1

General Modelling and Scaling Laws

Dimensionless numbers
Similarity requirements
Derivation of dimensionless numbers used in model testing
Froude scaling
Hydroelasticity
Cavitation number
TMR7 Experimental Methods in Marine Hydrodynamics lecture in week 37
Chapter 2 in the lecture notes
2
Dimensionless numbers
Without dimensionless numbers, experimental progress in
fluid mechanics would have been almost nil;
It would have been swamped by masses of accumulated
data (R. Olson)
Example:
Due to the beauty of dimensionless numbers, C
f
of a flat,
smooth plate is a function of Re only
(not function of temperature, pressure or type of fluid)
3
4
Types of similarity
Geometrical similarity
Kinematic similarity
Dynamic similarity
What are the similarity requirements for a model test?
5
Geometrical Similarity
The model and full scale structures must have the same
shape
All linear dimensions must
have the same scale ratio:
This applies also to:
The environment surrounding the model and ship
Elastic deformations of the model and ship
M F
L L =
6
Kinematic Similarity
Similarity of velocities:
The flow and model(s) will have geometrically similar
motions in model and full scale
Examples:
- Velocities in x and y direction must have the same ratio, so
that a circular motion in full scale must be a circular
motion also in model scale
- The ratio between propeller tip speed and advance speed
must be the same in model and full scale:
(2 ) (2 )
F M
F F M M
V V
n R n R
=
or
F M
F M
F F M M
V V
J J
n D n D
= =
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Dynamic Similarity
Geometric similarity
and
Similarity of forces
Ratios between different forces in full scale must be the same in model
scale
If you have geometric and dynamic similarity, youll also have
kinematic similarity
The following force contributions are of importance:
Inertia Forces, F
i
Viscous forces, F
v
Gravitational forces, F
g
Pressure forces, F
p
Elastic forces in the fluid (compressibility), F
e
.
Surface forces, F
s
.
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Inertia Forces (mass forces)
is fluid density
U is a characteristic velocity
t is time
L is a characteristic length (linear dimension)
2 2 3 3
L U L
dt
dx
dx
dU
L
dt
dU
F
i
=
9
Gravitational Forces
J ust mass times acceleration
g is acceleration of gravity
3
gL F
g

10
Viscous Forces
is dynamic viscosity [kg/ms]
- a function of temperature and type of fluid
UL L
dx
dU
F
v

2
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Pressure Forces
Force equals pressure times area
p is pressure
2
pL F
p

12
Elastic Fluid Forces

v
is compression ratio
E
v
is the volume elasticity (or compressibility)

v
E
v
=elasticity modulus K [kg/ms
2
]
2
L E F
v v e

13
Surface Forces
is the surface tension [kg/s
2
]
L F
s

14
Froude number Fn
The ratio between inertia and gravity:
Dynamic similarity requirement between model and full
scale:
Equality in Fn in model and full scale will ensure that
gravity forces are correctly scaled
Surface waves are gravity-driven equality in Fn will
ensure that wave resistance is correctly scaled
gL
U
gL
L U
F
F
force Gravity
force Inertia
g
i
2
3
2 2
= =

2 2
M F
M F
M F
M F
U U
gL gL
U U
Fn
gL gL
=
= =
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Reynolds number Re
Equal ratio between inertia and viscous forces:
is the kinematic viscosity, [m
2
/s]
Equality in Re will ensure that viscous forces are correctly
scaled
2 2
i
v
F Inertia forces U L UL UL
Re
Viscous forces F UL


= = = =

=
16
Kinematic
viscosity of
fluids
(from White: Fluid Mechanics)
To obtain equality of both
Fn and Rn for a ship model
in scale 1:10:
m
=3.5x10
-8
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Mach number M
n
Equal ratio between inertia and elastic fluid forces:
By requiring
v
to be equal in model and full scale:
is the speed of sound
Fluid elasticity is very small in water, so usually Mach
number similarity is not required
2
2 2
L E
L U
F
F
v v e
i

2 2 2 2
2 2
, ,
v v v v
M F
M F
n
v M v F
U L U L
E L E L
U U
M
E E




=


= =

v
E
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Weber number W
n
The ratio between inertiaand surface tension forces:
Similarity requirement for model and full scale forces:

L U
L
L U
F
F
forces tension Surface
forces Inertia
s
i
2 2 2
= =
2 2
M F
U L U L


=


( ) ( )
M F
n
M F
M F
U U
W
L L


= =
=0.073 at 20C
When Wn>180, a further increase in Wn doesnt
influence the fluid forces
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Scaling ratios used in testing of ships and
offshore structures
Symbol Dimensionless Number Force Ratio Definition
R
e
Reynolds Number Inertia/Viscous
UL

F
n
Froude Number Inertia/Gravity
U
gL

M
n
Machs Number Inertia/Elasticity
V
U
E

W
n
Webers Number Inertia/Surface tension U
L

St Strouhall number -
v
f D
U

KC Keulegan-Carpenter Number Drag/Inertia
A
U T
D


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Froude Scaling

M
M
F
M F
F
F
M
M
U
L
L
U U
gL
U
gL
U
= = =
Using the geometrical similarity requirement:
M F
L L =
If you remember this, most of the other scaling relations
can be easily derived just from the physical units
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Froude scaling table
Physical Parameter Unit Multiplication factor
Length [m]

Structural mass: [kg]
M F

3

Force: [N]
M F

3

Moment: [Nm]
M F

4

Acceleration: [m/s
2
]
F M
a a =

Time: [s]

Pressure: [Pa=N/m
2
]
M F



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Hydroelasticity
Additional requirements to the elastic model
Correctly scaled global stiffness
Structural damping must be similar to full scale
The mass distribution must be similar
Typical applications:
Springing and whipping of ships
Dynamic behaviour of marine risers and mooring lines
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Scaling of elasticity

F
EI
FL
3

2 2
L U C F
F M
F M
F M
L L

= =
Hydrodynamic force:
Geometric similarity requirement:
Requirement to structural rigidity:
( ) ( )
2 4 2 4
5
F M
F M
U L U L
EI EI
EI EI


= =


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Scaling of elasticity
geometrically similar models
Geometrically similar model implies:
Must change the elasticity of material:
Elastic propellersmust be made geometrically similar,
using a very soft material:
Elastic hull modelsare made geometrically similar only on
the outside. Thus, E is not scaled and
4
F M
I I =
F M
E E =
5
=
F M
I I

F M
E E =
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Cavitation
Dynamic similarity requires that cavitation is modelled
Cavitation is correctly modelled by equality in cavitation
number:
To obtain equality in cavitation number, atmospheric
pressure p
0
might be scaled
p
v
is vapour pressure and gh is hydrostatic pressure
Different definitions of the velocity U is used
0
2
( )
1/ 2
v
gh p p
U

+
=
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General Modelling and Scaling Laws
Dimensionless numbers
Similarity requirements
Derivation of dimensionless numbers used in model testing
Froude scaling
Hydroelasticity
Cavitation number