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PHOTOELASTICITY LAB
CEE 102
FALL 2002
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From the mid twentieth century to present time, bridge engineers have worked to
maintain our nations deteriorating bridges. y the !ate 1"#0s, $rincetons most
prominent bridge, the %arrison &treet ridge, showed signs o' serious deterioration. (he
damage was so severe that government o''icia!s and engineers decided that the bridge
shou!d be rep!aced. (he origina! %arrison &treet ridge, a stee! arch bridge, was to be
rep!aced with a beam bridge. (he engineers had to decide whether to use 'our simp!e
spans, continuous beams with a uni'orm cross section, or continuous beams with
haunches. (he continuous beam with haunches design scheme was se!ected and bui!t in
the !ate 1")0s.

Figure 1* %arrison &t. ridge
+n this !ab, photoe!astic mode!s wi!! a!!ow us to measure the bending stresses in a
canti!ever, a simp!y supported beam, a continuous beam with a uni'orm cross section, and
a continuous beam with haunches, u!timate!y a!!owing us to determine the suitabi!ity o'
the engineers decision to use haunched continuous beams 'or the %arrison &treet ridge.
Structural Concepts
,e have thus 'ar studied structura! 'orms that are sub-ected to tensi!e 'orces
.cab!e/ or compressive 'orces .arch/ which either shorten or e0tend the primary !oad
bearing e!ements. ,e have not e0amined how a structure wi!! react to 'orces which
cause bending. eam bridges, common!y used to span short to medium distances, are
structures that are primari!y sub-ected to bending 'orces. (he 'o!!owing section wi!!
introduce you to the important structura! concepts associated with 'our types o' beams*
the canti!ever, the simp!y supported beam, the continuous beam with a constant cross
section, and the continuous beam with a haunched cross section.
1 canti!ever beam is a beam that is 'ree at one end and 'i0ed at the other end. +' a
canti!ever is sub-ected to a vertica! !oad, $, at its 'ree end, as shown in 'igure 2, a vertica!
'orce at 1, acting in the opposite direction, must counteract that 'orce in order to maintain
e2ui!ibrium .'igure 2b/.
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A
$
Figure 2a* 1 3anti!ever beam
$
A
$

Figure 2b* 3anti!ever with vertica! 'orces in e2ui!ibrium
+' the 'i0ed end in 'igure 2b were to on!y app!y a vertica! 'orce $
1
to counteract the
vertica! !oad at the right end, the canti!ever wou!d rotate in a c!ockwise direction. (he
wa!! must app!y a moment, a resistance to rotation, in order to prevent the canti!ever 'rom
rotating. (his moment wou!d act in the counterc!ockwise direction as shown in 'igure 4.
&ince the moment created by a 'orce about any point is simp!y the magnitude o' the 'orce
times the perpendicu!ar distance to that point, the magnitude o' the moment at 1 created
by the 'orce $ is $ 5 6.

7
A

$
A
$
Figure 4* 8eaction 'orces at 1
1 simp!y supported beam is a beam which is supported by a pin at one end and a
ro!!er at the other end.

Figure 4* 1 simp!y supported beam
,hen a simp!y supported beam is sub-ected to a uni'orm!y distributed !oad, 2, it
wi!! de'!ect as shown in Figure 9. (his causes the top portion o' the beam to be in
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compression .s2uee:ed together/, whi!e the bottom portion is in tension .pu!!ed apart/. +'
we !ook at the beam at midspan, as shown in 'igure 6, as a resu!t o' this de'!ection, there
wi!! be a compressive 'orce, 3, acting on the top portion o' the beam and a tensi!e 'orce,
(, acting on the bottom portion o' the beam. &ince these 'orces are separated, they wi!!
create an interna! moment that wi!! resist the rotation caused by the uni'orm!y distributed
!oad. .the greater the compression and tension 'orce within the beam, the greater the
interna! moment created by these two 'orces/ &ince the de'!ection is at a ma0imum at the
midspan o' a simp!y supported beam, the interna! compression and tension, and there'ore
the moment, are a!so at a ma0imum at midspan. (he interna! moment at midspan e2ua!s
2!
2
/ 8. Moreover, since there is no deflection at the supports, the internal compression
and tension at the supports equal zero; therefore, the moment at this location is also zero.
(he moment within the beam varies as shown in 'igure ).
q
Deflected Shape
L
Figure 5: Deflected Shape of a S.S. Beam under a uniform load

C
T
Figure 6* +nterna! Forces within a beam
M(x)
Figure 7: Bending Moment within a beam
M(x)

qL
2
/8
x (distance from left support)
L/2
Figure 8: Moment as a function of x
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For a beam subjected to bending, the stress at any point along the beam is simply the
moment at that point divided by the section modulus. (f = M / S) The section modulus is
a function of the cross sectional geometry. For a beam with a rectangular cross section,
the section modulus equals th
2
/ 6, where t = thickness and h = depth.
h


Figure 9: Rectangular cross section dimensions
Since the maximum moment in a simply supported beam occurs at midspan, the
maximum stress also occurs at midspan and has a magnitude of M/S. Since there is zero
moment at the left and right ends, the stress is also zero at the two ends.
If an engineer is to design a bridge with three spans, one option is to design three
simply supported beams as shown in figure 10. This design scheme leads to large
moments (and stresses) in the middle of each beam and zero moment at the ends.
L
Figure 10: Three simple supported spans
Another option is to design a continuous beam with a uniform cross section. For
this design scheme, part of the midspan moment of the simply supported beam (ql
2
/8) is
transferred to the supports, resulting in a reduced moment at midspan but moments at
each interior support as shown in figure 12. One can think of each span in a continuous
beam as comprised of cantilevers and a simply supported beam. The cantilever sections
extend from the interior supports (where the moment is at a maximum) to the point in the
span where the internal moment equals zero. The simply supported portion of a
continuous beam is the section where the moment goes from zero to maximum and then
back to zero. Comparing figures 10 - 12, the length of the simply supported section of the
continuous beam, L, is less than L. Since the moment at midspan is a function of the
length of the simply supported section squared (qL
2
/8), the midspan moment of a
continuous beam will be less than that of a s.s. beam. Moreover, even though moments
exist at the interior supports, the maximum moment in a continuous beam, which occurs
at the supports is less than that of a simply supported beam (at midspan).
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exterior span interior span exterior span
M(x) L
cantilever
L
cantilever

x
L

Figure 11: Continuous beam with a uniform cross section
Figure 12: Interior span moment diagram
Structural engineers often use a haunched design scheme rather than one with a
uniform cross section. A haunched cross section has a smooth increase in beam height
from the interior supports as shown in figure 13. The beam height increases at the
interior supports to accommodate the large moments at these locations. Because the
moments towards the middle of an interior span are smaller than at the interior supports,
the beam can be much shallower away from the interior supports. In addition, the length
of the simply supported section of a haunched continuous beam is even less than that of a
continuous beam with a uniform cross section. Therefore, the moment at midspan of a
haunched continuous beam is less than that of a continuous beam with a uniform cross
section.

Figure 13: Continuous beam with haunches
Photoelasticity
We will investigate these structural concepts using photoelastic models.
Photoelastic modeling is an experimental method in which polarized light is shown
through a transparent material (in this case polycarbonate) causing patterns of light and
dark regions to appear in the material. These patterns, the dark regions of which are
called fringes, can be read both qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitatively, close lines
indicate regions of stress concentrations, areas where stress is present. Quantitatively, the
number of fringes can be read then transformed into a stress by the equation: f = N * F /
t, where N is the number of fringes, F is the material constant, and t is the thickness of the
model. F for this experiment equals 40 lb/ in-fringe.
The key to reading the number of fringes for a beam in bending is to determine
the neutral axis of the beam and designate it as N = 0. For a beam with a rectangular
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cross section, the neutral axis will be a dark line or area located at the center of the
beams cross section. Then every dark line on either side of the zero order is labeled with
whole number increments, as are the light lines with number increments. The beam
shown in figure 14, would be given a fringe count of N = 1.5.




Figure 14 Fringe Count Example
Once fringes have been read, we can compare the experimental stress (f
exp
= NF/t) of the
model to the theoretical stress (f
theo
= M/S).
Important Equations
Cantilever
7oment at support ; 7
support
; $ 5 6
,here* $ ; point !oad app!ied at the 'ree end
6 ; !ength o' canti!ever

Simply Supported Beam
7oment at midspan ; 7
midspan
; 2 5 6
2
/ )
,here* 2 ; uni'orm!y distributed !oad
6 ; beam !ength
Theoretical Stress Equations
&ection 7odu!us ; & ; th
2
/6
,here* t ; beam thickness
h ; beam depth
ending &tress ; ' ; 7 / &
,here* 7 ; bending moment
& ; section modu!us
Experimental Stress Equation
ending &tress ; ' ; <5 F / t
,here* < ; number o' 'ringes
F ; materia! constant .For po!ycarbonate, F ; 40 !b/in='ringe/
#
<eutra! 10is .< ; 0/
< ; 1
< ; >
(op o' eam .< ; 1.9/
ottom o' eam
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Pre la Prolem
2 ; 2 !b / in
h ; 2?
t ; .9?
6 ; 20?
1 twenty inch !ong simp!y supported beam must carry a uni'orm !oad o' 2
!b/in. +' the beam is .9 inches thick and two inches deep, 'ind*
.a/ the section modu!us at midspan
.b/ the bending moment at midspan
.c/ the bending stress at midspan
Proce!ure
Cantilever
@ou wi!! 'irst study the structura! behavior o' a canti!ever. (he main purpose o'
this e0periment is to introduce you to bending moments and bending stresses. y
!oading a canti!ever with a point !oad, $, the e0perimenta! stress at the support,
determined by reading the 'ringes, wi!! be compared to the theoretica! va!ue o' stress.

1" #o not c$an%e t$e position o& t$e lar%e roun! !ial lenses on t$e
apparatus"
2. &ince any moisture on your hands wi!! damage the mode!s, p!ease put on
g!oves be'ore beginning the !ab.
4. @ou wi!! not need the !oading trees 'or this part o' the !ab, so remove them
'rom the !oading 'rame.
4. Five beam supports are used during this e0periment. (hey are a!! !abe!ed
according!y. Ao not move any o' the supports e0cept 'or the exterior
cantilever support, which you shou!d 'ind on the tab!e. (he other 'our
supports are a!ready c!amped to the top o' the green !oading 'rame. (he
exterior cantilever support shou!d be p!aced three inches, center to center, to
the !e't o' the left interior support. 3!amp it in p!ace using the screw that is
!aying in the green channe! and the wing nut on the tab!e. #o not mo'e t$e
le&t interior support(
9. Bsing ca!ipers, measure the depth .h/ and the thickness .t/ o' the si0teen inch
mode!.
6. Cnce the supports are in position, p!ace the si0teen inch mode! on the
supports. (he notches near the ends o' the mode! shou!d be on top, and the
!etter DF shou!d be readab!e on the right end. (he !e't end o' the beam shou!d
be p!aced in the exterior cantilever support, whi!e the center o' the !e't
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interior support shou!d !ine up with the mode!s second ho!e 'rom the !e't.
(he vertica! support !ocations are i!!ustrated in 'igure 19.
E0terior F
canti!ever 6e't interior support
support

4? 14?
Figure 19* 3anti!ever Fertica! &upport 6ocations
#. (he section o' the mode! between the exterior cantilever support and the !e't
interior support is acting as our 'i0ed support, the typica! end condition 'or a
canti!ever. Essentia!!y, the canti!ever section o' the mode! spans 'rom the !e't
interior support to the right end. .6 ; 14?/ ,e wi!! on!y be concerned with
the canti!ever portion o' the mode!.
). 1d-ust the upper and !ower screws on the exterior cantilever support unti! the
canti!ever appears !eve!. 7ake sure the canti!ever is resting s2uare!y on its
vertica! supports.
". Cnce the supports and canti!ever are in p!ace, ask your 1+ to check your setup.
10. &!ide the top !oop o' the cantilever loading hook over the right end o' the
mode! and rest it on the notch on the top o' the beam.
11. $!ace the 1.#9 !b. bott!e on the cantilever loading hook.
12. (urn on the !amp and observe the 'ringe patterns.
14. 3ount the number o' 'ringes at the canti!evers !e't support .ICS/. .+' you are
having troub!e determining the number o' 'ringes, gent!y press down on the
right end o' the beam. (he number o' 'ringes at the !e't support shou!d
become more apparent./ Aetermine the stress at this !ocation using the
e2uation which re!ates stress to 'ringe order.
14. 3a!cu!ate the theoretica! stress at the support by 'irst ca!cu!ating the
theoretica! moment .7 ; $ 5 6/ and then ca!cu!ating stress 'or this va!ue o'
moment. . ' ; 7 / & where & ; th
2
/ 6/
19. %ow does the e0perimenta! stress compare with the theoretica! stressG
16. +' the ma0imum stress to which this canti!ever can be sub-ected is )00 psi,
what is the ma0imum point !oad that one can app!y at the right endG
1#. +' the mode!s depth is increased to 1.9 inches, what wou!d be the stress at the
canti!evers supportG
Simply Supported Beam

@ou wi!! now investigate the bending moments and stresses carried by a simp!y
supported beam !oaded with a uni'orm!y distributed !oad.

1. 8emove the exterior cantilever support 'rom the !oading 'rame. +t wi!! no
!onger be needed, so p!ace the support, the winged nut and the washer on the
tab!e in 'ront o' the !oading 'rame. #o not mo'e an) o& t$e ot$er supports
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or turn an) o& t$e *$ite plastic scre*s &or t$e remain!er o& t$is
proce!ure"
2. $!ace the si0teen inch mode! on the interior supports with the notches down
and nested over the pins in the supports. (he !etter DF shou!d be readab!e on
the right end.
4. <ow you are ready to p!ace a !oading tree on the simp!y supported beam.
$!ace the hooks o' the !oading tree through the ho!es in the beam. Figure 16
i!!ustrates how the !oading tree shou!d be hung 'rom the beam.
Figure 16* 6oading (ree &etup
4. %ang a 6.6# !b. bott!e 'rom the bottom hook o' the !oading tree. (he beam is
now carrying a tota! !oad, H, o' 6.6# !b. (he !oading tree distributes this
weight uni'orm!y across the entire span. 3a!cu!ate the uni'orm!y distributed
!oad, 2. 8emember* 2 ; H/6.
9. 1ccording to the 'ringe patterns, where is the moment at its ma0imumG
,here is it the sma!!estG ,here is the stress at its ma0imumG ,here is it the
sma!!estG
6. Aetermine the number o' 'ringes at midspan. .+' you are having troub!e
determining the number o' 'ringes, gent!y press down on the beam at midspan.
(he number o' 'ringes at midspan shou!d become more apparent./ 3a!cu!ate
the e0perimenta! stress .' ; <F/t/ at midspan.
#. 3a!cu!ate the theoretica! stress at midspan. 8emember 'or a simp!y supported
beam, the moment at midspan e2ua!s 26
2
/ ).
). 8epeat steps 4=# with a 10 !b. bott!e.
". %ow does the stress at midspan change when the tota! !oad is increased to 10
!bG +s stress direct!y proportiona! to tota! !oadG
Continuous Span with Uniform Cross Section and Continuous Span with Haunches
@ou wi!! now e0amine how the moments and stresses are distributed a!ong a
continuous span with a uni'orm cross section and a continuous span with haunches.
1. 8emove the weight bott!es and then remove the !oading tree 'rom the simp!y
supported beam, and hang it on the !oading 'rame.
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2. Bsing ca!ipers, measure the depth .h/ and thickness .t/ o' the thirty two inch
continuous beam o' uni'orm cross=section.
4. 8ep!ace the simp!y supported beam with the thirty two inch continuous beam
o' uni'orm cross section. (he !etter DF shou!d be readab!e at the right end.
4. 1d-ust the screws be!ow the e0terior supports so that the beam is resting
even!y on a!! 'our supports .i.e., a!! 'our supports shou!d be touching the
beam/.
9. %ang two !oading trees 'rom the beam. Cne !oading tree shou!d be attached
to the !e't side span and the !e't ha!' o' the center span. (he other !oading tree
shou!d be attached to the right side span and the right ha!' o' the center span.
6. $!ace a 6.6# !b. bott!e on the bottom hook o' each !oading tree.
#. Aetermine the tota! !oad, H, and uni'orm!y distributed !oad, 2, acting on the
beam.
). Cbserve how the 'ringe order varies a!ong the center span. ,here is the
moment at its ma0imumG 1re there points a!ong the span where there is :ero
momentG
". 8eca!! that one can think o' a continuous beam as being comprised o'
canti!evers and simp!y supported beams. 6ocate the canti!ever sections and
simp!y supported section o' the center span. 7easure the !ength o' the simp!y
supported section. %ow does it compare to the !ength o' the simp!y supported
beam o' part ++G For the haunched beam, how does the !ength o' the simp!y
supported section compare to that o' the continuous beam with a uni'orm
cross sectionG
10. Aetermine the number o' 'ringes at the supports and at the midspan o' the
center span.
11. 3a!cu!ate the e0perimenta! stress at each o' these !ocations.
12. 8epeat steps 6=11 with the 10 !b. bott!es.
14. 8epeat steps 1=12 with the haunched continuous beam. Be certain to a!+ust
t$e scre*s elo* t$e e,terior supports -raise t$em. per step / e&ore
loa!in% t$e eam" +nc!ude the depth .h/ at the supports when taking
measurements per step 2.
Analysis/iscussion !uestions
1. %ow do the three beams .simp!y supported, continuous with constant cross
section, and continuous with haunches/ stresses at the supports and at midspan
compareG
2. +n !ight o' your 'indings, is the design o' the %arrison &treet ridge the most
e''icient beam design schemeG +' so, whyG +' not, which o' the other two design
schemes .s.s. beam or continuous beam with a constant cross section/ wou!d you
have chosen, and why wou!d it be the most e''icientG
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