Continuous Carbon/Oxygen Log

Interpretation Techniques
Tony D. Lawrence, * SPE, Dresser Atlas
Summary
A relatively modern nuclear logging survey provides
methods to evaluate the production potential of both
old and new wells through casing, even in formations
containing fresh water. Several interpretation
techniques are developed that apply test pit data to
field applications in determining possible produc-
tion. Applications and limitations are discussed of
the techniques that offer the user independent
alternatives and complements to other log analysis
methods.
Introduction
A need long has existed for a method to determine
hydrocarbon saturations of zones behind casing. To
make such determinations, an instrument was in-
troduced in 1963 to measure the lifetime of pulsed
neutrons.! Since interpretation of this type of survey
requires zones of higher formation-water salinity,
another process was needed for lithologies consisting
of fresher waters. When introduced in 1973, the
carbon/oxygen (C/O) log was limited to static
measurements of preselected zones. Since it was
reintroduced commercially in 1977 as the continuous
C/O log, its ability to evaluate potential zones has
been improved because the continuous measurements
help prevent productive zones from being
overlooked.
2
Theory of Measurement
The continuous C/O log is made possible by known
reactions that occur when elements are bombarded
by high-energy neutrons.
3
Whenever neutrons of
14.2-MeV (million electron volts) energy collide with
the nuclei of different elements, those elements react
Now with ARCO Oil and Gas Co.
01492136/81/00078366$00.25
Copyright 1981 Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME
1394
in predictable ways, which have been detailed in
previous publications. 4-6 Basically, different
elements usually can be identified from characteristic
gamma ray energy levels released as a result of the
neutron bombardment. The number of gamma rays
at each energy level is proportional to the quantity of
each element.
The C/O ratio effectively can indicate the presence
or absence of hydrocarbons.
5
Since the formation
rock also may contain carbon (e.g., calcium car-
bonate), a comparison of the relative amounts of
silicon and calcium is used to differentiate between
carbon in the fluid and in the lithology.
The silicon and calcium measurements are per-
formed using two different methods. A SilCa ratio is
measured using capture gamma rays, while a Ca/Si
ratio is obtained using inelastic (prompt) gamma
rays. Each mode has certain advantages as described
here. The carbon and oxygen measurements, of
necessity, are measured only in the inelastic mode.
4
(The ratios, as measured by the C/O instrument, are
proportional to the actual atomic ratios but should
be considered as indices for comparative purposes
rather than as absolute atomic ratio values.)
Instrumentation, Calibration,
and Presentation
With a maximum outside diameter of 31'8 in., the
subsurface instrument has a length of 15.75 ft. The
maximum temperature rating is 300F, and 15,000
psi is the maximum pressure rating. The instrument
source consists of a high-voltage power supply used
to accelerate deuterium ions (deuterons) into a
tritium target, thereby generating a large number
(about 10
8
) of 14.2-MeVneutrons per second at a
repetition rate of 20,000 bursts per second. The
subsequent gamma radiation is detected by a high-
resolution sodium iodide (thallium-activated)
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
CORRELATION
& MONITOR
SILICON
DEPTH
CONTINUOUS RATIOS
(SCALES TAILORED TO SPECIFIC AREAS)
CARBON/OXYGEN RATIO
SILICON/CALCIUM RATIO
INELASTIC CAl.CIUM/SILICON RATIO
Fig. 1 - Standard presentation of the continuous CIO log.
scintillation crystal that activates a photomultiplier
tube. Inside a thermal isolation Dewar-type flask,
both detector and photomultiplier are kept at a
constant low temperature. The photomultiplier tube
generates electrically pulsed signals, the amplitudes
of which are proportional to the gamma ray energies.
This information is transmitted to the surface by
means of a standard logging cable. There, a
multichannel analyzer system is employed to
determine the relative amounts and types of elements
present after compensating for background radiation
by selecting timed gates of measurement.
2
Calibration of the continuous C/O logging in-
strument uses a simple but precise technique whereby
the spectrum peaks of known elements are set in
preselected channels so that elements may be
identified from their respective channel numbers.
The .recorded information is processed further and is
presented on a standard log format as in Fig. 1. Log
Track 1 consists of the capture silicon curve which is
used for correlation (since it responds essentially as a
conventional correlation neutron) and the source
monitor curve that is used to monitor the output
consistency of the source. Tracks 2 and 3 consist of
the C/O, SilCa, and inelastic Ca/Si curves. The
scales are tailored to specific areas.
Laboratory Test Pit Data
Extensive test pit data have been developed for a
wide variety of laboratory formations in determining
the instrument response. Formations of sand, lime,
and dolomite with porosities from 2 to 350/0 and
saturated with either oil, fresh water, salt water, or
borated water were used for the measurements of the
C/O and SilCa ratios. The data presented here are
AUGUST 1981
18
16
cia
RATIO
90 95
CIO YS. Si/C.
(OIL-WATER ENVELOPE SIZE V5. POROSITY)
TEST PIT DATA, 6'11" CASING
FRESH WATER
35%I
o WATER SAND
OIL SAND
6 WATER LIME
OIL LIME
o WATER COLOMITE
OIl. LINES
LO 105 1 J
'"
SilCa RATIO
Fig. 2 - Oil/water envelopes from test pit data.
from test formations containing 6Ys-in. casing filled
with fresh water. The oil gravity was approximately
30 API of chemical formula C
22
H
46
, while the
water zones contained fresh water. (The data shown
apply to a specific series of Dresser Atlas instruments
and may vary slightly for other instruments having
different characteristics such as source-to-detector
spacing, pulse rate, etc.)
Interpretation
Oil saturation can be calculated theoretically from
actual atomic ratios (see Appendix). By assuming a
linear relationship between the C/O ratio index and
oil saturation as a first approximation for
homogeneous formations of constant lithology and
porosity, oil saturation can be estimated from C/O
ratio index factors as
Fco-Fwco
So = , .................... (1)
Foco -Fwco
where F wco is the C/O ratio index in the water-
saturated zone, Foco is the C/O ratio index in the oil-
saturated zone, and Fco is the C/O ratio index in the
zone of interest.
In cases of changing lithologies and porosities, a
more complex relationship may be necessary.
Theoretical calculations using actual atomic ratios
show the relationship to be slightly nonlinear (see
Appendix).
The test pit data are plotted in Fig. 2. The water
points fall basically on a straight line that intersects
the lime, dolomite, and sand average water values. A
line is drawn connecting the Points Land S, which
indicate the average water values for lime and sand,
respectively. Since water-filled dolomite also falls
1395
.20
.15
.10
.05
-.05
l ~ - F ... )
(CALCULATED)
F .. + 8 F .. - 2.36
".
POROSITY
TEST PIT DATA, 6W CASING
FRESH WATER
i
WATER SAND
OIL SAND
WATER LIME
A OIL LIME
o WATE" DOLOMITE
/
/
~
OIL LlN/
/
/
~
/
o
WATER LINE
*
/
o
10% 30% 6
POROSITY (PERCENT)
Fig. 3 - C/O change from water line.
40%
near this line, any mixture of sand, lime, and
dolomite water zones also should plot near the line.
The average water line can be expressed
mathematically by the linear relationship
Fwco = mWSCFWSC+bwsc' .............. (2)
where m wsc is the slope of the water line, F wsc is the
water-line capture Si/Ca ratio index, and b
wsc
is the
intercept point on the C/O axis for a Si/Ca
theoretical value of zero. For the test pits, the ap-
proximate values for mwsc and b
wsc
are -0.8 and
2.36, respectively.
The oil points form lines parallel to the water line.
The distance of each oil line from the water line
increases with increasing porosity. The amount of
C/O ratio increase from water to oil is defined as
Aco == Foco -Fwco. . .................. (3)
If points that fall between the water and oil lines
can be assumed to have oil saturation values ap-
proximately proportional to their relative positions
between the lines, Eqs. 1 and 3 can be combined:
S = Fco -Fwco .................... (4)
a Aco
For formations which contain fresh water so that
the capture Si/Ca readings show little change due to
salinity effects, the capture Si/Ca can be used to
estimate the Fwco value for different lithologies. Eqs.
2 and 4 then can be combined as
S = Fco-mwscFsc-bwsc , ............ (5)
a Aco
where Fsc is the capture Si/Ca ratio index.
1396
Porosity Compensation
The factor (Fco - m wsc . Fsc - b
wsc
) is the
distance (Fco - F wco) from the water line to points
between the water and oil lines. This factor is related
to volume of oil and is a function of both oil
saturation and porosity. A plot of this function vs.
porosity for the test pits is shown in Fig. 3.
The distances (Aco) from the water line to the oil
line in Fig. 3 can be approximated using
Aco = ex . c/>(3, ........................ (6)
where c/> is porosity and ex and {3 are proportionality
and exponential factors, respectively. The ap-
proximate values for ex and {3 for the test pits are 0.6
and 1.11, respectively.
The Fco increase from water to points having
different oil saturation values can be approximated
by
Fco -Fwco = ex . (Soc/(3 .............. (7)
Since the So c/> product is the volume of oil, the
increase from the water line is roughly proportional
to the unit volume (actually unit mass) of oil. Eq. 5
can be refined as
(3 Fco-mwscFsc-bwsc
So = ex . c/>(3 , (8)
since (3, the bulk volume exponential factor, applies
to both So and c/> and agrees slightly better with
theory than a purely linear relationship.
Overlay Techniques
Si/Ca vs. c/o
An overlay method has been devised to solve the test
pit cases. This method uses the C/O and Si/Ca
curves which are recorded on special scales for this
purpose. Fig. 4 shows the test pit data plotted on the
same type grid and scales useful in recording the C/O
log.
While the C/O ratio is recorded on a scale of 1.0 to
1.5 over 10 chart units or 2.5 in., the Si/Ca scale is
1.0 to 1.5 over 8 chart units. This 8 vs. 10 chart-units
scale comparison takes care of the 0.8 slope of the
water line.
Eq. 8 also can be written for the test pits as
SJ.l1 = Fco - (-0.8Fsc ) -2.36 ........ (9)
Aco
Thus, by creating a negative of the Si/Ca curve
and by measuring its separation from the C/O curve
after having been normalized to take care of the
intercept of the water line, the numerator of the
equation can be solved. (It can be shown that by
reversing the C/O ratio curve, the same amount of
separation between the normalized curves will appear
as in the aforementioned process.)
For the test pits at 35010 porosity, the denominator
(Aco) becomes approximately 0.20; so with a C/O
scale of 0.20 per inch, oil saturation percent can be
approximated in hundredths of an inch of separation
between the C/O curve and the reversed Si/Ca curve.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
For the test pit cases other than high-porosity
zones, oil saturation can be approximated with a
special, clear plastic overlay (Fig. 5) by placing it on
the log and by reading oil saturation at the ap-
propriate porosity line from the separation of the
overlaid curves. Compare the overlay scalar shape to
a calculated model using actual atomic densities
shown in Fig. 6.
It can be shown that the measured increases in the
Feo values are about one-half as sensitive to the
carbon and oxygen content as are the values
calculated from the actual number of carbon and
oxygen atoms per unit volume (see Appendix). This
disparity is a consequence of the measurement
process and is primarily due to detector size
limitations.
7
,8 However, the trends are very similar
in both cases, and the C/O sensitivity is usually
sufficient for field applications.
Ca/Si vs. C/O
The Ca/Si inelastic measurement enables oil
saturation to be estimated using a similar method
based on test pit data (not shown for brevity). For the
Ca/Si ratio, Eq:2 corresponds to
Fweo = mwes . Fwes +b
wes
' ............. (10)
where b
wes
is the intercept on the C/O axis of the
C/O vs. Ca/Si crossplot for a Ca/Si theoretical value
of zero, F wes is the inelastic Ca/Si ratio
index, and mwes is the slope of the water line. The
test pit values for m wes and b wes are approximately
1.8 and -0.02, respectively. (Note that the slope of
the water line for the inelastic Ca/Si crossplot is
positive, while the slope for the capture Si/Ca
crossplot is negative. The reverse is generally true for
the intercept values.)
It can be shown that when using the Ca/Si inelastic
measurement, the approximate oil saturation
equation for the test pits becomes
S 1.11 = Feo -1.8 F
es
+0.02
o .6.
eo
.......... (11)
Similarly, an overlay technique also can be used
for the Ca/Si curve by recording the Ca/Si curve on a
scale of 0.75 to 1.25 over 18 divisions while recording
C/O ratio on a scale of 1.0 to 1.5 over 10 divisions as
described earlier. (The Ca/Si curve need not be
reversed for the overlay since its slope is positive.)
Overlay Field Cases
It is important to note that the b
wse
and b
wes
values
of 2.36 and - 0.02, respectively, apply only to the
specific test pit conditions. For any different en-
vironment (field cases), a new intercept value must be
determined. A given well may have different in-
tercept values over specific depth intervals due to
environmental effects such as casing size changes,
borehole size changes, washouts, presence or absence
of cement, drastic salinity changes, different
borehole fluids, and varying annular fluid. (The
inelastic b
wes
value for Ca/Si should be virtually
independent of sodium chloride changes, however.)
The a and {3 values for .6.
eo
may be affected by some
AUGUST 1981
FLUID
NONE
I
I
NONE
I
OIL
I I
wq
Oil
wIT:!'
01\ I
WATER
I
01: II
I
wh !
I
I
I I
I
WATER
Olf I
I
WATER
I I
wiTEI'
MATRIX
liME
SAND
I
:rll
SAND

I
LIME
I
IlijE
iSAND
i I
SAND
LIME
LIME
!
SAND
I
I
I
SAND
I
DOI"oi'TI'
P
0'1,
CIO TEST PIT DATA
WITH OVERLAY
1.0 CIO RATIO 1.5
I I
Fig. 4 - Test pit data on log scales.
80%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
10
___

o WATER LINE
10
ATOMIC DENSITY
CALCULATED
CJO INCREASE
Fco - Fwco
20 30 40 50
POROSITY (PERCENT)
Fig. 5 - C/O overlay scalar.
.4
SAND
Ph 0 .87
.3
.2
.1
o .1 .2
POROSITY
Fig. 6 - Calculated C/O increase.
.3 .4
1397
1.80 -
1.10 -
1.60
mwsc = - 0.8 (slope)
b
wsc
= 2.40 (i ntercept)
CROSSPLOT
Fco vs. Fsc
(VSI! on z axis)
1
'3 2 0211 0 11 0
CIO RATIO 0030313 00001211100 0 1
1.50
o ""002113111111111011110101
"WATER LINE" 010111011111]10000001 0
01201111111110011000102
123220:'11111100UOOO 00
331212112U1111 10
53303120
1.40 + ..................... + + + +
1.00 1.10 1.20 1.'30 1 ~ O 1.50
Sl/Cs RATIO
Fig. 7 - Slope and intercept from C/O VS. Si/Ca crossplot.
of the same environmental changes.
Alternative Methods
Computer Crossplot Method
When a computer is available for log analysis, the
intercept of the water line can be obtained by
crossplotting Feo vs. Fse (or Fes) and finding the
water line of best fit. Fig. 7 is an example of a F co vs.
Fse crossplot with shale volume on the z axis. The
water line can be drawn with a slope of - 0.8. The
intercept on the C/O axis (extrapolated to a SilCa
theoretical value of zero) is the b
wsc
value. In this
example, b
wse
is approximately 2.40. Once b
wse
is
determined, the standard saturation equation can be
used.
Apparent Water-Line Intercept Method
It is often advantageous to use the concept of the
apparent intercept of the water line for help in
determining the actual water line intercept value. The
apparent water line intercepts can be defined from
the following equations.
b
wase
== Feo -m
wse
F
se
, .............. (12)
and
b
waes
== Feo -m
wes
F
es
' ............... (13)
where b
wasc
and b
waes
are the intercepts on the C/O
axis for lines drawn parallel to the water lines and
passing through points on the C/O vs. SilCa and
C/O vs. Ca/Si crossplots, respectively.
By plotting these apparent water-line intercept
functions vs. depth, a minimum value can be picked
as the true b
wse
and/or b
wes
value. The oil saturation
then can be calculated by
S{3
o
................... (14)
and
So{3 = b wacs - b wes
.::leo
................... (15)
Thus, by drawing a baseline through the minimum
apparent water-line intercept values, the other points
can be scaled directly in oil saturation units as a
function of their distance from that line and as a
1398
function of .::leo'
Ratio Method
It can be shown that the ratio of the Feo
measurement in water zones to the Feo values in
zones of interest can be an effective indicator of oil
saturation.
An empirical relationship that gives reasonable
results is
So = r(1-{FweoIFeo)] .............. (16)
for constant porosity zones, and
_ rp .[1- (FweolFeo )]
So - cf> . (17)
for other zones where rand r p are ratio and ratio-
porosity fitting constants, respectively. The constants
in the equations may need to be tailored to specific
areas and can be determined from core and
production data. The values for F weo can be
determined from Eqs. 2 and/or 10, or if the lithology
and environment are both consistent, they can be
read from the log in wet zones.
Other Considerations
Hydrocarbon Density Compensation
The test pits contained paraffin hydrocarbons of
approximately 30 API gravity. Since the number of
carbon atoms per unit volume for a particular
hydrocarbon is a function of the hydrocarbon
density (see Appendix), some compensation may be
needed where hydrocarbons of extremely high or low
densities are encountered such as in tar and/or gas-
bearing zones.
The test pit hydrocarbons have the chemical
formula C
22
H
46
, with a density of 0.87 g/cm
3
.
Hydrocarbons in nature occur with a great variety of
chemical formulas.
9
However, by using the basic
hydrocarbon chemical formula n(CH
2
), an estimate
of the number of carbon atoms per unit volume can
be obtained from the density of the hydrocarbon.
For hydrocarbons of the formula CnHm, an
equivalent hydrocarbon density can be calculated
which would correspond to the n(CH
2
) type having
the same number of carbon atoms per cubic cen-
timeter.
It can be shown that this equivalent hydrocarbon
density can be estimated by
14nPh
Phe = 12 ' .................... (18)
n+m
where Phe is the equivalent n(CH
2
) hydrocarbon
density, Ph is the actual CnHm hydrocarbon density,
and nand m are subscripts for the chemical formula
CnHm'
The equivalent n(CH
2
) hydrocarbon densitj for
the paraffin test pit hydrocarbons is 0.865 g/cm . To
obtain the Feo increase from water to hydrocarbon
for different hydrocarbon densities, the Feo span
(.::leo) from water to hydrocarbon in the test pits
should be multiplied by the factor PheI0.865, where
Phe is the equivalent hydrocarbon density (in g/cm3)
for n(CH
2
) hydrocarbons at formation conditions.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
Thus, the oil saturation equation can be modified for
hydrocarbon density effects to give approximate
hydrocarbon saturation by
sf = Phae ,Sh! , .................... (19)
Phe
where Phae is the apparent equivalent n(CH
2
)
hydrocarbon density, P he is the actual equivalent
n(CH
2
) hydrocarbon density calculated, and Sh is
the actual hydrocarbon saturation being estimated
from Sha' the apparent hydrocarbon saturation. The
continuous C/O response to hydrocarbon unit mass
(or weight) has been observed in the field.
lO
Shale Corrections
In carbonaceous shales or where the Feo ratio differs
between shales and wet reservoir rocks, it may be
desirable to correct Feo for the effect of shale. If Feo
is assumed to change from a shale-free effective value
as a linear function of shale volume, the shale-free
value can be estimated as II
Feo - V
sh
F
sheo
Feeo = , .............. (20)
1- Vsh
where Feeo is effective Feo corrected for shaliness,
Feo is the value from the log, F
sheo
is the reading in
100070 shale, and Vsh is the fractional unit volume of
shale.
Shale corrections are done more easily on a
computer. After the shale corrections are made, the
corrected values for Feo are used as described in the
previous oil saturation equations. Similar shale
corrections may be applied to the other ratios.
(Naturally, in pure shales, the effective ratio factors
become indeterminable.)
Salinity Corrections
It can be shown graphically that an increase in
salinity will tend to move the water line toward the
origin of a C/O ratio vs. capture SilCa ratio
cross plot due to the decrease in the capture SilCa
ratio. This effect will tend to increase the apparent
span' from water to oil for a given capture Si/Ca
ratio. Assuming that the salinity-affected water line
is parallel to the freshwater line, the oil saturation
equation compensating for this effect can be shown
to be approximately
{3 Feo -m
wse
F
se
-b
wse
So = , .......... (21)
.:leo - m wse . .:lse
where .:lse is the SilCa capture ratio increase from
saline water to fresh water for given lithology. (Note
that mwse is negative.)
A rough estimate of .:lse may be obtained from
.:lse = a (P
NaC1
/l00,OOO)b, ............. (22)
where P
NaC1
is the formation water salinity in parts
per million of NaC!. The observed field values of a
and bare 0.52 and 0.82, respectively.
The observed SilCa capture ratio changes due to
salinity were described by Heflin, et al.
2
and Mc-
Whirter.
4
For high-salinity formations, use of the
inelastic Ca/Si ratio may be preferred.
AUGUST 1981
Applications and Limitations
The following is a summary of the basic applications
and limitations of each method of interpretation.
Porosity Compensation
The porosity compensation technique allows the
determination of oil saturation in zones of varying
porosity. Some formations contain carbon in the
matrix which may not be associated with the calcium
content (e.g., siderite); thus, the oil saturation
calculated from this method may be too optimistic in
those cases. By comparison to core or production
data, the actual Feo span can be estimated for a given
field or zone and, thus, used to determine the
productive capability of each well. (Since the C/O
instrument is a neutron device, it may be advan-
tageous to use a neutron porosity measurement in
some areas.)
Overlay Technique
The overlay technique is simply a graphical method
of solving the mathematical equation for determining
oil saturation. For siinplicity, it is acceptable in some
areas to assume a constant span from water to oil so
that the separation can be scaled directly as a certain
number of oil saturation units.
Apparent Water-Line Intercept
The apparent water-line intercept technique is useful
when making a computer analysis of C/O data.
Changes in the intercept of the water line can be
distinguished easily from a plot of the apparent
water-line intercept vs. depth.
Ratio Method
The ratio method should be an advantage when the
span from water to oil changes or is unknown due to
environmental changes.
Hydrocarbon Density Compensation
By knowing the approximate density of the
hydrocarbons, it is possible to estimate more ac-
curately the hydrocarbon saturations in lower-gravity
tar zones and to improve the interpretation of gas
zones. Naturally, the resolution of the continuous
C/O log improves as the density of the hydrocarbon
increases. Thus, in gas zones, multiple passes may be
helpful to minimize the relative statistical effects due
to the small .:leo span between water and gas.
The capture silicon curve responds to gas in the
same manner as a conventional correlation neutron
curve and, thus, can be used to locate gas zones
qualitatively. For quantitative results, it may be
advantageous to consider an alternate pulse neutron
capture log in very low-density gas zones.
Shale Corrections
Shale corrections can be useful in determining how
much of the hydrocarbon in the formation can be
produced effectively.
Salinity Considerations
The inelastic Ca/Si measurement is virtually in-
1399
CORRELATION DEPTH CONTINUOUS RATIOS
CARBON OXYGEN RATIO
1.0 1.5
SIliCON CALCIUM RATIO
0.8 1.8
CAPTURE SILICON
10100 4800 m .. " ::: -0.5
b"." ::: 1.95
CARBON
17140 34285
____ CARBON
Fig. 8 - Field Example 1 - overlay method.
CORRELATION
& MONITOR
SILICON
CONTINUOUS RATIOS
CARBON/OXYGEN RATIO
1.0 . 1.5
SILICON/CALCIUM RATIO
11250 3750
1.0 15
MONITOR APPARENT WATER LINE INTERCEPT
f----,--""Z'---i X100 f---___ --:77'2".O ___ I7_....:
2
9
5
mwsc = -0.8
b
wsc
= 2.29
Normalized
Reverse -
51 Ca
X200 f-------r<--+------,F----1
Fig. 9 - Field Example 2 - overlay and apparent intercept
methods.
So
FROM CORES So '=' F weo
% 100 0
Fig. 10 - Field Example 3 - comparison of interpretation
techniques.
1400
dependent of the sodium chloride content in either
the borehole or the formation.
7
,12 However, since
chlorine has a capture gamma ray that falls in the
same energy band as that of the calcium capture
gamma ray, the capture Si/Ca ratio is affected by
drastic changes in the sodium chloride content in the
borehole or formation.
2
,4 Also, calcium chloride
fluid will affect either the inelastic Ca/Si or the
capture Si/Ca ratio. The particular environments
encountered in each well should be considered before
determining which silicon and calcium measurement
to use when interpreting the C/O log.
In general, the inelastic Ca/Si is preferred in areas
of either high salinity or drastic salinity changes. The
capture SilCa appears to work best in the fresher and
consistently low-salinity areas since the statistical
variation of the capture measurement is less than that
of the inelastic measurement due to the wider energy
band of the capture Si/Ca curve.
General Limitations
As with most logging devices, the continuous C/O
instrument has a limited volume of investigation.
Consequently, the measurements made will depend
on the composition of the particular volume in-
vestigated. The instrument "sees" the materials
encompassed by this volume of measurement. Thus,
if the well has severe washouts and places with little
or no cement behind pipes, the instrument will be
affected by whatever fluid fills these areas. Work
currently is under way to determine the magnitude of
these effects. However, in general, most borehole
effects due to normal cased-hole conditions can be
eliminated by the normalization process so that the
proper interpretation can be made. This includes
even oil/water fluid contacts inside casing.
2
Field Example 1
This example (Fig. 8) illustrates the use of the overlay
method in estimating the productive potential of a
well. This well was drilled approximately 15 years
ago and had been completed in deeper zones. The
original production declined, so the continuous C/O
log was recorded to determine other potentially
productive zones.
The continuous C/O log indicated a possible
productive zone as shown by the separation from the
overlay. The high-porosity interpretation technique
indicated oil saturation values greater than 600;0 in
places. Sidewalls taken when the well was drilled had
been described as "oil stained but appears wet."
Considering the possibility that the sidewalls could
have been flushed due to the drilling fluid and high-
gravity oil, the new zone was completed from X743
to X759 ft, based on the continuous C/O log. Initial
production after perforating the new zone was 250
B/D with 0.4% water cut.
Field Example 2
This example (Fig. 9) compares the and the
apparent water-line intercept techniques. A line is
drawn representing the average minimum value of
bwasC' This minimum value represents the water-line
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
intercept b
wsc
' The separation between the b
wasc
curve and the b
wsc
line corresponds to the separation
shown on the overlay. Oil saturation can be scaled
directly from the amount of separation. If desired,
other lines having constant oil saturation cutoff
values can be drawn to aid in selecting perforations.
Field Example 3
This example (Fig. 10) shows some of the previously
described methods of estimating oil saturation from
the continuous C/O log in fresh water compared with
the conventional core saturations. The subject well in
the western U.S. shows excellent agreement among
the various interpretation techniques.
Conclusions
Use of the interpretation techniques described for the
continuous C/O log provides a successful through-
casing formation analysis for a variety of conditions,
even in formations containing fresh water.
Nomenclature
a = proportionality factor relating .::lsc to
salinity
b = exponential factor relating .::lsc to
salinity
b
wacs
= apparent b
wcs
defined by
Fco - mwcs . Fcs
b wasc = apparent b wsc defined as
Fco - mwsc . Fsc
b
wcs
= intercept of water line on C/O axis for
C/O vs. inelastic Ca/Si crossplot
b
wsc
= intercept of water line on C/O axis for
C/O vs. capture SilCa crossplot
C/O ratio in the zone of interest
Ca/Si inelastic ratio in zones of interest
C/O effective ratio corrected for
shaliness
Foco = C/O ratio in oil-saturated zone
Fsc = SilCa capture ratio in zone of interest
F
shco
= C/O ratio in shale
F wco = C/O ratio in water-saturated zone
F wcs = Ca/Si inelastic ratio in water-saturated
zone
F wsc SilCa capture ratio in water-saturated
zone
m = SUbscript for the chemical formula
CnHm
mwcs = slope of water line for C/O vs. inelastic
Ca/Si crossplot (positive)
m wsc = slope of water line for C/O vs. capture
SilCa crossplot (negative)
n subscript for the chemical formula
CnHm
N = Avogadro's number = 6.023 X 10
23
moIlg mol
P
NaCI
= formation-water salinity, ppm NaCl
r = ratio method fitting constant
rp = ratio method porositY-fitting constant
AUGUST 1981
S h = fractional hydrocarbon saturation in
porous rock
Sha = apparent fractional hydrocarbon
saturation in porous rock
So = fractional oil saturation in porous rock
V
sh
= fractional unit shale volume
ex = proportionality factor relating Fco
increase to oil volume
(3 = bulk volume exponential factor relating
Fco increase to oil volume
.::leo = C/O increase from water- to oil-
saturated zones
.::lsc =. SilCa capture ratio increase from saline
water to fresh water
Ph = hydrocarbon density, g/cm3
Phae = apparent equivalent n(CH
2
)
hydrocarbon density, g/ cm
3
Phe = actual equivalent n(CH
2
) hydrocarbon
density, g/cm3
1> = fractional unit pore volume (porosity)
Acknowledgments
I express my appreciation to the petroleum com-
panies who released the information and field
examples. Also, gratitude goes to the Dresser Atlas
computer centers, research departments, engineering
staff, and management who have supported
development of the continuous C/O log.
References
I. Youmans, A.H., Hopkinson, E.C., Bergan, R.A., and Oshry,
H.T.: "Neutron Lifetime, a New Nuclear Log," J. Pet. Tech.
(March 1964) 319-328; Trans., AIME, 231.
2. Heflin, J.D., Lawrence, T.D., Oliver, D., and Koenn, L.:
"California Application of the Continuous Carbon/Oxygen
Log," paper presented at the API Joint Chapter Meeting,
Bakersfield, CA, Oct. 25-27,1977.
3. Caldwell, R.L., Mills, W.R. Jr., and Hichman, J.B. Jr.:
"Gamma Radiation from Inelastic Scattering of 14-MeV
Neutrons by the Common Earth Elements," Nuclear Sci. and
Eng. (1960) 8,173-182.
4. McWhirter, V.c.: "Introduction to Carbon Logging," paper
SPE 5906 presented at the SPE 1976 Rocky Mountain
Regional Meeting, Casper, WY, May 11-12,1976.
5. Youmans, A.H.: "Logging of Oil by Nuclear Determination
of Carbon/Oxygen Ratio," Dresser Atlas, Houston.
6. Wichmann, P.A., Hopkinson, E.C., and McWhirter, V.c.:
"The Carbon/Oxygen Log Measurement," Publication No.
3324, Dresser Atlas, Houston (Sept. 1976).
7. Schultz, W.E. and Smith, H.D. Jr.: "Laboratory and Field
Evaluation of a Carbon/Oxygen (C/O) Well Logging
System," J. Pet. Tech. (Oct. 1974) 1103-1110.
8. Hearst, Joseph R.: "Laboratory Studies of an Improved
Carbon/Oxygen Log," Log Analyst (Nov.-Dec. 1978) 19, No.
6,26-28.
9. Valkovic, Ulado: Trace Elements in Petroleum, Petroleum
Publishing Co., Tulsa (1978) 36-44.
10. Schultz, W.E. and Smith, H.D. Jr.: "Carbon/Oxygen Log
Monitors Athabasca Tar Sands Recovery," Oil and Gas J.
(Dec. 31, 1979) 165-168.
II. Vercellino, W.C., Skaggs, L.L., Bishop, W.D., DeVries,
M.R., McWhirter, V.C., and Wichmann, P.A.: "Clastic
Formation Evaluation Program in Cased Holes for Both Fresh
and Saline Formation Waters to Determine Hydrocarbon
Content," paper SPE 5508 presented at the SPE 50th Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Sept. 28-0ct. I,
1975.
12. Smith, H.D. and Schultz, W.E.: "Field Experience in
1401
Determining Oil Saturations from Continuous C/O and Ca/Si
Logs Independent of Salinity and Shaliness," Trans., SPWLA
15th Annual Logging Symposium, McAllen, TX (1974).
APPENDIX
Theoretical Atomic Ratios
The ratio of the actual number of carbon atoms to
oxygen atoms in a formation containing water and
dead oil can be calculated from
P
= n
a
(So</+nb(1-</
co ' ...... (A-I)
n
c
'</>(1-So) +nd(l-</
where
na = number of carbon atoms in oil per cm
3
,
n b = number of carbon atoms in matrix per cm
3
,
nc = number of oxygen atoms in water per cm
3
,
and
n(j = number of oxygen atoms in matrix per cm
3
.
The values of na' nb' n
c
' and nd can be calculated
by
na = (NpoIMo) (number of carbon atoms
per molecule of oil),
nb = (N'PmaIMma) (number of carbon atoms
per molecule of matrix),
nc = (NpwIMw) . (number of oxygen atoms
per molecule of water),
and
1402
(NPmaIMma) . (number of oxygen
atoms per molecule of matrix),
where N is Avogadro's number = 6.023 X 10
23
mol/g mol; Po' P
ma
, and P
w
are the densities of the
oil, matrix, and water (in g/cm
3
), respectively; and
M 0' M ma' and M ware the molecular weights of the
oil, matrix, and water, respectively.
For hydrocarbons having the chemical formula
n(CH
2
), the value for na can be estimated by
na = 4.3 x 10
22
Ph. . ................ (A-2)
For a given lithology, oil saturation can be calculated
from the atomic ratios by
S _ (Pco-Pwco)[nc+nd"(</>-1-1)]
0-
na +nc p
co
...................... (A-3)
SI Metric Conversion Factors
API 141.5/(131.5 + API) = g/cm3
bbl x 1.589 873 E-Ol = m
3
OF
CF - 32)/1.8 C
ft x 3.048* E-Ol m
g mol x 1.0* E-03 kmol
in. x 2.54 E+OO cm
MeV x 1.602 19 E-Ol pJ
psi x 6.894757 E-03 MPa
Conversion factor is exact.
JPT
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers office July
31, 1979. Paper accepted for publication April 17, 1980. Revised manuscript
received June 1, 1981. Paper (SPE 8366) first presented at the SPE 54th Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, held in Las Vegas, Sept. 23-26, 1979.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY