Organic soil subsidence. LH Allen.
Stephens, J .C. and J ohnson, L. 1951. Subsidence of peat soils in the Everglades Region of
Florida. Contribution Division of Drainage and Water Control, Soil Conservation Service.
Stephens, J .C. and Speir, W.H. 1969. Subsidence of organic soils in the USA. In: Land
Subsidence 2:523-534. IAHS-AIHS Publication No. 89.
Stephens, J .C. and Stewart, E.H. 1977. Effect of climate on organic soil subsidence. In:
Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium on land subsidence, Anaheim, California. 1976 IAHS-AIHS
Publication No. 121:647-655.
Stephens, J .C., Allen, L.H. and Chew, E. 1984. Organic soil subsidence. American Geological
Society Reviews in Engineering Geology VI:107-122.
Subagyo, and Driessen, P.M. 1972. The ombrogenous peat soils of Indonesia. Soil Research
Institute, Bogor.
Suhardjo, H. and Widjaja-Adhi, I.P.G. 1977. Chemical characteristics of the upper 30 cm of peat
soils from Riau, Sumatra (Indonesia). In: Final Report, Agricultural Technical Assistance
Programme (Indonesia - The Netherlands) 1974-1977. Lembaga Penelitian Tanah, Bogor,
Indonesia: 74-92.
Suoninen, A. 1976. New ideas and technologies in utilization of peatlands and peat in industry.
Proceedings of the 5th International Peat Congress, Poznan.
Supardi. 1983. Kegunaan Gambut dan Perkembangannya do Indonesia A.L. Penyelidikan di
Rasau Jaya. Sub. Dit. Eksplorasi Batubara, Dir. Sumber Daya Mineral.
Suszcynski, E. 1984. The peat resources of Brazil. Proceedings of the 7th International Peat
Tate, R.L. 1980. Environmental factors limiting microbial activity in Histosols. Proceedings of the
6th International Peat Congress, Duluth: 695-699.
Tate, R.L. and Mills, A.L. 1983. Cropping and the diversity and function of bacteria in Pahokee
muck. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 15:175-179.
Tate, R.L. and Terry, R.E. 1982. Nitrite production in Pahokee muck: frequency of occurrence and
source. Soil Science 133, (4): 213-217.
Tay, T.H. 1969. The distribution, characteristics, uses and potential of peat in West Malaysia.
Journal of Tropical Geography 29:58-63.
Terry, R.E., Tate, R.L. and Duxbury, J .M. 1981. The effect of flooding on nitrous oxide emissions
from an organic soil. Soil Science 132, (3): 228-232.
Terry, R.E., Tate, R.L. and Duxbury, J .M. 1981. Nitrous oxide emissions from drained, cultivated
organic soils of South Florida. Journal of Air Pollution Control Association 31.
172

Thomas, F.H. 1962. The effect of depth to water table on growth and chemical composition of oat
forage and field corn. Proceedings of the Florida Soil and Crop Science Society 22:73-78.
Tie, Y.L. and Kueh, H.S. 1979. A review of lowland organic soils of Sarawak. Department of
Agriculture, Technical Paper 4, Research Branch, Sarawak, Malaysia.
Toth, A. 1980. Utilization of peatland for purification and emplacement of communal sewage-mud.
Proceedings of the 6th International Peat Congress, Duluth: 711-712.
Unger, J .L. 1963. De klink van veengronden. Nederlandsche Heidemaatschappij, Internal paper.
Unger, J .L. 1981. Winning en gebruik van turf als Brandstof. Internal Document.
Unger, J .L. 1982. Land selection and planning for Peat Mining. Seminar on peat for energy use -
Euroconsult paper, Bandung, Indonesia.
USAID. 1980. Environmental assessment of Burundi peat project. Mission Report Peat II (695-
0103).
Volarovich, M.P. and Churaev, N.V. 1968. Application of the methods of physics and physical
chemistry to the study of peat. Transactions of the 2nd International Peat Congress, Leningrad
(Ed. R.A. Robertson) 2:819-831. HMSO, Edinburgh.
Volk, B.G. 1973. Everglades Histosol subsidence: 1. CO
2
evolution as affected by soil type,
temperature and moisture. Proceedings of the Florida Soil and Crop Science Society 32:132-135.
Von Post, L. 1924. Das genetische System der organogenen Bildungen Schwedens. Memoires sur
la nomenclature et la classification des sols. International Committee of Soil Science, Helsinki:
287-304.
Voorde, van der, P.K.J . 1962. Soil conditions of the Isla Macareo, Orinoco Delta, Venezuela. Boor
en Spade 12:6-26.
Voort, van der, M. 1942. Veen en Veencultuur in de Anaivlakte op Sumatras westkust. Landbouw
18:189-202.
Waksman, S.A. 1942. The peats of New Jersey and their utilization. New J ersey State Department
of Conservation. Geological Series Bulletin No. 55.
Waksman, S.A. and Purvis, E.R. 1932. The microbiological population of peat. Soil Science 34:95-
113.
Waksman, S.A. and Stevens, K.R. 1929. Contribution to the chemical composition of peat: V. The
role of micro-organisms in peat formation and decomposition. Soil Science 28:315-340.
Weir, W.W. 1937. Subsidence of peat land in the Sacramento San J oaquin delta of California.
Transactions of the 6th Commission International Society of Soil Science, Zurich: 304-314.
Wille, D. 1984. Utilization of peat in horticulture. Proceedings of the 7th International Peat
173

Wilson, N.E. 1972. Cell structure of organic soils under shearing stresses. Proceedings of the 4th
International Peat Congress, Espoo.
Winkler, M.G. and DeWitt, C.B. 1985. Environmental impacts of peat mining in the United States:
Documentation for Wetland Conservation. Environmental Conservation 12:317-330.
Zhu Zhipei, Yuan J unlu, Wang Zenghui, Chen Piya. 1984. A preliminary study of the removal of
Pb, Cd, Zn, Ni and Cr cations from wastewaters with several Chinese peats. Proceedings of the
7th International Peat Congress, Dublin 3:147-152.
Zu Wenchen, Ma Xuehui, Wang Rongfen. 1984. The basic properties and utilization of peat in
China. Proceedings of the 7th International Peat Congress, Dublin 2:88-100.
APPENDIX 1 - Tests of Organic Soil Materials
(source Soil Survey Staff 1975)
The following tests of organic soil material can be used in the field or in field offices.
Determinations include sodium pyrophosphate extract colour, fibre percentages, and pH in 0.01 M
CaCl
2
.
Since it is not practicable in the field to base determinations on a dry sample weight, moist soil
material is always used. The specific volume of moist soil depends on how it is packed. It is,
therefore, important that packing be standardized in order to obtain comparable results by different
soil scientists.
Materials
a. Water; tap water is satisfactory unless so coloured that it affects the pyrophosphate colour test.

b. Solid sodium pyrophosphate (Na
4
P
2
O
7
10H
2
O) ground to 2 mm. Air drying makes grinding
easier.

c. CaCl
2
solution, 0.015 M.

d. Sample containers; plastic bags (optional) and 30 cc plastic cups with plastic lids.

e. Liquid dispenser; automatic constant volume pipettor, 3 ml capacity, modified to 4 ml by
inserting a piece of plastic tubing into the end of the inlet stem. Cap with a rubber bulb from a
medicine dropper to reduce leakage in transit.

f. Chromatographic paper strips, 0.5 cm by 3 cm or larger.

g. pH paper or pH meter.

h. Absorbent paper; thick soft chromatographic paper cut into 10 cm squares, or any absorbent
colour-fast blotting paper or heavy towelling is satisfactory for a field kit.

i. 15, 2.5 and 0.5 ml measures,

j. Half-syringe; a 6 ml plastic hypodermic syringe with the body cut longitudinally to make a half-
cylinder measuring device. Volume is one-half that indicated on the syringe.

k. Sieve, 100 mesh.

l. Spatula, 10 cm, plain. Shape the end to conform with the contour of the 2.5 ml measure of half-
syringe.
174

m. Wooden coffee stirrers.

n. Marking pencil.

o. 10YR and 7.5YR pages of Munsell soil colour book.

p. Tweezers.

Test Procedure
Field samples collected for use in field tests should be representative of the dominant kind of
organic material within the layer described and from the same layer on which field estimates of
rubbed and unrubbed fibre percentages are determined. The field sample can be collected in
plastic bags and the subsample transferred into a cup after thorough mixing, or the mixing can be
done at the sample site and only a small subsample placed in a cup for transport to the field office.
If protracted storage is likely, the living tissues should be removed before the sample is transferred
to a cup because their identifications become progressively more difficult with time.
Preparation of sample
Place about 25 cc of wetted field sample on a piece of absorbent paper. Smear the soil material
over the absorbent paper to mix and bring it in contact with the paper. Or roll the absorbent paper
around the sample and remove the water by squeezing with a second piece of absorbent paper.
Continue desorption until the soil material no longer glistens but is still very moist. Remove coarse
fragments and plant parts that were living at the time of sampling. If not done previously, visually
estimate the rubbed and unrubbed fibre percentage.
Pyrophosphate colour test
Place 1 g of pyrophosphate and 4 ml of water into a 30 ml plastic container. Allow to equilibrate for
a few minutes. Pack a half-syringe adjusted to 5 cc mark (2.5 cc volume) level full with moist soil
material. In filling, pack firmly with a spatula but avoid expressing water. Transfer soil material
cleanly to the container that holds the pyrophosphate solution. Mix thoroughly using a wooden
coffee stirrer. Cover and let it stand overnight unless the colour of the liquid changes rapidly and is
too dark or has too high a chroma for hemic materials. The temperature should be between 15 and
32C. Mix again next morning. Insert vertically, by about 1 cm, a strip of chromatographic paper
with tweezers. Leave it there until the paper test strip has wetted 2 cm above the slurry surface
(about 5 minutes but this may be longer if the cover is closed). Remove the paper test strip with
tweezers and tear off and discard the portion to which soil adheres. Place the strip on a piece of
blotting paper and press gently with tweezers to make firm contact. Remove the paper strip with
tweezers and compare the colour on the side next to the blotting paper with Munsell soil colour
charts (Fig. 35). If successive samples are blotted systematically a comparative record is obtained
on the sheet of blotting paper.

175

Figure 35. Value and chroma of pyrophosphate solution of fibric and sapric materials

176

Unrubbed fibre percentage (approximate)
Adjust a half-syringe to the 5 cc mark (2.5 cc volume) and pack it level full with moist soil. Transfer
all the soil material from the syringe to a 100 mesh sieve and wash under a stream of cold tap
water run at the rate of 200-300 ml per 5 seconds until the water passing through the sieve
appears clean. Wash the residue to one side of the screen and blot from underneath with
absorbent tissue to remove excess water. Remove any plant remains that were living at the time of
sampling. If a measurable volume is removed, return it to the half-syringe, blot, and record the
scale reading (cc) and subtract from the original 5 cc reading. Repack the washed fibres into the
half-syringe. Blot further with absorbent tissue. The moisture content should be approximately the
same as that of the 2.5 cc subsample previously measured. Record the scale reading (cc) on the
repacked syringe. Unrubbed fibre percentage is equal to the reading (cc) times 20 if there is no
correction for live tissues. If there is a correction, the percentage equals the reading (cc) divided by
the corrected pre-washed volume times 100.
Rubbed fibre percentage
Transfer the residue from the unrubbed fibre test back to the 100 mesh sieve. Rub the sample
between thumb and fingers under a stream of cold tap water running at the rate of 150-200 ml per
5 seconds. Continue until water passing through the sieve appears clean. Clean rubbed fibres will
roll between the thumb and fingers rather than slide or smear. Measure the relative volume with
the half-syringe and calculate percentage as described in the previous paragraph.
pH
Place 2.5 cc of the prepared sample in a 30 ml plastic container and add 4 ml of 0.015 M CaCl
2

(gives a final concentration of roughly 0.01 M CaCl
2
with most packed, moist organic materials).
Mix, cover, and allow to equilibrate at least 1 hour. Uncover and measure its pH with either pH
paper or a meter.
APPENDIX 2 - Volumetric Relations in Soil Materials
(Source Skaven-Haug 1972)
Solid matter
The solids in soil materials range from organic substances in pure plant material to mineral matter
in pure sands, clays or silts. At the same time the specific gravity of the solids, D
s
, varies from D
o

in pure plant material to D
m
in mineral matter. For the majority of soil materials, containing both
organic and mineral matter in the solids, the numerical value of D
s
is an expression of the ratio
organic matter/mineral matter.
The specific gravity D
o
for pure organic matter is not constant. It varies with habitat, species
present and degree of decomposition. The principal constituents, cellulose and lignin, have specific
gravities of 1.52 and 1.46 t/m
3
respectively. Literature on the subject gives a specific gravity of 1.53
for fresh spruce and pine while values for other materials lie between 1.47 and 1.52. As a practical
estimate
D
o
=1.50 t/m
3

Also the specific gravity D
m
for pure mineral matter is not constant. It can vary from 2.3 t/m
3
for
gypsum to 5.2 t/m
3
for hematite for example. In mineral soils a large number of minerals are
present, and the mean specific gravity varies between much narrower limits. A collection of data
from many soil mechanics laboratories shows a variation between 2.65 and 2.85, and generally
speaking the lower value is found in coarse and uniform sand, with values rising the more finely
divided the material becomes. For Norwegian sand and clay sediments the specific gravity lies
between the following limits which for practical purposes we also choose:
D
m
=2.7 t/m
3
2% for sand
D
m
=2.8 t/m
3
3% for clay
177

The dry specific gravity D
d
is the weight of solids per unit of volume, t/m
3
For groups of materials
with approximately constant specific gravity for their solids, D
d
is a serviceable expression for both
weight and volume ratios. This measure is used in international soil mechanics as a characteristic
of the quantity of mineral matter. The Norwegian Bog Association has for many years used the
corresponding measure g/dm
3
in dry peat in its investigations of bogs and D
d
can be regarded as a
suitable measure of solidity compaction in peat and bark material.
For the large group of soil materials with varying specific gravity of solids D
s
, D
d
is not suitable as
a basis for comparison.
Water
The amount of water that the soil material contains, or in certain circumstances can contain,
depends on the physical properties of the material. The water content is therefore used as a basis
of comparison of soil parameters and as an expression of their quality. The water content may be
expressed as the ratios:
weight of water/weight of dry matter (w)
weight of water/total weight (w
tot
)
volume of water/total volume (w
v
)
All three ratios are in use, and this has sometimes caused confusion. As explained above the
weight expressions are not always reliable as a basis for comparison.
The weight ratio w has been adopted in international soil mechanics and is in general use in
technology. For groups of materials with approximately the same D
s
, w is a serviceable basis of
comparison. For materials with variable D
s
, w is not a good parameter for reference. This can be
illustrated by an extreme example. A cubic metre of saturated Norwegian clay contains 0.5 m
3
of
water, and has w = 0.36 =36 percent. Peat (agricultural peat in bales) with the same water
content, 0.5 m
3
, has w =5.0 =500 percent.
The weight ratio w
tot
been used for a long time in peat terminology, and for peat with approximately
the same weight of dry matter it gives a serviceable basis for comparison. One advantage is that
w
tot
is always less than 100 percent.
The volume ratio w
v
is determined by weighing a known volume, before and after drying. Volume
determinations cause extra work, but they make it possible to determine both w
v
and D
d
. When D
s
is known, the weight and volume relationships can be calculated in the 3-phase system of water,
solids and air.
Some technical calculations need quantities of water and thus of w
v
. Artificial drying of materials
and the, determination of thermal parameters is an example. Since w
v
is also a good basis for
comparison, independent of the kind of material, its use should be widely advocated.
Ai r
Except for agricultural literature the air content of soil is rarely used. This is probably because of its
insignificant weight, so that it must be stated as a volume. The air content of soil is often directly
indicative of certain properties, such as low specific gravity, low thermal conductivity, and a large
capacity for absorbing water.
Formulae
Weight and volume ratios can be derived from the unit volume (Fig. 36). Here is a survey of

178

formulae that are suitable for practical use:
Symbols
w ratio of weight of water/dry matter
w
tot
ratio of weight of water/total weight
w
v
ratio of volume of water/total volume
D bulk density of wet material
D
d
specific weight of dry material (dry density)
D
s
specific gravity of solids
s
v
ratio of volume solids/total volume
n porosity
s
r
degree of saturation
D
o
specific gravity of organic matter
D
m
specific gravity of mineral matter
o
v
ratio of volume of organic matter/total volume
m
v
ratio of volume of mineral matter/total volume
l
v
ratio of volume of air/total volume
o ratio of weight of organic matter/dry matter
m ratio of weight of mineral matter/dry matter
a ratio of weight of ash/dry matter

For practical purposes the weight of air is regarded as zero, and the specific gravity of water as
unity. The numerical values of the volume and weight of water are thus equal, and the factor 1 is
omitted from the formulae. Ratios of weight, proportions of volume, porosity and degree of
saturation are dimensionless quantities, which if multiplied by 100 give percentages. Specific
gravities are reckoned in tons per cubic metre (t/m
3
).
w
v
=(D x w) (w +1) (1)
D
d
=D (w +1) (2)
w
v
=D
d
x w (3)
D
d
=D - w
v
(4)
w
v
=D x w
tot
(5)
D
d
= D (1 - w
tot
) (6)
w
v
=(D
d
x w
tot
) (1 - w
tot
) (7)
s
v
=D
d
D
s
(8)
l
v
=(1 - w
v
) - s
v
(9)
s
r
= w
v
n =(w
v
x D
s
) (D
s
- D
d
) (10)

179

If the volumes are measured and D
s
is known, the volume ratios in the 3-phase system, solids,
water and air, can be found. If the material is saturated with water we have only two phases, solids
and water, and the relations are simpler.
Then s
v
=1 - w
v
If the volumes are measured, D
s
can be calculated. We shall come back to this later.
The relation between w
tot
and w
v
, equation (7), is shown in Figure 36 for a number of organic
materials with D
s
=1.55 t/m
3
and known values for D
d
. The highest two curves are related to
slightly decomposed sphagnum peat in bogs. The curve for which D
d
=0.10 t/m
3
corresponds to
the same peat in agricultural bales for protection against frost under railway tracks. The bottom
curve, with D
d
=0.25 t/m
3
relates to bales of bark under roads and railways. For bark matting in
situ with measured w
tot
=0.72, we may read off, in round figures, w
v
=0.65, l
v
=0.19 and s
v
=
0.16.
Fig. 36. Relationship of weight and volume ratios for a range of organic materials with
known specific gravities

180

Fig. 37. Cubic unit of a soil material with four phases: organic substance, mineral
substance, water and air

Proportions of organic and mineral substances
The dry material may contain both organic and mineral matter, and D
s
is then the mean specific
gravity. It remains to determine the quantitative relations between organic and mineral substances.
By considering Figure 37 and setting up weight and volume equations we get:
o
v
=D
d
(D
m
- D
s
) D
s
(D
m
- D
o
) (11)
o
v
+m
v
=s
v

m
v
=D
d
(D
s
- D
o
) D
s
(D
m
- D
o
) (12)
In the same way we have the following mutual relations for weight:
o =D
o
(D
m
- D
s
) D
s
(D
m
- D
o
) (13)
o +v =1
m =D
m
(D
s
- D
o
) D
s
(D
m
- D
o
) (14)
We now have a complete survey of the volume and weight relations in the 4-phase system,
organic matter, mineral matter, water and air. We can easily measure D
d
and D
o
, and D
m
may be
regarded as known. It remains to determine the key value D
s
.
The Specific Gravity of Solid Matter
There are several methods of determining D
s
.
a. The pycnometer method can in principle be used for all soil materials, but is time-consuming,
especially when it comes to removing the last vestiges of air in organic matter, and is not
suitable for routine investigations.

181

b. For cohesive soils saturated with water, e.g. silt, clay and mud, commensurable volumes can
easily be prepared and D
s
can be calculated. The measurement of volume can also be carried
out by weighing in air and when submerged in water. This method is suitable for routine
investigations, but is limited to the above mentioned saturated materials.

c. The weight ratio can be found by chemical means, and then D
s
calculated from formula (13). A
distinction is made between direct and indirect methods. The direct methods consist of removing
the organic matter and weighing what is left. The best method is by ignition, which will be
described later. Indirect methods are based on the assumption that a particular element is
contained in the organic substance in a constant proportion, so that the organic substance can
be calculated for this element by means of a conversion factor. These methods, like the direct
ones, are not fully accurate, but must be regarded as the most reliable for soil materials with
only moderate contents of organic matter.
APPENDIX 3 - Soil and Other Physical Limits for Satisfactory
Crop Growth on Organic Soils
(source Maas et at. 1979)
APPENDIX 3. Soil and Other Physical Limits for Satisfactory Crop Growth on Organic Soils
1
The clay content of the mineral component must be 18 percent (Soil Survey Staff 1975).
2
n.r. - no restriction
3
Forage crops - although pasture grasses can be grown under the conditions stipulated, the
trafficability of animals is uncertain. It is noted that lighter animals like goats may not pose a
problem and that the trafficability is probably better where the mineral content is higher.
4
Frequent, but short-term flooding acceptable for clove, nutmeg and rambutan; infrequent, long
lasting floods for citrus, durian, guava and mango.

APPENDIX 4 - Linking Drainage and Soil Temperature
(source Stephens et al. 1984)
In developing a mathematical model linking drainage depth and soil temperature that could be
used to estimate subsidence of low moor peats in different climates, Stephens and Stewart (1976)
applied the Arrhenius Law to both water-table and laboratory findings. (Arrhenius showed that the
logarithm of the velocity coefficient, k, of a chemical reaction is linearly related to the reciprocal of
the absolute temperature, T.) Stephens et al. (1984) then developed the Stephens-Stewart-Chew
basic subsidence equation, which follows:
S
T
=(a+bD) e
k(T-To)
(1)

182

where
ST = biochemical subsidence rate at temperature, T,
D = depth of water-table,
e = base of the natural logarithm,
k = reaction rate constant,
To = threshold soil temperature where biochemical action becomes perceptible, a and b are constants.
Using the empirical relationship where S
T
multiplies to Q
10
x S
(T +10)
where Q
10
is the change in
reaction rate for each 10C rise in temperature, then
S
(T+10)
=Q
10
x S
T

=
(a+bD)e
k[(T+10)-To]
(2)
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1):
S
(T+10)
S
T
=Q
10
=e
10k
(3)
By rewriting (2) to express k in terms of Q
10

k =1 10 in Q
10
(4)
and substituting (4) into (1),
S
T
=(a+bD)Q
10
[(T-To) 10]
(5)
From laboratory studies, the value of Q
10
was assumed to be 2.0 and the value of T
o
to be 5C.
The relationship found between drainage depth, soil temperature, and annual subsidence rates on
the water-table plots at the Everglades Experiment Station was chosen to find the value of
constants a and b where the measured annual soil temperature was 25C. Thus, from Figure 20 p.
87, when D =40 cm, S =2.29 cm per year, and D =80 cm, S =5.00 cm per year. Substituting
these values into (5) and solving the simultaneous equation to evaluate a and b, we find that a =-
0.1035 and b =0.0169. Then from (5)
S
x
= [-0.1035 +(0.0169 x D)] x 2
[(Tx-5) - 10]
(6)
Stephens and Stewart (1976) recommend that equation (6) be used to estimate the biochemical
subsidence rate for low moor organic soils at locations where the annual average soil temperature
at 10 cm depth is T
x
. For example, equation (6) is used as follows to estimate the annual
subsidence rate, exclusive of compaction or other bulk density change, at the Lullymore
Experimental Station in the Irish Republic for arable low moor soils where the average annual soil
temperature is 8.5C and the water-table depth is held at 90 cm:
S
L
=[-0.1035+(0.0169 x 90)] x 2
[(8.5-5.0) 10]

S
L
=1.4175 x 2
0.35
(7)
S
L
=1.4175 x 1.27 =1.80 cm per year

183

This indicates that if the Everglades Histosols were transposed to Lullymore, the rate of
decomposition would be only 32 percent of the rate in southern Florida where T = 25C.
If the Everglades soils were in a more tropical climate where the average soil temperature was
30C, for example, again from (6)
S
x
=[-0.1035 +(0.0169 x 90)] x 2
[(30-5) 10]
(8)
S
x
=8.02 cm per year
Which is 43 percent greater than the decomposition rate for southern Florida.
For convenience in estimating S
x
for any selected temperature, T
x
, the results from equation (6)
were plotted at water-table depths, D, of 30, 60, 90 and 120 cm, which has been reproduced as
Figure 20.
Stephens and Stewart (1976) cite the shortage of field and laboratory data as a limitation of the
mathematical model, but also point out that if future studies indicate that the values of Q
10
and To
should be adjusted the mathematical procedure for computations is still valid. Only the constants
for a and b would change. For instance, where Q
10
=1.5 and T
o
=0C, then a =-0.1523, and b =
0.0246.
When using equation (6) or the graph, Figure 21, remember these values were developed from
organic soils with a mineral content of less than 15 percent and a bulk density of approximately
0.22 g/cm
3
In muck soils with a greater mineral content and higher bulk density, the expected
subsidence rates, depending on the increase in mineral content, will be between one-half and
three-quarters of those shown by Figure 21 or equation (b).
Calculation of the Surface Compression of a Bog
(Source Murashko 1969)
The process of surface compression of a bog with time may be described by the following
differential equation:
-dH dt =KhH (1)
where:
-dH
dt
the speed of compression in metres per year (the negative sign shows that compression decreases
with time),
H the depth of the bog, in metres,
h the depth of drains, in metres,
t the duration of drainage, in years,
K the constant of compression, the quotient which depends on the physical properties of peat, in
metres per year.

184

The formula for calculating surface compression of low-lying bogs at the borders of open canals
and near drains, which results from integration of equation (1) and utilization of experimental data,
has the form:
S
n
=AH
o
{l-exp[-h(a+bt)]}(2)
where:
A is the quotient of peat density, which depends on the volume weight of the solid matter;
H
o
is the thickness of peat before draining, in metres;
a and b experimental quotients (a =0.07m
-1
;b =0.06m
-1
, year
-1
).
For practical calculation using equation (2), it is necessary to know the thickness of the peat layer
before draining and the volume weight of solid matter, and to define the drain depth sufficient for
successful agricultural production or other purposes. In designing draining systems, the value of t
in equation (2) should be for the drainage operation of the project, or the time for repairing or
reshaping the drainage system. For bogs where wooden drains are installed, and the operation
time is between 15 and 20 years, the compression should be calculated taking into account half of
this term and assuming that the mean depth of the groundwater will be slightly higher for the first
half of the operation period and slightly lower than the optimum depth for the second half. For
ceramic drains, with operation terms of 40-50 years, the calculation value of the compression
should be defined for t =20-25 years. For a drainage system, t is assumed to be equal to the time
after which repairs or reconstruction of the drainage system is planned, that is approximately for 5
to 10 years.
Equation (2) is correct when t1 and the constant depth of water in drains is h
o
=5-40 cm. If the
designed depth of water in the canal is assumed to be more than the above mentioned value, the
canal depth h be reduced by the value of the excess. For example, if h =2.5m and h
o
=1.0m, then
the value of h =2.5 - (1.0 - 0.4) or 1.9 m, which should be used in equation (2). This assumption is
based on the fact that when the water-table of the bog is constantly near the canal borders the
compression of peat will not take place.
Values of the quotient of peat density. A, are defined by the value of volume weight of solid matter
according to the monogram (Fig. 38). The magnitude of the volume weight of dry peat should be
defined by selection of samples with intact structure taken through the whole depth of the peat
bog. In case the peat layer is inhomogeneous, such as when there are different layers with
thickness of l
1
, l
2
,..., l
n
with different density through the depth of the bog, then the volume weight
of the solid matter should be defined as a mean weighted value.
d =(d
1
l
1
+d
2
l
2
+... +d
n
l
n
) - (l
1
- l
2
+... +l
n
) (3)

185

Figure 38. Momogram for choosing peat bog density quotient A

Since it is difficult to define the weight of solid matter of an undrained layer under production
conditions, it is possible to choose values of A by means of the value of natural humidity, W, and
the degree of decomposition, R. Determination of W and R is made by selecting samples with
disturbed structure through the whole peat thickness. The nomogram (Fig. 38) also shows the
method of defining the quotient A by these factors.

186

FAO SOILS BULLETINS
1. Soils of the arid zones of Chile, 1966 (E**)
2. Survey of soil laboratory in 64 FAO member countries, 1965 (E**)
3. Guide on general specialized equipment for soil laboratories, 1966 (E**)
4. Guide to 60 soil water conservation practices, 1966 (E**)
5. Selection of soil for cocoa, 1966 (C* E** F** S**)
6. Aerial photo interpretation in soil survey, 1967 (E* F* S**)
7. A practical manual of soil microbiology laboratory methods, 1967 (E**)
8. Soil survey interpretation and its use, 1967 (E**)
9. The preparation of soil survey reports, 1970 (E** F** S**)
10. Physical and chemical methods of soil and water analysis, 1970 (E* F* S*)
11. Soil fertility investigations on farmers fields, 1970 (E* F* S*)
12. A study on the response of wheat to fertilizers, 1971 (E*)
13. Land degradation, 1971 (C* E*)
14. Improving soil fertility in Africa, 1971 (E** F**)
15. Legislative principles of soil conservation, 1971 (E*)
16. Effects of intensive fertilizer use on the human environment, 1972 (E*)
17. Trace elements in soils and agriculture, 1972 (E* F* S*)
18. Guide to the calibration of soil tests for fertilizer recommendations, 1973 (E* F* S**)
19. Soil survey interpretation for engineering purposes, 1973 (E* F** S**)
20. Fertilizer legislation, 1973 (E** S*)
21. Calcareous soils, 1973 (E* F*)
22. Approaches to land classification, 1974 (E**)
23. Management properties of ferralsols, 1974 (E*)
24. Shifting cultivation and soils conservation in Africa, 1974 (E* F* S*)
25. Sandy soils, 1975 (E*)
26. Planning and organization of fertilizer development in Africa, 1975 (E**)
27. Organic materials as fertilizers, 1975 (E* F** S**)
28. S.I. units and nomenclature in soil science, 1975 (E*)
29. Land evaluation in Europe, 1976 (E**)
30. Soil conservation in developing countries, 1976 (E* F* S**)
31. Prognosis of salinity and alkalinity, 1976 (E*)
32. A framework for land evaluation, 1976 (C* E* F* S*)
33. Soil conservation and management in developing countries, 1977 (E* F*)
34. Assessing soil degradation, 1977 (C* E*)
35. Organic materials and soil productivity, 1978 (C* E*)
36. Organic recycling in Asia, 1978 (C* E**)
37. Improved use of plant nutrients, 1978 (C* E*)
38/1. Soil and plant testing and analysis, 1980 (E*)
38/2. Soil and plant testing as a basis of fertilizer recommendations, 1980 (E** S*)
39. Salt-affected soils and their management, 1988 (E*)
40. China: recycling of organic wastes in agriculture, 1978 (E* F* S*)
41. China: azolla propagation and small-scale biogas technology, 1979 (E* F* S*)
42. Soil survey investigations for irrigation, 1979 (C* E*)
43. Organic recycling in Africa, 1980 (E*)
187

44. Watershed development with special reference to soil and water conservation, 1979 (C* E* F* S*)
45. Organic materials and soil productivity in the Near East, 1982 (E*)
46. Blue-green algae for rice production - a manual for its promotion, 1981 (E*)
47. Le recyclage des rsidus agricoles organiques en Afrique, 1982 (F*)
48. Micronutrients and the nutrient status of soils: a global study, 1982 (E*)
49. Application of nitrogen-fixing systems in soil management, 1982 (E* F* S*)
50. Keeping the land alive: soil erosion - its causes and cures, 1983 (E* F* S*)
51. El reciclaje de materias orgnicas en la agricultura de Amrica Latina, 1983 (S*)
52. Guidelines: land evaluation for rainfed agriculture, 1983 (E* F*** S*)
53. Improved production systems as an alternative to shifting cultivation, 1984 (E* F* S*)
54. Tillage systems for soil and water conservation, 1984 (E* F*** S***)
55. Guidelines: land evaluation for irrigated agriculture, 1985 (E* F*** S***)
56. Soil management: compost production in tropical and subtropical environments, 1987 (E* F***)
57. Soil and water conservation in semi-arid areas, 1987 (E* F***)
58. Guidelines: land evaluation for extensive grazing, 1988 (E*)
59. Nature and management of tropical peat soils, 1988 (E*)

Availability: April 1988
C - Chinese * Available
E - English ** Out of print
F - French *** In preparation
S - Spanish

The FAO Soils Bulletins can be purchased locally through FAO sales agents or directly from
Distribution and Sales Section, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5872e/x5872e00.htm#Contents

Nature and Management of Tropical Peat Soils

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Nature and Management of Tropical Peat Soils

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

Nature and Management of

You might also like