Report Land Development Regulations Commentary and Suggestions Priestley

Cayce Land Development
Regulations

Commentary & Suggestions

Author:
Jack R. Priestley

Cayce Land Development Regulations Review Priestley, J. 2013.

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PREFACE: ................................................................................................................................ 3
INTRODUCTION: ................................................................................................................... 4
OBJECTIVE: ............................................................................................................................. 4
OVERVIEW OF CAYCE: ........................................................................................................... 4
PLANNING TOOLS & RESOURCES: ................................................................................. 6
Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design ........................................................... 6
Complete Streets ................................................................................................................ 7
Community Consultation ................................................................................................... 8
REVIEW & RECOMMENDATIONS: .................................................................................. 9
LAND DEVELOPMENT REGULATIONS: ................................................................................... 9
Article B Procedure For Plat Approval .......................................................................... 9
Article C - Minimum Design Standards ........................................................................... 12
Article D Improvements Section 36 Requirements Installation Prior to Final Plat
Approval .......................................................................................................................... 14
Article E Cluster Housing and Planned Commercial Developments ........................... 17
Article F Experimental Developments .......................................................................... 17
Article G Group Developments - Section 56 Group Developments ............................. 17
Article H Planned Unit Development ........................................................................... 17
Article I - Parking Lots - Section 65 Minimum Design Standards .................................. 17
ADDITIONAL AREAS FOR CONSIDERATION: ........................................................................ 20
GENERAL MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARDS: ....................................................................... 20
Connectivity Standards .................................................................................................... 22
Landscaping ..................................................................................................................... 23
Wayfinding ....................................................................................................................... 23
Fencing & Screening ....................................................................................................... 24
Lighting ............................................................................................................................ 24
RESIDENTIAL MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARDS: ................................................................. 27
Single Access Subdivisions .............................................................................................. 27
Individual Lot Design ...................................................................................................... 27
COMMERCIAL - MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARDS: ................................................................ 28
Joint Access ..................................................................................................................... 28
Stormwater & Drainage .................................................................................................. 28
Big-Box Retail .................................................................................................................. 29
INCENTIVES: ......................................................................................................................... 30
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS: .................................................................................... 31
CONCLUSION: ...................................................................................................................... 33
REFERENCES: ...................................................................................................................... 34


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Preface:
This report has been compiled on behalf of Sustainable Carolina, a branch of the
University of South Carolina, for the City of Cayce. The purpose of this report was to
review the existing Land Development Regulations for the City of Cayce, adopted in
1996, and to offer suggestions of how they may be updated and improved. The scope
of this report partly addresses the wider planning policies adopted in Cayce, for
example the Zoning Ordinance, and refers to them throughout the report. The
information contained in this report has been researched and referenced and is to be
used as a guide by the City and community of Cayce to implement change and open
dialogue with the community and other stakeholders. The method and extent of
implementation is the decision and responsibility of the community and City of
Cayce.


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Introduction:
Objective:
This report addresses a number of goals without identifying them as they are listed
below. These goals are to achieve a prosperous, safe, healthy and sustainable city
including to:
Improve the attractiveness of Cayce as a place to live, work and visit;
Provide greater pedestrian and personal safety;
Improve all types of transport networks;
Promote healthy and active lifestyles;
Reduce long-term carbon emissions and better prepare Cayce to adapt to the
impacts of climate change; and,
Compliment the Planning Cayce: 2010, Comprehensive Plan.

Note: The accomplishment of one of these goals will have a positive and progressive
effect on another; for example, improving pedestrian safety will encourage more
people to walk, which will increase natural surveillance and increase personal safety,
which will also increase the attractiveness of Cayce as place to live.

Overview of Cayce:
Cayce is a city of approximately 13,000 people, based on 2006 US Census estimates.
Cayce has many cultural and historical resources due to its rich history and location
and enhanced by the riverwalk. Cayce abuts the City of Columbia and due to this has
a number of major transportation corridors running through it. Cayce also has the
Columbia Metropolitan Airport and a number of rail lines running through it (City of
Cayce, 2010). Urban and economic development has been influenced by the
phenomenon known as urban sprawl, which heavily transformed the built
environment into becoming low-density and automobile dependent after World War
II. Recently there has been resurgence by the community of Cayce for greater options
for walking, cycling and mass transit. Education/health/social services make up the
highest percentage of employment in Cayce, with 19.2%, while retail trade (12.7%),
art/entertainment/accommodation/food service/recreation (9.4%),
professional/scientific (9.2%) & manufacturing (9.0%) make up the other major

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industries, as of the year 2000 (City of Cayce, 2010). There are business centers
within Cayce; however, much commercial activity is located along the transport
corridors of the City. There are some large shopping center developments, including
the BiLo complex on Knox Abbott Road and Edenwood Shopping Center on the
Charleston Highway, which have vast open parking lots with poor connectivity, little
landscaping, and large stormwater contributions. Stormwater has been indicated as a
common issue within Cayce, and in more than one area, partly due to old systems
beneath the ground. Although these are not new issues, this report seeks to improve
future developments to prevent such issues. Evidently, it is difficult to encourage
development in the current economic climate in Cayce, Columbia and surrounding
areas. However, good planning requires a long-term vision and now is the perfect
time to enact the regulatory changes to build a prosperous, safe, sustainable Cayce.


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Planning Tools & Resources:
A vast amount of research has been undertaken to compile this report, including
planning regulations and case studies from other towns, counties and countries;
research articles from universities; and material from government agencies such as
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design
CR Jeffreys first described these governing principles in his 1971 book Crime
Prevention Through Environmental Design. The concept of Crime Prevention
Through Environmental Design (CPTED) is to build a physical landscape that
positively influences human behavior and discourage criminal activity. CPTED
guidelines create a safer environment without the use of intimidating methods such as
high fences and video surveillance (National Crime Prevention Council, 2003;
Paterson, 2006).

There are a number of basic principles for CPTED planning, which differ between
guidelines but essentially stay the same (see Figure 1). These are:
Natural/Informal Surveillance design which increases the possibility of
observation such as lighting, clear line of sight, and eyes on the street;
Natural access control & territorial reinforcement create a sense of
ownership of a space and promote its legitimate use, including clearly
defining borders and spaces;
Maintenance studies show that crime is generally less likely to occur when
properties are well maintained (National Crime Prevention Council, 2003;
Paterson, 2006; Sarkissian & LaRocca, 2003).

Engaging community groups can increase the success of CPTED policies, primarily
for two reasons. Firstly, because it builds an understanding of how each neighborhood
works (e.g. what time of day people are home, is it an elderly population etc.) and
secondly, to gauge and increase the interest of community members to promote
programs such as Neighborhood Watch.


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Figure 1: CPTED Elements Source: Sarkissian & LaRocca, 2003

Other cities and counties in the United States and around the world are implementing
CPTED strategies into their development regulations. The City of Spartanburg, SC,
offers a free service to residents and businesses to improve safety through CPTED
principles, where a certified officer walks through the building/s and offers
suggestions (City of Spartanburg, N.D.). This could potentially be a service to offer
businesses and residents concerned with crime.

Complete Streets
The complete streets and green streets philosophy has been gathering momentum in
the U.S. and around the world, as cities and governments realize the advantages and
imperative of smart growth policies. Complete streets are streets that are suitable for
everyone, rather than just cars. They make streets safer while promoting vibrant and
prosperous communities and alternate modes of travel to the automobile. An active
streetscape can also enhance CPTED principles, such as natural surveillance.

Charlotte recently adopted a policy in 2007 as an independent document solely for a
Complete Streets strategy. Many components of a Complete Streets policy can be

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implemented within the Land Development Regulations, particularly in the Minimum
Design Standards for new subdivisions, but to reap the maximum benefits a stand-
alone policy is best.

The National Complete Streets Organization has an implementation policy and
further information available at: www.completestreets.org.

Community Consultation
A community consultation activity could be conducted prior to adopting any changes
of the Land Development Regulations. This can create an open dialogue between
community members and the City of Cayce, allowing for a much broader spectrum of
issues to be raised and discussed. It will allow residents to voice what they believe are
the problems and solutions that could create a more sustainable and prosperous
community. For a successful consultation it is important that the focus is on the
problem, rather than the solution, and to explore the realities of the situation (Barbaro,
2006). Although an often time consuming process, it is not an expensive exercise and
assistance from Sustainable Carolina staff and interns could help.


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Review & Recommendations:
Stringent planning regulations do not necessarily equate to less development. A
streamlined, simple and user-friendly application process can remove much of the
delay and confusion for developers, which is what the following attempts to do. This
report has crosschecked with the Zoning Ordinance to ensure that anything
recommended does not already exist. In some areas it may be more suitable to adopt
changes to other regulations, or their own piece of legislation, rather than
incorporating them into existing regulations. The following has been broken into two
sections: the first analyses what could be added to existing sections in the Land
Development Regulations, the second looks at potentially additional sections to
include in the Land Development Regulations.

Land Development Regulations:
The Land Development Regulations should stipulate the process and procedures for
land development in Cayce. It should provide minimum design standards for
subdivisions, parking lots, stormwater and drainage, and street design. It should be
used in coordination with other regulatory documents. The flexibility of regulations is
the purpose of the Zoning Ordinance, which permits certain types of development in
particular areas. The Land Development Regulations should contribute positively to
all types of development and not prohibit anything without considering the full scope
of where it could possibly occur.

There are Articles in the Land Development Regulations which are administrative
and/or legal and do not hold urban planning grounds and have not been discussed.
Other sections where no recommendations have been made were fairly standard
across different Land Development Regulations researched for the writing of this
report, or did not need any recommendations.

Article B Procedure For Plat Approval
Section 11: Procedures Outlined
Comment: A new section titled Pre-Planning Meeting could be implemented into
this area. Developers and other applicants should be required to have an informal

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meeting with planning officials at Cayce before they submit their development
applications, preferably in the earliest possible stages of their plans. At the meeting
they should present a concept map, showing all natural and manmade features
surrounding the site, a sketch plan and a site inventory of existing features upon
which to base the development. A site visit with planning officials and the applicant
would also enhance this communication (National Lands Trust, 2009). This
cooperative approach will allow both parties to discuss any possible issues which may
arise in the application and to achieve the best possible design and outcome for the
subject site.*

* I have attended pre-planning meetings in Australia during my time working at Logan
City Council. These were informal meetings and were beneficial to both developers and
planning staff.

Comment: A new section could be added under Article B Procedure For Plat
Approval, for a Site Context Map. This would require data of features not
currently required by the existing Land Development Regulations under Article B,
Procedure For Plat Approval - Section 11 and Article D Improvements - Section 36
P Preservation Of Natural Features And Amenities. Below is a list of natural features
which could be included, as coverage of man-made features is already comprehensive
in the regulations. The following has been adapted from the Growing Greener:
Conservation by Design, Model Ordinance written by the Natural Lands Trust
(2009):

Existing Natural Features
A vertical aerial photograph at a scale that matches the scale of the submitted plans,
so as to allow for an overlay of the two maps.
Vegetative cover conditions on the property according to general cover type including
cultivated land, permanent grass land, mead, pasture, old field, hedgerow, woodland,
wetland, specimen trees, the actual canopy line of existing trees and woodlands.
Vegetative types shall be described by plant community, relative age and condition.
(This could be used in addition to existing regulations under Section 10.5 Tree
Protection of the Zoning Ordinance).

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1) Soil series, types and phases, as mapped by the U.S.D.A Natural Resources
Convention Service, and accompanying data tabulated for each soil relating to
its suitability for construction (and, in unsewered areas, for septic suitability).
The following soil types shall be specifically identified:
a) Alluvial soils.
b) Seasonal high water table soils.
c) Hydric soils.
d) Class I and II agricultural soils.
e) Soil hydrologic group (i.e., Group A, B, C, or D).
2) Ridge lines and watershed boundaries
(This could be used in addition to existing regulations requiring the
Locations of streams, lakes, swamps etc on the Preliminary Plat, under the
Land Development Regulations).
3) Geologic formations, including rock outcroppings, cliffs, sinkholes, and fault
lines, based on available published information or more detailed data obtained
by the applicant.
4) A viewshed analysis showing the location and extent of views into the
property from public roads and from public parks and public forests.
Significant scenic views from the property shall also be delineated (National
Lands Trust, 2009).

Most information for a Site Context Map will be easily obtainable, and all should
normally be consulted and carefully considered in the design phase of any
development project. This will help developers create a site that is more
environmentally sensitive while also improving its integration into the area and
surrounding community.

Comment: Sightlines are the on-the-ground line of sight for pedestrians, cyclists,
residents and motorists. Long, clear sightlines are very important for natural
surveillance to occur effectively and to detect danger in advance. An easy way to
include sightlines into new developments would be to require that they are shown and
demonstrated on plans prior to construction. Each plan should demonstrate how clear
sight lines from within the building entry and exit point allow occupants to see into
the space before exiting. It should also provide users the opportunity to see inside

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before they enter. Main factors affecting sightlines include: width of sidewalks,
sudden grade changes, and heavy foliage. This is particularly so for pedestrian
pathways and sidewalks (Queensland Government, 2003).

Article C - Minimum Design Standards
Section 21 A: Extension of Existing Street states: same or greater width than the
minimum. Wide streets should not automatically be favored as they are not always
desirable.
Comment: The street should be built to conform to the desired traffic flow and
character of the neighborhood and if it is not planned to be an arterial should often be
kept to the minimum size needed, with respect to building heights, traffic volumes
etc. If there are sidewalks and/or bike paths on the existing street, then these should
be seamlessly continued on the extension.

Section 21 B: Cul-De-Sacs inhibit connectivity by forcing local traffic onto
collector streets, limit route choices, create inefficient connections to nearby
destinations and make walking long and uninteresting.
Comment: Cul-de-sacs should generally be avoided where possible except due to
topographic or available land restrictions. If unavoidable, a pedestrian thoroughfare
should be put in place to allow for pedestrian and cycle traffic to pass through. The
thoroughfare should be wide, open, well-lit, integrated into the surrounding
neighborhood and provide a clear line of sight down its entire length, including the
entry and exit points, so as to prevent any hiding places, encourage its use, increase
safety and reduce the likelihood of it being used to gain access to neighboring
properties. However, the literature conflicts here, saying that the benefits of cul-de-
sacs, including provision of natural surveillance and decreased criminal opportunities,
are only realized if there is one entry/exit point for vehicle traffic and pedestrians i.e.
with no pedestrian thoroughfare (Patterson, 2006).
Arendt (2011) suggests cul-de-sacs are particularly useful in conservation
subdivisions where rural character and/or natural features are being protected (e.g.
topography, vegetation, wildlife corridor, drainage) as illustrated in Figures 2 & 3.


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Figure 2: Conservation Subdivision Original Parcel Source: Arendt, 1996

Figure 3: Conservation Subdivision w/ Cul-de-sacs Source: Arendt, 1996


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Section 21 K: Right-of-way and pavement widths dictates a minimum right-of-
way but no maximum right-of-way.
Comment: The street reserve width needs to be adequate for its proposed paths,
pavements, planting, drainage and services (Apelt, 2003). It should incorporate a
maximum width to suit the character of the intended street. This will slow traffic in
residential streets, which may otherwise have streets which are too wide and
encourage fast driving. Maximum widths can be calculated by the type of street
which is being constructed (e.g. a residential subdivision should not have wide
streets), and the uses it will serve (e.g. on-street parking, bike lanes).

Section 21 S: Marginal Street Access may be required.
Comment: This is an area that could be investigated further, potentially to encourage
back alley lanes for access to businesses or a group of businesses. It can reduce the
number of entry and exit points for vehicles, reducing traffic congestion and reducing
vehicle and pedestrian conflict.

Section 23: Flag Lots are prohibited and are normally undesirable however they
could be suitable in some situations.
Comment: Permit them in certain subdivisions, for example due to topographic
conditions. A useful reference guide for flag lots can be found in Model Land
Development & Subdivision Regulations That Support Access Management for
Florida Cities and Counties in Section 2-28. This lists conditions which potential flag
lots must abide by.

Article D Improvements Section 36 Requirements Installation Prior to Final
Plat Approval
Section 36 J: Street Trees states that they are required along all new streets at a
spacing of 50 feet.
Comment: Trees are important because they can reduce cooling costs in summer by
shading buildings and reducing ambient temperatures in parking lots and on roads.
They also improve air quality by absorbing pollutants and can increase property
values (ReLeaf, 2012). The Land Development Regulations do not state what size
trees should be, although section 10.1(7) Plant Size and Caliper of the Zoning

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Ordinance does. This requires trees to be 6 to 7 feet in height and 1.5 inches in
diameter at a height of 18 inches above the ground. A consideration of the tree
species e.g. mature height, root structure and leaf cycle is also important. Deciduous
trees lose their leaves in winter and are desirable for areas that need heat during the
colder months; fig trees provide a lot of shade but have invasive roots that may
damage roads and underground infrastructure. Mature trees are desirable as their
benefits are instant. Tree species should be locally endemic unless there is a
significant/sufficient reason not to be. Local, native species allow natural habitat to
regenerate are adapted to the local climate, making them less likely to die after they
are planted.

Section 36 N: Sidewalks are required along all collector and arterial streets in
major subdivisions
Comment: Sidewalks do not need to be mandatory for all types of development e.g.
industrial developments, or where walking is unlikely to occur. However, sidewalks
should be mandatory in all residential and commercial subdivisions along collector
and arterial streets, including when the original lot size is changed and there is a
major improvement of an existing parcel of land either through new development or
redevelopment. This will assist the Cayce sidewalk plan and encourage walking and
other types of outdoor recreation and public transport usage. Sidewalks are discussed
further under Connectivity Standards.

Comment: Maintenance Under Article E, Section 46C(3)(b) of the Land
Development Regulations there are currently requirements for a maintenance plan for
open space in Cluster Housing and Planned Commercial Developments. Under the
Zoning Ordinance there are also requirements for Maintenance for different types of
development (e.g. Section 10.4 Open Space) but this should be a requirement for all
types of commercial and residential subdivisions, as a cared for environment reduces
the fear of crime (Sarkissian & LaRocca, 2003).

Section 9.4 of the Zoning Ordinance stipulates the required maintenance for parking
lots:

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All off-street parking areas shall be maintained in a clean,
orderly, dust-free, and weed-free condition at the expense of the
owner or lessee...
This should also extend to the sidewalks, loading docks and the external surfaces of
the building. Maintenance is a strong CPTED principle as unrepaired buildings act as
a cue to more misuse (Sarkissian & LaRocca, 2003) and degrades the overall image
of the area. New developments often look great when they are first built, but over
time can look run-down. Pavements get dirt and gum stained, painted car park lines
fade, graffiti appears on walls and the overall image deteriorates.

Section 10.3-7 of the Zoning Ordinance requires maintenance for landscaping and
states areas:
... shall be properly maintained so as to assure their survival and
aesthetic value, and shall be provided with an irrigation system or
a readily available water supply.

This is similar to Section 10.4 of the Ordinance for Open Space:
Lawns, with or without trees and shrubs shall be watered
regularly to ensure survival, and mowed regularly to ensure
neatness. Landscaped areas shall be trimmed, cleaned and weeded
regularly.
Landscaped and vegetated areas should be pruned in a way so that no cover is
provided for unlawful activities, and pedestrian visibility is not hindered (Sarkissian
& LaRocca, 2003).

A section, independent to all others so as not dependent on a certain type of
development, describing a required maintenance schedule for all publicly and
communally accessible spaces could be introduced, in either the Land Development
Regulations or the Zoning Ordinance. This will provide developers with a single,
consistent and comprehensive maintenance plan guide. It could even be written in the
form of a table or checklist so that they can easily ensure everything is covered. The
level of maintenance required does not need to be extremely high, particularly if there
is limited vegetation, but an ongoing maintenance plan is important.


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Section 36 P: Preservation Of Natural Features And Amenities
This section includes some of what is suggested under Article B, Procedure For
Plat Approval. This section is discussed under the review of Article B.

Article E Cluster Housing and Planned Commercial Developments
Comment: Apart from the requirement for open space, and the waiver of minimum
lot widths and areas, this section does not prescribe anything not existing in
associated regulations. This section could be revisited to include more incentives for
developers to undertake such developments.

Article F Experimental Developments
Comment: This section allows developers greater flexibility, however, it does not
stipulate any intended outcomes apart from economically sound and desirable living
areas. This section should have more demanding outcomes if it is to offer developers
relaxations.

Article G Group Developments - Section 56 Group Developments
Section 56 (4): Storm Drainage
Comment: See section Stormwater & Drainage.

Article H Planned Unit Development
Comment: Similar to Cluster Housing Developments, Planned Unit Developments
are a useful tool for managing growth as they allow the developer more flexibility in
laying out a subdivision (City of Bulverde, 2004). If enacted well they can have the
same benefits of conservation subdivisions where natural features and topography
are protected.

Article I - Parking Lots - Section 65 Minimum Design Standards
This section could be a lot more stringent to provide for greater safety, as it does not
currently contain any safety requirements for pedestrians, cyclists or motorists. This
section would be particularly well suited to add photos and sketches of desired design

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standards to provide developers with clear, simple images that they could easily
recreate without confusion or time delays. Below are a few examples of what could
be changed in the existing sections to make a safer and more attractive development.

Section 65 A: Border Barricades
Comment: The principal function of border barricades is to physically prevent
vehicles from entering particular areas. However, clear border definition should also
be provided between areas of parking lots for vehicles and those for pedestrians so as
to reduce conflict between the two. Borders can be defined by using different
materials in the roadway, e.g. a section of red cobblestones, raised surface higher than
the surrounding surface, going through clearly visible pedestrian crossings.
Landscaping can also be used to this effect.

Section 65 C: Lighting
Comment: Consistent levels of lighting and lighting suitable to the intended use are
important (Queensland Government, 2003). If the premises is to be used at night, then
lighting should be required to illuminate all areas of the parking lot so that there are
no dark spots where people will be walking. This is especially important near corners,
dumpsters and other entrapment spots to prevent people from hiding. Also near
entrance and exit points and pedestrian crossings where pedestrian and vehicle
conflict is likely to occur. A more detailed analysis of lighting principles is discussed
under Lighting.

Section 65 D: Drainage
Comment: Alternative storm water remediation to concrete drains should be used
where practicable. See Stormwater & Drainage for more details.

Section 65 E: Landscaping for Parking Lots ... shall be landscaped as required
by Section 11 of the Cayce Zoning Ordinance.
Comment: Parking lots with large amounts of concrete and asphalt can become very
hot in summer, this is known as the urban heat island effect. Trees cool both the
micro and macro environment and planting sufficient shade trees in parking lots can
reduce and avoid heat island effects. Section 9.3(2) of the Zoning Ordinance acts to

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avoid expansive impervious surface parking but does not specify enough details to
induce a quality design and prevent heat island effects. CHECK 10.3

Section 10.3-6 of the Zoning Ordinance refers to this stating:
... Landscaped areas shall be located in such a manner as to divide
and break up the expanse of paving and at strategic points to guide
travel flow and direction. At a minimum, there shall be provided one
tree not less than seven feet high when planted per 5 required parking
spaces. Elsewhere, landscaped areas shall be designed to soften and
complement the building site and separate the building from the
vehicular surface area.
Section 10.3 of the Zoning Ordinance has good intent, but it is important to provide
easy-to-follow and hard-to-manipulate guidelines to achieve the intended outcome.
The Land Development Regulations could be written:
Prohibiting an area over a certain size to be unbroken;
Prescribing that trees are located in a manor to shade as much of the parking lot
as possible (preventing a stand of trees being planted in one section of the lot,
as opposed to evenly throughout);
Prescribing that, in areas where crime is likely to be a problem, low-ground
covers no higher than 3 feet, and high-canopied trees, clear-trunked to a height
of 6.5 feet to maintain sightlines (Patterson, 2006; Sarkissian & LaRocca
2003).

It is also important that the landscaping of parking lots is tied in with stormwater and
drainage requirements, incorporating swales and rain gardens, and tree selection in a
holistic approach. There is more written on this under Stormwater & Drainage
and Landscaping.

Comment: A new section for Connectivity in parking lots could be applied under
Article I. Walkways in parking lots should encourage users to enter and exit using the
same routes to improve sightlines between pedestrians and motorists (Patterson,
2006). Connectivity is discussed further under Connectivity Standards.


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Additional Areas For Consideration:
There are a number of concepts and design standards which are not included in the
Land Development Regulations; instead of trying to work these into the pre-existing
sections they are outlined below for consideration.

General Minimum Design Standards:
A number of CPTED principles require architectural standards to support their
enforcement. Below is a discussion of minimum design standards suited to any and
all types of new development.
Note: architectural design for Big Box Retail is discussed further under Big
Box Retail.

Long blank walls should be avoided where possible as they encourage graffiti
and are uninteresting for pedestrians.
Natural ladders should be designed out: including buildings (e.g. staggered
balconies and awnings), trees, dumpsters, and nearby structures (such as
storage areas) which can be used to gain access to higher levels of a buildings
windows and/or doors. See Figure 4 for illustration (Sarkissian & LaRocca,
2003; Queensland Government, 2003).

Entrapment spots can also be largely designed out. Entrapment spots are places where
criminals can hide, and are small, confined areas, adjacent to a well-travelled route
that are shielded on three sides by some barrier. Barriers may include: lifts,
storerooms, fire stairs, dark, recessed entrances that may be locked at night, gaps in
tall shrubbery, curved or grade-separated driveways, or loadings docks off a
pedestrian route. Entrapment spots can occur both in architectural building design and
parking lot location, as well as in landscape design. Multi-storey parking lots and
parks and green areas are particularly vulnerable to entrapment spots. It is important
to reduce entrapment spots in the design phase to improve personal safety. Entrances
and exits of buildings should not create entrapment spots or places that attract
intruders. A clear line of sight should be available from inside the building to the
exterior through windows. Lighting needs to be effective for this to occur at night.

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Unpreventable entrapment spots can be reduced through a number of techniques,
including:
Adding activities to the area (such as kiosks) to make the space safer;
Limiting access to unavoidable entrapment spots by having locked storage
and loading areas;
Ensuring low-level vegetation is not hindering lines of sight;
Adding high-intensity lighting and aids, such as mirrors (National Crime
Prevention Council, 2003; Sarkissian & LaRocca, 2003).

Figure 4: Natural Ladders Source: Queensland Government, 2003

To increase character in the area, consistent themes of both buildings and vegetation
can be used through standardizing design standards (within reasonable limits) and
using consistent finishes. A consistent theme of lighting (for parking lots, parks, roads
etc) would emphasize a cohesive image for the City and could be based on historic
precedent as well as urban design considerations of scale and appearance (Healy &
Figure h The use of different footpath patterns and colours
is used in this example to highlight change of
environment for cyclists and pedestrians.
4.4 Basic exterior building design
The exterior design and treatment of buildings can
directly support and reduce crime by reducing
opportunities for entrapment, concealment and
vandalism.
The following principles (illustrated in Figures i to k)
should be taken into account in development design
to improve basic exterior design:
! ensure that entrances to buildings are oriented to
face open or active spaces
! minimise blank walls overlooking parks, car
parks and other areas
! design entrances and other features to limit
opportunities for concealment
! clearly distinguish the area around the entrance
from public walkways
! minimise features or structures (such as storage
areas, staggered balconies and awnings) that can
be used as natural ladders to gain access to
higher levels of the building, or windows and
doors
! maximise the variety of building design and
landscaping to create interesting built
environments
! provide clear sight lines from within the building
at the entry point so that occupants can see out
into a space before exiting
! provide opportunities for users of the building to
see inside the foyer/reception before they enter
! ensure that landscaping design will not provide
concealment or entrapment areas.
Figure i Building design provides for overlooking of
areas and minimises concealment points
Figure j Building design should minimise features
which create natural ladders

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Rossi, 2010). A consistent use of similar coloured bricks in buildings, continued use
of the same type of street trees, or the same style of fencing are other tactics to create
a cohesive image and build character. There are a multitude of other options which
could also be used here.

Connectivity Standards
Greater standards for connectivity could require developers to investigate and plan
their designs so that they are integrated into the surrounding community. This will
create a comprehensive network of pedestrian and cycle paths, parks and natural
areas, connecting schools, residential areas and commercial precincts to reduce the
reliance of automobiles for transportation. This will aid the realization of the sidewalk
plan outlined in the Planning Cayce: 2010 document. Connectivity standards would
include thoughtful consideration about the use of cul-de-sacs, laneways, dead-end
streets, generated traffic, and pedestrian safety. It should also consider the
opportunities to link open space networks and other community facilities together
(Apelt, 2003).

Sidewalks are important in providing a clear line of sight for pedestrians and cyclists.
Sudden changes in grade height, below-grade and above-grade walkways should be
minimized as they reduce this line of sight. Tunnels and overpasses are commonly
perceived as dangerous and associated with crime, partly because of the limited
escape options. Other concealed and isolated route options should be minimized
(National Crime Prevention Council, 2003). Pedestrian corridors should be easily
identifiable and destination points should be visible. Pathways should mirror roads
and shortcuts should be prevented through using gates, buffers or other cues, to
reduce trespassing opportunities. Sidewalks should not be located next to dense
vegetation/landscaping structures to reduce opportunities for concealment of
offenders. Wide, unobstructed pathways make pedestrians more comfortable and
more likely to use them (Sarkissian & LaRocca, 2003).

Development (whether residential or commercial) should incorporate infrastructure
for cycling and pedestrians, including dedicated cycle ways, bike racks and pedestrian
sidewalks, particularly on-site. Not all components will always be necessary due to

23
the size, location or type of development (e.g. bike rack at an industrial complex) but
should be made mandatory where possible (e.g. bike rack at a shopping center).
Consideration should be given to how the area will grow and the likelihood of
needing additional infrastructure in the future.

Landscaping
Endemic flora species should be used mandatorily in commercial and residential
developments (excluding residents private open space) as they are more drought and
climate resistant, require less maintenance and provide better habitat for native
species. This should come at no extra cost to developers and would create a consistent
theme of vegetation throughout Cayce. This is applicable to all instances of
landscaping including for residential and commercial lots and car parking. Selecting
trees depending on their mature shape and size is equally important to make sure they
are suitable. In areas where crime is likely to be a problem, low-ground covers no
higher than 3 feet, and high-canopied trees, clear-trunked to a height of 6.5 feet would
be most suitable to maintain sightlines (Patterson, 2006; Sarkissian & LaRocca 2003).
Landscaping design should not provide concealment or entrapment areas (Queensland
Government, 2003). The above comments highlight more reasons why maintenance
of landscaped areas is important.
Landscaping should delineate private space from semi-public and public spaces using
a mixture of sidewalk materials, vegetation, route options and by providing a
hierarchy of space (Sarkissian & LaRocca 2003). Ambiguous borders provide
rationalizations and excuses for criminal intent and encourage testing the defenses,
while defined borders highlight legitimate uses. If large blank walls are present,
thorny plants can be planted to deter graffiti (Patterson, 2006).

Wayfinding
Wayfinding and signage is related to territorial boundaries and can make it clear what
areas are private, shared or public. Signage should be simple to read, clearly visible,
describe the areas use (e.g. telephones, taxi rank, toilets), provide directions or the
safest route option, declare ownership of an area, or reinforce spatial boundaries
(Sarkissian & LaRocca, 2003). If the sign is to be viewed at night, it should be well
illuminated.

24

Fencing & Screening
The primary objective of fences are to control access, namely from criminal activity,
and it is important to use them to control front, side and rear yard access to private
premises or dwellings. Fence and Wall Specifications under Section 10.1-9 of the
Zoning Ordinance require that:
Fences shall be wooden or other durable or opaque material ...
Similarly, screening required under Section 10.2 of the Zoning Ordinance is to be:
... an opaque divide not less than six (6) feet in high or the
height of the object to be screened, whichever is greater.
Screening may be accomplished by the use of sight obscuring
plant materials (generally evergreens), earth berms, walls, fences,
proper siting of disruptive elements, building placement or other
design techniques approved by the Planning Director.
Although it is good in some circumstances to completely block the view of something
(e.g. refuse collection) it is a bad CPTED principle in other circumstances. Opaque
fencing creates hiding places, provides privacy for criminal activity and reduces clear
lines of sight hindering natural surveillance. This becomes even more likely when the
property abuts an open space e.g. golf course or alleyway (Sarkissian & LaRocca,
2003). See-through fencing forces the offender to focus on the rear of the building
(rather than any side) for access and allows neighbors, police and security officers to
observe the premises from a patrol vehicle. Side and rear fencing should be of solid
construction to prevent ease of scaling. Entrances and exits should not be screened by
sight-obscuring, dense vegetation (Patterson, 2006).

Lighting
Lighting is a complex CPTED issue as some of its principles can become
contradictory to one another (Sarkissian & LaRocca, 2003). This is particularly so
when it is written into a code and requires a case-by-case analysis. Lighting is not
always necessary and lighting in high-risk areas may provide higher perceived safety
than reality, such as alleyways and spaces not intended for high-risk use. This could
potentially place an unsuspecting user in danger. However, illegitimate uses of space

25
can be discouraged by not lighting areas that are not intended to be used at night,
making an individuals presence more obvious to others (Paterson, 2006).

Lighting should be used:
In areas intended for use at night time;
To identify and light safe routes, discouraging the use of potentially
dangerous ones;
In parking lots and access and egress routes, including inset spaces along
them and potential entrapment points, rather than windows and roads;
At all entrances, exits and pathways to buildings;
To illuminate signage if it is intended to be viewed at night;
To facilitate natural surveillance of private and public space (Paterson,
2006; Queensland Government, 2003)

Figure 5: Lighting scale Source: Sarkissian & LaRocca, 2003

Lighting should be designed to a number of standards, depending on the type of
lighting and the intended use of the area. If lighting is to be used it should:
Be at a scale appropriate to the intended use (Figure 5);
Preferably be bright enough to allow a person to recognize a face from 50
feet;
!
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38
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26
Allow occupants inside a building to see out some distance before they
leave the building;
Maximize penetration of light into spaces, while controlling light
pollution;
Maximize penetration of natural daylight into spaces;
Use multiple lights rather than single fittings to provide consistent lighting
levels and to reduce contrast between shadows and illuminated areas,
while at the same time providing a mixture of lighting to give pedestrians
an impression of warmth, variety and brightness. This should also
eliminate gaps of darkness between light sources. See Figures 6 & 7;
Place lighting in a position that will not be blocked by mature vegetation;
Avoid placement of unshielded lighting at eye level to avoid glare
(Paterson, 2006; Sarkissian & LaRocca, 2003; Queensland Government,
2003).

Figure 6: Lighting illumination Source: Queensland Government, 2003

Figure k Retaining walls and vegetation obscure the
entrance, providing a concealment point and a
possible entrapment location.
4.5 Lighting
Lighting can increase the perception of safety and
deter crime.
The following principles (illustrated in Figures l to o)
to promote suitable lighting:
! maximise the opportunities for penetration of
natural light into spaces
! use of multiple lights rather than single fittings to
provide consistent lighting levels and to reduce
contrast between shadow and light
! ensure all inset spaces, access and egress routes
and signage are well lit
! avoid lighting areas not intended for night time
use
! ensure that lighting illuminates pathways and
potential entrapment spaces rather than windows
and roads
! place lighting in a position that will not be
blocked by mature vegetation
! identify and light 'safe routes'
! avoid placement of 'unshielded' lighting at eye
level
! install lighting fixtures which are high mounted,
vandal resistant and deflect light downwards.
Figure l Lighting should illuminate footpaths, building
entrances and possible entrapment locations
Figure m Lighting is provided to adequately illuminate
footpaths and roadway areas
Figure n Multiple lights provide for consistent levels of
lighting


27

Figure 7: Multiple lights create consistent lighting Source: Queensland Government, 2003

Residential Minimum Design Standards:
All types of residential developments under the existing Land Development
Regulations would be suited to the following regulations:

Single Access Subdivisions
These are subdivisions with only one entry and exit point and may consist of any
number and configuration of internal roads. Single access subdivisions can create a
number of problems, including inhibiting emergency access, increasing traffic
congestion during peak hours and reducing connectivity (Center For Governmental
Responsibility, 1989). For small-scale subdivisions this may not be a problem and
may be permissible in some situations. Listokin & Walker (1989) recommend that
when a subdivision exceeds 20 lots (or 20 dwelling units) it should have at least two
access points.

Individual Lot Design
The creation of each individual lot in a subdivision should consider the placement of
future dwellings (if land being subdivided and sold without housing improvements)
or consideration of the placement of dwellings (if land is to be developed and sold
with housing). This should include appropriate orientation and available sunlight;
Figure k Retaining walls and vegetation obscure the
entrance, providing a concealment point and a
possible entrapment location.
4.5 Lighting
Lighting can increase the perception of safety and
deter crime.
The following principles (illustrated in Figures l to o)
to promote suitable lighting:
! maximise the opportunities for penetration of
natural light into spaces
! use of multiple lights rather than single fittings to
provide consistent lighting levels and to reduce
contrast between shadow and light
! ensure all inset spaces, access and egress routes
and signage are well lit
! avoid lighting areas not intended for night time
use
! ensure that lighting illuminates pathways and
potential entrapment spaces rather than windows
and roads
! place lighting in a position that will not be
blocked by mature vegetation
! identify and light 'safe routes'
! avoid placement of 'unshielded' lighting at eye
level
! install lighting fixtures which are high mounted,
vandal resistant and deflect light downwards.
Figure l Lighting should illuminate footpaths, building
entrances and possible entrapment locations
Figure m Lighting is provided to adequately illuminate
footpaths and roadway areas
Figure n Multiple lights provide for consistent levels of
lighting


28
allowances for private open space (POS) and overshadowing from development, both
existing and future; and the proximity to neighbors. Buildings should balance
provision of eyes on the street while maintaining privacy; this can be achieved
through permeable screening, rather than solid screening on windows. The orientation
and building design of townhouses, apartment blocks and multi-unit developments
should ensure that entrances to buildings are oriented to face open or active spaces
(Queensland Government, 2003). This is also appropriate to commercial building
design.

Commercial - Minimum Design Standards:
A section of the Land Development Regulations to govern all types of commercial
subdivisions could be appropriate to enforce wider reaching minimum design
standards and achieve better outcomes.

Joint Access
Joint access means that two or more lots share the same access point or driveway. If
developers are encouraged to join common parking areas and driveway ingress and
egress points it is possible to increase traffic flow and vehicle safety on the main road.
It also allows for a minimization of curb cuts, larger areas of landscaping (particularly
on the front boundary) and an increase in pedestrian safety. It can also produce a
cohesive image rather than a piecemeal landscape. Joint access is particularly well
suited to commercial development along transport corridors, such as Knox Abbott
Road. Section 6.10-3 of the Zoning Ordinance currently states, [w]here possible curb
cuts and driveways shall be combined on the 12
th
Street Ext. Rear access laneways
can also serve the same purpose as joint access.

Stormwater & Drainage
Drainage networks should be tightly linked with the landscaping component and
utilize open space for infiltration of runoff and stormwater retention while still
allowing for the stormwater system to maintain its principal function during heavy
rainfall. The application of techniques such as hydro-zoning, swales and gravel-
filled infiltration trenches is encouraged to make use of stormwater runoff on site and

29
to lessen the degree of polluted water passing into streams and lakes. The suitability
of these techniques and others needs to be investigated with regard to soil types and
utility services for the particular subject site (Apelt, 2003). Point source pollution
remediation should be used primarily where practicable, e.g. green roofs, rainwater
harvesting and rain gardens. Where this is not practicable the site or subdivision
should incorporate infiltration services, for example swales (differentiated from rain
gardens mainly because of their larger size), to catch what is not treated at the initial
source. The next best method of control, which would need to be connected to the
source site, is to have an externally placed bioremediation pond which will still
reduce flooding risk to the greater area and remove pollutants before entering
waterways. Plans submitted should show the swale/infiltration system design and
how it will work, including dimensions, plant species, slope, projected run-off and
capacity. These techniques offer great opportunities to curb Cayces existing
stormwater management problems.

Big-Box Retail
Big-box retail stores, usually occurring in the standard style, windowless shell,
dominate many towns in the US. These stores promise to provide low prices while
providing jobs in the community, however, they are usually pedestrian unfriendly;
destroy locally-owned small businesses; and reduce local jobs. They have negative
environmental impacts including, traffic congestion; loss of trees, open space and
farmland; promote sprawl; and have large parking lots adding large contributions to
stormwater infrastructure systems (Beumont & Tucker, 2002; Salkin, 2005).

Many municipalities such as those in Portland, OR, Peachtree, GA, Roswell, GA,
Fort Collins, CO, Fayetville, CO, and many places in California, have introduced
guidelines specifically for these large retail stores. Different approaches have been
used; some municipalities have opted for a cap on the size of retail stores (between
30,000 80,000 square feet) to reduce the size of the physical footprint (Beumont &
Tucker, 2002). Other municipalities, such as the City of Roswell, target the
architectural side of the development and prohibit large expanses of blank walls.
While these stores have not dominated Cayce, they are still very much a part of the
landscape, with examples at Big Kmart and Edenwood Plaza Shopping Center on the

30
Charleston Highway. These stores do not have any paths through the car park to the
entrances, do not have any landscaping in the parking lots, have autonomous facades,
and have poor walking connections to the surrounding community.

Below is a short list of techniques to reduce the negative impacts of these big-box
stores, which are not included in the Zoning Ordinance under Section 7.15 Large
Scale Commercial Development (Big-Box):
Create a local business only district;
Create a retail store size cap;
Place a maximum number of car parks (already exists at one-half times the
minimum under Section 6.6 of the Zoning Ordinance, but could be
reviewed);
Require any retail store over a certain size to be 2 storeys or more;
Ensure good connectivity: pedestrian and bicycle access; sidewalks must
link stores to streets, transit stops, building entrances and pedestrian
crossings;
Basic level of architectural variety: compatible scale with surrounding
community; prohibit long blank walls; require windows, awnings, and
other features to add positive visual impact to the store (Roskie, 2007).

Incentives:
Incentives reward and encourage sustainable and desirable development. Incentives
include maximum density relaxations (particularly in activity centers or mixed-use
developments); a reduction in fees and charges; and a streamlined development
process. Incentives could be gained by developers if they encourage transit-oriented
development, underground parking, affordable housing, community amenities or if
they are environmentally sensitive. Affordable housing benchmarks could be set by
the proportion of income that is spent on housing measured against income levels.
Community amenities have a public benefit and could include childcare facilities (a
goal in the Planning Cayce: 2010), park improvements and cultural services (City of
Kelowna, 2009). Environmentally sensitive development is best suited to the Land
Development Regulations while other incentives are suited better to Zoning
Ordinance. This could include incentives for developers to protect environmentally

31
important areas and disincentives to discourage land hog subdivisions consisting
entirely of house lots and streets. For example a significant density reduction (33
percent or more) in lot yield for developers who discount community open space
objectives (Arendt, 1996).

Incentives could also be provided to green businesses and green manufacturing,
which would promote the Planning Cayce: 2010 objective of attracting further
business and manufacturing jobs to the area. There are of course other ways to
promote green manufacturing and business in Cayce. A case study on the small town
of Morgan Hill, California, describes how that town attracted a renewable energy
sector. The town enacted a program with little sources of funding and on volunteer
labor. If the energy is produced and consumed in the same place, this will keep the
generated funds inside the community. It may also allow for the energy to be
exported to neighboring areas, such as Columbia, bringing money into Cayce,
particularly if it is a community-owned initiative. There are many renewable energy
strategies, both in terms of technology and financial approach (Lindabury et al.,
2007).

The fees and charges schedule is contained in the Land Development Regulations and
could be updated to reflect possible incentives listed above. The fee schedule could
also include additional charges Per Parking Lot just as it already does for Number
of Dwelling Units and charge a certain price for the first 25 car parks, and then
higher amounts for 25-50, 51-100, +100 car parks.

Summary of Recommendations:
This report has covered a range of topics but has focused on maintenance, parking
lots, connectivity standards, lighting and stormwater systems. These were the areas
which lacked stringent requirements the most and had the potential to yield the
greatest benefits.

Maintenance is a strong CPTED principle. Continued maintenance is crucial to the
on-going management of buildings and gardens. Run-down buildings attract further
misuse as opposed to cared-for buildings which reduce the fear of crime (Sarkissian

32
& LaRocca, 2003). Maintenance is also imperative for swales and landscaping to be
effective and ensure plant survival.

Parking lots are typically unsightly, have large impervious surfaces adding large
contributions to stormwater, pose a danger to pedestrians and cyclists, create an urban
heat island effect. These suggestions have attempted to alleviate negative effects by
increasing the amount of trees, natural water filtration systems and level of
connectivity. Parking lots also contribute to traffic congestion because of vehicles
entering and exiting the roadway. The suggestions under Joint Access can reduce
this congestion in some situations.

Connectivity standards have been addressed in this report as their benefits are large
and wide-reaching. A connected network of parks, natural areas, bike paths, schools
and commercial districts provides a great amount of opportunity for people to live
active, healthy lifestyles while also reducing carbon emissions and traffic congestion.

Lighting is another strong CPTED principle. It is powerful as it can suggest the areas
which are safe at night and the areas which are not and legitimize uses and users.

Stormwater has been another large focus of this report as it is a problem within
Cayce. It is also an important issue because of Cayces proximity to the Congaree
River. This report has addressed stormwater through recommending the use of careful
site selection and design sensitive to the natural features there; and addressing
stormwater remediation in developments, by using natural features, landscaping and
indigenous plant species, which can reduce stormwater loading.

The inclusion of pictures and illustrations into the Land Development Regulations
could provide developers with an image of the desired forms of development making
it easier and simpler for them to comply (APA, 2013).


33
Conclusion:
The purpose of this report was to present an overview of the current Land
Development Regulations and provide ideas, strategies and comparative policies to
promote desirable development outcomes. This report has looked at planning theories
which are being quickly adopted in the United States and around the world. This
report has not provided specific figures (e.g. for car parking allowances) as this needs
greater analysis for suitability to the City of Cayce.

The analysis has addressed the goals of this report to: improve the attractiveness of
Cayce as a place to live, work and visit; provide greater pedestrian and personal
safety; improve all types of transport networks; promote healthy and active lifestyles;
reduce long-term carbon emissions and better prepare Cayce to adapt to the impacts
of climate change; and, compliment the Planning Cayce: 2010, Comprehensive Plan.

A high portion of the suggestions will be able to be integrated into the Land
Development Regulations, particularly into the Minimum Design Standards. Some
suggestions will require a new section, others may require to be integrated into the
Zoning Ordinance rather than Land Development Regulation. A separate plan could
also be made and adopted where it is not possible to integrate suggestions in existing
regulations, to create a strong, holistic strategy (such as a Complete Streets Strategy).
This would need to be coordinated with other planning tools, e.g. the Zoning
Ordinance.


34
References:
Arendt, R. 1996, Environment Development: Creating Open Space Networks,
American Planning Association, Available:
<http://www.epa.gov/greenkit/pdfs/envdev1.pdf>

Arendt, R. 2011, Conservation Subdivision Handbook: A Guide For North Carolina
Communities In The Use Of Conservation Design For Land Use Planning,
NC State University.

American Planning Association 2013, Using Design Guidelines to Control Strip
Development, Available:
<https://www.planning.org/calendar/event.htm?EventID=22436>

Barbaro, G. 2006, Defining Realities: problems, not solutions, Available:
<http://www.corpgrowingpains.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/JCM-
Defining-Realities-2006.pdf>

Beaumont, C. & Tucker, L. 2002, Big-Box Sprawl; And How to Control It,
Municpal Lawyer, no. 7.

California ReLeaf, 2012. Street Trees, Research and Reports, Available:
<http://www.californiareleaf.org>

Center For Governmental Responsibility, 1989, Model Land Development &
Subdivision Regulations That Support Access Management for Florida
Cities and Counties, State of Florida Department of Community Affairs

City of Bulverde 2004, Sunrise 2025: A New City Prepares For A Bright Future,
Available:
<http://www.ci.bulverde.tx.us/default.aspx?name=plan_dev_sunrise_2025>

City of Cayce 2012, Cayce Zoning Ordinance, Available: <http://www.cityofcayce-
sc.gov/files/planning/Zoning%20Ordinance%202012.pdf>

35

City of Kelowna 2009, Developer Incentives, Available:
<http://www.kelowna.ca/CM/Page1662.aspx>

City of Spartanburg N.D., Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design,
Available: <http://www.cityofspartanburg.org/public-safety/police-
department/crime-prevention/environmental-design>

Duerksen, C. 1996, Site Planning for Large-Scale Retail Stores, PASMemo (APA),
pp. 1-4.

Healy, R. & Rossi, R. 2010, Cambridge Lighting Study Report, Community
Development Department, Available:
<https://www.cambridgema.gov/~/media/Files/CDD/Climate/lightingstudy/li
ghting_study_2010.ashx>

ICLEI, N.D. Successful Comprehensive Environmental Agenda in Morgan Hill,
California, Small Communities Toolkit.

Lindabury, S., Schmit, T., Howe, R. & Schusler, T. 2007, Municipal Approaches to
Energy Conservation and Renewable Energy Production: A Resource for
Community Energy Initiatives, CaRDI Reports, no. 3.

Listokin, D. & Walker, C. 1989, The Subdivision and Site Plan Handbook, The
State University of New Jersey.

Natural Lands Trust 2009, Model Conservation by Design Ordinance for
Pennsylvania: Growing Greener 2.0, Available:
<http://www.greenerprospects.com/PDFs/Growing%20Greener%20Version
%202.pdf>

National Crime Prevention Council, 2003, Crime Prevention Through Environmental
Design Guidebook, Public Affairs Department, Available:
<www.ncpc.gov.sg>

36

Paterson, A. 2006, Crime Prevention Through Environmnetal Design (CPTED)
Guidelines for Local Government, City Of Norwood Payneham & St Peters

Roskie, J. 2007, Controlling Big Box Development in Georgia, Land Use Clinic,
University of Georgia.

Salkin, P. 2005, Supersizing Small Town America: Using Regionalism to Right-Size
Big Box Retail, Vermont Journal of Environmental Law, vol. 6, Available:
<http://www.vjel.org/VJEL10027.html>

Sarkissian, W. & LaRocca, S. 2003, Illustrated CPTED Guidelines, Sarkissian
Associates Planners, Available: <http://sarkissian.com.au/wp-
content/uploads/2010/11/Working-paper-5-CPTED-final.pdf>

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2010, Local Government Climate and
Energy Strategy Guides: Smart Growth, Available:
<http://www.epa.gov/statelocalclimate/documents/pdf/smart_growth_guide.
pdf>

Queensland Government 2003, Crime Prevention Whole Policy, Available:
<http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/documents/plans_strategies/crime_preventi
on_whole_policy.pdf>

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