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Technological Environment

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Technological Environment J K Galbraith defines technology as a
systematic application of scientific or other organised knowledge to
practical tasks

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Classification of Technology Technology can be classified according
to any of the following categories :- State-of-the-art-technologies :
Technologies that equal or surpass the competitors. Proprietary
technologies : Technologies protected by patents or secrecy
agreements that provide a measurable competitive advantage.
Known technologies : Technologies that may be common to many
organisations but are used in unique ways.

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Core technologies : Technologies that are essential to maintain a
competitive position. Leveraging technologies : Technologies that
support several products, product lines, or classes of products.
Supporting technologies : Technologies that support the core
technologies. Pacing technologies : Technologies whose rate of
development controls the rate of product process development.
Emerging technologies : Technologies that are currently under
consideration for future products or

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processes. Scouting technologies : Formal tracking of potential
product & process technologies for future study or application.
Idealized unknown basic technologies : Technologies that, if
available, would provide a significant benefit in some aspect of life.

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The Technology Cycle Following classification, technology
management involves carefully implementing five stages :- 1.
Awareness phase 2. Acquisition Phase 3. Adaptation Phase 4.
Advancement Phase 5. Abandonment Phase (See Fig. Below)

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Technology Awareness of marketable invention Technology
Acquisition by self-generation or transfer Technology Adaptation
Minor modifications of acquired technology for specific needs
Technology Advancement Innovation involving major modifications
of acquired technology Technological Abandonment obsolescencing
External & internal Environment Factors affecting the technology
user Promotion Need driven expectations Justification Installation 1 2
3 4 5 6 Demolition Time

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The Technology Cycle, showing the five basic elements of
technology management at any given level (product, service, function,
work centre, plant/division, corporation, industry, national or
international) applicable to deal with an existing or new technology.
The dashed lines represent analysis.

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Awareness phase This is the first phase of the technology cycle in
which a company has a formal mechanism to become aware of
emerging technologies Some companies from think tank with
engineers & scientists, who research from around the world & put in
short internal report form for the benefit of corporate strategic
planners & technology policy markers.

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2. Acquisition Phase To go from the awareness phase from
acquisition phase, the companys technology group, in collaboration
with the industrial engineering group, would conduct technical
feasibility, & economic feasibility studies before justifying &
acquiring a new technology.

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3. Adaptation Phase Virtually every enterprise ends up adapting an
acquired technology for its particular needs If the homework done
correctly, the transition from acquisition to adaptation becomes much
smoother & less expensive Conversely, this not only frustrates the
people acquiring the technology but also slows down the assimilation
rate, causes major productivity losses, & results in severe quality
problems.

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4. Advancement Phase When capital is limited one cannot
indiscriminately purchase & abandon technologies with scarce money
It becomes imperative to improvise the acquired technologies for
ones home needs.

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5. Abandonment Phase This last phase of the technology is the most
critical Bad timing in prematurely abandoning a product could result
in lost revenues, & on the other hand, waiting too long to abandon
might also result in lost revenues because a customer may find a
better alternative in competition.

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Impact of Technology We propose to discuss the impact of
technology in general, under three heads :- a) Technology & social
change b) Economic effects of technology, & c) Technology & plant
level changes (See Fig. Below)

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Technology A. Social implications C. Plant level changes B.
Economics implications High expectation of consumers Systems
complexity Social systems Social changes Organisation structure
Resistance to change Increased regulation & stiff opposition Problems
of techno- structure Jobs become intellectual Need to spend on R&D
Increased productivity Fear of risk e-Commerce Telecommuting Rise
& decline of products & organisations Boundaries redefined
Transportation Markets Technology transfers Impact of Technology

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A. Social Implications Perhaps the most striking influence of
technology is found on society as every area of social life & the life of
every individual has been, in some sense or the other, changed by the
developments in technology.

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A1. High Expectations of Consumers Technology has contributed to
the emergence of affluent societies, who want more of many things
than more of same things, like varieties of products, superior in
quality, free from pollution, more safe, & more comfortable. This
calls for substantial investment in R&D. One important compulsion
for investing in technological advances in Japan is its customers high
expectations regarding design sophistication, quality, delivery,
schedules, & prices

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Industry owners in Japan swear by the dictum the customer is a
god who is always right. High expectations of consumers pose a
challenge & an opportunity to the owners of business institutions.

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A2. System Complexity Technology has resulted in complexity
Modern machines work better & faster no doubt But if they fail,
they need the services of experts for repairs They fail often because
of their complexity A machine or a system is composed of several
hundred components All parts must work in tandem to accomplish a
desired task Reliable performance of each part, therefore,

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assumes greater significance because of interdependence of systems.
Management is, therefore, under pressure to keep the whole system
working all the time.

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A3. Social Change The role of technology on social change may be
observed in more than one way :- First , there is the change in social
life, which results from a change in a technological process. Thus, an
invention may displace thousand of workers, yet the same invention
may result in the creation of a new city some- where else & create
even more jobs than it originally destroyed. Technological changes of
this sort create a turmoil in society. Secondly , besides uprooting
population,

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technology directly changes the patterns of their social life. An
invention may open new employment opportunities to women,
radically change hours spent at work & in the family, increase
available leisure time, open jobs to youth, & deny them to middle-
aged or old workers. Technological advance- ment tends to smoothen
out differences, as it creates a more freer & egalitarian society.
Thirdly , though social differences tend to be ironed out, status
differences are likely to be created by technological advancement in
developing countries as technology flows to less developed countries
mainly through multinational companies. In India,

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the employees in foreign collaborations are paid much more than are
paid in other local Indian companies, though they do the same job in
the same field. Fourth , the way we cook, communicate,use media &
work are affected by technology. Even the language we use is
changing, terms that until recently were not even part of our lexicon
have become common place. Social changes are also reflected in our
vocabularies like, house-husband, surrogate mother, & domestic
partner, etc. It is therefore, rightly said that the words are the bugles
of social change. when our language changes, behaviour will not be
far behind.

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Fifth , technology has its impact on religion in at least two ways, first,
religiosity has declined in importance as consumers have come to rely
on technology rather than on benevolent deities for their well-being.
Secondly, (on the negative side), modernisation pressures against
genetically modified foods to wholesale rejection of western
technologies by certain religious fundamentalists. Sixth , technology
has revolutionalised the education system. The internet makes vast
knowledge bases available to a large number of people electronically.
It has virtually democratised education by enabling in the very poor &
remote countries to access the

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worlds best libraries, instructors, & courses available through the
Internet.

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A4. Social Systems Of particular interest is the knowledge of
technology At this level, technology creates a distinct type of social
system, namely, the knowledge society In the knowledge society,
use & transfer of knowledge & information, rather than manual skill,
dominates work & employs the largest portion of labour force The
knowledge-worker will have to show why he should be retained, what
benefit he can offer to the organisation , & how he can add

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value to whatever the organisation does He will have to create new
jobs in consultation with his employer A job will then become a
joint venture When this happens, the worker can forget pension
plans.

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B. Economic Implications Developments in technology also have
significant economic implications :-

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B1. Increased productivity the most fundamental effect of
technology is greater productivity in terms of both quality & quantity
This is the main reason why technology at all levels is adopted As
a result of productivity improvements, real wages of employees tend
to rise & prices of some products decline.

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B2. Need to Spend on R&D Research & Development (R&D)
assumes considerable relevance in organisations as technology
advances Firms are required to consider, decide & take action on at
least six issues. First , the allocation of resources to R&D. It enables
business improve corporate performance by enabling the firm to
better develop synergies among product lines & business units.

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Secondly , technology transfer, the process of taking new technology
from the laboratory to the market place is equally important when the
company fails to develop much in the way of major innovations.
Thirdly , time factor is important in R&D. Companies can no longer
assume that competition will allow them the time needed to recoup
their investment. Fourthly , as new technology comes in, the old
technology needs to be abandoned. The process of old replaced by
new is called technological discontinuity. Such discontinuity occurs
when a new technology cannot be used simply to enhance the current
technology but actually substitutes for that

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technology to yield better performance. The R&D manager must
determine when to abandon present technology & when to develop or
adapt new technology. Fifthly , the firm must also decide on its own
R&D or to outsource technology. As a rule, it may be stated that a
company should buy technologies that are commonly available but
make (& protect) those at are rare, valuable, hard to imitate, & have
no close substitutes. In addition, outsourcing technology may be
appropriate when :- The technology is of little significance to com-
petitive advantage

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The supplier has proprietary technology The suppliers technology
is better &/or cheaper & reasonable easy to integrate into the current
system The technology development process requires special
expertise, & the technology development process requires new
people & new resources. The sixth & the final issue relates to the
decision on product innovation or process innovation. In the early
stages, product innovations are most important because the products
physical attributes & capabilities affect financial performance
considerably. Later, process innovations such as

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improved manufacturing facilities, increasing product quality, &
faster distribution become important in maintaining the products
economic returns.

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B3. Jobs Become Intellectual With the advent of technology, jobs
tend to become more intellectual or upgraded A job hitherto handled
by an illiterate & un- skilled worker now requires the services of an
educated & component worker Introduction of new technology
dislocates some workers This makes it obligatory on the part of
business houses to retrain its employees & to rehabilitate those
displaced & untrainable Equal is the responsibility of the
government

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to provide training & educational facilities to its citizens - those who
pick up & acquaint themselves with the new technology, the job will
be rewarding as they stand to gain through increased productivity,
reduced prices, & increased real wages Along with upgrading jobs,
technology has its impact on human relations Since interaction &
activity affect sentiments, & they begin to feel & think about one
another & about their work situation.

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B4. Problem of Technostructure Not only jobs become more
intellectual & knowledge-oriented, even the incumbents tend to
become highly professional & knowledgeable Such an enterprise has
to face on this account serious problems :- First , motivation of such
employees is a difficult task because incentives as attractive
remuneration, job security, & just treatment, hardly inspire the
enlightened employees to work more. They are instead motivated

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by opportunities which offer challenges or growth or achievement.
Secondly , retraining such employees for long is a difficult job.
Flighting & not sticking to one company is their culture. The
company has to make several exceptions to discourage rootless ness
of its professional employees :- Regular attendance & punctuality
have to be relaxed Dual promotion ladders have to be established so
that distinguished technical people can rise in rank Profit-sharing to
be provided to give creative

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persons a financial stake in the ideas they create Attendance at
professional get-togethers has to be sponsored Writing professional
articles has to be encouraged & special assignments & part-time
teaching may be allowed. Thirdly, scientific & professional workers
constitute, the technostructure . The technostructure tries to control
the organisation through influencing managements decision-making.
But they are more action oriented & are yet to learn social problems
of business decisions. Management is, therefore, in a

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in a tight position to balance the ruffled feelings of technocrats & the
social consequences of business decisions.

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B5. Increased Regulation & Stiff Opposition A by-product of
technological advancement is the ever-increasing regulation imposed
on business by the government of the land & stiff opposition from the
public as the host govern- ment has the powers to investigate & ban
products that are directly harmful or hurt the sentiments of a section
of society.

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B6. Rise & Decline of Products & Organisations Change of
technology is a norm & not an exception This poses another
problem to business A new technology may spawn a major industry
but it may also destroy an existing one Transistors, for example, hurt
the vacuum- tube industry & xerography hurt the carbon paper
business A typical product, today, is subject to a cycle : introduction,
growth, maturity, decline, &

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abandonment An organisation that is associated with particular
technology will go in sequence through the following stages :- ( i )
birth, (ii) growth, (iii) policy, (iv) procedure, (v) theory, (vi) religion,
(vii) ritual, & (viii) last rites.

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B7. Boundaries Redefined Technological changes have significant
consequences for industries :- Technological change is a potent
force in the reconfiguring of industry boundaries, it may broaden or
narrow generally excepted industry boundaries As a consequence of
its impact on whole industries, technological change can have a
significant impact on the prevailing business definition of individual
companies. Companies may find themselves in a different business

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due to technological changes that they or others have effected
Technological change is one of the important factors giving rise to
product substitution & product differentiation. Technological change
is a dominant force in shaping competitive dynamics in many
industries. It influences industry boundaries & structure, product
substitution & differentiation, & the price quality relationships
between products Technological change in the form of process (as
opposed to product) & materials innovations may contribute to many
of the impacts noted above Finally, for multi-product companies
(preceding

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discussion applies to single-business units), technological change may
have multiple impacts.

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C. Plant Level Changes The impact of technology at the plant level
is also significant.

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C1. Technology & Organisation Structure Technology has
considerable influence on organisation structure, length of the line of
command, & span of control of the chief executive Where
companies use technology, which is fast changing, matrix structures
are more common Some companies use a matrix even though the
rate of technological change is not fast Besides technology, other
factors that have their influence on organisation structure are history
& background of a company & the

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personalities of the people who founded the firm & managed it
subsequently, but the impact of techno- logy is considerable Line of
command tend to be lengthy where the production is routine &
process based Decision-making is highly centralised It tends to be
short if the production activities are customised The use of
specialists will be more & hence decision- making gets delegated In
mass production technologies, the number of people whom an
executive controls tends to be larger than when the production is unit
based

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Any technological advancement will result in :- a) the expanded
availability of a range of products & services b) substitution of capital
for labour, leading to higher productivity & lower costs c) increases in
sales or power for the innovating organisation relative to its
competitors d) initiation of changes in behaviour among customers,
suppliers, employees, or society, & e) side-effects on the quality of
physical environment.

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C2. Resistance to Change The manager of a given business unit shall
face resistance to change as new technology poses new problems
The resistance to change is often psychological A typical
businessman himself is opposed to adopting new technology as it is
expensive & risky When he is making enough money with obsolete
technology why must he worry about new technology?

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Specifically, resistance to change stems from the following reasons :-
1. Psychological or social commitments to existing products, process
& organisation, 2. Sizable capital investments in long-life single-use
facilities, 3. Low profits & reduced rate of growth, 4. Small size or
fragmented activities, 5. Complacent top management, 6. Industry
norms & associations or cartels that perpetuate industry-bound
thinking, 7. Lack of successful entrepreneurial models to emulate, &
8. Powerful labour resistance to changes in methods.

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C3. Fear of Risk There is always the fear of risk. A research
oriented-company like DuPont Corfam, an intended substitute for the
fore- casted shortage of shoe leather, after an invest- ment of $3000
million, abandoned the project in 1971 because of quality & cost
problems.

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C4. E-commerce The phenomenal growth of the internet & the
associated World Wide Web has made e- commerce possible E-
commerce is contributing to a growing per- centage of cross-border
transactions It rolls back some of the constraints of location,
distance, scale, & time zones The Web allows, both small & large,
to expand their global presence at a lower cost than ever before,
wherever they may be located, & what ever their size Modern
factories are now able to produce

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goods in a shorter period of time (to produce one car it takes less than
10 seconds) & with fewer defects - thanks to the introduction of Six
Sigma quality programmes Six Sigma is a statistical term that
means 3.5 errors per million, effectively eliminating performance
problems & ensuring that products conform to standards While e-
commerce focuses on marketing & sales process, E-business
emphasises integration of systems, processes, organisations, value
chains, & markets Integration operate through Internet & helps build

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new relationships between businesses & customers The internet & e-
business provide a number of benefits in global business, including
the following :- 1. Convenience in conducting business worldwide;
facilitating communication across borders which brings markets
closer 2. An electronic meeting & trading place, which adds
efficiency in the conduct of business 3. Power to consumers as they
gain access to limitless options & price differential 4. Efficiency in
distribution

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C5. Telecommunications The obvious dimension of the
technological environment facing international business is
telecommunications This growth is welcome as business, domestic
or global, cannot prosper without an efficient telephone system, such
as, 3G, MMS of NOKIA.

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C6. Transportation In addition to developments in computers &
telecommunications, several major innovations in transportation have
occurred since World War II While the advent of commercial jet has
reduced the travel time of businessmen, containerisation has lowered
the costs of shipping goods over long distances.

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C7. Gobalisation of Production Technological breakthroughs have
facilitated globalisation of production A satellite based
communications system allows Texas Instruments (TI) to co-ordinate
on a global scale, its production planning, cost accounting, financial
planning, marketing, customer service, & human resource.

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C8. Markets Along with the globalisation of production,
technological innovations have facilitated the internationalisation of
markets As stated earlier, containerisation has made it more
economical to transport goods over long distances, thereby creating
global market Low-cost global communications networks such as
the World Wide Web are helping to electronic global market places
In additions, low-cost jet travel has resulted in the mass movement of
people around the world

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This has reduced the cultural distance between the countries & is
bringing about convergence of consumer tastes & preferences At the
same time, global communications networks & global media are
creating a worldwide culture Worldwide culture is creating a world
market for consumer goods.

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C9. Technology Transfers Technology transfers includes :- i) Internal
transfer of technology from the R&D or engineering department to
the manufacturing department of a firm based in a country ii) The
same transfer of technology from a laboratory or operations of an
MNC in one country to its laboratory or operations in another country
iii) The transfer of technology from a research consortium supported
by many firms to one of

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its members Simply told, technology transfer is a process that
permits the flow of technology from a source to a receiver through
published material Purchase & sale of machinery, equipment &
inter- mediate goods, transfer of data & personnel; & interpersonal
communication Technology transfer comprise six categories :- 1.
International Technology Transfer is across national boundaries.
Generally, such transfers take place between developed & developing
countries.

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2. Regional Technology Transfer is transferred from one region of a
country to another. 3. Cross-industry or Cross-sector Technology
Transfer is transferred from one industrial sector to another. 4.
Interfirm Technology Transfer is transferred from one company to
another. 5. Intra-firm Technology Transfer is transferred within a
firm, from one location to another. Intra- firm transfers can also be
made from one department to another within the same facility.

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6. Pirating or Reverse-Engineering whereby access to technology is
obtained as the expense of the proprietary rights of the owners of
technology.

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International Technology Transfer Parties in the Transfer Process i)
Home country, ii) Host Country, & iii) The Transaction

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Home country Argue that the establishment of production facilities
by MNCs in subsidiaries abroad decrease their export potential
Some of the MNCs imports stem from their subsidiaries, the volume
of imports of the home country tends to increase Besides,
technology transfer tends to effect adversely competitive advantage of
the home country Labour unions in the home country too oppose
technology transfer on the ground that the jobs generated from the
new technology will benefit the host country citizens.

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ii) Host Country a) Economic Implications b) Social Implications

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Economic Implications Economic implications include payment of
fee, royalty, dividends, interest, & salaries to foreign technicians &
tax concessions resulting in loss to the national exchequer All these
are payable to the transferring country & might prove very expensive
to the host country Many times, the type of technology transferred
by international business is not appropriate to developing countries, is
designed to produce the types of goods that a rich country needs & to
do so by methods, which are appropriate to

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resources endowment of developed nations.

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b) Social Implications Along with the transfer of technology, there is
the transmission of culture from the exporting countries The upper
& middle class Indians are a case in point Majority of these neo-rich
people are totally Wester- nised & Americanised in their attitudes,
behaviours, food habits, & dress accustomedness This is because,
we import technology from the United States & European countries.

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iii) Transaction This element focuses on the nitty-grities of the
transfer.

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Stager in the Transfer Process The transfer of technology between
countries, particularly from rich to developing nations, proceeds in
five different, but coordinated stages :- 1. Assignments, including sale
& licensing agreements covering all forms of industrial property
including patents, inventors certificates, utility models, industrial
designs, trademarks, service names, & trade names. 2. Arrangements,
covering the provision of know-how & technical expertise in the form
of feasibility

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studies, plans, diagrams, models, instructions, guides, formulations,
service contracts & specifications, &/or involving technical, advising,
& managerial personnel, personnel training, & equipments for
training. 3. Arrangements, covering the provision of basic or detailed
engineering designs, & the installation & operations of plant &
equipment. 4. Purchases, including leases & other forms of
acquisition of machinery, equipment, intermediate goods, &/or raw
materials insofar as they are part of transactions involving technology
transfers

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5. Industrial & technical cooperation agreements of any kind,
including turnkey agreements, international subcontracting, as well as
provision for managements of & marketing services Technology is
not a homogeneous phenomenon. There are different types of
technology, each posing fundamentally different problems &
demanding different solutions in the international transfer process.

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International Technology Issues

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Technology Issues International Technology Issues Terms of
Technology Transfer Choice of Technology Creating Local
Capability Foreign Technology Acquisition Globalisation Barriers

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Foreign Technology Acquisition One of the major issues in
technology relates to the mode of acquisition Developing new
technology may conjure up visions of scientists & product developers
working in R&D laboratories In reality, new technology comes from
many different sources, including suppliers, manufacturers users,
other industries, universities, government & MNCs While every
source needs to be explored, each firm

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has specific sources for most of the new technologies. Broadly the
acquisition routes are three :- A. Internal Technology Acquisition B.
External Acquisition C. Combined Sources

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Internal Technology Acquisition Internal technology acquisition
option have the advantage that any innovation becomes the exclusive
property of the firm In addition, the resulting technology will be
tailored to meet the firms needs However, internal development has
risks The development take longer time than acquiring already
developed technology from external sources In addition, internally
generated technology is more expensive than the one acquired from
outside sources.

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B. External Acquisition External technology acquisition is the
process of acquiring technology developed by other for use in the
company External technology acquisition generally has the
advantage of reduced cost & time to implement & lower risks
However, technology available from outside sources was generally
developed for different applications Therefore, external acquisition
should contain an aspect of adaptation to the acquiring co.
application.

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C. Combined Sources Many forms of technology acquisition are
combinations of external & internal activities Combined acquisition
seek to overcome the limitations of internal & external sources, taking
advantages of both the actions at the same time

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Technology acquisition Routes Purely Internal Purely External
Seizing Tacit X Knowledge Internal R&D X Internal R&D with X
Networking Reverse X Engineering Covert acquisition With R&D
Covert Acquisition X

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Technology transfer X & Absorption Contract R&D X R&D Strategic
Partnership X X Licensing X Purchasing X Joint Venture X
Acquisition of Co. With Technology X

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Choice of Technology Terms & Conditions of Technology Transfer

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Restrict Clauses No. of clauses/ Agreements Export Clause i )
Permission of collaborator for exports ii) Export permitted only to
certain countries iii) Export prohibited to certain countries iv) Export
prohibited v) Export restricted to certain types of product vi) Export
restricted only to collaborators/ Agents/ Distributors vii) Restrictions
on use of trade marks for exports 169 37 80 22 18 1 6 5

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Sources of Supply of Raw Materials & Plant & Machinery Payment
of Minimum Royalty Restrictions on Production Pattern Restrictions
on Sale Procedures Restrictions on Termination of Agreement 94 40
27 5 1 Total Number of Agreements with Restrictive Clauses 213

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Globalisation The world economy is passing through structural
changes These changes are driven by globalisation of business as
well as by the revolution in information, communication, &
transportation technology Nations now have powerful technology in
their hands, fundamentally transforming the way in which business is
conducted around the globe The World Trade Organisation (WTO)
is contributing to globalisation by removing trade

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barriers between countries & involving mechanism for smooth
conduct of trade among nations the WTO has also evolved a
mechanism to manage technology better The main provision of the
WTO that influence technology transfer are included under the
following sections :- 1. Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights (TRIPs) 2. Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIMs) 3.
Subsidies & Countervailing Measures (SCMs) 4. The Information
Technology Agreements (ITA)

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Barriers to Technology Transfer The final international technology
issue relates to barriers. The problems encountered in transfer of
technology are :- A limited general understanding of the concept of
technology, & the lack of consistent framework for its study Lack of
systematic planning for technology in developing countries or
misunderstanding of its underlying philosophy Lack of bilateral
scientific/ technology advantage in

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the process of technology transfer (mutual benefits) Lack of
systematic & integrated engineering & sicio- economic approach to
the technology transfer process Lack of a relevant quantitative
framework/ approach to the analysis & evaluation of technology
transfer to developing countries Failure to include ergonomic
aspects in technology transfer or to accord sufficient value to the
human machine interface variable of the transferred technology, or
the failure to adjust the technology to the existing socio-cultural
system Lack of attention to environmental consideration &

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assessment of technological impact Failure to determine whether a
national consensus & orientation exist for a transfer Failure to
recognise the local potential (cultural & economic) for adoption of
technology (that is, failure to determine the availability of social &
economic infrastructures) Failure to determine if the existing
national productive capacity is adequate to support the application of
the transferred technology Restricting the feasibility study of
technology transfer to financial assessments (mostly cost benefit
analysis)

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Absence of any substantial effort to review & utilise the potential of
technological interchange & socio- technical collaboration for
technology transfer between developing countries Presence of
ethnical problems within the technology transfer failure to evaluate
or consider conflict causing factors pertaining to the transferred
technology. these factors can be categories into :- 1. sector conflict
factors conflicts that can arise within the techno-economic systems 2.
rural urban conflict factors arising because of spatial (that is,
regional) imbalance in the

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distribution of physical resources needed for specific industry in the
long-term (for instance, sacrificing the existing production institutions
in an area in order to initiate to new, imported, mostly large scale
technology), leading to 3. Factors disturbing the socio-cultural
balance that operate with in the social system : due to the
nonconformity of the transferred technology with the available
potential, & with the inherent objective of development policies &
national techno-economic plans in developing countries ; & due to the
lack of specific software & any other sophisticated supportive tools
for

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technological planning & technology assessment within the
technology transfer framework.