Soil Compaction

Page 1 Soil Compaction - Soil Types, Methods, and Compaction Techniques
24/06/2008 16:17:31 http://www.concrete-catalog.com/soil_compaction.html

Soil Compaction is a significant part of the building process,
and require mechanical compaction techniques such as
rammers, compactors, and rollers. If compacted improperly
unnecessary repair costs, and structural damage will occur
Methods and techniques on howto properly compact soil
types can be found below. Click the links on the right to
continue navigating through our concrete equipment.
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Soil Compaction Handbook
Copyright Multiquip Inc
Soil Compaction
Soil Compaction
Soil compactionisdefinedasthemethodof mechanicallyincreasingthedensityof
soil. Inconstruction, thisisasignificant part of thebuildingprocess. If performed
improperly, settlement of thesoil
couldoccur andresult inunnecessary
maintenancecostsor structurefailure.
Almost all typesof buildingsitesand
constructionprojectsutilize
mechanical compactiontechniques.
What is Soil?
Soil isformedinplaceor depositedbyvariousforcesof nature- suchasglaciers,
wind, lakesandrivers- residuallyor organically. Followingareimportant elements
insoil compaction: - Soil type
- Soil moisturecontent
- Compactioneffort required
Why Compact?
Therearefiveprinciplereasonstocompact soil: - Increasesload-bearingcapacity
- Preventssoil settlement andfrost damage
- Providesstability
- Reduceswater seepage, swellingandcontraction
- Reducessettlingof soil
Types of Compaction
Therearefour typesof compactioneffort onsoil or asphalt:
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Concrete Glossary
Vibration
Impact
Kneading
Pressure
Thesedifferent typesof effort arefoundinthetwoprincipletypesof compaction
force: staticandvibratory.
Static force issimply thedeadweight of themachine, applyingdownwardforceon
thesoil surface, compressingthesoil particles. Theonlyway tochangethe
effectivecompactionforceisbyaddingor subtractingtheweight of themachine.
Static compactionisconfinedtoupper soil layersandislimitedtoanyappreciable
depth. Kneadingandpressurearetwoexamplesof staticcompaction.
Vibratory force usesamechanism, usuallyengine-driven, tocreateadownward
forceinadditiontothemachine'sstaticweight. Thevibratingmechanismisusually
arotatingeccentricweight or piston/springcombination(inrammers). The
compactorsdeliver arapidsequenceof blows(impacts) tothesurface, thereby
affectingthetoplayersaswell asdeeper layers. Vibrationmovesthroughthe
material, settingparticlesinmotionandmovingthemcloser together for thehighest
densitypossible. Basedonthematerialsbeingcompacted, acertainamount of force
must beusedtoovercomethecohesivenatureof particular particles.
Results of Poor Compaction
Bothillustrationsaboveshowtheresult of improper compactionandhowproper
compactioncanensurealonger structural life.

Soil Types and Conditions
Everysoil typebehavesdifferently withrespecttomaximumdensityandoptimum
moisture. Therefore, eachsoil typehasitsownuniquerequirementsandcontrols
bothinthefieldandfor testingpurposes. Soil types
arecommonlyclassifiedbygrainsize, determined by
passingthesoil throughaseriesof sievestoscreenor
separatethedifferent grainsizes. Soil classificationis
categorizedinto15groups, asystemset upby
AASHTO(AmericanAssociationof StateHighway
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andTransportationOfficials). Soilsfoundinnature
arealmost alwaysacombinationof soil types. A
well-graded soil consistsof awiderangeof particle
sizeswiththesmaller particlesfillingvoidsbetween
larger particles. Theresult isadensestructurethat
lendsitself well tocompaction. A soil'smakeup
determinesthebest compactionmethodtouse. The
arethreebasicsoil groups:
Cohesive
Granular
Organic (thissoil isnotsuitablefor compaction
andwill notbediscussedhere)
Cohesive soils
Cohesivesoilshavethesmallestparticles. Clayhasaparticlesizerangeof .00004"
to.002". Silt rangesfrom.0002" to.003". Clayisusedinembankmentfillsand
retainingpondbeds.
Characteristics
Cohesivesoilsaredenseandtightlyboundtogether bymolecular attraction. They
areplasticwhenwet andcanbemolded, butbecomeveryhardwhendry. Proper
water content, evenly distributed, iscritical for proper compaction. Cohesivesoils
usuallyrequireaforcesuchasimpact or pressure. Silt hasanoticeably lower
cohesionthanclay. However, silt isstill heavilyreliant onwater content.
Granular soils
Granular soilsrangeinparticlesizefrom.003" to.08" (sand) and.08" to1.0" (fine
tomediumgravel). Granular soilsareknownfor their water-drainingproperties.
Characteristics
Sandandgravel obtainmaximumdensityineither afullydryor saturatedstate.
Testingcurvesarerelatively flatsodensitycanbeobtainedregardlessof water
content. The tables that follow give a basic indication of soils used in particular
construction applications.
Relative Desirability of Soils As Compacted Fill
Click to View Chart

Guide to Soil Types
What to look
for
Appearance/
Feel
Water
Movement
When Moist When Dry
Granular soils,
fine sands and
silts
Coarse grains
can be seen.
Feels gritty
When water
and soil are
shaken in palm
Very little or no
plasticity
Little or no
cohesive
strength when
when rubbed
between fingers
of hand, they
mix. When
shaking is
stopped they
separate
dry. Soil
sample will
crumble easily.
Cohesive
soils, mixes
and clays
Grains cannot
be seen by
naked eye.
Feels smooth
and greasy
when rubbed
between fingers
When water
and soil are
shaken in palm
of hand, they
will not mix
Plastic and
sticky. Can be
rolled
Has high
strength when
dry. Crumbles
with difficulty.
Slowsaturation
in water.

Materials

Vibrating
Sheepsfoot
Rammer
Static Sheepsfoot
Grid Roller
Scraper
Vibrating Plate
Compactor
Vibrating Roller
Vibrating Sheepsfoot
Scraper
Rubber-tired Roller
Loader
Grid Roller

Lift
Thickness
Impact
Pressure
(with
kneading)
Vibration
Kneading
(with
pressure)
Gravel 12+ Poor No Good Very Good
Sand 10+/- Poor No Excellent Good
Silt 6+/- Good Good Poor Excellent
Clay 6+/- Excellent Very Good No Good

Fill Materials
Permeability
Foundation
Support
Pavement Sub
grade
Expansive
Compaction
Difficulty
Gravel
VeryHigh Excellent Excellent No VeryEasy
Sand
Medium Good Good No Easy
Silt
MediumLow Poor Poor Some Some
Clay
None+ Moderate Poor Difficult VeryDifficult
Organic
Low VeryPoor Not Acceptable Some VeryDifficult
Effect of Moisture
Theresponseof soil tomoistureisveryimportant, asthesoil must carrytheload
year-round. Rain, for example, maytransformsoil intoaplasticstateor evenintoa
liquid. Inthisstate, soil hasverylittleor noload-bearingability.
Moisture vs. Soil Density
Moisturecontent of thesoil isvital toproper compaction. Moistureactsasa
lubricant withinsoil, slidingtheparticlestogether. Toolittlemoisturemeans
inadequatecompaction- theparticlescannot movepast eachother toachieve
density. Toomuchmoistureleaveswater-filledvoidsandsubsequently weakensthe
load-bearingability. Thehighest densityfor most soilsisat acertainwater content
for agivencompactioneffort. Thedrier thesoil, themoreresistant it isto
compaction. Inawater-saturatedstatethevoidsbetweenparticlesarepartially
filledwithwater, creatinganapparent cohesionthat bindsthemtogether. This
cohesionincreasesastheparticlesizedecreases(asinclay-typesoils). l
Soil Density Tests
Todetermineif proper soil compactionisachievedfor anyspecificconstruction
application, several methodsweredeveloped. Themost prominent byfar issoil
density.
Why Test?
Soil testingaccomplishesthefollowing:
Measuresdensityof soil for comparingthedegreeof compactionvs. specs
Measurestheeffectof moistureonsoil densityvs. specs
Providesamoisturedensitycurveidentifyingoptimummoisture
Types of Tests
Teststodetermineoptimummoisturecontent aredoneinthelaboratory. Themost
commonistheProctor Test, or ModifiedProctor Test. A particular soil needsto
haveanideal (or optimum) amount of moisturetoachievemaximumdensity. This
isimportant notonlyfor durability, butwill savemoneybecauselesscompaction
effort isneededtoachievethedesiredresults.
The Hand Test
A quick methodof determiningmoistureisknownasthe"HandTest". Pickupa
handful of soil. Squeezeit inyour hand. Open
your hand. If thesoil ispowderyandwill notretaintheshapemadeby
your hand, it istoodry. If it shatterswhendropped, it istoo
dry. If thesoil ismoldableandbreaksinto
onlyacoupleof
pieceswhendropped, it hastheright
amount of moisturefor proper
compaction. If thesoil isplasticinyour
hand, leavestracesof moistureonyour
fingersandstaysinonepiecewhen
dropped, it hastoomuchmoisturefor
compaction.
Proctor Test (ASTM D1557-91)
TheProctor, or ModifiedProctor Test, determinesthemaximumdensityof asoil
neededfor aspecificjobsite. Thetest first determinesthemaximumdensity
achievablefor thematerialsandusesthisfigureasareference. Secondly, it tests
theeffectsof moistureonsoil density. Thesoil referencevalueisexpressedasa
percentageof density. Thesevaluesaredeterminedbeforeanycompactiontakes
placetodevelopthecompactionspecifications. ModifiedProctor valuesarehigher
becausethey takeintoaccount higher densitiesneededfoecertaintypedof
constructionprojects. Test methodsaresimilar for bothtests.
Proctor Test
A small soil sample is taken fromthe jobsite.
A standard weight is dropped several times on
the soil. The material weighed and then oven
dried for 12 hours in order to evaluate water
content
Modified Proctor Test
This is similar to the Proctor Test except a
hammer is used to compact material for
greater impact, The test is normally preferred
in testing materials for higher shearing
strength.
Field Tests
It isimportant toknowandcontrol thesoil densityduringcompaction. Following
arecommonfieldteststodetermineonthespot if compactiondensitiesarebeing
reached.
Field Density Testing Method

Sand Cone
Balloon Dens
meter
Shelby Tube Nuclear Gauge
Advantages
* Large sample
* Accurate
* Large sample
* Direct reading
obtained
* Open graded
material
* Fast
* Deep sample
* Under pipe haunches
* Fast
* Easy to redo
* More tests (statistical
reliability)
Disadvantages
* Manysteps
* Large area required
* Slow
* Halt Equipment
* Tempting to accept
flukes
* Slow
* Balloon breakage
* Awkward
* Small Sample
* No gravel
* Sample not always
retained
* No sample
* Radiation
* Moisture suspect
* Encourages amateurs
Errors
* Void under plate
* Sandbulking
* Sandcompacted
* Soil pumping
* Surface not level
* Soil pumping
* Void under plate
* Overdrive
* Rocks in path
* Plastic soil
* Miscalibrated
* Rocks in path
* Surface prep required
* Backscatter
Cost * Low * Moderate * Low * High

Sand Cone Test (ASTM D1556-90)
A small hole(6" x6" deep) isduginthecompacted
material tobetested. Thesoil isremovedand
weighed, thendriedandweighedagaintodetermine
itsmoisturecontent. A soil'smoistureisfiguredasa
percentage. Thespecificvolumeof theholeis
determinedbyfillingit withcalibrateddrysandfroma
jar andconedevice. Thedryweight of thesoil
removedisdividedbythevolumeof sandneededto
fill thehole. Thisgivesusthedensityof the
compactedsoil inlbsper cubicfoot. Thisdensityis
comparedtothemaximumProctor densityobtained
earlier, whichgivesustherelativedensityof thesoil
that wasjust compacted.
Nuclear Density (ASTM D2292-91)
Nuclear Densitymetersareaquick andfairly accurate
way of determiningdensityandmoisturecontent. The
meter usesaradioactiveisotopesource(Cesium137) at thesoil surface
(backscatter) or fromaprobeplacedintothesoil (direct transmission). Theisotope
sourcegivesoff photons(usuallyGammarays) whichradiatebacktothemater's
detectorsonthebottomof theunit. Densesoil absorbsmoreradiationthanloose
soil andthereadingsreflect overall density. Water content (ASTM D3017) canalso
beread, all withinafewminutes. A relativeProctor densitywiththecompaction
resultsfromthetest.

Soil Modulus (soil stiffness)
Thisfield-test methodisaveryrecent development that replaces soil density
testing. Soil stiffnessistheratioof force-to-displacement. Testingisdonebya
machinethat sendsvibrationsintothesoil andthenmeasuresthedeflectionof the
soil fromthevibrations. Thisisaveryfast, safemethodof testingsoil stiffness.
Soil stiffnessisthedesiredengineeringproperty, notjust drydensityandwater
content. ThismethodiscurrentlybeingresearchedandtestedbytheFederal
Highway Administration.

Compaction Equipment
Applications
Thedesiredlevel of compactionisbest achievedbymatchingthesoil typewithits
proper compactionmethod. Other factorsmust beconsideredaswell, suchas
compactionspecsandjobsiteconditions.
Cohesive soils - clay iscohesive, itsparticlesstick
together.* Therefore, amachinewithahighimpact
forceisrequiredtoramthesoil andforcetheair out,
arrangingtheparticles. A rammer isthebest choice,
or apad-foot vibratory roller if higher productionis
needed.
*Theparticlesmustbeshearedtocompact.
Granular soils - sincegranular soilsarenotcohesive
andtheparticlesrequireashakingor vibratory action
tomovethem, vibratory plates (forwardtravel) arethe
best choice.
Reversible plates andsmooth drum vibratory rollers are
appropriatefor productionwork. Granular soil particles
respondtodifferent frequencies(vibrations) dependingon
particlesize. Thesmaller theparticle, thehigher thefrequenciesandhigher
compactionforces.
Normally, soilsaremixturesof clay andgranular materials, makingtheselectionof
compactionequipment moredifficult. It isagoodideatochoosethemachine
appropriatefor thelarger percentageof themixture. Equipment testingmaybe
requiredtomatchthebest machinetothejob. Asphalt isconsideredgranular dueto
itsbaseof mixedaggregatesizes(crushedstone, gravel, sandandfines) mixedwith
bitumenbinder (asphalt cement). Consequently, asphalt must becompactedwith
pressure(static) or vibration.
Compaction Machine Characteristics
Twofactorsareimportant indeterminingthetypeof forceacompactionmachine
produces: frequency andamplitude. Frequency isthespeedat whichaneccentric
shaft rotatesor themachinejumps. Eachcompactionfrequencymachineis
designedtooperateat anoptimumfrequencytosupplythemaximumforce.
Frequency isusuallygivenintermsof vibrationper minute(vpm). Amplitude (or
normal amplitude) isthemaximummovementof avibratingbodyfromitsaxisin
onedirection. Doubleamplitudeisthemaximummovementof avibratingbody
fromitsaxisinonedirection. Doubleamplitudeinsthemaximumdistancea
vibratingbodymovesinbothdirectionsfromitsaxis. Theapparent amplitude
variesfor eachmachineunder different jobsiteconditions. Theapparent amplitude
increasesasthematerial becomesmoredenseandcompacted.
Lift height and Machine Performance
Lift height (depthof thesoil layer isanimportant factor that effectsmachine
performanceandcompactioncost. Vibratory
andrammer-typeequipment compact soil in
thesamedirection: fromtoptobottomand
bottomtotop. Asthemachinehitsthesoil,
theimpact travelstothehardsurfacebelowandthenreturnsupward. Thissetsall
particlesinmotionandcompactiontakesplace. Asthesoil becomescompacted, the
impact hasashorter distancetotravel. Moreforcereturnstothemachine, makingit
lift off thegroundhigher initsstrokecycle. If thelift istoodeep, themachinewill
takelonger tocompact thesoil andalayer withinthelift will notbecompacted.
Soil canalsobeover-compactedif thecompactor makestoomanypasses(apassis
themachinegoingacrossalift inonedirection). Over-compactionislikeconstantly
hittingconcretewithasledgehammer. Crackswill eventually appear, reducing
density. Thisisawasteof man-hoursandaddsunnecessarywear tothemachine.
Compaction specifications
A wordabout meetingjobsitespecifications. Generally, compactionperformance
parametersaregivenonaconstructionproject inoneof twoways: - Method
Specification- detailedinstructionsspecifymachinetype, lift depths, number of
passes, machinespeedandmoisturecontent. A "recipe" isgivenaspart of thejob
spectoaccomplishthecompactionneeded. Thismethodisoutdated, asmachine
technologyhasfar outpacedcommonmethodspecificationrequirements. - End-
result Specification- engineersindicatefinal compactionrequirements, thusgiving
thecontractor muchmoreflexibilityindeterminingthebest, most economical
methodof meetingtherequiredspecs. Fortunately, thisisthetrend, allowingthe
contractor totakeadvantageof thelatest technologyavailable.
Equipment Types
Rammers
Rammersdeliver ahighimpact force( highamplitude) makingtheman
excellent choicefor cohesiveandsemi-cohesivesoils. Frequency rangeis
500to750blowsper minute. Rammersget compactionforcefromasmall
gasolineor diesel enginepoweringalargepistonset withtwosetsof
springs. Therammer isinclinedat aforwardangletoallowforward
travel asthemachinejumps. Rammerscover threetypesof compaction:
impact, vibrationandkneading.
Vibratory Plates
Vibratoryplatesarelowamplitudeandhighfrequency, designedto
compact granular soilsandasphalt. Gasolineor diesel enginesdrive
oneor twoeccentricweightsat ahighspeedtodevelopcompaction
force. Theresultingvibrationscauseforwardmotion. Theengine
andhandlearevibration-isolatedfromthevibratingplate. The
heavier theplate, themorecompactionforceit generates. Frequency
rangeisusually2500vpmto6000vpm. Platesusedfor asphalthaveawater tank
andsprinkler systemtoprevent asphalt fromstickingtothebottomof thebase
plate. Vibrationistheoneprincipal compactioneffect.
Reversible Vibratory Plates
Inadditiontosomeof thestandardvibratory platefeatures, reversibleplateshave
twoeccentricweightsthat allowsmoothtransitionfor forwardor reversetravel,
plusincreasedcompactionforceastheresult of dual weights. Duetotheir weight
andforce, reversibleplatesareideal for semi-cohesivesoils. A reversibleispossible
thebest compactionbuydollar for dollar. Unlikestandardplates, thereversible
forwardtravel maybestoppedandthemachinewill maintainitsforcefor "spot"
compaction.
Rollers
Rollersareavailableinseveral categories: walk-behindand
ride-on, whichareavailableassmoothdrum, paddeddrum, and
rubber-tiredmodels; andarefurther dividedintostaticand
vibratory sub-categories.
Walk-behind
Smooth A popular designfor manyyears, smooth-drummachinesareideal for both
soil andasphalt. Dual steel drumsaremountedonarigidframeandpoweredby
gasolineor diesel engines. Steeringisdonebymanually themachinehandle.
Frequency isaround4000vpmandamplitudesrangefrom.018to.020. Vibrationis
providedbyeccentricshaftsplacedinthedrumsor mountedontheframe.
Padded rollersarealsoknownastrenchrollersduetotheir effectiveuseintrenches
andexcavations. Thesemachinesfeaturehydraulic or hydrostaticsteeringand
operation. Poweredbydiesel engines, trenchrollersarebuilttowithstandtherigors
of confinedcompaction. Trenchrollersareeither skid-steer or equippedwith
articulatedsteering. Operationcanbebymanual or remotecontrol. Largeeccentric
unitsprovidehighimpact forceandhighamplitude(for rollers) that areappropriate
for cohesivesoils. Thedrumpadsprovideakneadingactiononsoil. Usethese
machinesfor highproductivity.
Ride-on
Configuredasstatic-wheel rollers, ride-onsareusedprimarily for asphalt surface
sealingandfinishingwork inthelarger (8to15ton) range. Small ride-onunitsare
usedfor patchjobswiththinlifts. Thetrendistowardvibratory rollers. Tandem
vibratory rollersareusuallyfoundwithdrumwidthsof 30" upto110", withthe
most commonbeing48". Suitablefor soil, sub-baseandasphaltcompaction,
tandemrollersusethedynamicforceof eccentricvibrator assembliesfor high
productionwork. single-drummachinesfeatureasinglevibratingdrumwith
pneumatic drivewheels. Thedrumisavailableassmoothfor sub-baseor rockfill,
or paddedfor soil compaction. Additionally, aride-onversionof thepadfoot trench
roller isavailablefor veryhighproductivityinconfinedareas, witheither manual or
remotecontrol operation.
Rubber-tire Theserollersareequippedwith7to11pneumatic tireswiththefront
andrear tiresoverlapping. A staticroller bynature, compactionforceisalteredby
theadditionor removal of weight addedasballast intheformof water or sand.
Weight rangesvaryfrom10to35tons. Thecompactioneffort ispressureand
kneading, primarily withasphaltfinishrolling. Tirepressuresonsomemachines
canbedecreasedwhilerollingtoadjust groundcontact pressurefor different job
conditions.
Equipment Applications
Granular Soils Sand and Clay Cohesive Clay Asphalt
Rammers
Not Recommended Testing Recommended Best Application Not Recommended
Vibratory Plates
Best Application Testing Recommended Not Recommended Best Application
Reversible Plates
Testing Recommended Best Application Best Application Not Recommended
Vibratory Rollers
Not Recommended Best Application Testing Recommended Best Application
Rammax Rollers
Testing Recommended Best Application Best Application Not Recommended

Safety and General Guidelines
Aswithall constructionequipment, therearemanysafetypracticesthat shouldbe
followedwhileusingcompactionequipment. Whilethisinstructional guideisnot
designedtocover all aspectsof jobsitesafety, wewishtomentionsomeof themore
obviousitemsinregardtocompactionequipment. Ideally, equipment operators
shouldfamiliarizethemselveswithall of their company'ssafetyregulations, aswell
asanyOSHA, stateagencyor local agencyregulationspertainingtojobsafety.
Basic personal protection, consistingof durablework gloves, eyeprotection, ear
protection, approvedhardhat andwork clothes, shouldbestandardissueonanyjob
availablefor immediateuse. Inthecaseof walk-behindcompactionequipment,
additional toeprotectiondevicesshouldbeavailable, dependingonapplicable
regulations. All personnel operatingpoweredcompactionequipment shouldreadall
operatingandsafetyinstructionsfor eachpieceof equipment. Additionally, training
shouldbeprovidedsothat theoperator isawareof all aspectsof operation. No
minorsshouldbeallowedtooperateconstructionequipment. Nooperator should
runconstructionequipment whenunder theinfluenceof medication, illegal drugsor
alcohol. Seriousinjuryor deathcouldoccur asaresult of improper useor neglect of
safetypracticesandattitudes. Thisappliestoboththenewworker aswell asthe
seasonedprofessional.
Shoring
Trenchwork bringsanewset of safetypracticesandregulationsfor thecompaction
equipment operator. Thissectiondoesnotintendtocover theregulationspertaining
totrenchsafety(OSHA Part 1926, Subpart P). Theoperator shouldhaveknowledge
of what isrequiredbefore compactinginatrenchor confinedarea. Becertaina
"competent person" (asdefinedbyOSHA Part 1926.650revisedJ uly1, 1998) has
inspectedthetrenchandfollowsOSHA guidelinesfor inspectionduringthe
durationof thejob. Besidestheobviousdanger of atrenchcave-in, theworker must
alsobeprotectedfromfallingobjects. Unshored(or shored) trenchescanbe
compactedwiththeuseof remotecontrol compactionequipment. Thisallowsto
operator tostayoutsidethetrenchwhileoperatingtheequipment. Safetyfirst!

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Page 1 Soil Compaction - Soil Types, Methods, and Compaction Techniques

24/06/2008 16:17:31 http://www.concrete-catalog.com/soil_compaction.html

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