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1. With any two sets “A” and “B” there is associated a third set “C” satisfying the
property that C = { X/X Є AV x Є B }
“C” is called the union of “A” and “B” we denote the set C symbolically as C = A U B
Example:
A = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
A U B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10}
2. With any two sets A & B there is associated A third set “D” satisfying the property that
D = { X/X Є A ۸ X Є B}
“D” is called the intersection of sets A and B, and we denote the set D symbolically as D
=AB
3. With any two sets A and B there is associated A third set “C” satisfying the property
that C = { X/X Є A ۸ X € B}. We denote the set symbolically as C = A – B, and call C
the relative complement or difference of A and B.
Example:
A = { a, b, c, d, e, f}
B = { a, e, i, o, u}
A – B = {b, c, d, f} and B – A = {i, o, u}
4. If A is a subset of U, then the set of an elements contained in U that are not elements of
A is called the complement of A in U and is designated by Ă then Ă = {X/X Є U ۸ X €
A}
Example: Consider the universal set of an counting nos. and the set A of counting
numbers less than 100 then
5. The set product or cartesian product of two sets A and B is the set of an possible
ordered pairs (a, b) where a is in A and b is in B. We symbolize this set of ordered pairs
by A X B and write,
A X B = {(a,b) / a Є A ۸ b Є B }
Example:
If A = {1, 2} and B = {x, y} then A X B = { (1, x), (1, y), (2, x) , (2, y}} and B X A =
{(X, 1), (X, 2), (Y, 1), (Y, 2)}
Posted by Statistics_Lecture at 10:35 PM 1 comments
Labels: set operations
4. Equal set – set A and set B are equal set if the elements of set A is exactly the element
of set B.
Example:
A = {set of an even counting number of one digit} = {2,4,6,8}
B = {set of an integral multiples of two having one digit = {2,4,6,8}
5. Equivalent set – two sets are equivalent if there exists a one-to-one correspondence
between elements of the two sets.
Example:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4,5} - x coordinate
B = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} – y coordinate
then “A” is equivalent to B. We can construct the relation of set A and set B.
6. Subset – set whose elements are members of the given set A = {1,2,3,4,5,8}, B =
{2,4,8}
7. Universal Set – totality of the given set with consideration. The set from which we
select elements to form A given set is called universal.
Example:
Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8} is a universal set
Set B = {2, 4, 8} is a subset of set A
8. Disjoint Set – sets that has no common element ; if two sets have no element in
common, the sets are called disjoint sets.
Posted by Statistics_Lecture at 5:03 PM 0 comments
Labels: kinds of set
Set
Definition:
Set is a well-defined collection of things or objects
Note:
Sets maybe denoted by capital letters such as A,B,X, Y
An element or member of a set is a thing that belongs to the set and maybe denoted by
small letters such as a,b,c……..x,y.
The members of the set are enclose in braces { }, with a comma separating the members.
Example:
The set “A” whose members are ETHEL, CYNTHIA, CHELO, we usually use the
symbol.
ETHEL Є A
- Read as ETHEL is an element of set A
- Read as ETHEL belongs to set A
- Read as ETHEL is a member of set A
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Labels: set
* There are many words which we use in everyday language that have the same meaning
as the word set.
Example:
* The members of the set are enclosed in braces, { }, with a comma separation the
members and to identify sets we often name them by capital letters.
Example:
1. The Set “A” whose members are Ethel, Emerson and Merecel. We usually use the
symbol
C = {Heads, Tails}
* The set that has no elements is called the empty set, we use the symbol Ǿ to indicate
the empty set.
Permutation
- if A = {a1, a2, a3……. An} is any set of n elements then any arrangement of the
elements of “A” along a line is called a permutation of the elements of A.
All the permutation of the elements of the set is given by the formula:
Solution:
P = 5! = 120 permutations
The total no. of permutations of n objects taken r at a time, P(n,r) is given by the
expression.
Problem:
Find the no. of permutations of the four integers 1,2,3,4 taken two at a time.
Solution:
n = 4, r = 2
1. At a certain canteen, Doris can choose merienda from three drinks (Coke, Pepsi,
Gulaman) and four sandwiches from (bacon, chicken, tuna, egg). In how many ways.
Solution:
N1 . N2 = 3 x 4 = 12 ways
2. Two dice are rowed, in how many ways can they fall? If 3 dice are rowed? and if 4
dice are rowed?
3. Using the digits 1,2,3,4,5,6, How many two-digit can be formed if a) repetition is
allowed b) repetition is not allowed. How many numbers do we have to choose from the
given set, they are 6 numbers.
Solution:
a) Repetition is allowed
6 x 6 = 36 ways
Probability which connotes the “chance” or the “likelihood” that something will happen
or occur is an interesting and fascinating area of mathematics.
Probability – the part of mathematics that deals with the questions “how likely” is called
probability or the theory of probability.
1. Experiment
Examples:
1. Tossing a coin
2. Rolling a pie
Examples:
a.) S = {H,T} n(S) = 2
b.) S = {1,2,3,4,5,6} n(S_ = 6
c.) S = {Rod, Ed, Emer} n(S) = 3
Examples
a.) H is a sample point
T is a sample point
Example:
Getting an even number when you roll a die is an event
S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
E = {2,4,6}
n (E) = 3
Counting Techniques
Fundamental Principles
If one thing can be done independently in N1 different ways and if a second thing can be
done independently in N2 different ways and so on. Then the total number of ways in
which all the things may be done in the stated order is N1 . N2 . N3 . N4 ……….
Posted by Statistics_Lecture at 12:03 AM 0 comments
Labels: probability, probability sample, statistics probability
Saturday, May 31, 2008
Mode
Mode = is that single measure or score which occurs most frequently. When data are
grouped into a frequency distribution, the crude mode is usually taken to be the midpoint
of that interval which contains the largest frequency.
1. When a quick and approximate measure of central tendency is all that is wanted.
2. When the measure of central tendency should be the most typical value.
1. A set of numbers 11, 12, 13, 16, 16, 16, 19, 20 has 16 as the mode.
2. A set of numbers 45, 49, 52, 55, 58 has no mode.
3. A set of numbers 4, 4, 6, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 10 has modes of 8 and 9 and is called
bimodal.
Mo = Lmo + [ d1/d1 + d2 ] c
Median
b.) Median = in the midpoint of the distribution. Half of the values in a distribution fall
below median and the other half fall above it.
2. When N is even, the median is the average of the two middle score.
Ex. 21 18 15 14 11 8 8 7
There are 8 scores and the median is (14+11)/2 = 12.5
Md = L + [N/2 – F2 / f2] C
Where: L = lower class boundary of the interval where the median lies
N = No. of scores or sum of frequency
F2 = cumulative frequency less than up to the class immediately preceding
the median class (F<)
f2 = frequency of the median class
C= class size
Steps:
1. Prepare 3 columns (Class intervals, class frequency and cumulative frequency less
than)
2. Determine the Median class. The median class is that class interval where n/2 lies.
3. Substitute the data to the formula.
25th items fall in 960 – 989 class interval therefore it is the median class
Md = L + [(N/2 – F2)/f2] C
Md = Php 971.04
Posted by Statistics_Lecture at 1:44 AM 0 comments
Central Tendency is the point about which the scores tend to cluster, a sort of average in
the series. It is the center of concentration of scores in any set of data. It is a single
number which represents the general level of performance of a group.
Three (3) measures of Central Tendency
a.) Mean – The mean on arithmetic mean, or arithmetic average is defined as the sum of
the values in the data group divided by the no. of values.
Example:
1.) Last year the five sales counselors of Pacific Plans Inc. sold the following number f
educators plans; 24,16,35,13,25. Find the mean.
Solution:
X = (24+16+35+13+25)/5= 22.6
Long method:
X = ∑f M / N
X=AM+(∑f X / N)c
X = ∑f M/ N = 1502/50=30.04
Short method :
X=AM+(∑f X / N)c=28+(34/50)3=30.04
Where: w = weight of x
∑wx = sum of the weight of
∑w = sum of the weight of x
Example: The same test was administered to fourth year high school students in 3
schools. Each school had computed its own mean using internal width of 3 as shown
below.
School A
Class Interval
Scores f, x, fx
39-41, 1, 4 ,4
36-38,2 ,3 ,6
33-35, 4 ,2, 8
30-32, 4, 1 ,4
27-29 2 0 0
24-26, 3, -1, -3
21-23 ,4 ,-2, -8
18-20,2,-3,-6
22 5
School B
42-44, 1, 6, 6
39-41, 0, 5,0
36-38, 2, 4 ,8
33-35 ,5 ,3, 15
30-32 ,6, 2, 12
27-29, 7, 1, 7
24-26 3 0 0
21-23, 4, -1, -4
18-20, 2, -2, -4
15-17 ,2, -3 ,-6
12-14 ,1, -4, -4
9-11, 2, -5, -10
35 20
School C
39-41, 1, 3, 3
36-38, 2 ,2 ,4
33-35 ,10, 1, 10
30-32, 6, 0 ,0
27-29 ,7, -1 ,-7
24-26, 2, -2, -4
21-23, 1, -3, -3
18-20, 0 ,-4, 0
15-17 ,1, -5, -5
30 -2
To find the weighted mean of the 3 schools, follow the procedures below:
42-44, 0, 1, 0, 1, 5, 5
39-41 ,1, 0 , 1, 2 ,4,8
36-38 2,2,2,6,3,18
33-35 ,4, 5 ,10 ,19, 2,38
30-32 ,4, 6 ,6, 16, 1 ,16
27-29, 2, 7 ,7, 16, 0 ,0
24-26 ,3, 3, 2, 8, -1, -8
21-23, 4, 4, 1, 9, -2 ,-18
18-20, 2, 2, 0 ,4 ,-3 ,-12
15-17, 0, 2 ,1, 3 ,-4, -12
12-14 ,0 ,1, 0 ,1 ,-5, -5
9-11 ,0, 2, 0, 2 ,-6, -2
22, 35, 30, ,18
X=AM+(∑f X / N)c=28+(18/87)3=28.6
WX = ∑wx / ∑w =22(28.69)+35(26.71)+30(30.8)/87=28.62
Posted by Statistics_Lecture at 5:12 PM 0 comments
Array – This is the arrangement of data from the highest to lowest or from lowest to
highest.
Range, R - is the difference between the highest and the lowest number.
Number of class- it depends on the size and nature of or class interval distribution. The
no. of classes is determined into which the range will be divided. Usually, an effective
no. of classes is somewhere between 4 and 20.
No. of classes = range / class size or class width +1
Note:
a.) If series contains less than 50 cases, 10 cases or less are just enough
b.) If series contains 50 to 100 cases, 10 to 15 classes are recommended
c.) If more than 100 cases, 15 or more classes are good
Class Limit – the end number of a class. It is the highest and the lowest values that can
go into each class.
Class Boundaries – are the “true” class limits defined by lower and upper boundaries.
The lower boundaries can be determined by getting the average of the upper limit of a
class and the lower limit of the next class. They can also be obtained by simply adding of
a unit (0.5) to the upper limit and subtracting the same to the lower limit of each class.
Class Mark, M – also known as class Midpoint. It is the average of the lower and upper
limits or boundaries of each class.
Class Interval – The range of values used in defining a class. It is simply the length of a
class. It is the difference or distance between the upper and lower class boundaries of
each class and is affected by the nature of the data and by the number of classes. It is a
good practice to set up uniform class interval whenever possible for easier computation
and interpretation.