The Land of Assur and the Yoke of Assur

Author(s): J. N. Postgate
Source: World Archaeology, Vol. 23, No. 3, Archaeology of Empires (Feb., 1992), pp. 247-263
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/124761
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T h e L a n d o f A s s u r a n d t h e y o k e o f
A s s u r
J. N. Po s t ga t e
T h e A s s y r ia n s t a t e h a d it s o r igin s e a r ly in t h e s e co n d mille n n iu m, a s t h e s ma ll
s e lf -go ve r n in g me r ch a n t cit y o f A s s u r , be ca me a t e r r it o r ia l po we r in t h e f o u r t e e n t h t o
t h ir t e e n t h ce n t u r ie s BC, a n d s u r vive d u n t il 605 BC, by wh ich t ime it h a d cr e a t e d a n e mpir e
wh ich s e t t h e pa t t e r n f o r it s s u cce s s o r s : Ba by lo n , Pe r s ia a n d Ma ce d o n . Bo t h a s a
ph e n o me n o n in it s o wn r igh t , a n d a s t h e o r igin a t o r o f t h e Ne a r Ea s t e r n s t y le o f e mpir e ,
A s s y r ia d e ma n d s t o be in clu d e d in a n y s t u d y o f e mpir e s . Fo r r e a s o n s o f s implicit y a n d
s pa ce o u r a t t e n t io n will be co n ce n t r a t e d o n t h e we s t e r n f r o n t ie r , bu t mu ch o f wh a t is
d e s cr ibe d co u ld be illu s t r a t e d e qu a lly f r o m t h e n o r t h e r n o r e a s t e r n s e ct o r s .
T h e h is t o r ica l f r a me wo r k
Fo r o u r pu r po s e s , A s s y r ia 's t e r r it o r ia l h is t o r y ca n be d ivid e d in t o f o u r ph a s e s : t h e cr e a t io n
a n d o r igin a l e xpa n s io n in t h e pe r io d 1400-1200 BC, a lo n g r e ce s s io n o f va r y in g in t e n s it y
f r o m 1200 t o 900 BC, t h e pr o gr e s s ive r e -e s t a blis h me n t o f t h e e a r lie r bo r d e r s f r o m a bo u t
900 t o 745 BC, a n d t h e n t h e f in a l ph a s e o f e xpa n s io n f a r be y o n d t h e s e bo r d e r s in t o Egy pt
a n d Ir a n , 745 t o 605 BC (s e e T a ble I a n d Figs 1-2). T h e f o r m A s s y r ia n co n t r o l t o o k va r ie d :
it d id n o t e me r ge in a va cu u m, a n d in e a ch ca s e it d e pe n d e d n o t o n ly o n t h e ch a r a ct e r o f t h e
ce n t r a l A s s y r ia n go ve r n me n t it s e lf , bu t a ls o o n t h e po lit ica l a n d s o cia l o r d e r in t h e la n d s
a bs o r be d . Bo t h in s id e a n d o u t s id e A s s y r ia t h e cu r r e n t r e a lit ie s we r e a ls o t e mpe r e d , a n d
po licie s a f f e ct e d , by pe r ce pt io n s o f pr e ce d e n t s . It is t h e r e f o r e n e ce s s a r y t o give a n o u t lin e
o f t h e s e ph a s e s be f o r e e xa min in g t h e pr in ciple s a n d pr a ct ice o f e mpir e .
Ph a s e I s a w t h e t r a n s f o r ma t io n o f t h e s in gle cit y -s t a t e o f A s s u r , u n d e r t h e d o min a t io n , if
n o t t h e d ir e ct r u le , o f t h e Mit a n n ia n k in gs , t o a t e r r it o r ia l s t a t e k n o wn a s 't h e L a n d o f
A s s u r ', wh o s e k in gs cla ime d e qu a lit y wit h t h e Ph a r a o h a n d t h e Gr e a t Kin g o f t h e Hit t it e s .
Fr o m t h e la n d a n n e xe d by A s s u r in t h e f o u r t e e n t h ce n t u r y , e n co mpa s s in g t h e cit ie s o f
Nin e ve h , Ka lh u , Kilizu a n d A r bil, t h e t h r e e t h ir t e e n t h -ce n t u r y k in gs (A d a d -n ir a r i,
Sh a lma n e s e r a n d T u k u lt i-Nin u r t a ) s wa llo we d u p t h e r e mn a n t s o f t h e Mit a n n ia n k in gd o m
in t h e Ha bu r d is t r ict , a n d s o e xt e n d e d t h e ir d ir e ct a d min is t r a t io n t o t h e Eu ph r a t e s , wh ich
f o r me d a n a ck n o wle d ge d f r o n t ie r wit h Hit t it e t e r r it o r y .
Wo r ld A r ch a e o lo gy Vo lu me 23 No . 3 A r ch a e o lo gy o f Empir e s
?C Ro u t le d ge 1992 0043-8243/92/2303/247 $3.00/i
248 J. N. Po s t ga t e
T a ble I Ch r o n o lo gica l ch a r t .
Kin g's n a me Re gn a l d a t e s
A s s u r -r a bi I
A s s u r -n a d in -a h h e I
En lil-n a s ir 11 1432-1427
A s s u r -n ir a r i 11 1426-1420
A s s u r -be l-n is e s u 1419-1411
A s s u r -r im-n is e s u 1410-1403
Ph a s e I A s s u r -n a d in -a h h e 11
1402-1393
Ph a s e I Er iba -A d a d
l
1392-1366
A s s u r -u ba llit 1 1365-1330
En lil-n ir a r i 1329-1320
A r ik -d e n -ili 1319-1308
A d a d -n ir a r i 1 1307-1275
Sh a lma n e s e r 1 1274-1245
T u k u lt i-Nin u r t a 1 1244-1208
A s s u r -n a d in -a pli 1207-1204
A s s u r -n ir a r i 111 1203-1198
En lil-k u d u r r i-u s u r 1197-1193
Nin u r t a -a pil-Ek u r 1192-1180
A s s u r -d a n 1 1179-1134
Nin u r t a -t u k u lt i-MA s u r
Mu t a k k il-Nu s k u
A s u r -r e s -is i 1 1133-1116
T igla t h -Pile s e r 1 1115-1077
Ph a s e 2 < A a r id -a pil-Ek u r 1076-1075
A s s u r -be l-k a la 1074-1057
Er iba -A d a d 11 1056-1055
Sa ms i-A d a d IV 1054-1051
A s s u r n a s ir pa l 1 1050-1032
Sh a lma n e s e r 11 1031-1020
A s s u r -n ir a r i IV 1019-1014
A s s u r -r a bi 11 1013-973
A s s u r -r e s -is i 11 972-968
T igla t h -Pile s e r 11 967-935
A s s u r -d a n ll 934-912
A d a d -n ir a r i ll 911-891
T u k u lt i-Nin u r t a 11 890-884
A s s u r n a s ir pa l lI 883-859
Sh a lma n e s e r III 858-824
P
Sa ms i-A d a d V 823-811
A d a d -n ir a r i 111 810-783
Sh a lma n e s e r IV 782-773
A s s u r -d a n III 772-755
A s s u r -n ir a r i V 754-745
T igla t h -Pile s e r
III 744-727
Sh a lma n e s e r V 726-722
Sa r go n ll 721-705
Se n n a ch e r ib 704-681
Ph a s e 4
Es a r h a d d o n
680-669
A s s u r ba n ipa l 668-627
A s s u r -e t e l-ila n i 626-624?
Sin -s 'u mu -lis ir
Sin -s a r -is k u n -612
A s s u r -u ba llit 11 611-609
T h e L a n d o f A s s u r a n d t h e y o k e o f A s s u r 249
38
3
? 100m k ,_ 340
Figu r e I Ma p o f A s s y r ia , t h ir t e e n t h t o e le ve n t h ce n t u r ie s BC, t o s h o w s t a t e a n d pr o vin cia l
bo u n d a r ie s : a . ma ximu m e xt e n t o f A s s y r ia n t e r r it o r y (c.
1200
BC); b. e xt e n t o f
A s s y r ia n t e r r it o r y c.
1100 BC; c. r e co n s t r u ct e d pr o vin cia l bo u n d a r ie s ; d . 200mm r e lia ble a n n u a l r a in f a ll limit ; s t ipplin g
in d ica t e s r e lie f (a f t e r Po s t ga t e 1985: 97, wh e r e t h e id e n t if ica t io n o f in d ivid u a lly n u mbe r e d s it e s ma y
be f o u n d ).
Ph a s e 2 co u ld be s u bd ivid e d , in t o a pe r io d o f ge n t le r e ce s s io n , d o wn t o t h e r e ign o f
T igla t h -Pile s e r I (wh o wa s s t ill in a po s it io n t o ma r ch u n o ppo s e d t o t h e Me d it e r r a n e a n ),
a n d a mu ch mo r e in t e n s e lo s s o f po we r wh ich s a w A s s y r ia n co n t r o l wit h e r t o t h e min ima l
co r e o f A s s u r it s e lf a n d t h e cit ie s t o it s n o r t h o n t h e T igr is (pa r t icu la r ly Nin e ve h ). T h e
e xt e r n a l po lit ica l a ge n t s o f t h is r e ce s s io n we r e n o t n e igh bo u r in g s t a t e s : Ba by lo n wa s
e qu a lly we a k , t h e Hit t it e Empir e h a d co lla ps e d a n d f r a gme n t e d , a n d t h e Mit a n n ia n s t a t e
wa s o n ly a me mo r y . Ra t h e r , t h e d a ma ge wa s d o n e by in cu r s io n s o f A r a ma e a n t r ibe s , wh o
by 900 BC h a d e s t a blis h e d min o r d y n a s t ie s t h r o u gh o u t mo s t o f No r t h Me s o po t a mia a n d
Sy r ia . On e co n t r ibu t o r y f a ct o r ma y we ll h a ve be e n t h e clima t e , s in ce po o r r a in f a ll bo t h
we a k e n e d A s s y r ia 's a gr icu lt u r a l ba s e a n d f o r ce d A r a ma e a n s n o r t h in s e a r ch o f pa s t u r e .
Ph a s e 3 Mu ch o f o u r k n o wle d ge o f t h e d a r k y e a r s o f Ph a s e 2 co me s f r o m t h e a cco u n t s o f
la t e r A s s y r ia n k in gs wh o d e s cr ibe h o w A s s y r ia n s u bje ct s h a d be e n f o r ce d t o t a k e r e f u ge
f r o m f a min e in t h e mo u n t a in s a n d h o w s o me o f t h e ir t o wn s a n d s t r o n g po in t s
h a d be e n
t a k e n o ve r by t h e n e wco me r s . In s e lf -co n s cio u s ly r e co n s t it u t in g
t h e f o r me r 'L a n d o f
A s s u r ', t h e y d e s cr ibe t h e ir pr o gr a mme s o f a gr icu lt u r a l r e f o r m in s t a n d a r d f o r mu la e wh ich
be gin in t h e r e ign o f T igla t h -Pile s e r I a n d pe r s is t a lmo s t 300
y e a r s
in t o t h e t ime o f
Sh a lma n e s e r III. T h e r e -e s t a blis h me n t o f t h e e a r lie r f r o n t ie r wa s a
lo n g pr o ce s s
o f
pick in g
250 J. N. Po s t ga t e
if f l
L III ma jo r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
1",
I !,I .
*..~~~~~~......-M
[E) pr o vin cia l ca pit a ls (s it e f a ir ly ce r t a in )
[3]1pr o v-in cia l
ca pit a ls (lo ca t io n u n ce r t a in )
[3~]
o t h e r s it e s
En - r o ck r e lie f s
Figu r e
2 T h e
A s s y r ia n Empir e
in t h e f ir s t mille n n iu m BC, t o s h o w
a r ch a e o lo gica l
e vid e n ce f o r
e xt e n t o f
e mpir e (a f t e r Ca mbr id ge En cy clo pa e d ia o f A r ch a e o lo gy , p. 188).
o f f t h e
ma in ly A r a ma e a n s t a t e s wh ich n o w co n f r o n t e d t h e
A s s y r ia n k in gs , be gin n in g ve r y
clo s e t o h o me wit h A s s u r -d a n a n d A d a d -n ir a r i
(934-912
a n d
911-891),
a n d
cu lmin a t in g
wit h Sh a lma n e s e r 's
pe r s is t e n t
s e r ie s o f
ca mpa ign s
in t o
Sy r ia
a n d A n a t o lia , in
t e r r it o r y
s t ill
r e f e r r e d t o a s Hit t it e
(t h e
'L a n d o f
Ha t t i').
T h e L a n d o f A s s u r a n d t h e y o k e o f A s s u r 251
Ph a s e 4 T h e t r a d it io n a l A s s y r ia n f r o n t ie r in t h e we s t wa s t h e Eu ph r a t e s . A lt h o u gh in t h e
la t e n in t h a n d e a r ly e igh t h ce n t u r y A s s y r ia n in f lu e n ce wa s a ck n o wle d ge d by s t a t e s be y o n d
t h is lin e , t h e r e is n o s u gge s t io n t h a t t h e 'L a n d o f A s s u r ' cr o s s e d it t o o . T h e po we r f u l
Sa ms i-ilu ca lls h ims e lf 'a d min is t r a t o r ' (a n d n o t 'go ve r n o r ') 'o f t h e la n d o f Ha t t i',
a ck n o wle d gin g t h e r e by t h e s e pa r a t e id e n t it y o f t h e we s t e r n la n d s h e co n t r o lle d . T wo
r e ce n t ly pu blis h e d s t e la e s h o w t h e A s s y r ia n k in g a r bit r a t in g be t we e n lo ca l d y n a s t s - wit h
n o vis ible in clin a t io n t o a n n e x t h e ir t e r r it o r y . T h is ch a n ge d a br u pt ly wit h t h e a cce s s io n o f
T igla t h -Pile s e r III in 745, wh o co n qu e r e d a n d a n n e xe d mo s t o f Sy r ia a n d L e ba n o n , a n d
in it ia t e d a po licy o f e xpa n d in g t h e f r o n t ie r s o f 'T h e L a n d o f A s s u r ' wh ich e n d e d wit h
Es a r h a d d o n a n d A s s u r ba n ipa l's a n n e xa t io n o f Egy pt a n d Ela m, a n d a bo lis h e d t h e
in t e r ve n in g lo ca l s t a t e s , t h u s s e t t in g t h e s ce n e f o r t h e s u cce e d in g e mpir e s o f Ba by lo n ,
Pe r s ia a n d Ma ce d o n .
T h e f o r ms o f d o min a t io n
T h e A s s y r ia n impe r ia l o r d e r d if f e r e d f r o m t h o s e o f t h e Mit a n n ia n s a n d Hit t it e s , wh o
in co r po r a t e d a h ie r a r ch y o f lo ca l d y n a s t ie s in t o t h e s a me s y s t e m a s t h e h igh k in g's co r e
d o ma in . T h e f o r ma l pr o n o u n ce me n t s o f t h e A s s y r ia n k in gs d is t in gu is h cle a r ly be t we e n
t e r r it o r y d ir e ct ly a d min is t e r e d a n d in co r po r a t e d wit h in t h e 'L a n d o f A s s u r ', a n d a r e a s
a ck n o wle d gin g A s s y r ia n d o min a t io n bu t r e t a in in g s o me f o r m o f a u t o n o my . T h e
e xa min a t io n o f t h e d o cu me n t a r y s o u r ce s ma k e s it qu it e cle a r t h a t t h is d is t in ct io n wa s n o t
a n e mpt y f o r mu la , bu t co r r e s po n d e d wit h bo t h pr a ct ica l a r r a n ge me n t s a n d s y mbo lic
a ct io n s . L e t u s lo o k f ir s t a t 'A s s y r ia pr o pe r ', a n d t h e n mo ve t o t h e s a t e llit e s a cr o s s t h e
f r o n t ie r s .
T h e L a n d o f A s s u r : 'A s s y r ia pr o pe r '
T h e L a n d o f A s s u r is a ph r a s e wh ich is f ir s t u s e d a s t h e Mid d le A s s y r ia n s t a t e ca me in t o
be in g. It in clu d e s a t f ir s t t h e 'A s s y r ia n t r ia n gle ' in t h e r e gio n o f Nin e ve h , a n d is e xt e n d e d
in t o t h e Ha bu r r e gio n a f t e r t h e co n qu e s t s o f t h e t h ir t e e n t h ce n t u r y . T h e r e a f t e r , it r e ma in s
t h e t e r m f o r wh a t we wo u ld ca ll A s s y r ia u n t il t h e e n d . T e r r it o r ie s f r e s h ly a d d e d t o A s s y r ia ,
o r r e cla ime d , a r e s a id t o be 't u r n e d in t o ' o r 'r e t u r n e d t o t h e la n d o f A s s u r ': 't o t h e la n d o f
A s s u r I a d d e d la n d , t o it s pe o ple I a d d e d pe o ple '. T h e n a me it s e lf r e f le ct s t h e id e o lo gica l
ce n t r a lit y o f t h e cit y o f A s s u r , a n d t h e cit y -go d , h e n ce f o r t h a ls o t h e n a t io n a l go d , wh o
be a r s t h e s a me n a me . T h is o n e -t o -o n e co r r e s po n d e n ce be t we e n t h e go d a n d t h e cit y is
u n d e r lin e d by t h e f a ct t h a t , u n lik e mo s t o t h e r ma jo r d e it ie s o f t h e Me s o po t a mia n s ce n e ,
A s s u r h a s n o o t h e r t e mple s . His r o le , a s t h e s y mbo lic pe r s o n if ica t io n o f t h e cit y a n d t h e n
s t a t e o f A s s u r , is r e f le ct e d in a s y s t e m o f o f f e r in gs co n t r ibu t e d , in a f ixe d r o t a , by t h e
co mpo n e n t pa r t s o f t h e L a n d o f A s s u r , i.e . by t h e d if f e r e n t pr o vin ce s . T h e s e a r e n o t
va lu a ble it e ms d e s t in e d f o r t h e t e mple 's t r e a s u r y , bu t gr o ce r ie s f o r it s d a ily me n u . T h e
s y s t e m is be s t a t t e s t e d in t h e r e ign o f T igla t h -Pile s e r 1 (1105-1077), bu t t h e r e is a d e qu a t e
e vid e n ce t h a t it wa s s t ill o pe r a t in g in t h e s e ve n t h ce n t u r y , bo t h wit h in s o me o f t h e
t r a d it io n a l ce n t r a l pr o vin ce s a n d , n e wly impo s e d , in r e ce n t ly (a n d t r a n s it o r ily ) a n n e xe d
la n d s s u ch a s Egy pt (Po s t ga t e 1980; 1985; Co ga n 1974: 52).
252 J. N. Po s t ga t e
Fo r u s , t h e s ign if ica n t po in t is t h a t t h e co n t r ibu t o r s r e pr e s e n t t h e co n s t it u e n t pa r t s o f
A s s y r ia pr o pe r : t h e y d o n o t in clu d e clie n t k in gd o ms o r o t h e r ma r gin a lly a u t o n o mo u s
a r e a s . T h is is u n d e r s t a n d a ble : a ce n t r a l s h r in e e mbo d ie s a t e r r it o r y 's co mmu n a l id e n t it y
a n d , pr o vid e d s o me me a s u r e o f a u t o n o my wa s ma in t a in e d , a n y s t a t e wo u ld h a vc it s o wn
s y mbo lic ce n t r e in t h e s h a pe o f it s t r a d it io n a l go d , a n d co u ld n o t s e r ve t wo ma s t e r s .
In co r po r a t io n in t o A s s y r ia me a n t pa r t icipa t in g in t h e cu lt o f it s go d ; it n e e d n o t h a ve me a n t
a ba n d o n in g t h e wo r s h ip o f t h e lo ca l d e it y , bu t it wo u ld h a ve a f f e ct e d t h e s ign if ica n ce o f
t h a t cu lt a s a po lit ica l s t a t e me n t . T h e wh o le s y s t e m s t a n d s in a t r a d it io n s t r e t ch in g ba ck t o
t h e t h ir d mille n n iu m, wh e r e by s h a r in g r e s po n s ibilit y f o r t h e pr o vis io n o f t h e d a ily
s u s t e n a n ce o f t h e En lil T e mple a t Nippu r wa s bo t h t h e d u t y a n d t h e pr e r o ga t ive o f t h o s e
s t a t e s (a n d , in Ur III t ime s , pr o vin ce s ) wh ich co n s t it u t e d pa r t o f 'Su me r a n d A k k a d '
pr o pe r (St e in k e lle r 1987).
T h e r o t a in A s s y r ia t o o wa s s h a r e d be t we e n t h e pr o vin ce s , a n d t o t h is s y mbo lic
s t a t e me n t t h e r e co r r e s po n d e d pr a ct ica l a s pe ct s o f go ve r n me n t a d min is t r a t io n . Un lik e t h e
py r a mid a l s t r u ct u r e o f t h e Hit t it e a n d Mit a n n ia n e mpir e s , t h e Mid d le A s s y r ia n k in gs
go ve r n e d t h r o u gh a s in gle -t ie r s y s t e m o f pr o vin ce s e mbr a cin g a ll d ir e ct ly r u le d A s s y r ia n
t e r r it o r y . Wh ile t h e pr o vin cia l ca pit a ls we r e o f t e n t h e t r a d it io n a l lo ca l ce n t r e s , t h e
go ve r n o r s we r e u s u a lly (if n o t a lwa y s ) 'r e -d e plo y e d ' me mbcr s o f t h e o ld f a milie s o f A s s u r ,
r a t h e r t h a n 'r e -e mplo y e d ' lo ca l d y n a s t s . On e f a mily a r ch ive f r o m t h ir t e e n t h -ce n t u r y A s s u r
s h o ws h o w t h e y h a r n e s s e d t h e co mme r cia l t r a d it io n s o f t h e me r ch a n t h o u s e s , wit h t h e ir
e xa ct lia bilit y a cco u n t in g, t o e s t a blis h a bu r e a u cr a t ic o r ga n iza t io n f o r t h e n e wly a cqu ir e d
t e r r it o r ie s , in t o wn a n d co u n t r y (Po s t ga t e 1988). Pr o vin cia l go ve r n o r s h ips we r e s o me -
t ime s , bu t n o t a lwa y s , pa s s e d o n wit h in t h e f a mily , bu t t h e y we r e f o r ma lly t h e k in g's
a ppo in t me n t s . In pr a ct ice t o o , a d min is t r a t io n a n d e co n o mic e xplo it a t io n we r e ca r r ie d o u t
by t h e go ve r n o r s o n be h a lf o f t h e k in g. T h is is ma d c cle a r by t h e A s s y r ia n co r o n a t io n r it u a l
in wh ich t h e ir t e n u r e o f o f f ice wa s f o r ma lly r cn e we d ca ch y e a r , a n d by t h e d e t a ile d
a d min is t r a t ive co r r e s po n d e n ce o f s o me o f t h e go ve r n o r s .
T h is s y s t e m s u r vive d u n t il t h e e n d o f t h e e mpir e .
T
h e r e we r e , o f co u r s e , ch a n ge s :
in e vit a bly it s h r a n k a s t h e f r o n t ie r s o f A s s y r ia n co n t r o l co n t r a ct e d , a n d n e w pr o vin ce s
a ppe a r a s t h e f ir s t mille n n iu m e xpa n s io n f o llo we d ; t h e r ca pid e xpa n s io n o f t h e s t a t e u n d e l
A s s u r -n a s ir -a pli a n d Sh a lma n e s e r in t h e n in t h ce n t u r y le d f o r a wh ile t o ve r y la lge
pr o vin ce s (a n d pe r h a ps co r r e s po n d in gly po we r f u l go ve r n o r s ), wh ich we r e r e d ivid e d u n d e r
T igla t h -Pile s e r III a f t e r 745. Bu t t h e t h e o r y a n d pr a ct ice r e ma in t h e s a me : t h e L a n d o f
A s s u r is a h o mo ge n e o u s t e r r it o r y d ivid e d in t o e qu a l r a n k in g pr o vin ce s . If y o u a r c in
A s s y r ia , y o u a r e in a pr o vin ce ; o u t s id e A s s y r ia , n o t .
T
h u s t h e lis t o f pr o vin ce s co n t r ibu t in g
t o t h e A s s u r T e mple in t h e r e ign o f T igla t h -Pile s e r I t e lls u s t h e e xt e n t o f A s s y r ia n t e r r it o r -y
in t h e e le ve n t h ce n t u r y , a n d wh e n n e w la n d s we r e a d d e d t o A s s y r ia by IT igla t h -Pile s e r Ill
in t h e e igh t h ce n t u r y , t h e y we r e pla ce d u n d e r a n e w go ve r n o r , o r , a s h e o f t e n s a y s , 'I a d d e d
t h a t la n d t o t h e pr o vin ce o f x'.
T h e y o k e o f A s s u r : clie n t k in gd o ms
T h e clie n t k in gd o m (I u s e 'clie n t ' r a t h e r t h a n 'va s s a l' o n t h e f ir m in s is t e n ce o f Mo s e s Fin le y
t o a vo id f e u d a l co n n o t a t io n s ), is a n e n t ir e ly d if f e r e n t ph e n o me n o n a n d wa s s o pe r ccive d
by t h e A s s y r ia n s , a s t h e ir t e r min o lo gy a n d a ct io n s ma k e cle a r . Fir s t cle a r ly a t t e s t e d u n d e r
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Mo u e t s o f VNme e h I'.5)
254 J. N. Po s t ga t e
Pla t e I Es a r h a d d o n a n d clie n t k in gs o f t h e we s t
(s t e le
f r o m Sa m'a l; F. vo n L u s ch a n , A u s gr a -
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in Se n d s ch ir li i, T a f .
I).
T igla t h -Pile s e r I, by t h e f ir s t mille n n iu m BC it wa s a r e gu la r pr a ct ice f o r t h e A s s y r ia n k in g
t o e xa ct a n n u a l t r ibu t e pa y me n t s f r o m t h o s e wh o 'bo r e t h e y o k e o f A s s u r ', bu t t h e s e we r e
qu it e d if f e r e n t f r o m t h e A s s u r T e mple o f f e r in gs . T h e y we r e n o t ba s ic f o o d s t u f f s bu t
va lu a ble
gif t s , wh e t h e r in pr e cio u s me t a l (in t h e e igh t h t o s e ve n t h ce n t u r y o f t e n s t a n d a r d
s ilve r 't r ibu t e
bo wls '),
a n ima ls (e s pe cia lly h o r s e s ), o r o t h e r go o d s in clu d in g lo ca l
s pe cia lit ie s . A lt h o u gh t h e in s cr ipt io n s d o s o me t ime s r e f e r t o t h e 't r ibu t e a n d f o r ce d la bo u r
o f t h e go d A s s u r ', t h e s e co n t r ibu t io n s d o n o t go t o t h e t e mple s bu t t o t h e k in gs , a n d e ve n t o
o t h e r me mbe r s o f t h e r o y a l f a mily a n d h igh s t a t e o f f icia ls . T h is is r e a d ily u n d e r s t o o d . T h e
r e la t io n s h ip be t we e n t h e t wo s t a t e s is a s e cu la r o n e be t we e n t wo r u le r s . Eve n be f o r e a n y
f o r m o f o ve r lo r d s h ip wa s f o r ma lly a ck n o wle d ge d , pr u d e n ce will o f t e n h a ve d ict a t e d a vis it
be a r in g gif t s ,
o r
br ibe s ,
t o d e f le ct t h e ma r a u d in g a r mie s . T r ibu t e f r o m t h e clie n t k in g is a n
in s t it u t io n a lize d f o r m o f t h e s a me s t a t e me n t : t h e e xa ct le ve l o f a n n u a l co n t r ibu t io n wo u ld
be
f ixe d ,
a n d f a ilu r e t o ma k e it wo u ld be co n s t r u e d a s a po lit ica l s t a t e me n t .
T h e L a n d o f A s s u r a n d t h e y o k e o f A s s u r 255
T h e lo ca l r u le r (e ve n if a pu ppe t in s t a lle d by t h e A s s y r ia n s ) wa s k in g wit h in h is o wn
co u n t r y , wh ich wa s n o t co n s id e r e d pa r t o f A s s y r ia . A ll e co n o mic a n d a d min is t r a t ive
r e la t io n s wit h t h e A s s y r ia n s t a t e wo u ld h a ve t a k e n pla ce a t a h igh le ve l, f r o m a pe x t o a pe x.
T h e A s s y r ia n a d min is t r a t io n wo u ld h a ve h a d n o t h in g t o d o wit h t h e in t e r n a l a f f a ir s o f t h e
clie n t s t a t e . Of t e n , pe r h a ps n o r ma lly , t h e clie n t k in g ma y in d e e d h a ve be e n bo u n d t o t h e
k in g o f A s s y r ia t h r o u gh s o me f o r m o f a gr e e me n t . Wit h o u t e n t e r in g d e e ply in t o t h e d e ba t e
a bo u t t r e a t ie s , we ma y s a y t h a t t h e A s s y r ia n s f o llo we d a ge -o ld pr a ct ice in co n clu d in g
f o r ma l a gr e e me n t s wit h s u ch lo ca l r u le r s . Su ch a gr e e me n t s we r e r e in f o r ce d by o a t h s a n d
s o le mn ize d by r e ligio u s s a n ct io n s , e s pe cia lly be in g wit n e s s e d by A s s u r a n d t h e lo ca l go d s .
T o h a ve br o k e n s u ch a n a gr e e me n t t h e n co n s t it u t e d gr o s s s in a ga in s t A s s u r , a n d wa s s e e n
a s ju s t if ica t io n f o r pu n it ive a ct io n o n t h e pa r t o f t h e A s s y r ia n r u le r ; bu t it wa s in f a ct a
s e cu la r a gr e e me n t be t we e n t wo h u ma n s , n o t a co n t r a ct be t we e n t h e A s s y r ia n go d a n d a
f o r e ign r u le r .
On t h e le ve l o f h u ma n ge s t u r e a n d s o cia l in t e r a ct io n t h e s a me id e o lo gy is a ppa r e n t :
d e f e a t e d k in gs a r e s u bje ct t o t h e k in g h ims e lf . In wo r d a n d ima ge t h e y k is s h is f e e t , a r e
h e ld by h im o n a le a d in g-r o pe (Fig. 3, Pi. 1); Ba r -r a k a b o f Sa m'a l h ims e lf bo a s t s t h a t h e r a n
a t t h e wh e e l o f T igla t h -Pile s e r 's ch a r io t . T h e y d o n o t jo in A s s y r ia by be co min g
wo r s h ippe r s o f A s s u r . Co ga n h a s in ve s t iga t e d ca r e f u lly t h e id e a t h a t s u bje ct io n t o A s s y r ia
implie d t h e wo r s h ip o f A s s u r , a n d f o u n d n o t h in g t o s u bs t a n t ia t e it . T h e 's y mbo l o f A s s u r '
(a d a gge r o f ir o n , f r o m t h e e a r ly s e co n d mille n n iu m wh e n ir o n wa s pr e cio u s ) is a t t e s t e d a s
a n o bje ct o f r e ve r e n ce in t h e pr o vin ce s u n d e r T igla t h -Pile s e r III, Sa r go n a n d Se n n a ch e r ib,
bu t n o t o u t s id e A s s y r ia pr o pe r (Co ga n 1974: 52). It is t o t h e k in g in h is pa la ce t h a t t h e y
br in g t h e ir t r ibu t e a r o u n d t h e Ne w Ye a r , n o t t o h im a s High Pr ie s t o f A s s u r .
T h e ge o gr a ph ica l pa t t e r n
I h a ve s t r e s s e d t h e d is t in ct io n be t we e n t h e s e t wo f o r ms o f d o min a t io n pa r t ly be ca u s e it
s e e ms t o me t h a t L ive r a n i's r e ce n t d is cu s s io n o f A s s y r ia n e xpa n s io n s u ppr e s s e s it u n d u ly .
He is o f co u r s e we ll a wa r e o f t h e d is t in ct io n : 'A lr e a d y be f o r e t h e ca mpa ign s s o me pla ce s
a r e "A s s y r ia n " a n d d o n o t pa y t r ibu t e . T h e s e pla ce s a lt e r n a t e wit h pla ce s t h a t pa y t r ibu t e ,
t h e r e is n o t e r r it o r ia l co n t in u it y be t we e n A s s y r ia n zo n e s a n d t r ibu t e -pa y in g o r e n e my
zo n e s , in s t e a d t h e r e is a s t r u ct u r e o f "is la n d s " o r o u t po s t s ' (1988: 85). He go e s o n t o
co n clu d e (p. 86) t h a t 't h e e mpir e is n o t a s pr e a d o f la n d bu t a n e t wo r k o f co mmu n ica t io n s
o ve r wh ich ma t e r ia l go o d s a r e ca r r ie d '. T h e me t a ph o r s o f a 'n e t wo r k wh o s e me s h t h ick e n s '
a n d a 's pr e a d in g o il-s t a in ' f o r t h e e xpa n s io n o f A s s y r ia n co n t r o l in t h e f ir s t mille n n iu m BC
d o n o t s e e m t o me t o be mu t u a lly e xclu s ive , a n d I a m n o t s u r e t h a t t h e y a r e a ppr o pr ia t e t o
h is a r gu me n t , wh ich r e vo lve s r o u n d t h e pie ce me a l pa t t e r n o f d if f e r e n t f o r ms o f t e r r it o r ia l
co n t r o l a lo n g t h e we s t e r n f r o n t ie r . L e t me u s e t h e m, t h o u gh , t o ma k e s o me d if f e r e n t
po in t s .
Fir s t , it is wo r t h r e ma r k in g t h a t , a s a d e s cr ipt io n o f t h e pr e s e n ce o f t h e A s s y r ia n a r my
a n d civil a d min is t r a t io n , t h e ima ge o f a n e t wo r k r a t h e r t h a n a n o il-s t a in is in d e e d mo r e a pt :
a ll t e r r it o r ia l co n t r o l mu s t t a k e s u ch a co n f igu r a t io n s in ce pe o ple ca n n o t be e ve n ly
d is t r ibu t e d a cr o s s a la n d s ca pe a n d co mmu n ica t io n s mu s t be ma in t a in e d be t we e n t h e
gr o u ps . T h is a pplie s a t t h e le ve l o f villa ge s , wh e r e it is u n lik e ly t h a t e it h e r civil o r milit a r y
256 J. N. Po s t ga t e
pe r s o n n e l we r e bille t e d e xce pt in t ime s o r a r e a s o f in s e cu r it y ; bu t s imila r ly wit h t o wn s a n d
cit ie s , ce r t a in pla ce s we r e s u it a ble f o r po lit ica l a n d s t r a t e gic r e a s o n s f o r co n ce n t r a t in g t h e
A s s y r ia n pr e s e n ce , a n d a s lo n g a s t h is pr e s e n ce wa s s u cce s s f u lly ma in t a in e d t h e r e will
in e vit a bly h a ve be e n in t e r s t ice s be t we e n t h e n o d e s . T h e ima ge o f a n e t wo r k s h o u ld n o t be
t a k e n t o imply a d imin u t io n o f co n t r o l in t h e s e a r e a s , h o we ve r : in a n a gr icu lt u r a l
e n vir o n me n t la n d is ca r e f u lly mo n it o r e d . Ea ch f a r me r k n o ws h is f ie ld s , e a ch villa ge k n o ws
it s bo u n d a r ie s , a n d t h e a d min is t r a t io n 's r u r a l n e t wo r k wo r k s t h r o u gh t h e villa ge ma y o r s .
A t t h e s a me t ime , it s e e ms t o me t h a t t h e 'o il-s t a in ' me t a ph o r is in f a ct a ppr o pr ia t e f o r
A s s y r ia n t e r r it o r y pr o pe r , bo t h be ca u s e a ll s u ch la n d wa s h o mo ge n e o u s ly a d min is t e r e d
t h r o u gh t h e pr o vin cia l s y s t e m a n d be ca u s e wit h in e a ch pr o vin ce t h a t a d min is t r a t io n wa s
u n if o r m. T h e e mpir e , wit h a ll it s t r ibu t a r y s t a t e s , ma y n o t po lit ica lly h a ve be e n 'a s pr e a d o f
la n d ', bu t A s s y r ia pr o pe r ce r t a in ly wa s , a n d wa s f ir mly pe r ce ive d a s s u ch . Be y o n d t h e
f r o n t ie r , t h o u gh , we co u ld ce r t a in ly e n vis a ge impe r ia l co n t r o l a s a n e t wo r k , if t h a t is t a k e n
t o s t r e s s t h e s in gle s t r a n d o f co mmu n ica t io n be t we e n t h e ce n t r e a n d t h e lo ca l r u le r 's
r e s id e n ce , a n d u n d e r lin e t h e a bs e n ce o f A s s y r ia n in t e r ve n t io n in t h e lif e o f t h e t o wn a n d
co u n t r y s id e by co n t r a s t t o it s pr e s e n ce wit h in t h e bo r d e r s .
T r a n s it io n a l ca s e s
In t r e a t in g bo t h cla s s e s a s a s in gle impe r ia l s y s t e m t h e r e is t h e r is k n o t o n ly o f d ive r t in g
a t t e n t io n f r o m t h e s e ve r y impo r t a n t d if f e r e n ce s , bu t a ls o o f glo s s in g o ve r a va r ie t y o f
ma r gin a l ca s e s wh ich f a ll be t we e n t h e t wo . Ea ch will be d if f e r e n t , a s e a ch co n s t it u t e s a n
e xce pt io n , bu t we ma y cla s s t h e m br o a d ly a s 'in t e r n a l' a n d 'e xt e r n a l' a n o ma lie s . Wit h in
A s s y r ia n t e r r it o r y it n e e d n o t s u r pr is e u s if po ck e t s o f lo ca l a u t o n o my pe r s is t u n t il qu it e
la t e , in t e r r u pt in g it s co n t in u it y , a s L ive r a n i h a s s t r e s s e d . T h e r e wo u ld h a ve be e n n o n e e d
t o a n t a go n ize t h e lo ca l po pu la t io n a n d wa s t e A s s y r ia n r e s o u r ce s in r e d u cin g po lit ie s wh ich
we r e cle a r ly go in g t o co -o pe r a t e . He n ce t h e s u r viva l o f lo ca l d y n a s t ie s in pla ce s lik e t h e
Ha bu r ba s in
-
f ir mly wit h in A s s y r ia by A s s y r ia n r e ck o n in g
- d id cr e a t e d is co n t in u it ie s in
t h e o il-s t a in o f d ir e ct A s s y r ia n co n t r o l: t h e be s t in s t a n ce o f t h is be in g Sh a d ik a n n i, wh o s e
s pe cia l s t a t u s s e e ms t o r e a ch ba ck in t o t h e t e n t h ce n t u r y . On o n e le ve l, t h is n e e d n o t h a ve
be e n s ign if ica n t : t o t h is d a y t h e r e a r e s imila r a n o ma lie s in Gr e a t Br it a in , wit h t h e Ch a n n e l
Is la n d s a n d t h e Is le o f Ma n r e t a in in g s o me le ga l a n d f is ca l in d e pe n d e n ce f r o m t h e
We s t min s t e r le gis la t u r e , a n d n o d o u bt o t h e r pa r a lle ls co u ld be f o u n d in me d ie va l Eu r o pe
o r t h e Ro ma n Empir e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , it wo u ld be wr o n g t o blu r t h e d is t in ct io n
be t we e n clie n t s t a t u s a n d d ir e ct a d min is t r a t io n , wh ich mu s t h a ve be e n qu it e cle a r t o t h o s e
in vo lve d . Wit h t h e pa s s a ge o f t ime t h e s e po ck e t s we r e a bs o r be d in t o t h e pr o vin cia l s y s t e m,
a n d t h e ir s u r viva l ca n o n ly h a ve be e n t h e co n s e qu e n ce o f f o r ma l a gr e e me n t s t o pr e s e r ve a n
h is t o r ica l a n o ma ly .
Be y o n d t h e f r o n t ie r s t h e r e wa s a s h if t in g r in g o f d is pa r a t e s a t e llit e s . In t h e e a r ly y e a r s o f
t h e Ne o -A s s y r ia n e mpir e (t h e n in t h , a n d pe r h a ps t h e t e n t h , ce n t u r y ), t h e po lit ica l o r d e r
wa s u n s t a ble e ve n wit h o u t A s s y r ia n in t e r ve n t io n , wit h r e ce n t ly e s t a blis h e d A r a ma e a n
d y n a s t ie s n o t s t r o n gly t e r r it o r ia l, a n d wit h bo u n d a r ie s o f t e n ill-d e f in e d . On e cu r io u s ca s e ,
me n t io n e d by L ive r a n i, is t h e f o r t if ie d t o wn o f A r ibu a in Pa t t in a . T h is mu s t h a ve la in f a r
o u t s id e t h e limit s o f A s s y r ia , bu t A s s u r -n a s ir -a pli t e lls u s t h a t h e a d o pt e d it a s h is o wn
T h e L a n d o f A s s u r a n d t h e y o k e o f A s s u r 257
pr o pe r t y a n d s e t t le d A s s y r ia n s in t h e cit y (Gr a y s o n 1976: 585). A n o t h e r , in t h e Za gr o s , is
r e f e r r e d t o by Na 'ma n (in Win t e r 1977: 377), wh o s u gge s t s t h a t bo t h co lo n ie s ma y h a ve
be e n in t e n d e d a s t r a d in g po s t s . I f in d it d if f icu lt t o a cco u n t f o r t h e s e in pr a ct ica l t e r ms , a n d
t h e y s u gge s t t h a t we d o n o t k n o w e n o u gh a bo u t e it h e r A s s y r ia n po licy o r t h e co u n t r ie s in
qu e s t io n .
Ea s ie r t o u n d e r s t a n d a r e e xa mple s o f a h a lf -wa y s t a ge , in wh ich a t r ibu t a r y s t a t e h a s n o t
o n ly t r ibu t e pa y me n t s bu t a ls o co r ve e impo s e d o n it 'a s o n t h e pe o ple o f A s s y r ia '. T h e f ir s t
A s s y r ia n k in g t o me n t io n t r ibu t e pa y me n t s , T igla t h -Pile s e r I, t a lk s o f f o r ce d la bo u r in t h e
s a me br e a t h , a n d pr o vid e d t h e la bo u r is s u pplie d ce n t r a lly by t h e lo ca l r u le r t o t h e
A s s y r ia n s , t h is co u ld be s e e n a s a d if f e r e n t s o r t o f 't r ibu t e ', n o t f u n d a me n t a lly a f f e ct in g t h e
f o r ma l r e la t io n s h ip wit h t h e clie n t s t a t e . Ho we ve r , A s s u r -n a s ir -a pli II's in s cr ipt io n s give
mo r e d e t a il a n d t e ll u s t h a t co n s t r u ct io n s u pe r vis o r s (u r a s e ) we r e a ppo in t e d t o s u pe r vis e
t h e wo r k . T h is ce r t a in ly s o u n d s lik e in t e r f e r e n ce wit h t h e clie n t s t a t e 's in t e r n a l a f f a ir s , a n d
in f a ct it is pr o ba ble t h a t d u r in g h is r e ign t h e r e wa s e xpe r ime n t a t io n wit h a cla s s o f
's u pe r vis e d clie n t s t a t e '. T h is wa s n o t t h e s a me a s t h e la t e r pr a ct ice o f a t t a ch in g a n
A s s y r ia n a ge n t t o a lo ca l co u r t , be s t a t t e s t e d in t h e Ph o e n icia n po r t s . Ra t h e r , it e n t a ile d
r e pla cin g t h e lo ca l r u le r by , o r co n ve r t in g h im in t o , a 'go ve r n o r ' a n s we r a ble t o t h e k in g,
bu t pr o ba bly n o t t h e in co r po r a t io n o f h is t e r r it o r y o r lo ca l a d min is t r a t io n in t o t h e A s s y r ia n
s y s t e m pr o pe r , a s t h e y d o n o t a ppe a r t o h a ve be e n pr o vin cia l go ve r n o r s o f t h e r e gu la r
va r ie t y . On e e xa mple o f t h is is pr o ba bly A d a d -it 'i o f Sik a n i, wh o s e co lo s s a l s t a t u e wit h a
bilin gu a l in s cr ipt io n ca lls h im 'k in g' in t h e A r a ma ic ve r s io n , bu t 'go ve r n o r ' in t h e A s s y r ia n .
A n o t h e r ma y be t h e 'Go ve r n o r s o f Su h i', a lt h o u gh I s u s pe ct t h is is t h e ir o wn a u t o n o mo u s
t it le (Ca vign e a u x a n d Is ma il 1990). It s u gge s t s t h a t A s s u r -n a s ir -a pli wa s a imin g t o cr e a t e a
cla s s o f pu ppe t r u le r s f r o m t h e lo ca l e lit e s o f t h e s a t e llit e r e gio n s , wit h o u t n e ce s s a r ily
pe r pe t u a t in g t h e lo ca l d y n a s t ie s .
T h is ca n o n ly h a ve be e n a t r a n s it o r y s o lu t io n , a n d is h a r d ly a t t e s t e d a f t e r t h e n in t h
ce n t u r y . T h e r e mu s t h a ve be e n s t r o n g pr e s s u r e , bo t h pr a ct ica l a n d id e o lo gica l, t o d r o p o n e
s id e o r t h e o t h e r o f t h e d ivid e . Pr a ct ica lly , t h e r e wa s s imply t h e co n ve n ie n ce o f co n f o r mit y
t o a we ll-e s t a blis h e d pa t t e r n , cr e a t in g co mpa r a bilit y wit h o t h e r s t a t e s in t h e s a me po s it io n .
T h e ca s e o f De r , o n Sa r go n 's s o u t h -e a s t e r n f r o n t ie r , wh e r e Ilu -ia d a ', t h e lo ca l r u le r wh o
h a d co n t r o lle d t h e cit y o n a s e mi-in d e pe n d e n t ba s is , wa s s imply t r a n s mo gr if ie d in t o a n
A s s y r ia n pr o vin cia l go ve r n o r , s h o ws t h e pr e f e r e n ce f o r a vo id in g t r a n s it io n a l a r r a n ge -
me n t s . Id e o lo gica lly , t h e pr e s s u r e s we r e ce r t a in ly s t r o n ge s t in n o r t h Me s o po t a mia , wh e r e
it wa s a qu e s t io n o f r e cr e a t in g t h e L a n d o f A s s y r ia a s it h a d be e n in t h e s e co n d mille n n iu m.
T h e k in gs lo vin gly r e co r d t h e r e s e t t le me n t o f e r s t wh ile A s s y r ia n s o n e r s t wh ile A s s y r ia n
la n d , a n d t e ll u s in wh o s e r e ign r e ca pt u r e d cit ie s h a d f a lle n t o t h e A r a ma e a n in t r u d e r s . T h e
y e a r s wh e n t h e Eu ph r a t e s wa s t h e f r o n t ie r t o t h e we s t h a d n o t be e n f o r go t t e n . It wa s o n ly
u n d e r T igla t h -Pile s e r III t h a t t h e 'L a n d o f A s s y r ia ' a n d it s a s s o cia t e d pr o vin cia l s y s t e m
br o k e wit h t r a d it io n a n d cr o s s e d t h e r ive r .
A r ch a e o lo gica l vis ibilit y
I d o n o t pr o po s e t o co n s id e r s o me o f t h e mo r e o bvio u s bu t le s s in f o r ma t ive a r ch a e o lo gica l
d e br is o f e mpir e , s u ch a s f r o n t ie r f o r t s : t h e y a r e d e s cr ibe d in t h e t e xt s , bu t h a ve h a r d ly
258 J. N. Po s t ga t e
be e n br o a ch e d by a r ch a e o lo gis t s . No r s h a ll I d e a l wit h t h e ir s y mbo lic e qu iva le n t s
- t h o s e
o bvio u s r e lict s o f impe r ia l be h a vio u r , t h e s t e la e a n d r o ck r e lie f s o f t h e A s s y r ia n k in gs ,
wh ich h a ve r e ce n t ly be e n r e vie we d wit h a co n s id e r a t io n o f t h e ir id e o lo gica l s ign if ica n ce by
Mo r a n d i (1988). In s t e a d I wa n t t o co n ce n t r a t e o n t h e f lo w o f e lit e go o d s a n d s t y le . We a r e
a ble t o lo o k a t t h e s e t h r o u gh a co mbin a t io n o f t e xt u a l, ico n o gr a ph ic a n d e xca va t e d d a t a ,
givin g a s h a r pn e s s o f f o cu s wh ich we s h o u ld a s pir e t o , bu t ca n r a r e ly a ch ie ve f r o m t h e
a r ch a e o lo gica l r e co r d a lo n e .
Wh e n d e a lin g wit h a r t e f a ct s , we n e e d t o gu a r d a ga in s t a t e n d e n cy t o e qu a t e cu lt u r a l, o r
mo r e s pe cif ica lly s t y lis t ic, in f lu e n ce s wit h po lit ica l r e la t io n s h ips . A s in gle po lit ica l u n it ma y
h a ve be e n o r be co me cu lt u r a lly h o mo ge n e o u s , bu t it d o e s n o t f o llo w t h a t a ce n t r e f r o m
wh ich po lit ica l po we r is e xe r cis e d a ls o d if f u s e d it s cu lt u r a l in f lu e n ce a lo n g t h e s a me lin e s .
Fo r A s s y r ia , it is d if f icu lt t o a d d r e s s t h e qu e s t io n o f in t e r n a l h o mo ge n e it y , bo t h be ca u s e
in s u f f icie n t wo r k h a s be e n d o n e o u t s id e t h e ma jo r ca pit a ls , a n d be ca u s e t h e be s t e vid e n ce
co me s f r o m e lit e it e ms le s s lik e ly t o be r e co ve r e d in pr o vin cia l co n t e xt s . Ne ve r t h e le s s , it
wo u ld be n o s u r pr is e if t h e po lit ica l u n if o r mit y o f t h e L a n d o f A s s u r br o u gh t wit h it a s t r o n g
t r e n d t o wa r d s cu lt u r a l co n f o r mit y , e s pe cia lly in t h e e lit e it e ms . Go ve r n o r s r e pr e s e n t e d t h e
k in g, a n d n o d o u bt a d o pt e d a t o n e d -d o wn ve r s io n o f t h e r o y a l ce r e mo n ia l. Bo t h t h e y a n d
lo ca l n o t a ble s will h a ve e mu la t e d t h e r o y a l pa la ce a n d t h e s o cie t y o f t h e ca pit a l; a d is pla y o f
r
gS~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o .
Figu r e 4 T h e A s s y r ia n k in g in s t a t e : f r o m t h e pr o vin cia l ca pit a l o f T il-Ba r s ip (F. T h u r ca u -Da n gin
a n d M. Du n a n d , T il-Ba r s ib, P1. XL IX).
T h e L a n d o f A s s u r a n d t h e y o k e o f A s s u r 259
in d e pe n d e n t t a s t e o r in f lu e n ce f r o m e ls e wh e r e is n o t t o be e xpe ct e d a n d migh t n o t h a ve
be e n pr u d e n t . T h e be s t k n o wn pr o vin cia l pa la ce is a t T il-Ba r s ip o n t h e A s s y r ia n ba n k o f
t h e Eu ph r a t e s , a t t ime s t h e r e s id e n ce o f t h e mo s t impo r t a n t go ve r n o r in t h e we s t . It h a s
ma n y o f t h e ch a r a ct e r is t ics o f a r o y a l pa la ce , in clu d in g t h e t h r o n e r o o m, bu t n o r e lie f s :
in s t e a d t h e wa lls we r e d e co r a t e d wit h a lmo s t id e n t ica l pa in t e d s ce n e s (Fig. 4). It is
'pr o vin cia l A s s y r ia n ', wit h h a r d ly a br e a t h o f t h e A r a ma e a n t r a d it io n s o f t h e imme d ia t e
a r e a o r o f t h e co n t e mpo r a r y s t y le s in u s e a cr o s s t h e f r o n t ie r .
T h e r o le o f po lit ics is h a r d ly s u r pr is in g in wh a t is , a f t e r a ll, mo s t ly vis u a l pr o pa ga n d a .
Equ a lly , t h e e vid e n ce o f t h e h is t o r ica l t e xt s a lo n e is e n o u gh t o wa r n u s t h a t t h e mo ve me n t
o f e lit e go o d s t h r o u gh o u t we s t e r n A s ia mu s t be t r a ck e d wit h a f in ge r o n t h e po lit ica l ma p o f
t h e t ime . Eve n be t we e n e qu a ls , o r be f o r e a s u bo r d in a t e r e la t io n s h ip wa s e s t a blis h e d , e lit e
go o d s wo u ld h a ve pa s s e d f r o m o n e r u le r t o a n o t h e r . A lt h o u gh pr o d u ct s o f A s s y r ia n
cr a f t s me n f o u n d t h e ir wa y in t o o t h e r la n d s , wh e t h e r by t r a d e o r a s r e cipr o ca l co mplime n -
t a r y gif t s , t h e r e is lit t le d o u bt t h a t t h e bu lk o f t h e t r a f f ic wa s in wa r d s t o t h e A s s y r ia n
ca pit a ls . T h e r o y a l a n n a ls r e co r d , a n d t h e r o y a l pa la ce s wh e n e xca va t e d s o me t ime s s t ill
co n t a in , h u ge co n s ign me n t s o f ivo r y o r me t a lwo r k plu n d e r e d o r a cce pt e d a s t r ibu t e . Fo r
t h e a r ch a e o lo gis t , t h e is s u e s s u r r o u n d in g t h e ph y s ica l mo ve me n t o f a r t e f a ct s a r e r e la t ive ly
s imple . T h e r e is a d mit t e d ly a pr o ble m wit h t h e k n o wn pr a ct ice o f impo r t in g, o r d e po r t in g,
f o r e ign cr a f t s me n bo d ily , a n d we a r e a lo n g wa y f r o m s o lvin g a ll t h e qu e s t io n s o f s ch o o ls o f
ivo r y ca r vin g; bu t in ge n e r a l, it e ms o f e xo t ic ma n u f a ct u r e will u s u a lly s t a n d o u t a n d d e cla r e
t h e ir pr o ve n a n ce .
Wh e n we t u r n t o t h e t r a n s mis s io n o f s t y le , t h e is s u e s a r e mo r e co mple x. L ik e t h e o bje ct s
t h e ms e lve s , cu lt u r a l in f lu e n ce s a s s h o wn in a r t is t ic s t y le will n o t h a ve be e n t r a n s mit t e d by
s o me o s mo t ic pr o ce s s o f 'd o wn -t h e -lin e ' imit a t io n , bu t by ch a n n e ls clo s e ly lin k e d t o t h e
po lit ica l o r d e r . T h e y will h a ve ju mpe d by le a ps a n d bo u n d s f r o m o n e po lit ica l ce n t r e t o
a n o t h e r ; a n d a s t h e e mpir e gr e w, t h e ph y s ica l a n d cu lt u r a l d is t a n ce s gr e w t o o . So me
ch a n ge s will h a ve be e n t r igge r e d d ir e ct ly by t h e o bje ct s t h e ms e lve s , br o u gh t ba ck a s gif t s
o r plu n d e r in t h e h a n d s o f t h o s e wh o cr o s s e d t h e ir f r o n t ie r s . Ju s t a s o f t e n , t h o u gh , t h e
s t imu lu s will h a ve co me t h r o u gh t h e e y e s o f t h o s e wh o mo ve d in e it h e r d ir e ct io n .
A mba s s a d o r s o f f o r e ign s t a t e s , wh e t h e r t r ibu t a r y o r n o t , ca me a n n u a lly t o A s s y r ia t o
d e live r t h e ir gr e e t in gs a n d t h e ir 'gif t s '; h o s t a ge s o f t e n s pe n t y e a r s a t t h e ca pit a l. T h e
pr o ce s s is e a s ie s t f o r u s t o d o cu me n t wit h t h e a r ch it e ct u r e , s imply be ca u s e bu ild in gs ca n n o t
h a ve be e n t r a n s po r t e d ph y s ica lly . In t h e ir wa ll d e co r a t io n , t h e pa la ce s t h e ms e lve s
co n ve y e d a me s s a ge , wh e t h e r it wa s A s s u r -n a s ir -a pli's d e pict io n s o f h is 'jo u r n e y s o f t h e
mo u n t a in ba r r ie r s o f t h e la n d a n d s e a a n d co n qu e s t o f a ll la n d s ', o r t h e s t a t e ly s t o n e
pr o ce s s io n o f e xe mpla r y t r ibu t e -be a r e r s lin in g Sa r go n 's t h r o n e -r o o m; bu t t h e po lit ica l
me s s a ge co u ld n o t be d ivo r ce d f r o m a r t is t ic in f lu e n ce - t h e bu ild in gs , t h e wa ll d e co r a t io n s ,
a n d t h e f u r n is h in gs wo u ld be s e e n a n d a d mir e d .
A s s y r ia n in f lu e n ce is pla in ly vis ible a cr o s s t h e f r o n t ie r s : n o t a s t h e h o mo ge n e o u s
r e plica t io n we wo u ld e xpe ct wit h in A s s y r ia , bu t a s s e le ct ive bo r r o win gs . T h e s h e ik h 's h a ll
a t T e ll Ha la f is a wo n d r o u s a ma lga m o f lo ca l a n d impo r t e d s t y le , wit h it s e xt e r n a l d a d o a n d
we ir d ca r y a t id po r t ico , bu t A s s y r ia n -s t y le gla ze d br ick s a n d gla ze d wa ll-pla qu e s in t h e
t h r o n e r o o m. On t h e o t h e r s id e o f A s s y r ia o n t h e Ir a n ia n pla t e a u , t h e ch a r a ct e r is t ic lo ca l
a r ch it e ct u r e o f Ha s a n lu is a ls o e mbe llis h e d wit h gla ze d wa ll-pla qu e s , a n d we ma y we ll be
r igh t t o a s s u me t h a t in e a ch ca s e t h e pla qu e s we r e t h e r e t o s u s pe n d t a pe s t r ie s wit h A s s y r ia n
260 J. N. Po s t ga t e
Pla t e 2 A clie n t
k in g
a t
a h o me : Ba r -r a k a b o f Sa m'a l
a n d
s e cr e t a r y (F.
vo n L u s -
mir r o r d is ch a n , A u s gr a bu n ge n
in Se n d -
)j~ s ch ir li IV, T a f .
60).
pr o t o t y pe s ,
if n o t a ct u a l impo r t s . Simila r e cle ct ic
bo r r o win gs
ca n be s e e n in t h e
e igh t h
ce n t u r y
r e lie f s a t Ca r ch e mis h u wh ich r e ma in e d
in d e pe n d e n t
o f
A s s y r ia
a s la t e a s 716 BC,
n o w d is pla y
a n
a cco mplis h e d A s s y r ia n s t y le
o f
ca r vin g,
wh ile r e t a in in g t h e ir o wn
a r ch it e ct u r a l co n t e xt a n d
s u bje ct
ma t t e r . T h e s t e la
s h o win g
Ba r -Ra k a b o f Sa m'a l
e n t h r o n e d
(Pla t e 2)
is n o t a n
A s s y r ia n
ph e n o me n o n in it s e lf , bu t h is
A s s y r ia n le a n in gs
a r e
mir r o r e d in bo t h t h e s ce n e a n d t h e
s t y le
o f
ca r vin g.
T h e s e in f lu e n ce s a r e in d e e d
mo vin g
wit h t h e
po lit ica l f lo w, f r o m ce n t r e t o
pe r iph e r y
bu t a s Win t e r
(1977)
h a s
co ge n t ly
s h o wn
in t h e ca s e o f Ha s a n lu , it is h e lpf u l t o vis u a lize t h e pr o ce s s f r o m t h e s t a n d po in t
o f t h e
r e cipie n t
a s o n e o f a ct ive e mu la t io n we s h o u ld n o t s e e t h e clie n t r u le r s a s
co we r in g
in
t h e ir cit a d e ls wa it in g t o be ir r a d ia t e d wit h A s s y r ia n in f lu e n ce , bu t
a bs o r bin g
t h e s ce n e in
Nin e ve h
f in ge r in g
t h e
t a pe s t r ie s
a n d
e n vy in g
t h e s ilve r wa r e .
T h e s a me pr o ce s s a ls o wo r k e d in r e ve r s e wh a t e ve r t h e
po lit ica l o r d e r , t h e r e we r e
t h in gs
t h e A s s y r ia n s t h e ms e lve s we r e min d e d t o e mu la t e
be y o n d
t h e ir f r o n t ie r s ,
wh e t h e r
t h e y
we r e
be in g
we lco me d
pe a ce f u lly
in t o t h e ir clie n t s '
pa la ce s
o r
s a ck in g
a n
o ppo n e n t 's
r e s id e n ce . T h e s t o n e r e lie f s wh ich lin e d t h e in t e r io r wa lls o f t h e ir
pa la ce s
in t h e f ir s t
mille n n iu m a r e
r igh t ly
s e e n a s t h e A s s y r ia n s mo s t ch a r a ct e r is t ic a ch ie ve me n t . Ye t t h e
e vid e n ce n o w
s t r o n gly
f a vo u r s t h e vie w t h a t
t h e y o r igin a t e
f r o m t h e
me r gin g
o f t wo
t r a d it io n s : f r o m t h e wo ve n a n d
pa in t e d
wa ll d e co r a t io n o f Mid d le
A s s y r ia n pa la ce s ,
a n d
t h e u s e o f r o ws o f s t o n e o r t h o s t a t s o n e xt e r io r wa lls in t h e A r a ma e a n a n d Ne o -Hit t it e
t o wn s h ips
o f n o r t h e r n
Sy r ia (Win t e r 1982).
It d o e s n o t s e e m f a r -f e t ch e d t o
s u gge s t
t h a t
A s s u r -n a s ir -a pli,
in wh o s e
r e ign
t h is in n o va t io n wa s in t r o d u ce d , wa s
in s pir e d by
s u ch
s cu lpt u r e d
d a d o e s
d u r in g
h is
ca mpa ign s be y o n d
t h e
Eu ph r a t e s .
T h is wa s n o t t h e
o n ly
s u ch e mu la t io n o f t h e we s t . T h e s t a t u e f r o m T e ll
Fa k h a r iy a h
T h e L a n d o f A s s u r a n d t h e y o k e o f A s s u r 261
a lr e a d y me n t io n e d is o n e o f s e ve r a l s u ch co lo s s a l s t a t u e s o f r u le r s f r o m A s s y r ia 's
n o r t h -we s t e r n n e igh bo u r s (e .g. Sa m'a l, Ma la t y a ). T h is wa s a t r a d it io n a lie n t o A s s y r ia ,
wh e r e mo s t o f t h e r o y a l f igu r e s in t h e r o u n d wh ich h a ve s u r vive d a r e mo r e lik e s t a t u e t t e s .
Ho we ve r , f r a gme n t s o f o n e co lo s s a l s t a t u e (3 m h igh ) a r e k n o wn f r o m A s s u r , wh ich is
pr o ba bly n in t h ce n t u r y (St r o mme n ge r 1970: 11-13; t h e s e co n d a r y in s cr ipt io n is o f
Sh a lma n e s e r III, bu t t h e s t a t u e ma y be e a r lie r , i.e . A s s u r -n a s ir -a pli?): t h is lo o k s lik e a
bo r r o win g wh ich d id n o t ca t ch o n , a n d in d e e d t h e s t a t u e wa s qu ick ly co n ve r t e d t o a s t e la .
In o n e ca s e , we h a ve t h e k in gs ' o wn wo r d f o r it t h a t t h e y bo r r o we d f r o m t h e we s t . T h e
r e ce pt io n r o o ms o f n o r t h Sy r ia n pa la ce s we r e co lu mn e d po r t ico e s a lo n g o n e s id e o f a
co u r t y a r d . Mo r e t h a n o n e A s s y r ia n k in g t e lls u s t h a t h e bu ilt 'a po r t ico , a r ie plica o f a pa la ce
o f t h e la n d o f Ha t t i, wh ich t h e y ca ll a bit h ila n i in t h e la n gu a ge o f t h e We s t ' (Se n n a ch e r ib;
a ls o T igla t h -Pile s e r III a n d Sa r go n ). A lt h o u gh t h e ir a r ch it e ct u r a l f u n ct io n wa s co mple t e ly
a lt e r e d , t h e s e we s t e r n impo r t s a r e r e a d ily id e n t if ie d , wit h t h e ir ca r ve d s t o n e co lu mn ba s e s ,
in pa la ce s a t Nin e ve h , Nimr u d a n d Kh o r s a ba d .
Su ch a r ch it e ct u r a l bo r r o win gs a r e by n o me a n s e xce pt io n a l. On e n e e d o n ly t h in k
f o r wa r d t o t h e Egy pt ia n izin g bu ild in gs a t Pe r s e po lis (bu ilt , o f co u r s e , wit h t h e h e lp o f
Egy pt ia n ma s o n s ), o r lo o k ba ck t o a n e a r ly e xa mple o f a r ch it e ct u r a l plu n d e r in t h e s h a pe
o f t h e s t o n e co lu mn s f r o m Mit a n n ia n pa la ce s br o u gh t ba ck t o A s s u r in t h e t h ir t e e n t h
ce n t u r y . Su ch bo r r o win gs by t h e po lit ica l o ve r lo r d ca n be s e e n in t wo wa y s . On t h e o n e
h a n d , t h e y a r e a t a cit a ck n o wle d ge me n t by A s s y r ia o f t h e wo r t h o f t h e cu lt u r a l t r a d it io n s o f
it s we s t e r n n e igh bo u r s ; o n t h e o t h e r , t h e in t r o d u ct io n o f t h e e xo t ic in t o t h e ir pa la ce s is o n e
f a ce t o f t h e impe r ia l co lle ct o r 's u r ge wh ich a ls o le d t h e m t o cr e a t e zo o lo gica l a n d bo t a n ica l
ga r d e n s (cf . L ive r a n i 1979: 314). L ik e bo o t y a n d t r ibu t e , t h e y t o o a r e clo s e ly lin k e d t o t h e
po lit ica l o r d e r .
Co n clu s io n
Wh e n e xa min in g t h e a r ch a e o lo gica l r e co r d o f t h e A s s y r ia n e mpir e , o n e n e e d s t o be a wa r e
o f t h e d if f e r e n ce s s e pa r a t in g t h e L a n d o f A s s u r f r o m t h e clie n t s t a t e s . Fo r mo s t o f h e r
h is t o r y (1300-745 BC), A s s y r ia s t r o ve t o f o r m a h o mo ge n e o u s t e r r it o r ia l e n t it y in a n o r t h
Me s o po t a mia n h o me la n d . De s pit e pe r io d s o f we a k n e s s , s h e s u cce s s f u lly d ige s t e d Hu r r ia n
a n d A r a ma e a n co mpo n e n t s , a n d r e -e xpa n d e d in t h e n in t h ce n t u r y t o ma t ch r e a lit y t o h e r
pe r ce ive d id e a l bo u n d a r ie s . Wit h in t h e s e bo u n d a r ie s po lit ica l u n it y pr o mo t e d cu lt u r a l
co n f o r mit y .
Be y o n d t h e f r o n t ie r , t h e e mpir e t o o k t h e f o r m o f s e mi-a u t o n o mo u s s t a t e s , wh o s e e t h n ic
a n d cu lt u r a l d ive r s it y in cr e a s e d wit h t h e gr o wt h o f A s s y r ia n po we r . He r e , clo s e po lit ica l
bo n d s t o A s s y r ia d id n o t s u ppr e s s lo ca l t r a d it io n s , a n d in d e e d t h e r e a r e cle a r in s t a n ce s o f
a r t is t ic a n d a r ch it e ct u r a l in f lu e n ce o pe r a t in g 'in r e ve r s e ', o n A s s y r ia f r o m o u t s id e . Clie n t
d y n a s t ie s ma in t a in e d t h e ir o wn d lit e cu lt u r e , n o t a me r e s ca le d -d o wn r e plica o f t h e
impe r ia l co u r t , bu t in co r po r a t in g in d ige n o u s f e a t u r e s a n d e ve n in f lu e n ce f r o m o t h e r
qu a r t e r s .
T h is d e s cr ibe s t h e t r a d it io n a l o r d e r . Do u bt le s s it n e e d s mo d if ica t io n a f t e r 745 BC, wh e n
t h e ma s s ive e xpa n s io n o f d ir e ct ly a d min is t e r -e d A s s y r ia n t e r r it o r y mu s t h a ve pla ce d s t r a in s
o n t h e co n ce pt o f a 'L a n d o f A s s u r ': wh e r e a s t h e co n ce pt o f a h o mo ge n e o u s A s s y r ia h a d
262 J. N. Po s t ga t e
pr e vio u s ly be e n co mpa t ible wit h h is t o r ica l f a ct a n d a d e gr e e o f cu lt u r a l u n if o r mit y , t h is
co u ld n o t be r e a lis t ica lly e xt e n d e d t o a pply t o Ba by lo n ia , Egy pt a n d Ela m, t h e ms e lve s
ma jo r cu lt u r a l a n d po lit ica l e n t it ie s . Nin e ve h in t h e s e ve n t h ce n t u r y wa s t h e ce n t r e o f a
co s mo po lit a n wo r ld o f a qu it e n e w o r d e r , o n e wh ich wo u ld r e qu ir e s t u d y in it s o wn r igh t .
23.viii.91 Fa cu lt y o f Or ie n t a l St u d ie s
T h e Un ive r s it y o f Ca mbr id ge
Sid gwick A ve n u e
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T h e L a n d o f A s s u r a n d t h e y o k e o f A s s u r
A s s y r ia 's r o le in Ne a r Ea s t e r n h is t o r y wa s f ir s t t o cr e a t e a t e r r it o r ia l k in gd o m in n o r t h e r n
Me s o po t a mia , a n d t h e n t o a bs o r b in t o t h is s t a t e a n d it s a d min is t r a t ive s t r u ct u r e vir t u a lly t h e wh o le
o f t h e Ne a r Ea s t . T h is s h o r t a r t icle lo o k s a t h o w, in t h e e xe r cis e o f t h is impe r ia l po we r a n d in it s
t e r min o lo gy , a s h a r p d is t in ct io n wa s ma in t a in e d be t we e n A s s y r ia pr o pe r a n d t h e f o r e ign s t a t e s
wh ich a ck n o wle d ge d h e r o ve r lo r d s h ip. A f t e r d e s cr ibin g t h e s e t wo f o r ms o f d o min a t io n , we t u r n t o
co n s id e r t h e implica t io n s f o r t h e a r ch a e o lo gica l r e co r d , pa r t icu la r ly in r e la t io n t o t h e f lo w o f e lit e
go o d s a n d a r t is t ic a n d a r ch it e ct u r a l s t y le .