ROLE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY IN VARIOUS CIVIL

STRUCTURES - RIVER LINKING

n-, S.R. Kulkarni
Bharati Vidyapeetlt University,
College of Engineer
Pune-411043.
115J , Sadashiv Peth,
Laxmi Keshav Society.
PUNE-411030
Tel No.:- +91-20-24477464
Er. Chandramohan Hangekar
Superintending
Dam safety Organisation,
Na hik-422004
(chmohan@2mail.com)
ABSTRACT
The overall success of the river linking is based on the engineering safety of the dams.
channels and structures in the link. As geological conditions that would lead to failure of
tunnels, dams. aqueducts and erosion of channels are of common occurrence a geological
study of the linking channels is essential. While comparing the cost of a tunnel with that of a
open channel, the cost of protection works required for the tunnels and channels must also be
taken into account. Dams required to divert the channels as well as the foundations of the
aqueducts will also have to be properly investigated in engineering geological perspective.
Sufficient time will usually be available to carry out the necessary geological investigations
and to design and to execute appropriate protective works. But it is important to take
cognizance of the problem immediately as it manifests itself and to proceed scientifically to
tackle it.
PREFACE:
-
Aqueducts In River Linking Project
While carrying water through different regions,
thousands of cross drainage works will have to be '
constructed. Very high and long aqueducts will have
to be designed before construction. Proper
geological investigation of the foundations of all
such structures is very important. The success of the
whole: project is depending on the engineering
safety of channels, structures and dams in the link.
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773
DAMS IN THE RIVER LINKING PROJ ECT
,-
Dams are key structures in river linking schemes. In
such projects besides the existing old dams, new darns
or di version barrages will have to be planned. The
present statistics of large dams in Maharashtra is shown
in the table-l.Besides being a source of wealth, darns
can also be a source of accidents, albeit it few in
number: an average of less than 1% of dams has
suffered accidents over a long period of time. Yet the
resulting damage and loss of life mean that all such
accidents areunacceptable.
Table-I Number of Large dams in Maharashtra as on 1- 1- 2006
Sr.No Region Total of Dams under Total
. completed dams construction
1 2 3 4 5
1 Pune 316 4l 357
2 Konkan 171 24 195
'"I
NMR 324 31 354
.)
4 Aurangabad 425 47 472
5 Nagpur 147 32 l79
6 Amaravati 269 19 288
Total 1652 193 1845
A dam prevents the flow of water on surface, but if water is to bestored, it has also to be seen
that there is not a flow below the surface either. This means that the foundation rocks must be
watertight, and if they arenot naturally so, suitable steps have to betaken to prevent loss of water
through them. Also, to avoid the disastrous effects of dam failure safety and stability of a dam
have to be assured. These will depend among other things on the strength and soundness of
foundation rocks, which in turn will depend on the nature and structure of these rocks. An
analysis of dam failures of the past hasshown that failure to recognize or to treat properly defects
in foundation rocks was responsible for a substantial number of them. The safety, stability and
effectiveness of a dam therefore will depend largely on the geological conditions at the
foundation and these must be known with accuracy and in sufficient detail before the work on a
dam is undertaken. Detailed geological investigations have therefore to be carried out for
obtaining the necessary information about rocks at thedamsite andover the reservoir area
Today, dambuilding calls for scientific and technical knowledge insuch varied disciplines as:
Geology, seismology and geotechnical engineering
Hydrology
Soil and rock mechanics and building materials
Performance monitoring and instrumentation
Operational research and dataprocessing, and many others
775
Each of these disciplines makes 'use of less specialized tools provided by mathematics
(continuum mechanics, material strength), physics and chemistry. In terms of safety, it is in fact
"rare" or "extreme" events that are of interest. that is. accidents. The usual approach is therefore
to specify the design flood and design earthquake at the design stage.
Regarding foundations, it is not only the overall behavior of a foundation that is of interest.
Equally if not more important are any discontinuities and their possible persistence as channels
for seepage, and the structural stability of the foundation under the various forces exerted by
gravity, uplift pressure, hydrodynamic loads, and so on. This of coarse applies equally well to
embankment dam materials (earth and rockfill) and all soil foundations.
TUNNELS IN RIVER LINKING PROJ ECT
Tunnel is a very essential component now-a-days in a dam project. The modernised methods and
experience in tunneling techniques-enables an engineer to opt 'for the tunnels. However
engineering geology plays very important role for a successful tunnel. Proper knowledge of the
strata and investigation by proper geologist is therefore very important. Collapse of a bottleneck
tunnel may prove a total project economically unsafe.
GEOLOGY OF MAHARASHTRA
About 85% of Maharashtra is covered by igneous volcanic rocks- Deccan trap basalts. In rest of
the portions older rocks belonging to Archaen, Dharwar, Cuddapah, Vindhyan and Gondwana
series of Indian Geology occur. The Deccan Traps mainly consist of basalts, but as there is
considerable variation in the characteristics of basalts, and as rocks. derived from them by
modifications taking place in the volcanic process also occur. It is proposed to describe here
some case histories of dams, at which we have carried out geological work, in an attempt depict
the varying geological conditions in the Deccan Trap rocks that effect tunneling operations.
THE DECCAN TRAP ROCKS
As the suitability or otherwise of geological conditions for tunneling will depend on the
characteristic of rocks met with along the alignment, an acquaintance with the various rock types
occurring commonly in the Deccan Traps and their engineering behaviors is necessary.
Compact and Amygdaloidal Basalts
In the Deccan Trap basalts two main types occur: The compact nonvascular basalts without gas
cavities filled with secondary minerals such as zeolites. and chlorophaeite which give them
spotted appearance. Both compact and amygdaloidal basalts often contain small slender laths as
phenocrysts giving polyphyritic varieties.
Chlorophaeitic Basalts
Chlorophaeitic basalts in which a major portion of groundmass glass has been converted into
chlorophaeite are common. When large amounts of chlorophaeite are present the rocks become
dark black.
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Hydrothermal Alteration
Magmatic gases that produce cavities sometimes chemically alter the basalts, and this action is
called hydrothermal alteration. The normal grey or bluish colour of basalts is turned into shades
of green. pink. red. purple or brown by hydrothermal alteration. Most commonly hydrothermal
alteration brings about only such colour changes in basalts without affecting their physical
properties but more intense hydrothermal alteration at times weakens rocks.
Tachylytes
Basalts in which practically no crystallization has taken place and which consist mostly of basalt
glass are called tachylytes. They are very fine grained because of the low degree of crystallization
and pitch black when fresh. Black tachylytes on hydrothermal alteration acquire a vivid red
colour and red tachylytes are more common than the black variety. Both black and red tachylytes
disintegrate on exposure to atmosphere and fall to powder. The red powdery material commonly
passing under the name of red bole is nothing but red tachylyte which has disintegrated on
exposure to atmosphere. These rocks are always troublesome when exposed in a tail channel or if
occurring in a dam.
Volcanic Breccias
When rock fragments blown up by the explosion with which volcanic eruption often starts are
consolidated into hard rocks, volcanic breccias are formed. The explosion fragments may be held
together by being embedded in the basalt lava that follows or by the deposition of zeolites
between them. The lava matrix is most commonly normal basalt, but may consist of
hydrothermally altered basalt or chlorophaeitic basalt or red or black tachylyte. Such breccias are
easily erodable if occurring in a tail channel. Dam foundation through these rocks is very
problematic.
ENGINEERING BEHAVIOVR
Divisional planes such as joints, bedding planes etc. are of great importance from the point of
view of dam as they are the main source of trouble during dam foundation. In the Deccan Trap
basalts joints are the only divisional planes present and their presence or absence determine the
suitability of basalts for dam foundation. Of the two main types of basalts. the compact basalts
are well jointed and therefore not suitable for tunneling. As joints provide passage ways for
water, compact basalts are likely to be water bearing. Also the fragmentation brought about by
the joints may make them unstable for excavation. Tunnels in compact basalts may therefore
prove troublesome because of the inflow of water through joints and roof falls and overbreaks.
Amygdaloidal basalts on the other hand are always unjointed and are quite impervious when
fresh. Also because of the absence of divisional planes they are stable in all kinds of cuts and
excavations. The massive impervious amygdaloidal basalts are therefore a very suitable medium
for dam foundation.
Compact basalts are troublesome because as a rule joints in them are closely spaced. However in
some compact basalt flows joints are broadly spaced, are not interconnected or are inconsistent,
and tunnels in such compact basalt flows will be trouble free. Similarly top and bottom portions
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of thick compact basalt flows become arnygdaloidal and therefore unjointed. Dams in top and
bottom portions of compact basalt flow will therefore not be troublesome.
Basalts that have suffered only moderate hydrothermal alteration have the same engineering
behaviour as the original rock, but with more intense alteration basalts are weakened and may
cause di fficulty due to collapse of loose material.
Chlorophaeitic basalts and black and red tachylytes are sound rocks as long as they are not
exposed to atmosphere. However. on exposure to atmosphere, they deteriorate and fall to powder.
This may lead to falls from the crown.
Fractures
In addition to engineering characteristics of rocks, some other field structures also effect the
operations of dam foundation. Chief among them are fractures along which no movement has
taken place, occurring at a number of places in western parts of Deccan Trap outcrop. Some
fractures are seen as vertical or steeply inclined tight clean cracks with no gap between the two
sides. More commonly they are seen as vertical or steeply inclined sheet jointing. The sheet
jointing is result of basalt brought about by water seeping along the fracture, and the weathered
zone may be from a few centimeters to 1.5 m in width.
The most important feature of the fracture is that they show ample geological evidence to prove
that no movement has taken place among them. This shows they are not faults, but are cracks
along which no movement has taken place.
Behaviour of fracture in dams has been variable. A large number have not given any trouble, but
others have troublesome in various degrees.that they are not faults, but are cracks along which no
movement has taken place. Behaviour of fracture crossing dams has been variable. A large
number have not given any trouble, but others have troublesome in various degrees.
CASE HISTORIES:-
At the Doodhganga dam site in Kolhapur District the Kaladgi quartzites on which the dam has
been founded have intercalations of shale and there is a deep pool downstream of the dam
alignment. The danger of slipping along the shale bands had therefore to be guarded against.
The profuse leakage taking place through the joints in the compact basalt at the foundations in the
gorge portion of the Chas Kaman Dam (Maharashtra) vividly brings out the magnitude of the
leakage that can take place through joints. The heavily jointed compact basalt flow on which the
dam is founded in the gorge portion was left untreated and copious leakage took place even when
reservoir was only partially filled. This dam also illustrates the consequences of failure to
recognize and to treat properly the defects in the foundation rocks revealed by drilling. The large
number of short pieces of core of the exploratory drill holes had clearly indicated that the
compact basalt flow occurring at the foundations was heavily jointed. However, the rock was not
treated to prevent leakage through the joints; nor was an impervious cut off upto sufficient depth
was provided below the earth dam.
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As against this similar jointed compact basalt flows occurring at the foundations of other dams
such as Bhama Askhed, Nira Gunjavni, Nira Devghar, Urmodi, Temghar etc were
effectively grouted during construction to prevent leakage.
Cavernous marbles have been encountered at the Kamtikhedi Weir Site of the Pench project
(Maharashtra) and limestones at the sites at Koppili Dam in Assam and Navagam Dam in
Gujrat.
Bhakra Nangal Dam: - Engineering geological knowledge played a key role in the successful
completion of major engineering projects in India. Bhakra Nangal Dam is_ very good Indian
example in which, geological.considerations at the time of construction were taken care off,
which played a vital role in its stability and durability. Bhakra Dam is a straight high gravity dam
founded on the soft rocks and medium hard rocks belonging to siwalik supergroup, with fault
zones cutting across the foundations and abutment in different attitudes (Krishnaswami, 1982).
The preventive measures carried out comprised excavation of the heel clay stones and
excavations of the spillway apron, which was tied down to the sandstone member overlying the
downstream claystone band to prevent erosion. Beside these special treatments, the cross shear
zones on the abutments were treated by providing concrete tunnel plugs and the entire foundation
area of the Dam was grouted. Grouting and drainage curtains were further provided from
foundation galleries in the dam and through drainage and grouting, tunnels were provided in the
abutments. No major problems have been faced during the post construction period of the dam,
except for cracks in the upstream (Reddy, 1995).
Casestudy of Nandgavan dam-
Masonry waste weir of about length 90m out of Total length of 190m
was washed away due to heavy flood. On left side some of the bucket
portion of waste weir wall was also heavily damaged. Heavy
scouring and undermining due to water is observed. The foundation
below waste weir wall was also seen exposed. The basalt with
columnar jointing is seen underneath the foundation of damaged
portion of waste weir.
At Kolkewadi Dam of the 3
rd
stage of the Koyna Hydro Electric
Project foundations could be kept 6 meters higher by accepting 6
meters of compact basalt as sufficient cover for the weak
decomposed basal part of the basalt flow upto 0.25 meters in
thickness. Foundations of the Vaitarna Dam of the Vaitama Hydro
Electric Project could be raised through 13 meters in gorge portion
by resting the dam on good volcanic breccia overlying weak jointed
basalt, instead of removing both to take the foundations below the weak jointed basalt.
CASES IN OTHER COUNTRIES:
The St. Francis Dam in California, which was built without any geological investigations
whatever, failed because the argillaceous cement of the coglomerate on which it was founded on
the right bank softened and the rock gave away.
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The history of dam construction repeats with cases of dams where limestones have made trouble.
The most important case is that of the Hales Gar Dam on the Tennessee which was built without
sufficient geological exploration and without sufficient corrective treatment. A [he cavities in the
limestones at the foundation were not properly treated serious leakage took place and it to k ten
years and ten million dollars to stop the leakage through the limestones at the foundation.
Teton Dam: - The panel noted that the design did not provide for downstream defence against
cracking or leakage, and did not ensure sealing of the upper part of rock under the grout cap. The
grout curtain was not constructed in three rows, and the reliance on the singie curtain was judged
to be "unduly optimistic". The dam -and foundation were not instrumented sufficiently to warn of
changing conditions.
Austin Dam (Texas,USA) is a classical example of dam failure due to ignorance of geological
factors at the time of its construction in 1893. The foundation of the dam was cretaceous
limestone, shale and clay, which were highly jointed and faulted.
EROSION OF RIVER CHANNELS:
An important item of investigation while investigating river links is the geology of the river
channel carrying the actual water. In the interests of economy there is usually an attempt to locate
the spillway of a dam on either flank or in a side saddle. Where such a side spillway is provided
the flood waters leaving the spillway are led to the river by means of a specially excavated tail
channel. But the success of such a layout largely depends on the capacity of rocks along the tail
channel to resist erosion by the floods waters which have great erosive power. Because, in such
cases the river is diverted along a new course at steep gradients, and unless rocks along the tail
channel are capable of resisting erosion, rapids and falls are bound to develop. These will
gradually recede towards the spillway which may in the long run be endangered because of the
erosion of the foundation rocks.
CASE STUD[ES OF SP[LL CHANNEL EROS[ON [N MAHARASHTRA
Panshet Dam: It is about 35 km from Pune. It is an earth dam with spillway to the right.
Hyrdrothermally altered block jointed and deeply weathered compact basalt and volcanic breccia
with red lava matrix occur along the spill channel. lt is an ideal condition for serious erosion.
Therefore very elaborate protection works were carried out. Three fall structure and guide wall
were constructed and all around the bed concrete apron protection wall adopted. Even after these
energy dissipation arrangements, deep gullies have been formed.
Warasgaon Dam: It is a major masonry dam with LO.7T.M.C storage. It is in the adjoining
valley of panshet dam and geology is same. But as the spillway is centrally located and as the
spill water is flowing on the established channel of the river, after suitable treatment, very little
erosion has taken place.
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Ghod Dam:
It is an earth dam about 95 Km
N-W of Pune. The spillway is
located to the right. Bed gradient
of tail channel is I in 50. The
hard rocks exposed in the tail
channel are columner jointed
compact basalt and volcanic
. breccia which is soft and altered.
This is an ideal condition for
waterfall. About 6-m deep water
falls were created in just four
years. A number of retaining
walls were constructed to resist
erosion. But majority of them
collapsed. Spill channel protection has proved to bevery expensive.
Gangapur Dam: It is the first major earth darn in the state about t3km west of Nashik. There
occur three basic dykes and sheet jointed weathered amygdaloidal basalt Tremendous tail
channel erosion has taken place. Guide walls. guide protection and small fall structures are
constructed.
Radhanagri Dam ~It is about 6.3Km west of Kolhapur , which is a major city in southern
Maharashtra. In first 150m the f2.1! is 22m. The rocks in the tilil channel are block jointed compact
basalt underlain by hrdrothermally altered volcanic breccia Deep gullies are formed.
Malangaon Minor Irrigation Tank; It is very SmtI\I M. tank in Dhule District. In two seasons
tremendous spill channel erosion has taken place. 6m*8m*4m slabs of compact basalt are
removed and are lying up side down in the channel.
Karvand Dam( Ohule District), Manyad dam, Thulshi dam (Kolhapur Oisrtict etc.) are
some major dams in Maharashtra where serious spill channel erosion has taken place due to
similar bed geological conditions.
Dams where original proposal of side spillway was changed to central spillway:
At number of places where tail channel erosion is indicated either the proposal for side spillway
has to abandoned as was done at Katepurna dam, Kolkewadi dam (Koyna stay In), Warasgon
dam, Mula Dam, or adequate protection has to be provided for the spill channel. Spill channel
protection will usually prove to be very expensive. Therefore. while comparing the cost of a side
spillway with that of a Gorge spillway, the cost of protection works required for the spill channel
of the side spillway must also be taken into account.
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CASE STUDIES IN OrUSSA
Alikuan Dam: Spillway is constructed to the left flank. Tremendous tail channel erosion has
taken place. No rock is exposed in the spill channel. Water is allowed to flow on thick
o erburdcn. which is mainly sandy soil. Very deep gullies are eventually formed. No rock is met
even upto about 20m of depth.
Full protection to the tai Ichannel will have to be given. A number of fall structures will have to
be constructed. Protection to the bed needs to be given. By doing this, i.e. constructing fall
structures, water cushioning, cascading, energy of the spilling will have to be dissipated.
Moreover, protective measures will have to be taken even where the tail channel meets the main
river as that is the point from where the erosion starts backwards and if undermining takes place
below any fall structure, which washes away resulting in continued headward erosion.
Jharanai Dam: Spillway is located to the right flank. In the left abutment hill closely jointed
gneisses are exposed. After about 200 m from the spillway tail channel erosion is observed.
About 5 to 6 m deep gullies are developed. There is thick overburden which has been easily
eroded. In the bottom portions of the tail channel are closely jointed and highly weathered
gneisses are exposed. They have also been easily eroded. Two fall structures are constructed. But
as they have been founded on over burden, erosion below their foundations has taken place. The
sidewall has collapsed. In the tail channel area four trial pits are taken and upto about 6m where
only overburden is available.
Ganianala Dam: Spillway is situated to the left. At this site also tail erosion has taken place. As
a protective measure, two fall structures have been constructed. First structure is at about 30m
downstream.
Another fall structure is constructed at 50m downstream. Beyond this and upto about 300m there
are no rock exposures. There is deep weathering and thick overburden. Deep gullies are formed.
Between 300m and 350m there are outcrops of gneisses. Beyond 350m and upto 800m again
there are no rock exposures. Deep weathering and thick soil overburden is present.
Ghodahado Dam: Spillway is located to the right saddle. About 54m downstream a low level
bridge is constructed for crossing the tail channel. Foundation of the spillway is reported to be on
rock. The spillway is about 72m wide. In the vertical cliff to the right there are exposures of
augen gneiss. It is very coarse drained. Joints are broadly spaced and they are few in numbers. In
the top portions it is in weathered condition. In the left cut charnokite is exposed. It is closely
jointed. It shows spheroidal weathering.
Just downstream of the spillway there are exposures of augen gneiss. The junction between augen
gneiss and chamokite is not clearly exposed. There is a deeply weathered zone. Just downstream
of the bridge, tail channel erosion is seen. Two deep gullies are formed. A gully to the right is
about 11m deep and the gully to the left is about 8m deep. Beyond ch. 90m downstream on both
the banks there are exposures of chamokite. Charnokites are closely jointed. Spheroidal
weathering has been developed. In the tail channel bed deep weathering is seen. Thick
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overburden is present. In this overburden due to spilling waters deep gullies have been formed.
Due to these falls headward erosion has started. Protecti ve measures have already been started.
Bhanjanagar Dam (Russel Konda Lake) : In the tail channel deep erosion has taken place. Fall
structure has been constructed. Some protective measures are being given. But even after that at
about 150m to 200m downstream deep gullies are formed. Thick overburden is present. About
180mdownstream in the tail channel bed anumber of pot holes have been formed.
Five drill holes have been taken in the tail channel. In B.H. No.1 hard rock is met with at a depth
of 2.4m in B.H. No.2 is at 18m, in B.H. No.3 hard rock is at 20.30m, in B.H. No.4. Hard rock is
at 21.25m and in B.H. No.5 hard rock is at 23.15m.
Though it has been reported that hard rock is encountered, the core recovery is varying between
2% and 8% only. This needs further verification and confirmation.
Remedial Proposals
As discussed above, in case of all the dams, in the tai I channel there are rarely rock exposures. In
the case of J haranai dam weathered rock is met at about 8m depth. But at Alikuan dam or Gania
Nala even upto 18 to 20m depth rock is not available. At a number of places deep gullies, rapids
and falls are formed. They are gradually receding towards the spillway. Therefore very
systematic elaborate protective measures such as construction of series of fall structures, guide
walls, energy dissipation arrangements and bed protection wi II have to be adopted. An
extenuating feature of tail channel erosion is that it does not usually pose an immediate threat, as
its harmful effects take some time to reach dangerous proportions. It thus gives time to study the
phenomenon and devise preventive measures. Hence, if a tail channel is being eroded there is no
necessity to get unduly alarmed and do something desperate in panic. Sufficient time will usually
r be available to carry out the necessary geological investigations and to design and to execute
appropriate protective works. But it is important to take cognizance of the problem immediately
as it manifests itself and to proceed scientifically to tackle it.
IMPORTANCE OF PRELIMINARY GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
The importance of preliminary geological investigations for tunnels is well brought out by cases
of tunnel in which difficult experience could have been avoided if proper preliminary geological
work helped to avoid difficulties.
The Bhivpuri Tunnel of the Tata Electric companies has been excavated to carry the water of the
Thokarwadi dam to the Bhivpuri generating station. The Tunnel passes through volcanic breccias
which are excellent for tunneling. But at the crown level a layer of blank tachylyte about 1m
thick from which roof falls took place as the tachylyte deteriorated on exposure. These falls could
have been avoided by lowering the crown a couple of meters if the occurrence of the tachylyte
layer had been established by preliminary geological investigations.
Drilling along the alignment chose for the tunnel in km.3 of the Bhatsa Left Bank Canal showed
that tunneling would be difficult due to roof falls and leakage in the closely joined basalts
occurring along the alignment. This alignment was therefore abandoned and an alternative
alignment along which drilling established the occurrence of fresh amygdaloidal basalt was
783
adopted. As anticipated tunneling was completed without difficulty, proving the importance of
preliminary geological investigations
The Bassein Creek tunnel is another case where serious difficulties could be avoided because
pi iper geological investigations had been carried out. This runnel has been excavated near Thane
to can'y the water of the Upper vaitarna Dam across the Creek for Bombay water supply.
Originally it was proposed to excavate the tunnel 50 m. below river bed. However drilling
showed up to LOOmbelow the river bed jointed compact basalts. The entire horizontal portion of
the tunnel in the arnygdaloidal basalts was excavated without trouble. But the upper portions of
the inclines on the two banks leading down to tunnel level had to pass through compact basalts
until they reached LOOmbelow river bed. In these upper portions of the inclines there was profuse
leakage of water through the joined compact basalts and large quantities of water had to be
pumped out. At the Kalher end the inflow was so large that it proved impractical to pump out so
much water. Work at this end had therefore to be abandoned and excavation had to be carried out
only from the KoLshet end. The difficulties experienced in the portions of the inclines passing
through compact basalts showed that it would have been very difficult to excavate the tunnel SOm
below the river bed and proved the correctness of the decision to lower the tunnel. It is important
to note that it was preliminary geological investigations that had revealed that conditions would
be difficult at 50m depth and would be favorable at l50m depth and hence the tunnel was
lowered. It was thus only because preliminary explorations had been carried out that a difficult
alignment was discarded and a favourable one chosen. If preliminary geological investigations
had to face very difficult conditions and this difficult situation was avoided by preliminary
geological investigations.
TUNNELS IN AMYGDALOIDAL BASALTS:
The suitability of amygdaloidal basalt for tunneling because of absence of divisional planes is
well illustrated by a number of tunnels, chief among them being the tunnels of the Bor Ghat on
the Mumbai Pune line of Central Railway. Out of the twenty five tunnels excavated in
amygdaloidal basalt in the Bhor Ghats 19 have been left unlined. Even 6 tunnels that needed full
of partial lining have needed it because of extraneous factors such as fractures or hydrothermal
alternation and not because of any inherent defects in the arnygdaloidal basalt.
.;. The ability of the arnygdaloidal basalt to stand
unsupported is very well demonstrated by the
unsupported slab of amygdaloidal basalt jetting
out L3m from the Pune portal of Tunnel NO.l4.
The very thin wall separating Tunnel No.l7
from Tunnel NO.l7 A which varies in thickness
from 4.5 to 6 m. also testifies for the stability of
amygdaloidal basalts. Bla ting of Tunnel
No. L7A which was excavated later by the side of
Tunnel No. L7 could be carried out so close to
Tunnel No. L7 without damaging it only because
of the stability of amygdaloidal basalts. The very
thin outer wall of Tunnel No.26C which is only about 2 m thick also shows how stable
amygdaloidal basalts are. Another proof of stability of amygdaloidal basalts is the very thin cover
of some tunnels, which is only about L.5to 2 m. In case of tunnel number 26C it is still thinner
784
throughout its length of I.SOm, the minimum being only 80cm. In spite of such thin cover the
tunnel has been left unlined except for 28.Sm from the Pune portal and 30m from Mumbai portal
which have been lined to cover a total of seven fractures. All tunnels in amygdaloidal basalts.
even including those with the thin cover. do not show any percolation even in the monsoon
though they receive a rainfall of 4000mm per year.
~: ..
A number of other tunnels have also been excavated without trouble in amygdaloidal basalts. The
Head Race Tunnel of Koyna Hydro Project Stage 3 lies entirely in amygdaloidal basalts and has
been excavated correctly to design section without trouble. The approach tunnel of the
K.H.E.P.Stage 4 lies for the most part in amygdaloidal basalts and was excavated without
difficulty. It cuts across 3 fractures only one of which shows some seepage. The Panchdhara
Tunnel on the project road from Koynanagar to the Stage 4 area also lies in amygdaloidal basalt
for the most part. The tunnel was excavated without trouble, but some small boulder falls took
place after completion because of deterioration of some chlorophaeitic basalts which occurred at
the crown.
The Malshej Ghat Tunnel on the Murbad-Balshej Road, Stage Highway No.2 is another tunnel
excavated without difficulty in amygdaloidal basalts ans left unlined. It cuts across 3 features
which show some seepage in the monsoon.
The tunnel excavated for the Dimbhe Left Bank Canal in Pune District also lies in amygdaloidal
basalts. This being a free flow tunnel sides have been lined to improve discharge and crown has
been left unlined. It cuts across a tight fracture.
The Mankhurd-Belapur line of Central Railway passes through a tunnel near Vashi in New
Mumbai. The tunnel penetrates a pile of thin amygdaloidal basalt flows some of which have
become red and brown due to hydrothermal alteration. As some of these which had been softened
by more intense tiydrotherrnal alteration fell from the roof it was feared that large scale roof falls
may take place and lining was proposed. A detailed geological examination however showed
that but for a few thin softened flows, most of the crown was stable. As the rock above the
softened thin flow was sound and stable there was no fear-of continued roof falls. It was therefore
recommended that the thin soft portions should be knocked off and the tunnel should be left
unlined.
The Kasheli under Creek Tunnel near Thane, 800 m. long and 4m in diameter, was excavated by
the Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay below the Bassein Creek to carry the water of the
Bhatsa Dam across the creek for Mumbai water supply. The tunnel was excavated without any
mishap 130 mbelow the surface through amygdaloidal baslts which were bone dry even though
the tunnel lay below a perennial river. Only some small quantities of water percolated into the
tunnel through adyke and two fractures.
TUNNELS IN COMPACT BASALTS
Compact basalts are unsuitable for tunneling because they contain J OIl1ts which render them
unstable in excavations and through which water may be discharged into tunnel. Tunnels in
jointed compact basalts therefore prove troublesome as can be seen from the experience of
tunnels described below.
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The Panchdhara Tunnel described above passes through jointed compact basalt for some length at
the Koynanagar portal and rock falls took place in this stretch because of the collapse of
unsupported joint rocks.
It is seen from the exposure of closely jointed rock around the Mumbai portal of Tunnel No.26 in
Bor Ghat of Central Railway that this tunnel has pa sed through closely jointed compact basalt. It
has therefore been fully lined except some patches on sites. Sirni larly 19 mof tunnel nO.23C that
pass through closely jointed compact basalt have been lined.
Copious leakage of water took place in the inclines of the Bassien Creek Tunnel, to be described
more fully later in this account, through the joints of the closely jointed compact basalts in which
the lay, making tunneling impossible on one side.
Perhaps the worst example of trouble experienced in tunneling through compact basalts is
provided by the K.H.W.P. Stage 3 Tail Race Tunnel, which passes through a closely jointed
columnar compact basalt over considerable length. Constant roof falls, heavy overbreaks and
copious leakage of water through closely spaced joints and tunneling is very difficult and
expensive. Difficulties were aggravated by other defects in rocks also. The tunnel encountered a
number of vertical veins of intensely hydrothermally altered basalf and serious roof falls took
place because of the softness of the material. The tunnel also had the misfortune of passing
through a minor slip with a small displacement. This displacement led to the formation of wide
zone filled with fragmented and highly decomposed rock. On removal of support this zone
collapsed into the tunnel bringing down with it the closely jointed basalt on both sides. As a
result the entire cover about 6m thick collapsed and the tunnel was delighted over a length of
about 20m.
KHATA V TUNNEL: Detailed engineering geological mapping of Khatav, Man and Kanher
tunnels Near Satara and Karad has been carried out. The case history of Khatav tunnel is
discussed in detail. Similar geological conditions exist for remaining two tunnels.
The tunnel is passing through the Deccan trop rocks. The rocks of the project area are compact
basalt and volcanic breccia with red tachylytic basaltic lava matrix. The lava flows are thick and
extensive. Some fractures cutting across the lava flows are also encountered. At various locations
heavy leakages were observed. As discussed above compact basalts are always jointed. Along the
joint planes leakage takes place. Nearly at all the places in the tunnel leakage along the junction
between above lying compact basalt and underlying volcanic breccia was observed. The tunnel
passes through flows of Deccan Trap basalt. The rock exposed in the tunnel is compact basalt and
volcanic breccia Compact basalt is jointed. J oints are at various angles like vertical, horizontal,
columnar, block etc. At places sheet jointing is also seen. Majority of the joint surfaces are
stained white and brown indicating circulations of water. Between ch. 1200 m and 1350 m
continuous leakage was observed. In addition to this zone at number of places heavy leakage and
seepage was also observed. Compact basalt is jointed and at number of places joints are oblique,
intersecting and deeping into the excavation. This has led to overbreak. Volcanic breccia with red
tachylytic basalt lava matrix is soft and it becomes softer in contact with water. On exposure red
tachytytic basalt matrix has disintegrated. All these properties of volcanic breccia with red
tachylytic basalts have led to over break. At number of places there are big zeolite cavities.
Permanent supports have been given. The over breaks and treatment given described above are
due to the rock types. there structures like jointing, fracture and soft nature with cavities and
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disintegration of red tachylytic matrix of volcanic breccia. Due to these geological features
various protective measures, such as rock bolting and permanent supports are adopted.
Trouble free Tunnels inCompact Basalts
J ointing proves to be troublesome in tunneling only if it is closely spaced and regular. If jointing
is irregular and inconsistent, it is not troublesome as it is shown by Tunnel Numbers 3, 4 and 5 in
the Bor Ghat of Central Railway. These tunnels pass through a compact basalt flow, which is
well jointed, but the jointing is irregular and inconsistent.
This irregular jointing has not made the rock unstable and the tunnels are standing unlined. They
are also quite dryas the basalt flow has become impervious as the joints are not consistent and
interconnected.
Another favorable feature that makes compact basalts less unfavorable for tunneling is that the
top portions of compact basalt flows become amygdaloidal and therefore unjointed. Tunnels are
successfully excavated through such unjointed top portion of compact basalt flows and left
unlined include, among others.
1. Old Tunnel No.24 which is not now in the Bor Ghat section as it was abandoned when
Tunnel No.24, 25 and 26 were constructed is now used for the Mumbai-Pune Road, NH-4.
2. Some portions of Tunnel No.23 C in Bor Ghat.
3. Tunnel No.25 in Bor Ghat. The crown of this tunnel could not be left unlined as the
uppermost portion of the flow in which the crown is situated are in an advanced stage of
decomposition due to hydrothermal alteration. Hence the crown is lined and only the sights
have been left unlined.
4. Construction Adit from the railway track between Tunnel Number 25 and Tunnel No.26 to
the alignment of Tunnel No.25 C.
5. Three tunnels for the Dimbhe Right Bank Canal in Pune District.
6. Construction Adit of the tail race tunnel of the Bhatsa dam base powerhouse.
Hydrothermal Alteration
Difficulties in tunneling due to hydrothermal alteration are comparatively rare. Lining of crown
of Tunnel No.25 in Bor Ghat and roof falls in the Mankhurd- Belapur Tunnel and the Tail Race
.Tunnel of stage 3 of Koyna Hydro Electric Project due to hydrothermally astered rock have
already been described. A case of more serious difficulties due to hydrothermal alteration is
Tunnel No.23 in Bor Ghat. At the Mumbai end all rocks are in excellent condition and thererore
the first 86 m. from the Mumbai
Somewhere midway in the tunnel a zone of intense hydrothermal alteration starts in which rock
have been completely decomposed and reduced to soft incoherent material. As the tunnel lies in
the soft material the Pune end must have given considerable trouble during construction and the
last l60m at the Pune end have been lined. When the tunnel was widened in 1950 the Murnbai
end could be easily widened. The lined portion however could not be widened as it would have
meant removing the lining, exposing the soft unstable material which would have proved
troublesome. Hence after widening the unlined portion the tunnel was diverted on the each side
and one track was laid in the diverted portion and in the open cut east of the tunnel.
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Fractures
Fractures along which no movement has taken place have been met with in a number of tunnels,
but in a large majority of cases they have not proved troublesome and case of fractures
necessitating elaborate treatment are few. In the Bor Ghat tunnels 7 fractures in Tunnel No.26C
have been lined while 52 have been left unlined. There is only one case of serious difficulties due
to fractures. Tunnel No. 15 requiring lining as the rocks of the crown were weathered due to
fractures.
The 270m long katraj Tunnel 17 km from Pune on the Pune Bangalore Road, NH4 should not
have required lining at all as it passes through the unjointed top portions of a compact basalt
flow. However it has been excavated along a fracture which is seen at the crown at both portals
and weathered rock along the fracture and leakage through it has necessitated lining.
Groups of closely spaced fractures have caused serious trouble almost throughout the length of
the Tail Race Tunnel of the Bhatsa Dam Base power House. Roof collapses and heavy leakages
have made necessary corrective measures such as guniting and concrete lining appropriate to the
conditions or rocks in weathered zones of fractures.
CONCLUSION
Geological conditions in the Deccan Traps are not on the whole unfavorable for dam foundations,
deep cuts for canals, tunneling etc. However favorable conditions can not be taken for granted
because of the possible occurrence of unfavorable features such as jointed rock, fractures,
tachylytic basalts volcanic breccias, hydrothermal alteration etc. and it is essential to carry out
proper geological studies to ascertain beforehand what the geological conditions are along the
alignment. The long term economics depends on the engineering safety of the manmade
constructions. Durability and maintenance free service of the dams, canals, structures like
aqueduct etc. is only possible if engineering safety of them is assured. As every structure is
related to rock beneath, proper geological investigations are of utmost importance.
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