Lecture Notes

Prof. Dr.-Ing. F.
Keller Control Theory Control_Theory_SS11_VG_based

Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences page 1

Contents

1 Recommended Literature
2 Examples of Control Systems
3 General Structure of a Control Loop
4 Block Diagrams
5 Mathematical Description of Dynamic Systems
6 Differential Equations
7 Laplace-Transform
8 Frequency-Response Analysis
9 Basic Functional Elements
10 Analysis of Control Systems
11 Stability Analysis of Control Systems
12 Tuning-Rules for Control-Parameters
13 Modifications of the Standard Control Loop

Prof. Dr.-Ing. F. Keller Control Theory Control_Theory_SS11_VG_based
Recommended Literature

[1] Nise, Norman S.

Control systems engineering , John Wiley, 2000.

[2] Ogata, Katsuhiko

Modern Control Engineering , Prentice Hall

[3] Ogata, Katsuhiko

System Dynamics , Pearson, Prentice Hall

It is also recommended to visit the Internet-page:

[4] http://www.engin.umich.edu/group/ctm/

which provides a Control Systems Tutorial

You can also access this tutorial offline by clicking on index.html on the subdirectory
tutorial in the public directory. This tutorial covers much more aspects than the lec-
ture.

Examples of Control Systems

control knob
heater
temperature
sensor

Temperature Control

inertia
motor
u
n
c
n
r
speed
sensor
n
c
controller

Speed Control

spindle
motor
u
x
c
x
r
controller
position
sensor
x
c

Position Control

q
in
pump
u
level
sensor
controller
h
c
h
r
h
c

Liquid Level Control

coil
iron ball
solar
cell
lamp

Position Control (suspended ball)
Structure of a Control Loop

controller motor
-
n
c
x K
s
n
r
x K
s
u(n
r
)

Speed Control System

controller motor
-
n
c
n
r
x K
s

Equivalent System

controller process
-
r
c
e
y

General structure of a Control Loop

r: request signal, input signal, reference input

e: error signal

y: controller output

c: controlled variable, plant output

Controlled variable:

The controlled variable is the output of the process. It is measured by a sensor
element and controlled.

Reference input:

The reference input is the desired value for the controlled variable. It may be a
constant value or may be a time-dependent signal.

Manipulated variable:

The manipulated variable is the output of the controller and the input of the
process. The goal is to affect the value of the controlled variable to minimize
the deviation of the controlled variable from the desired value.

Process:

Any operation to be controlled is called a process.

Disturbance:

A disturbance influences the process and tends to affect the value of the con-
trolled variable.

Feedback control or closed loop control:

A system where the controlled variable is measured and compared with the
desired value. Any deviation leads to a controller output which reduces the dif-
ference between the desired value and the controlled variable.

Open loop control:

In an open-loop control system the output is not measured and thus not com-
pared with the input signal. The effect of disturbances cannot be compen-
sated.
Goals in Control Engineering:

Stability, Dynamics, Accuracy, Overshoot

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0.5
1
1.5
t
r,c
accuracy
overshoot
dynamics

Dynamics, Overshoot, Accuracy

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
t
r
,
c

Step Response of an unstable System
Signals and Block Diagrams

t
o(t)
1
t
r(t)
1
0 0 1
t
o(t)
1
0
t
approximation
for o(t)
0 c
1/c
UNIT STEP UNIT RAMP
DIRAC PULSE

Basic functions

system
input signal output signal

Functional Block

y
G
1
(s)
-
G
2
(s)
x
summing point branch point

Block Diagram

Mathematical Description of Dynamic Systems
- Differential Equations,
- Laplace-Transformation

LTI-
system
input signal output signal
x(t) y(t)

Linear, time-invariant system

a
d y t
dt
a
d y t
dt
a
dy t
dt
a y t b
d x t
dt
b
d x t
dt
b x t
n
n
n n
n
n m
m
m m
m
m
( ) ( )
...
( )
( )
( ) ( )
... ( ) + + + + = + + +
1
1
1 1 0 1
1
1 0

for technical systems: n > m

Differential Equation

1) Given: x(t), inital conditions Obtain: y(t)
solution of the differential equation

2) Given: x(t)=o(t), inital conditions =0 Obtain: y(t) =h(t)
step response

3) Given: ) sin( ) (
0
t x t x e = Obtain: y(t) for steady state
frequency response

4) Given: x(t) and y(t) Obtain: coefficients a
i
and b
i

system identification

5) Check the stability of the system
stability test

Standard Problems
Definition of the Laplace-Transform:
( )
{ } L f t F s f t e dt
s t
= =

}
( ) ( )
0

Some rules:
( ) { } ( ) { } ( ) { }
( ) { } ( ) { }
( ) { }
( ) { }
L L L
L L
L L
L L
f t g t f t g t
a f t a f t
df t
dt
s f t f t
f d
s
f t
t
+ = +
=

`
)
= =

`
)
=
}
( )
( )
( )
( )
0
1
0
t t

Small Laplace Transform Table:

o( ) t

1
s

e
a t

1
s a +

t
1
2
s

( )
1
1
a
e
at

( )
1
s s a +

( ) sin at a
s a
2 2
+

( ) cos at s
s a
2 2
+

fr d<1:
1
1
1
1
90 180
2
2
2
+
|
\
|
.
|
|
=

|
\
|
.
|
|
< <
e
d
d
d
t
mit
d
d
und
d
T
t
sin
arctan

fr d=1: 1 1 +
|
\
|
.
|

t
T
e
t
T

fr d>1:
( )
1 1
1
1 2
2
1 2
12
2
1
2
T
T T
e
T
T T
e mit T T d d
t
T
t
T
,

1
2 1
2 2
( ) T s d T s s + +

Some other rules:

( ) { } ( ) { }
( ) { }
0) at t s derivative or their impulses no are there (if ) ( lim ) 0 (
exists) ) f(t (if ) ( lim ) (
) (
0
= = +
=
+ =
=

s sF f
s sF t f
a s F t f e
t f e T t f
s
s
at
s T
D
D
L
L L

In practice Laplace-transform is performed using a table and the Laplace-theorems
or a computer program like MAPLE or MATLAB with the symbolic toolbox.

Inverse Laplace-transform also uses tables and computer programs. Sometimes the
partial-fraction expansion method can be used to split a complicated expression in a
sum of simpler expressions.

Consider a LTI-system which is characterized by the following differential equation:

a
d y t
dt
a
d y t
dt
a
dy t
dt
a y t b
d x t
dt
b
d x t
dt
b x t
n
n
n n
n
n m
m
m m
m
m
( ) ( )
...
( )
( )
( ) ( )
... ( ) + + + + = + + +
1
1
1 1 0 1
1
1 0

Laplace-Transformation gives:

a s Y s a s Y s a Y s b s X s b s X s b X s
a s a s a Y s b s b s b X s
Y s
X s
b s b s b
a s
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
n
n
( ) ( ) ... ( ) ( ) ( ) ... ( )
( ... ) ( ) ( ... ) ( )
( )
( )
...
+ + + = + +
+ + + = + + +
=
+ + +
+

1
1
0 1
1
0
1
1
0 1
1
0
1
1
0
a s a
G s
n
n

+ +
=
1
1
0
...
( )

G(s) is the transfer-function.

To obtain the output y(t) with given input x(t) and initial conditions (here considered to
be 0) the following recipe can be used:

1. Obtain G(s)
2. Find the Laplace-transform of x(t)
3. Obtain Y(s)=G(s)X(s)
4. Find the inverse Laplace-transform of Y(s)


Example: Obtain the step response of a 1
st
order lowpass with initial condition =0.

Solution:

differential equation: x y T y = +

input signal: ) ( ) ( t t x o =
initial condition: 0 ) 0 ( = = t y

to obtain output signal: ) (t y

Laplace-Transformation gives:

) ( ) ( ) ( s X s Y s T s Y = +

This equation may be solved for Y(s)!

s
T
s
T s s T
s X
s T
s Y
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
) (
1
1
) (
+
=
+
=
+
=

We have got the solution (but it is in Laplace-domain).

With the help of our Laplace-table we obtain the inverse Laplace-transform:

T
t
e t y

=1 ) (

This is the well-known formula for the step response of a first order lowpass.

Example: Solution of a differential equation of 2
nd
order with nonzero initial condi-
tions.

2

input signal: 0 ) ( = t x
initial conditions:
0 0
) 0 ( ) 0 ( v t y y t y = = = =

to obtain signal: ) (t y

Solution:

Preliminary considerations:
The Laplace-Transform of a second derivative is:

{ } { } { } ( )
) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) (
) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) ( ) 0 ( ) ( (
2
= =
= = = = = =
t y t y s s Y s
t y t y t y s s t y t y s t y
L L L

This way the initial conditions are included in the solution process.

Now Laplace-Transformation of the differential equation gives:

0 ) ( ) (
0
2
0
2 2 2
= + v T y s T s Y s T s Y

and we can solve for Y(s):

( )
0
2
0
2
2 2
1
1
) ( v T y s T
s T
s Y +
+
=
0
2
2
0
2
2
0 2 2
2
0 2 2
2
1
1
1
1 1
) ( v
T
s
T
T y
T
s
s
v
s T
T
y
s T
s T
s Y
+
+
+
=
+
+
+

=

With the help of our Laplace-table we obtain:

|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
T
t
Tv
T
t
y t y sin cos ) (
0 0

This describes for example the undamped oscillation of a spring-mass-system.


Example: Obtain the response of a 1
st
order lowpass with initial condition =0 for an
input signal ( ) t x t x e sin ) (
0
= .

Solution:


input signal: ( ) t x t x e sin ) (
0
=
initial condition: 0 ) 0 ( = = t y

with Laplace-transformation:

Ts s
x s Y
+
+
=
1
1
) (
2 2
0
e
e

written with partial fractions
Ts
C
s
B As
Ts s
x s Y
+
+
+
+
=
+
+
=
1 1
1
) (
2 2 2 2
0
e e
e

The coefficients A,B,C are determined as follows:

( ) C
T
x C Ts
s
B As
s
x =
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
+
=
+
2
2
0
2 2 2 2
0
1
1
e
e
e e
e

( ) B Aj
Tj
x B Aj
Tj
x s
Ts
C
B As
Ts
x + =
+ =
+
+
+
+ + =
+
e
e
e e
e
e e e
1
1
;
1
1
1 1
1
0 0
2 2
0

( )( ) ( )( )
2 2
0
0 0 0 0
0 0
1
1 1
2
1 1
1 1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
;
1
1
e
e
e e
e
e e
e e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e e
e
e
T
x
B
Tj Tj
x
Tj Tj
Tj Tj
x B
Tj
x
Tj
x
B Aj
Tj
x B Aj
Tj
x
+
=
+
=
+
+ +
= =
+
+
+ =
+ =
+

( )( ) ( )( )
2 2
0 0 0 0
0 0
1
1 1
2
1 1
1 1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
;
1
1
e
e e
e
e
e e
e e
e e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e e
e
e
T
T
A
Tj Tj
Tj
x
Tj Tj
Tj Tj
x Aj
Tj
x
Tj
x
B Aj
Tj
x B Aj
Tj
x
+
=
+

=
+

= =
+ =
+ =
+


With the coefficients A,B,C from the above calculations we can write Y(s) as:

|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
s T T
T
s T s
s
T
T
x s Y
/ 1
1
1 1
1
1
) (
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0
e
e
e
e
e e e
e

Inverse Laplace-transform gives:

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+
+
=

T
t
e
T
T
t
T
t
T
T
x t y
2 2 2 2 2 2
0
1
) sin(
1
1
) cos(
1
) (
e
e
e
e
e
e
e

( ) | |
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =

T
t
e
T
T
T t V x t y
2 2
0
1
arctan sin ) (
e
e
e e

with
( )
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
1
1
1
1
e
e
e
T
T
T
V
+
=
+
+
=

y(t) has two parts: the steady state solution y
steady
(t) and the transient solution
y
transient
(t)

( ) | |
T
t
transient
steady
e
T
T
x t y
T t V x t y
+
=
=
2 2
0
0
1
) (
arctan sin ) (
e
e
e e

The following figure shows x(t) and y(t) for
T
1
= e :
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
t/T
2t
t/4

y
steady
and y
transient
are depicted in the next figure:
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
t/T
x
ysteady
ytransient

For this example it can be seen that the amplification factor V is given by:

) ( e j G V =

and the phase shift is:
{ }
{ }
) (
) ( Re
) ( Im
arctan e
e
e
j G
j G
j G
Z = =

Frequency-Response Analysis

The two above relations are valid for all stable LTI-systems. This is shown in the
following.

We consider a system with input signal ( ) t x t x e sin ) (
0
= and transfer function G(s). The
output signal y(t) has the Laplace-transform:

) ( ) (
2 2
0
s G
s
x s Y
+
=
e
e

With partial fraction expansion we have:
...
...
...
...
...
) ( ) (
2 2 2 2
0
+ + +
+
+
=
+
=
e e
e
s
B As
s G
s
x s Y

In this expression all the terms with ... belong to the transient response which tend
towards 0 for large values of t. This is only the case if the system under consideration
is stable. For the steady state response it is only necessary to determine the values
A and B.

Multiplying both sides by
2 2
e + s we have:
( )
2 2
0
...
...
...
...
...
) ( e e + |
.
|
\
|
+ + + + = s B As s G x

With s=je and s=-je we have:

B Aj B Aj j G x
B Aj B Aj j G x
+ = |
.
|
\
|
+ + + + =
+ = |
.
|
\
|
+ + + + =
e e e e
e e e e
0 ...
...
...
...
...
) (
0 ...
...
...
...
...
) (
0
0

These are two equations for the two unknowns A and B. It can be easily seen that:

{ }
{ } ) ( Im
) ( Re
0
0
e
e e
j G x A
j G x B
=
=

So we have:
{ } { }
.....
) ( Re ) ( Im
) (
2 2
0
2 2
0
+
+

+
+

=
e
e e
e
e
s
j G
x
s
s j G
x s Y

With the inverse Laplace-transform we obtain:

{ } ( ) { } ( ) | |
{ }
{ }
....
) ( Re
) ( Im
arctan sin ) ( ) (
.... sin ) ( Re cos ) ( Im ) (
0
0
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
= + + =
e
e
e e
e e e e
j G
j G
t j G x t y
t j G t j G x t y

This shows that for a stable LTI-system gain V and phase shift are given by:

) ( e j G V =

and:
{ }
{ }
) (
) ( Re
) ( Im
arctan e
e
e
j G
j G
j G
Z = =

For a sinusoidal input x(t) a stable LTI-system in steady state is characterized by a
magnitude response and a phase response. Both, magnitude and phase depend on
the frequency.

Frequency response is obtained as follows:

1. Replace s by j
.
e in G(s) to obtain G(je)
2. The magnitude is given by |G(je) |
3. The phase is given by ZG(je)

Note that s may only be substituted by je if the system is stable, otherwise a steady
state response does not exist.

Bode diagram and Nyquist plot

Bode diagrams and Nyquist plots are a graphical representation of ) ( e j G .
The Bode plot consists of two graphs: the magnitude and the phase

) ( ) ( e e j G and j G Z

The horizontal axis in the Bode plots show the frequency in logarithmic scale.
The magnitude is expressed in decibels (dB):
) ( lg 20 e j G a
dB
=

Some special values are given in the following table:

Gain
100
1

10
1

2
1

2
2
1 2 10 100
a
dB
-40 -20 -6 -3 0 3 20 40

The phase is shown in linear scale.

The following figure shows the Bode diagram for a first order system with
s T with
Ts
s G 1
1
1
) ( =
+
=
1

Frequency (rad/sec)
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)
;

M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
Bode Diagrams
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
From: U(1)
10
-1
10
0
10
1
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
T
o
:

Y
(
1
)

1
The plot is generated with MATLAB using the command bode(tf([1],[1 1]),'k')
The Nyquist plot shows the real and imaginary parts of ) ( e j G when e is varied.
Usually e is varied between 0 and . The following figure is generated with MATLAB
using the Nyquist-command
2
. MATLAB varies e in the range -<e<.The graph for
positive e is shown in red color, negative values e produce the black graph.

Real Axis
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

A
x
i
s
Nyquist Diagrams
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
From: U(1)

The following blank may be used to make additional copies for exercises with Bode-
diagrams and Nyquist plots.

Exercises:

1) Draw the Bode-diagram and the Nyquist plot of:
Ts
s G
1
) ( =
2) Draw the Bode-diagram and the Nyquist plot of:
2 2
10
1
1
10
1
) (
s T Ts
Ts
s G
+ +
=

2
The plot is generated with MATLAB using the command nyquist(tf([1],[1 1]))
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
f/f
0
a
/
d
B
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
f/f
0
|

/

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
real part
i
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

p
a
r
t

Basic functional elements

The proportional element:

Equation: x K y = .

K is called the gain.

Transfer function: K s G = ) (

Step response of the proportional element: ) ( ) ( t K t h o =

Bode-diagram:
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
f/f
0
a
/
d
B
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
f/f
0
|

/

Nyquist-plot:
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4

Examples:

- Mechanical beam
Input signal is the position of the left end, output signal is the position of the
beams right end

- Voltage divider using a potentiometer as position sensor.
input: position of the wiper, output: output voltage

The integrator:

Equation:
}
= xdt K y
I
.
Transfer function:
s
K
s G
I
= ) (

Step response: ) ( ) ( t r K t h
I
= (the ramp function)

Bode-diagram:

10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
f/f
0
a
/
d
B

10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
f/f
0
|

/

Nyquist-plot:

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4

Examples:

- Water tank
Input: flow rate, output: liquid level
q
in
h
out
valve
q

- Relation between velocity and distance
Input: velocity, output: distance


The differentiator:

Equation: x K y
D
= ..
Transfer function: s K s G
D
= ) (

Step response: ) ( ) ( t K t h
D
o = (the Dirac pulse)

Bode-diagram:

10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
f/f
0
a
/
d
B

10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
f/f
0
|

/

Nyquist-plot:

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4

Examples:

- Relation between velocity and acceleration
input: velocity, output: acceleration

- Electronic differentiator (Opamp-circuit)

The first order lowpass:

Equation: x K y y T
P
= +
Transfer function:
Ts
K
s G
P
+
=
1
) (

Step response:
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

T
t
P
e K t h 1 ) (

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
t/T
y

At t=T the step-response reaches 63% of the final value.
The tangent at t=0 intersects the line of the final value at t=T.

Bode-diagram (for K
P
=1):

10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
f/f
0
a
/
d
B

10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
f/f
0
|

/

Nyquist-plot (for K
P
=1):

-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1

Examples:

- RC-lowpass filter
input: input voltage, output: output voltage

U
2
R
C
U
1

- Electrical motor
input: voltage u, output: speed

Motor
u
i
o
inertia

- Inductance with resistance

input: voltage, output: current

Exercise:

Draw the block diagram of an electrical motor.
input: voltage, output: angular position

Motor
u
i
o
inertia

The first order highpass:

Equation: x K y y T
D
= +
Transfer function:
Ts
s K
s G
D
+
=
1
) (

Step response:
T
t
D
e
T
K
t h

= ) (
Drawing for K
D
=T:
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
t/T
y

Bode-diagram (for K
D
=T):

10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
f/f
0
a
/
d
B

10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
f/f
0
|

/

Nyquist-plot (for K
D
=T):

-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1

Examples:

- RC-highpass filter
input: input voltage, output: output voltage

U
2
R
C U
1

- Modified differentiator (exercise: draw the circuit)

- RC-lowpassfilter (exercise: find the appropriate input and output signal)

Exercise:

Represent the highpass by a series connection of a lowpass and a differentiator.

The second order lowpass:

Equation: x K y y T d y T
P
= + + 2
2

d is called the damping ratio.

Transfer function:
2 2
2 1
) (
s T dTs
K
s G
P
+ +
=

Step response:
d>1

( ) 1 1 ) (
2
2 , 1
2 1
2
2 1
1
2
1
=
(
(
d d T T mit e
T T
T
e
T T
T
K t h
T
t
T
t
P

d=1

(
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

T
t
P
e
T
t
K t h 1 1 ) (

d<1

(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=

d t
T
d
d
e
K t h
t
T
d
P
arccos
1
sin
1
1 ) (
2
2

Drawing for K
P
=1:

0 5 10 15
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
t/T
d=1.5
d=1.3
d=1.1
d=0.9
d=0.7
d=0.5
d=0.3
d=0.1

For d<1 the step response has an overshoot.

Bode-diagram (for K
P
=1):

10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-80
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
e / e
0
|
G
|

i
n

d
B
Asymptote fr e 0
Asymptote fr e
d=0.2
d=0.6
d=1.0
d=1.4
d=1.8

10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-200
-180
-160
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
e / e
0
Z

G
Asymptote fr e 0
Asymptote fr e
d=0.2
d=0.6
d=1.0
d=1.4
d=1.8

Nyquist-plot (for K
P
=1):

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Realteil
I
m
a
g
i
n
r
t
e
i
l
d=0.2
d=0.6
d=1.0
d=1.4
d=1.8

Examples:

- RLC-filter
input: input voltage u
1
, output: output voltage u
2

U
2
R
C
U
1
L

- Spring-mass-system
input: force, output: position of the mass

m
d
c
F
y

Exercise: Describe the above RLC-filter with a block diagram containing two integra-
tors

Exercise: Replace the series connection of two identical lowpasses of first order by a
lowpass of 2nd order.

The delay element:

Equation: ) ( ) (
D P
T t x K t y =

T
D
is called the delay-time.

Transfer function:
s T
P
D
e K s G

= ) (

Step response: ) ( ) (
D P
T t K t h = o

Example:

Conveyor belt:

h
1
h
2
l
v

Bode-diagram (for K
P
=1):

10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
f/f
0
a
/
d
B
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
f/f
0
|

/

Nyquist-plot (for K
P
=1):

-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Analysis of Control Systems

Closed loop transferfunction:

c
G
1
(s)
-
G
2
(s)
r
controller process

The transfer function of a closed loop is easily obtained.

| |
) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
2 1
_
2 1
s G s G
s G s G
s R
s C
G
s C s R s G s G s C
loop closed
+

= =
=

The PID-controller:

The equation of a controller with proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative control ac-
tion is:

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
}
e T edt
T
e K y
d
i
P

1

An electronic circuit or PID-control-action is shown in the next figure:

u
in
u
out
R
p
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
d
C
d
R
i
C
i

The transfer function is:
s T
s T T s T
K s G
s T
s T
K s G
i
d i i
P
d
i
P
+ +
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
2
1
) (
1
1 ) (

With the help of variable resistors R
P
, R
i
and R
d
the parameters K
P
, T
i
and T
d
can be
adjusted. Variation of a resistor does only affect one of the control parameters.A PID-
controller may also be realized in a circuit with fewer components:

u
in
u
out
R
1
C
i
R
2 C
d
R
3

However, varying one element affects not only one control parameter. So we prefer
the first circuit for experimental tuning of control parameters and the second for reali-
zation with reduced number of components.

Exercise:
Establish the transfer function of the above circuits and find the relation between the
control and component parameters. Hint: The resistor R
3
realizes modified differen-
tiation.

Control of an integrating process

r
-
c
e u
P
K
Ts
1

s
K
T
s T
K
s T
K
s R
s C
P
P
P
+
=
=
1
1
1
1
1
) (
) (

From this transfer function we conclude that
- the control loop is stable (first order lowpass is stable)
- the control loop has no overshoot (because a first order system cannot have an
overshoot)
- the control loop is accurate (because for s=0 we obtain a gain of 1)
- the dynamics can be adjusted by the variation of K
P
(because the time constant
is T/K
P
)

Exercise: Obtain the transfer function
) (
) (
s R
s U
. Sketch u(t) for r=o(t).

Exercise: Analyze the following control loop, where z is a disturbance z=z
0
o(t). Is the
control loop still accurate?
r
-
c
e u
P
K
Ts
1
z

P-Control of a first order lowpass system

r
-
c
e u
P
K
Ts
K
+ 1

s
K K
T
K K
K K
s T K K
K K
s T
K
K
s T
K
K
s R
s C
P
P
P
P
P
P
+
+
+

=
+ +

=
+
+
+
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
) (
) (

overshoot)
- the control loop is not accurate (because for s=0 we obtain a gain of
1
1
<
+

K K
K K
P
P
)
- the dynamics and the steady state error cannot be adjusted independently (K
P
influences both, time constant and steady state error)

I-Control of a first order lowpass system

r
-
c
e u
Ts
K
+ 1 s T
i
1

( ) 2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
) (
) (
s
K
T T
s
K
T
s T s T K
K
s T
K
s T
s T
K
s T
s R
s C
i i
i
i
i
+ +
=
+ +
=
+
+
+
=

- the control loop is stable (2
nd
order lowpass is stable)
- the control loop may have an overshoot. See the exercise below.
- the control loop is accurate (because for s=0 we obtain a gain of 1 )

Exercise: For which values of T
i
does the step response of the closed loop have an
overshoot?

Solution:
We compare the transfer function with the standard form of a 2
nd
order lowpass.

2 2
2 ' ' 2 1
1
1
1
s T s dT
s
K
T T
s
K
T
i i
+ +
=
+ +

Now we find:

K
T T
T
i

= ' and
T K
T
T T K
K T
KT
T
d
K
T
dT
i
i
i i i
= = =
2 2 ' 2
' 2
An overshoot exists if d<1 that is if:

KT T
T K
T
i
i
4 1
2
< <

PI-Control of a first order lowpass system

r
-
c
e u
Ts
K
+ 1
s T
i
1
P
K

PI-control combines the advantages of P-control (fast response) and I-control (accu-
racy).

In the following we assume that T
i
is chosen to be equal to T. This is called the com-
pensation of the process pole.

s
K K
T
s T
K K
s T
K K
s T
K
s T
s T
K
s T
K
s T
s T
K
s T
K
s T
K
s T
K
s T
K
s R
s C
P i
P
i
P
i
i
P
i
i
P
i
P
i
P
+
=
=
+
+
+
+
+
=
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
) (
) (

overshoot)
- the control loop is accurate (because for s=0 we obtain a gain of 1)
- the dynamics can be adjusted by the variation of K
P
(because the time constant
is T/K
P
)

Control of a 2
nd
order lowpass system

From the above we may conclude that the strategy of pole compensation is also suit-
able for a second order process. However, in this case a PID-controller is needed.

r
-
c
e u
2 2
2 1 s T dTs
K
+ + s T
i
1
P
K
s T
d

s
K K
T
s T
K K
s T
K K
s T dTs
K
s T
s T T s T
K
s T dTs
K
s T
s T T s T
K
s T dTs
K
s T
s T
K
s T dTs
K
s T
s T
K
s R
s C
P
i
i
P
i
P
i
i d i
P
i
i d i
P
d
i
P
d
i
P
+
=
=
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
1
1
1
2 1
1
1
2 1
1
2 1
1
1 1
2 1
1
1
) (
) (
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2

We have chosen:
d
T
T
T
T and dT T
i
d i
2
2
2
= = =

This leads to the same transfer function as in the previous example.

However, in practice we have to take care for the output of the controllers differentia-
tor not to go in saturation. This can be achieved by rate limiting of the input signal
and/or modified differentiation.
The realization of a rate limiter with an Opamp-circuit is shown in the following figure:
R
C
R
1
R
1
R
2
R
3
u
out
u
in

Note that we usually choose a high gain of the non-inverting amplifier, so it may also
go in saturation. Let u
max
and u
min
denote the maximum and minimum output voltage
of the amplifier. Then
RC
u
dt
du
out min max/
min max/
= . With the negative feedback it is ensured
that the output voltage always follows the input voltage. Note that the output is in-
verted, so one needs an additional inverter to have the correct sign.

Control of a 3
rd
order lowpass
(academic example)

Consider the following control loop:

r
c
u
Ts + 1
1
P
K
Ts + 1
1
Ts + 1
1
-
e

Exercise: Find the transfer function of the closed loop. What is the steady state error
for K
P
=1, K
P
=3 and K
P
=9?

Here we find that the control loop is unstable if the controller gain K
P
exceeds a cer-
tain threshold (K
critical
=8). For K
P
<K
critical
however the control loop is stable.

Stability Analysis

We will introduce two stability criterions.
The first is based on the closed loops transfer function and its pole locations in the
complex plane.
The second is the Nyquist criterion. It analyzes the open loops Nyquist curve.

The pole location criterion states:

A system is stable if all poles of its transfer function are located in the left half
of the complex plane if all poles have a negative real part.
Note that this stability criterion can only be applied if the system does not contain any
delay elements.

For the above example we may evaluate the pole locations depending on the param-
eter K. Often the pole locations are visualized in the so-called root-locus-diagram.
The corresponding MATLAB-command is rlocus. The following graph is obtained with
this procedure:

-3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Root Locus
Real Axis
I
m
a
g
in
a
r
y

A
x
is

There are three poles. As K is increasing one pole (blue line) is moving to the left, the
other poles however are approaching the imaginary axis and for K>8 they are enter-
ing the right half plane and the closed loop gets unstable.

As another example consider P-control of a 2
nd
order lowpass. The corresponding
root locus plot looks like this:

-0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Root Locus
Real Axis
I
m
a
g
in
a
r
y

A
x
is

From this we conclude that the control loop cannot get unstable.


A powerful and complex theory has been developed on the basis of root locus plots
including also the design of controllers. However these details are not treated in this
lecture.

The Rouths criterion allows us to determine whether the system is stable without
explicitly evaluating the poles. Rouths stability criterion is outlined in the following:

Write the polynomial (denominator of the closed loop) in the following form (it is as-
sumed that 0 =
n
a ):

n
n n n n
a s a s a s a s a + + + + +

...
3
3
2
2
1
1 0

Check if all the coefficients are nonzero and have the same sign. If not, the system is
not stable or there are roots which are imaginary. However this is only a necessary
but not a sufficient condition.

Arrange the coefficients in rows and columns according to the following scheme:

s
n
a
0
a
2
a
4
a
6
. . .
s
n-1
a
1
a
3
a
5
a
7
. . .
s
n-2
b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
. . .
s
n-3
c
1
c
2
c
3
c
4
. . .
. . . .
.
.
s
0
g
1

The coefficients a
i
have to be filled in from the polynomial.
The coefficients b
i
, c
i
, are evaluated according to the following rule:

1
3 0 2 1
1
a
a a a a
b

=
1
5 0 4 1
2
a
a a a a
b

=

1
2 1 3 1
1
b
b a a b
c

=
1
3 1 5 1
2
b
b a a b
c

=
The table is filled until we have completed the line with label s
0
.

The system is stable if all coefficients in the first column have the same sign.

Exercise: Find the necessary and sufficient conditions for a system with transfer-
function
3 2
2
1
3
0
1
) (
a s a s a s a
s G
+ + +
= to be stable.

Exercise: Apply the Routh criterion to the academic example

The Nyquist criterion is based on the open loop:

process
u c
controller
r
-
e

If we use a sinusoidal input (e.g. from a function generator) for the controller the
steady state output c(t) will also be a phase-shifted sine-function (provided the open
loop is stable). In the case of our academic example it is found that the phase shift
may be -180
0
(for a frequency
T
3
= e ) and the gain may be 1 (for a controller gain
8 =
P
K ). This may be shown by analytical calculation and verified by simulation (see
the following SIMULINK-model).

1
tau*tau*tau.s +3*tau*taus +3*taus+1
3 2
Transfer Fcn
Subtract
8
Slider
Gain2
Sine Wave
Scope
Manual Switch
Ground

If we now toggle the switch and close the control loop the oscillation continues with-
out changing the amplitude. This means the control loop is at the verge to instability.
For higher values of the gain however the amplitude will increase: the control loop is
unstable. For gains less than 8 the oscillation is damped and goes towards 0: the
control loop is stable.

This example illustrates the simplified Nyquist criterion:

A closed loop system is stable if the point (-1+0
.
j) of the complex plane is al-
ways on the left side of the open loops Nyquist curve when e is varied from 0
to .
The application of this simplified form requires that the open-loop system is stable.
However 2 poles are allowed at s=0.
For a more detailed explanation of the general Nyquist criterion please refer to [2].
There are two standard measures for the distance of the Nyqusit plot from the critical
point: gain margin and phase margin. They are illustrated in the following figure:

Im
Re
phase margin
representing the
gain margin
unit circle
1

The gain and phase margin is easily obtained with the MATLAB-command margin.
The next figure shows the result of margin when applied to the academic example.
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-270
-225
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)
Bode Diagram
Gm= 18.1 dB(at 1.73 rad/sec) , Pm= -180 deg (at 0 rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)

The gain margin is stated to be 18.1 dB. This corresponds to the well-known maxi-
mum gain of 8, for which the control loop is still stable. As the Nyquist plot touches
the unit circle at s=1, the phase margin is 180
o
.

Tuning Rules for Control Parameters
In the literature one finds a lot of different methods and recipes for tuning the pa-
rameters of a controller. Some of them are based on the theory of differential equa-
tions and use mathematical methods. Other methods propose a procedure for the
experimental tuning of the parameters.
In the following some methods are listed.

Compensation of Poles

This method was already mentioned. With a PID-controller it is possible to compen-
sate up to 2 poles of the process transfer function. As it was shown earlier the pre-
ferred transfer function of the open loop is an integrator resulting in a first order low-
pass behaviour of the closed loop. If the process has more than two poles we may
choose to compensate the dominating poles, these are the poles which are closest to
the imaginary axis.

Adjustment of the Phase Margin

This method is based on the frequency response of the open loop. From the Nyquist
criterion it is obvious that a control loops step response has increasing oscillations
the closer it gets to the critical point -1. The recommended distance is a phase mar-
gin of approx. 60
0
. Note that the compensation of poles will prefers a phase margin of
90
o
, a phase margin which is less will usually result in an overshoot.

Tuning Rule according to Ziegler-Nichols

This rule was developed for processes with a transport delay in series with a first or-
der element. But often the rule is also applied to other types of processes.

Recipe:
Start with P-control. Increase the amplification to Kcritical , where the control loop is
marginally stable. Measure the period Tcritical of the oscillation. Adjust the parameters
according to the following table:

Controller K T
I
T
D
P-Controller 0.5
.
K
critical
- -
PI-Controller 0.45
.
K
critical
0.83
.
T
critical
-
PID-Controller 0.6
.
K
critical
0.50
.
T
critical
0.125
.
T
critical

These parameter values may not give satisfactory results. But they may be good ini-
tial values for further improving the dynamic behaviour of the control loop experimen-
tally. Note that increasing the integral control action usually produces more oscilla-
tions and increasing the differential control action has a damping effect. The reason
for this is best seen in the Nyquist plot.

Tuning Rule according to Tietze, Schenk

This tuning rule may be used to find the control parameters for higher order process-
es.

- Start with P-control and increase the controller gain until the step response
shows a damped oscillation. On a scope one should see 4-5 periods of oscilla-
tion.
- Continue with PD-control. Increase the differential control action to get rid of the
oscillations.
- Activate the integral control action and increase its weight until settling time is
found to be good.

Modifications of the Standard Control Loop
Cascaded Control Loops
In many applications not only one signal may be monitored by a sensor element.
Cascading control loops then may be a powerful method for improving the perfor-
mance. The general structure is shown in the following figure:

process
part 1
u
controller
1
r
-
controller
2
-
process
part 2
c

The tuning of the controller is of course done starting with the parameters of control-
ler 1, and then adjusting the parameters of the outer control loop.
Example: Position control with an inner control loop for speed control.

Linearization of nonlinear processes
If one has to deal with nonlinear processes linearization may be realized (in some but
not all cases as for example saturation effects) as shown in the following figure.

process
u c
controller
r
-
e
f(u) f
-1
(u)

f
-1
(u) is the inverse of f(u) and must be realized as part of the controller. In analog
technique this is often very difficult, in digital controllers it may be easily done with the
help of lookup-tables.

Compensation of disturbances
Sometimes an information about the disturbance z is available and it may be com-
pensated as shown in the next figure. With this method we may efficiently suppress
the effect of the disturbance before it affects the error signal and has to be compen-
sated by the controller. In the ideal case G
z
(s) is the inverse of the transfer function of
process part 1, however an approximate realization of G
z
(s) also may show signifi-
cant effect.

process
part 1
r
-
controller
process
part 2
c
-
z
u
controller
G
z
(s)

Rate limiting the reference input to avoid the windup phenomenon
If the controller includes an integral control action overshoot of the controlled variable
may occur due to the saturation of the controller output. In those cases rate limiting
the reference input is a good countermeasure.
process
u c
controller
r
-
e
rate
limiter

Lecture Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Prof. Dr.-Ing. F.

Keller Control Theory Control_Theory_SS11_VG_based

You might also like