Quantum Physics

Planck proposed that energy is a distribution of very small discrete amounts of energy,
min
.
Each amount is related to the frequency of oscillation by

min
= where Planck's constant is = 6.63 10
34
Js.
Thus, the energy of any molecular vibration is given by
= where = 1, 2, 3
Energy is QUANTIZED, not continuous as it had been presumed.
In 1905, Einstein hypothesized that the same must be true of light. Light is emitted in packets with an
energy of = . This packet is called a photon.

He proves this and wins a Nobel Prize for the photoelectric effect.
When light with a high enough frequency is shone upon the
photocell, electrons are emitted.
Now, reversing the voltage of the battery (ie. the collector
becomes ) can stop electrons from getting across, where

0
=
K
max

with
K
max
being the kinetic energy of the fastest electron.

0
is called the stopping potential, and it determines what
the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons is.
Work function,
0
, is the energy needed to unbind the
electron from the metal emitter electrode.
Result of the Experiment

K
max
is controlled by
0
.
According to the wave theory, only light
intensity, not its frequency, affects the
K
of

unlike what we see here.

0
is the cut-off frequency below which
no

would be emitted, regardless of the intensity

of the lightagain, this goes against wave theory.
Intensity does not affect
K
max
!
Increasing the intensity of the light only increases
the number of photons. At a constant frequency, it
does not affect the energy of each photon.
photon
A
Photocell
Collector

Emitter
Light Source
+
frequency

K
max

of

0

=
K
max
+
0 where
0
=
0

Analogy: Kicking many balloons (ie. high intensity, low frequency photons) into a window does not
make it break (ie.
K
max
is too small for the

to reach the collector). However, kicking one football

(ie. low intensity, high frequency photons) into the window does (ie.
K
max
is large enough for the

to reach the collector)!
Conclusion
Light comes in quanta, given by = , as proposed by Einstein. Only the frequency of the light affects
the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons. The intensity, which is related to the number of photons
hitting the emitter, does not matter. Light is a particle as well as a wave (wave-particle duality).
Other Evidence that Light can be Modelled as Particles
Photon scattering in the Compton effect:
Before Collision

After Collision

After the collision, the photon changes direction and causes the electron to move as in a regular collision
between two particles with mass.
A photon, a particle of light, acts like any other particle with mass.
But according to Einsteins Theory of Special Relativity, light must not have mass in order to travel at
light speed so light is a particle with momentum but no mass!
It can be shown that the momentum of light is
Mass of Light: =
2
=

2

Speed of Light: = = 3.00 10
8
m/s
Momentum of Light: = = (

2
)() =

Since = , the wavelength of light is =

which can be rearranged to

1

Particles as Waves
If light waves can be particles, why cant particles be waves too?
photon

at rest
scattered
photon
This was de Broglies proposal: the wavelength, , associated with a moving particle is
=

Examples: A 100 g ball thrown at 5 m/s has a de Broglie wavelength of 1 10
33
m, which is
insignificant. However, an electron moving at 2000 m/s has a de Broglie wavelength of 3 10
7
m,
which is significant considering the size of the electron.
Evidence of Wavelength in Particles
Diffraction interference pattern of electrons and neutrons (similar to light). For example, firing neutrons
toward a crystalline structure of salt will produce an interference pattern. We can then use math and
work backwards to determine the lattice structure of salt.
de Broglie proposed that each electron orbit in an atom is actually a standing wave, and the only waves
which persist are the ones whose wavelengths can be divided evenly into the circumference of the
circular orbit. This agrees with the theory of wave-particle duality and explains why hydrogen only
emits radiation at specific wavelengths, creating the emission spectra of hydrogen.
Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle
Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle states that the more precisely we know a particles position, or ,
the less we know of its momentum/motion,

or

, and vice versa.

2
or

2


Final Word:
If you analyze the above equation, youll notice that small changes in momentum cause significantly larger
changes in position:
At best, =

or =

So Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle is more relevant when considering very small masses, like electrons,
and less so at the scale of the macroscopic world that we can see.
As

,
As