English as a global language

Second edition
DAVID CRYSTAL
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Contents
List of ta&les pa#e (ii
)reface to t%e second edition i>
)reface to t%e rst edition >ii
) -h; a global languageA )
-hat is a global languageA 2
-hat &a/es a global languageA 1
-h; do .e need a global languageA ))
-hat a%e the dange%s o6 a global languageA )+
Could an;thing sto' a global languageA (?
A c%itical e%a
(1
( -h; EnglishA The histo%ical conte>t (<
%igins 2,
A&e%ica 2)
Canada 2@
The Ca%ibbean 2<
Aust%alia and Ne. Bealand +,
South A6%ica +2
South Asia +@
!o%&e% colonial A6%ica +<
South0east Asia and the South Paci c ?+
A .o%ld :ie. ?<
:
*ontents
2 -h; EnglishA The cultu%al 6oundation 1(
Political de:elo'&ents 15
Access to /no.ledge 5,
Ta/en 6o% g%anted 52
+ -h; EnglishA The cultu%al legac; 5@
Inte%national %elations 5@
The &edia <,
The '%ess <)
Ad:e% tising <2
B%oadcasting <?
Cine&a <5
Po'ula% &usic ),,
Inte%national t%a:el ),+
Inte%national sa6et; ),@
Education )),
Co&&unications ))+
The %ight 'lace at the %ight ti&e )(,
?The 6utu%e o6 global English )(2
The %e=ection o6 English )(+
Cont%asting attitudes7 the US situation )(1
Ne. Englishes
)+,
The linguistic cha%acte% o6 ne. Englishes )+1
#%a&&a% )+1
Vocabula% ; )?5
Code0s.itching )@+
the% do&ains )@5
The 6utu%e o6 English as a .o%ld language )1(
An English 6a&il; o6 languagesA )11
A uniCue e:entA
)5<
+eferences )<(
,nde- (,(
:i
List o6 tables
) S'ea/e%s o6 English in te%%ito%ies .he%e the
language has had s'ecial %ele:ance 'age @(
( Annual g%o.th %ate in 'o'ulation in selected
count%ies$ )<<@D(,,) 1)
2EaF So&e di66e%ences in B%itish and A&e%ican
ad:e%bial usage )?,
EbF S'eci c ad:e%bGad=ecti:e 'ai%s sho.ing
di66e%ences in con:e%sational usage )?,
+ So&e 'otentiall; distincti:e g%a&&atical
6eatu%es o6 Ne. Englishes )?2
?So&e distincti:e collocations and idio&s
noted in Pa/istan$ Nige%ia and #hana )@2
:ii
)
-h; a global languageA
HEnglish is the global language9I
A headline o6 this /ind &ust ha:e a''ea%ed in a thousand ne.s0
'a'e%s and &aga3ines in %ecent ;ea%s9 HEnglish RulesI is an actual
e>a&'le$'%esenting to the .o%ld an unco&'licated scena%io sug0
gesting the uni:e%salit; o6 the languageIs s'%ead and the li/elihood
o6 its continuation9) A state&ent '%o&inentl; dis'la;ed in the
bod; o6 the associated a%ticle$&e&o%able chie ; 6o% its allite%ati:e
ingenuit;$%ein6o%ces the initial i&'%ession7 HThe B%itish E&'i%e
&a; be in 6ull %et%eat .ith the hando:e% o6 Hong *ong9 But 6%o&
Bengal to Beli3e and Las Vegas to Laho%e$the language o6 the
sce't%ed isle is %a'idl; beco&ing the %st global lingua 6%anca9I
"illennial %et%os'ecti:es and '%ognostications continued in the
sa&e :ein$.ith se:e%al &a=o% ne.s'a'e%s and &aga3ines nding
in the sub=ect o6 the English language an a't s;&bol 6o% the the&es
o6 globali3ation$di:e%si cation$'%og%ess and identit; add%essed in
thei% s'ecial editions9( Tele:ision '%og%a&&es and se%ies$too$ad0
d%essed the issue$and achie:ed .o%ld0.ide audiences92 Ce%tainl;$
b; the tu%n o6 the centu%;$the to'ic &ust ha:e &ade contact
) #lobe and "ail$To%onto$)( Jul; )<<19 ( R;an E)<<<F9
2 !o% e>a&'le$ Bac/ to Babel $a 6ou%0'a%t E6ou%0hou%F se%ies &ade in (,,) b;
In6onation$the l&0&a/ing cent%e .ithin the B%itish !o%eign and Co&0
&on.ealth 6 ce$had sold to si>t;06ou% count%ies b; (,,(9 The se%ies .as
notable 6o% its %ange o6 inte%:ie.s eliciting the attitudes to.a%ds English o6
use%s in se:e%al count%ies9 It .as also the %st se%ies to de:ote a signi cant
)
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
.ith &illions o6 'o'ula% intuitions at a le:el .hich had si&'l; not
e>isted a decade be6o%e9
These a%e the /inds o6 state&ent .hich see& so ob:ious that
&ost 'eo'le .ould gi:e the& ha%dl; a second thought9 6 cou%se
English is a global language$the; .ould sa;9 You hea% it on
tele:ision s'o/en b; 'oliticians 6%o& all o:e% the .o%ld9 -he%e:e%
;ou t%a:el$;ou see English signs and ad:e%tise&ents9 -hene:e%
;ou ente% a hotel o% %estau%ant in a 6o%eign cit;$the; .ill unde%0
stand English$and the%e .ill be an English &enu9 Indeed$i6 the%e
is an;thing to .onde% about at all$the; &ight add$it is .h; such
headlines should still be ne.s.o%th;9
But English is ne.s9 The language continues to &a/e ne.s dail;
in &an; count%ies9 And the headline isnIt stating the ob:ious9 !o%
.hat does it &ean$e>actl;A Is it sa;ing that e:e%;one in the .o%ld
s'ea/s EnglishA This is ce%tainl; not t%ue$as .e shall see9 Is it
sa;ing$then$that e:e% ; count%; in the .o%ld %ecogni3es English
as an o6 cial languageA This is not t% ue eithe%9 So .hat does it
&ean to sa; that a language is a global languageA -h; is English
the language .hich is usuall; cited in this connectionA Ho. did
the situation a%iseA And could it changeA % is it the case that$
once a language beco&es a global language$it is the%e 6o% e:e%A
These a%e 6ascinating Cuestions to e>'lo%e$.hethe% ;ou% %st
language is English o% not9 I6 English is ;ou% &othe% tongue$
;ou &a; ha:e &i>ed 6eelings about the .a; English is s'%eading
a%ound the .o%ld9 You &a; 6eel '%ide$that ;ou% language is the
one .hich has been so success6ulK but ;ou% '%ide &a; be tinged
.ith conce%n$.hen ;ou %eali3e that 'eo'le in othe% count%ies &a;
not .ant to use the language in the sa&e .a; that ;ou do$and
a%e changing it to suit the&sel:es9 -e a%e all sensiti:e to the .a;
othe% 'eo'le use Eit is o6ten said$abuseF Hou%I language9 Dee'l;
held 6eelings o6 o.ne%shi' begin to be Cuestioned9 Indeed$i6 the%e
is one '%edictable conseCuence o6 a language beco&ing a global
language$it is that nobod; o.ns it an; &o%e9 % %athe%$e:e%;one
.ho has lea%ned it no. o.ns it D Hhas a sha%e in itI &ight be &o%e
'a%t o6 a '%og%a&&e to the conseCuences 6o% endange%ed languages Esee
belo.$'9 (,F9 The se%ies beca&e a:ailable$.ith e>t%a 6ootage$on DVD in
(,,(7 ...9in6onation9o%g9u/9
(
.%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e/
accu%ate D and has the %ight to use it in the .a; the; .ant9 This
6act alone &a/es &an; 'eo'le 6eel unco&6o%table$e:en :aguel;
%esent6ul9 HLoo/ .hat the A&e%icans ha:e done to EnglishI is a not
unco&&on co&&ent 6ound in the lette%0colu&ns o6 the B%itish
'%ess9 But si&ila% co&&ents can be hea%d in the USA .hen 'eo'le
encounte% the so&eti&es st%i/ing :a%iations in English .hich a%e
e&e%ging all o:e% the .o%ld9
And i6 English is not ;ou% &othe% tongue$;ou &a; still ha:e
&i>ed 6eelings about it9 You &a; be st%ongl; &oti:ated to lea%n it$
because ;ou /no. it .ill 'ut ;ou in touch .ith &o%e 'eo'le than
an; othe% languageK but at the sa&e ti&e ;ou /no. it .ill ta/e a
g%eat deal o6 e66o%t to &aste% it$and ;ou &a; beg% udge that e66o%t9
Ha:ing &ade '%og%ess$;ou .ill 6eel '%ide in ;ou% achie:e&ent$
and sa:ou% the co&&unicati:e 'o.e% ;ou ha:e at ;ou% dis'osal$
but &a; none the less 6eel that &othe%0tongue s'ea/e%s o6 English
ha:e an un6ai% ad:antage o:e% ;ou9 And i6 ;ou li:e in a count% ;
.he%e the su% :i:al o6 ;ou% o.n language is th%eatened b; the
success o6 English$;ou &a; 6eel en:ious$%esent6ul$o% ang%;9 You
&a; st%ongl; ob=ect to the nai:et; o6 the 'o'ulist account$.ith
its si&'listic and o6ten suggesti:el; t%iu&'halist tone9
These 6eelings a%e natu%al$and .ould a%ise .hiche:e% language
e&e%ged as a global language9 The; a%e 6eelings .hich gi:e %ise
to 6ea%s$.hethe% %eal o% i&agina% ;$and 6ea%s lead to con ict9
Language &a%ches$language hunge%0st%i/es$language %ioting and
language deaths a%e a 6act$in se:e%al count%ies9 Political di66e%ences
o:e% language econo&ics$education$la.s and %ights a%e a dail;
encounte% 6o% &illions9 Language is al.a;s in the ne.s$and the
nea%e% a language &o:es to beco&ing a global language$the &o%e
ne.s.o%th; it is9 So ho. does a language co&e to achie:e global
statusA
What is a global language?
A language achie:es a genuinel; global status .hen it de:elo's
a s'ecial %ole that is %ecogni3ed in e:e%; count%;9 This &ight
see& li/e stating the ob:ious$but it is not$6o% the notion o6
Hs'ecial %oleI has &an; 6acets9 Such a %ole .ill be &ost e:ident in
count%ies .he%e la%ge nu&be%s o6 the 'eo'le s'ea/ the language
2
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
as a &othe% tongue D in the case o6 English$this .ould &ean the
USA$Canada$B%itain$I%eland$Aust%alia$Ne. Bealand$South
A6%ica$se:e%al Ca%ibbean count%ies and a s'%in/ling o6 othe% te%%i0
to%ies9 Ho.e:e%$no language has e:e% been s'o/en b; a &othe%0
tongue &a=o%it; in &o%e than a 6e. count%ies ES'anish leads$in
this %es'ect$in so&e t.ent; count%ies$chie ; in Latin A&e%icaF$so
&othe%0tongue use b; itsel6 cannot gi:e a language global status9
To achie:e such a status$a language has to be ta/en u' b; othe%
count%ies a%ound the .o%ld9 The; &ust decide to gi:e it a s'ecial
'lace .ithin thei% co&&unities$e:en though the; &a; ha:e 6e.
Eo% noF &othe%0tongue s'ea/e%s9
The%e a%e t.o &ain .a;s in .hich this can be done9 !i%stl;$a
language can be &ade the o6 cial language o6 a count% ;$to be used
as a &ediu& o6 co&&unication in such do&ains as go:e%n&ent$
the la. cou%ts$the &edia$and the educational s;ste&9 To get on
in these societies$it is essential to &aste% the o6 cial language as
ea%l; in li6e as 'ossible9 Such a language is o6ten desc%ibed as a
Hsecond languageI$because it is seen as a co&'le&ent to a 'e%0
sonIs &othe% tongue$o% H %st languageI9+ The %ole o6 an o6 cial
language is toda; best illust%ated b; English$.hich no. has so&e
/ind o6 s'ecial status in o:e% se:ent; count%ies$such as #hana$
Nige%ia$India$Singa'o%e and Vanuatu9 EA co&'lete list is gi:en at
the end o6 cha'te% (9F This is 6a% &o%e than the status achie:ed b;
an; othe% language D though !%ench$#e%&an$S'anish$Russian$
and A%abic a%e a&ong those .hich ha:e also de:elo'ed a consid0
e%able o6 cial use9 Ne. 'olitical decisions on the &atte% continue
to be &ade7 6o% e>a&'le$R.anda ga:e English o6 cial status
in )<<@9
Secondl;$a language can be &ade a '%io%it; in a count% ;Is
6o%eign0language teaching$e:en though this language has no o6 0
cial status9 It beco&es the language .hich child%en a%e &ost li/el;
to be taught .hen the; a%%i:e in school$and the one &ost a:ailable
+ The te%& Hsecond languageI needs to be used .ith caution D as indeed do
all te%&s %elating to language status9 The &ost i&'o%tant 'oint to note is
that in &an; 'a%ts o6 the .o%ld the te%& is not %elated to o6 cial status$
but si&'l; %e ects a notion o6 co&'etence o% use6ulness9 The%e is a long0
established t%adition 6o% the te%& .ithin the B%itish s'he%e o6 in uence$
but the%e is no co&'a%able histo%; in the USA9
+
.%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e/
to adults .ho D 6o% .hate:e% %eason D ne:e% lea%ned it$o% lea%ned
it badl;$in thei% ea%l; educational ;ea%s9 Russian$6o% e>a&'le$
held '%i:ileged status 6o% &an; ;ea%s a&ong the count%ies o6 the
6o%&e% So:iet Union9 "anda%in Chinese continues to 'la; an i&0
'o%tant %ole in South0east Asia9 English is no. the language &ost
.idel; taught as a 6o%eign language D in o:e% ),, count%ies$such
as China$Russia$#e%&an;$S'ain$Eg;'t and B%a3il D and in &ost
o6 these count%ies it is e&e%ging as the chie6 6o%eign language to be
encounte%ed in schools$o6ten dis'lacing anothe% language in the
'%ocess9 In )<<@$6o% e>a&'le$English %e'laced !%ench as the chie6
6o%eign language in schools in Alge%ia Ea 6o%&e% !%ench colon;F9
In %e ecting on these obse% :ations$it is i&'o%tant to note that
the%e a%e se:e%al .a;s in .hich a language can be o6 cial9 It &a; be
the sole o6 cial language o6 a count% ;$o% it &a; sha%e this status
.ith othe% languages9 And it &a; ha:e a Hse&i0o6 cialI status$
being used onl; in ce%tain do&ains$o% ta/ing second 'lace to
othe% languages .hile still 'e%6o%&ing ce%tain o6 cial %oles9 "an;
count%ies 6o%&all; ac/no.ledge a languageIs status in thei% con0
stitution Ee9g9 IndiaFK so&e &a/e no s'ecial &ention o6 it Ee9g9
B%itainF9 In ce%tain count%ies$the Cuestion o6 .hethe% the s'ecial
status should be legall; %ecogni3ed is a sou%ce o6 conside%able
cont%o:e%s; D notabl;$in the USA Esee cha'te% ?F9
Si&ila%l;$the%e is g%eat :a%iation in the %easons 6o% choosing
a 'a%ticula% language as a 6a:ou%ed 6o%eign language7 the; in0
clude histo%ical t%adition$'olitical e>'edienc;$and the desi%e 6o%
co&&e%cial$cultu%al o% technological contact9 Also$e:en .hen
chosen$the H'%esenceI o6 the language can :a%; g%eatl;$de'end0
ing on the e>tent to .hich a go:e%n&ent o% 6o%eign0aid agenc; is
'%e'a%ed to gi:e adeCuate nancial su''o%t to a language0teaching
'olic;9 In a .ell0su''o%ted en:i%on&ent$%esou%ces .ill be de:oted
to hel'ing 'eo'le ha:e access to the language and lea%n it$
th%ough the &edia$lib%a%ies$schools$and institutes o6 highe% ed0
ucation9 The%e .ill be an inc%ease in the nu&be% and Cualit; o6
teache%s able to teach the language9 Boo/s$ta'es$co&'ute%s$
teleco&&unication s;ste&s and all /inds o6 teaching &ate%ials
.ill be inc%easingl; a:ailable9 In &an; count%ies$ho.e:e%$lac/ o6
go:e%n&ent su''o%t$o% a sho%tage o6 6o%eign aid$has hinde%ed
the achie:e&ent o6 language0teaching goals9
?
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
Distinctions such as those bet.een H %stI$HsecondI and H6o%eignI
language status a%e use6ul$but .e &ust be ca%e6ul not to gi:e
the& a si&'listic inte%'%etation9 In 'a%ticula%$it is i&'o%tant to
a:oid inte%'%eting the distinction bet.een HsecondI and H6o%eignI
language use as a di66e%ence in uenc; o% abilit;9 Although .e
&ight e>'ect 'eo'le 6%o& a count% ; .he%e English has so&e so%t
o6 o6 cial status to be &o%e co&'etent in the language than those
.he%e it has none$si&'l; on g%ounds o6 g%eate% e>'osu%e$it tu%ns
out that this is not al.a;s so9 -e should note$6o% e>a&'le$the :e% ;
high le:els o6 uenc; de&onst%ated b; a .ide %ange o6 s'ea/e%s
6%o& the Scandina:ian count%ies and the Nethe%lands9 But .e
&ust also be.a%e int%oducing too sha%' a distinction bet.een
%st0language s'ea/e%s and the othe%s$es'eciall; in a .o%ld .he%e
child%en a%e being bo%n to 'a%ents .ho co&&unicate .ith each
othe% th%ough a lingua 6%anca lea%ned as a 6o%eign language9 In the
E&i%ates a 6e. ;ea%s ago$6o% e>a&'le$I &et a cou'le D a #e%&an
oil indust%ialist and a "ala;sian D .ho had cou%ted th%ough thei%
onl; co&&on language$English$and decided to b%ing u' thei%
child .ith English as the '%i&a%; language o6 the ho&e9 So he%e is
a bab; lea%ning English as a 6o%eign language as its &othe% tongue9
The%e a%e no. &an; such cases a%ound the .o%ld$and the; %aise a
Cuestion o:e% the cont%ibution that these babies .ill one da; &a/e
to the language$once the; g%o. u' to be i&'o%tant 'eo'le$6o%
thei% intuitions about English .ill ine:itabl; be di66e%ent 6%o&
those o6 t%aditional nati:e s'ea/e%s9
These 'oints add to the co&'le>it; o6 the '%esent0da; .o%ld
English situation$but the; do not alte% the 6unda&ental 'oint9
Because o6 the th%ee0'%onged de:elo'&ent D o6 %st0language$
second0language$and 6o%eign0language s'ea/e%s D it is ine:itable
that a global language .ill e:entuall; co&e to be used b; &o%e
'eo'le than an; othe% language9 English has al%ead; %eached this
stage9 The statistics collected in cha'te% ( suggest that about a
Cua%te% o6 the .o%ldIs 'o'ulation is al%ead; uent o% co&'etent
in English$and this gu%e is steadil; g%o.ing D in the ea%l; (,,,s
that &eans a%ound )9? billion 'eo'le9 No othe% language can
&atch this g%o.th9 E:en Chinese$6ound in eight di66e%ent s'o/en
languages$but uni ed b; a co&&on .%iting s;ste&$is /no.n to
Honl;I so&e )9) billion9
@
.%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e/
What makes a global language?
-h; a language beco&es a global language has little to do .ith
the nu&be% o6 'eo'le .ho s'ea/ it9 It is &uch &o%e to do .ith
.ho those s'ea/e%s a%e9 Latin beca&e an inte%national language
th%oughout the Ro&an E&'i%e$but this .as not because the
Ro&ans .e%e &o%e nu&e%ous than the 'eo'les the; sub=ugated9
The; .e%e si&'l; &o%e 'o.e% 6ul9 And late%$.hen Ro&an &ilita% ;
'o.e% declined$Latin %e&ained 6o% a &illenniu& as the inte%na0
tional language o6 education$than/s to a di66e%ent so%t o6 'o.e% D
the ecclesiastical 'o.e% o6 Ro&an Catholicis&9
The%e is the closest o6 lin/s bet.een language do&inance and
econo&ic$technological$and cultu%al 'o.e%$too$and this %ela0
tionshi' .ill beco&e inc%easingl; clea% as the histo%; o6 English is
told Esee cha'te%s ( D+F9 -ithout a st%ong 'o.e%0base$o6 .hate:e%
/ind$no language can &a/e '%og%ess as an inte%national &ediu&
o6 co&&unication9 Language has no inde'endent e>istence$li:0
ing in so&e so%t o6 &;stical s'ace a'a%t 6%o& the 'eo'le .ho
s'ea/ it9 Language e>ists onl; in the b%ains and &ouths and ea%s
and hands and e;es o6 its use%s9 -hen the; succeed$on the in0
te%national stage$thei% language succeeds9 -hen the; 6ail$thei%
language 6ails9
This 'oint &a; see& ob:ious$but it needs to be &ade at the
outset$because o:e% the ;ea%s &an; 'o'ula% and &isleading be0
lie6s ha:e g%o.n u' about .h; a language should beco&e inte%0
nationall; success6ul9 It is Cuite co&&on to hea% 'eo'le clai&
that a language is a 'a%agon$on account o6 its 'e%cei:ed aes0
thetic Cualities$cla%it; o6 e>'%ession$lite%a%; 'o.e%$o% %eligious
standing9 Heb%e.$#%ee/$Latin$A%abic and !%ench a%e a&ong
those .hich at :a%ious ti&es ha:e been lauded in such te%&s$and
English is no e>ce'tion9 It is o6ten suggested$6o% e>a&'le$that
the%e &ust be so&ething inhe%entl; beauti6ul o% logical about the
st%uctu%e o6 English$in o%de% to e>'lain .h; it is no. so .idel;
used9 HIt has less g%a&&a% than othe% languagesI$so&e ha:e sug0
gested9 HEnglish doesnIt ha:e a lot o6 endings on its .o%ds$no%
do .e ha:e to %e&e&be% the di66e%ence bet.een &asculine$6e&0
inine$and neute% gende%$so it &ust be easie% to lea%nI9 In )5+5$
a %e:ie.e% in the B%itish 'e%iodical The Athenaeu& .%ote7
1
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
In its easiness o6 g%a&&atical const%uction$in its 'aucit; o6 in ection$in
its al&ost total dis%ega%d o6 the distinctions o6 gende% e>ce'ting those o6
natu%e$in the si&'licit; and '%ecision o6 its te%&inations and au>ilia%;
:e%bs$not less than in the &a=est;$:igou% and co'iousness o6 its e>'%es0
sion$ou% &othe%0tongue see&s .ell ada'ted b; o%gani3ation to beco&e
the language o6 the .o%ld9
Such a%gu&ents a%e &isconcei:ed9 Latin .as once a &a=o%
inte%national language$des'ite its &an; in ectional endings and
gende% di66e%ences9 !%ench$too$has been such a language$des'ite
its nouns being &asculine o% 6e&inineK and so D at di66e%ent ti&es
and 'laces D ha:e the hea:il; in ected #%ee/$A%abic$S'anish and
Russian9 Ease o6 lea%ning has nothing to do .ith it9 Child%en o6
all cultu%es lea%n to tal/ o:e% &o%e o% less the sa&e 'e%iod o6 ti&e$
%ega%dless o6 the di66e%ences in the g%a&&a% o6 thei% languages9
And as 6o% the notion that English has Hno g%a&&a%I D a clai&
that is %isible to an;one .ho has e:e% had to lea%n it as a 6o%eign
language D the 'oint can be dis&issed b; a glance at an; o6 the
la%ge t.entieth0centu%; %e6e%ence g%a&&a%s9 The Co&'%ehensi:e
g%a&&a% o6 the English language$6o% e>a&'le$contains )$5,,
'ages and so&e 2$?,, 'oints %eCui%ing g%a&&atical e>'osition9?
This is not to den; that a language &a; ha:e ce%tain '%o'e%ties
.hich &a/e it inte%nationall; a''ealing9 !o% e>a&'le$lea%ne%s
so&eti&es co&&ent on the H6a&ilia%it;I o6 English :ocabula% ;$
de%i:ing 6%o& the .a; English has o:e% the centu%ies bo%%o.ed
thousands o6 ne. .o%ds 6%o& the languages .ith .hich it has
been in contact9 The H.elco&eI gi:en to 6o%eign :ocabula% ;
'laces English in cont%ast to so&e languages Enotabl;$!%enchF
.hich ha:e t%ied to /ee' it out$and gi:es it a cos&o'olitan
cha%acte% .hich &an; see as an ad:antage 6o% a global language9
!%o& a le>ical 'oint o6 :ie.$English is in 6act 6a% &o%e a Ro&ance
than a #e%&anic language9 And the%e ha:e been co&&ents &ade
about othe% st%uctu%al as'ects$too$such as the absence in English
? La%gel; 'oints to do .ith s;nta>$o6 cou%se$%athe% than the &o%'hological
e&'hasis .hich is .hat &an; 'eo'le$b%ought u' in the Latinate t%adi0
tion$thin/ g%a&&a% to be about9 The gu%e o6 2$?,, is de%i:ed 6%o& the
inde> .hich I co&'iled 6o% Lui%/$#%eenbau&$Leechand S:a%t:i/ E)<5?F$
e>cluding ent%ies .hich %elated solel; to le>ical ite&s9
5
.%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e/
g%a&&a% o6 a s;ste& o6 coding social class di66e%ences$.hich can
&a/e the language a''ea% &o%e Hde&oc%aticI to those .ho s'ea/
a language Ee9g9 Ja:aneseF that does e>'%ess an int%icate s;ste& o6
class %elationshi's9 But these su''osed t%aits o6 a''eal a%e inciden0
tal$and need to be .eighed against linguistic 6eatu%es .hich .ould
see& to be inte%nationall; &uch less desi%able D notabl;$in the case
o6 English$the accu&ulated i%%egula%ities o6 its s'elling s;ste&9
A language does not beco&e a global language because o6
its int%insic st%uctu%al '%o'e%ties$o% because o6 the si3e o6 its
:ocabula% ;$o% because it has been a :ehicle o6 a g%eat lite%atu%e
in the 'ast$o% because it .as once associated .ith a g%eat cultu%e
o% %eligion9 These a%e all 6acto%s .hich can &oti:ate so&eone
to lea%n a language$o6 cou%se$but none o6 the& alone$o% in
co&bination$can ensu%e a languageIs .o%ld s'%ead9 Indeed$
such 6acto%s cannot e:en gua%antee su% :i:al as a li:ing language D
as is clea% 6%o& the case o6 Latin$lea%ned toda; as a classical
language b; onl; a schola%l; and %eligious 6e.9 Co%%es'ondingl;$
incon:enient st%uctu%al '%o'e%ties Esuch as a./.a%d s'ellingF do
not sto' a language achie:ing inte%national status eithe%9
A language has t%aditionall; beco&e an inte%national language
6o% one chie6 %eason7 the 'o.e% o6 its 'eo'le D es'eciall; thei% 'o0
litical and &ilita%; 'o.e%9 The e>'lanation is the sa&e th%oughout
histo% ;9 -h; did #%ee/ beco&e a language o6 inte%national co&0
&unication in the "iddle East o:e% ($,,, ;ea%s agoA Not because
o6 the intellects o6 Plato and A%istotle7 the ans.e% lies in the s.o%ds
and s'ea%s .ielded b; the a%&ies o6 Ale>ande% the #%eat9 -h;
did Latin beco&e /no.n th%oughout Eu%o'eA As/ the legions o6
the Ro&an E&'i%e9 -h; did A%abic co&e to be s'o/en so .idel;
ac%oss no% the%n A6%ica and the "iddle EastA !ollo. the s'%ead o6
Isla&$ca%%ied along b; the 6o%ce o6 the "oo%ish a%&ies 6%o& the
eighth centu%;9 -h; did S'anish$Po%tuguese$and !%ench nd
thei% .a; into the A&e%icas$A6%ica and the !a% EastA Stud; the
colonial 'olicies o6 the Renaissance /ings and Cueens$and the .a;
these 'olicies .e%e %uthlessl; i&'le&ented b; a%&ies and na:ies all
o:e% the /no.n .o%ld9 The histo% ; o6 a global language can be
t%aced th%ough the success6ul e>'editions o6 its soldie%8sailo%
s'ea/e%s9 And English$as .e shall see in cha'te% ($has been no
e>ce'tion9
<
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
But inte%national language do&inance is not solel; the %esult
o6 &ilita%; &ight9 It &a; ta/e a &ilita%il; 'o.e%6ul nation to
establish a language$but it ta/es an econo&icall; 'o.e%6ul one to
&aintain and e>'and it9 This has al.a;s been the case$but it be0
ca&e a 'a%ticula%l; c%itical 6acto% in the nineteenth and t.entieth
centu%ies$.ith econo&ic de:elo'&ents beginning to o'e%ate on a
global scale$su''o% ted b; the ne. co&&unication technologies D
teleg%a'h$tele'hone$%adio D and 6oste%ing the e&e%gence o6
&assi:e &ultinational o%gani3ations9 The g%o.th o6 co&'etiti:e
indust% ; and business b%ought an e>'losion o6 inte%national
&a%/eting and ad:e%tising9 The 'o.e% o6 the '%ess %eached
un'%ecedented le:els$soon to be su%'assed b; the b%oadcasting
&edia$.ith thei% abilit; to c%oss national bounda%ies .ith
elect%o&agnetic ease9 Technolog;$chie ; in the 6o%& o6 &o:ies
and %eco%ds$6uelled ne. &ass ente%tain&ent indust%ies .hich
had a .o%ld.ide i&'act9 The d%i:e to &a/e '%og%ess in science
and technolog; 6oste%ed an inte%national intellectual and %esea%ch
en:i%on&ent .hich ga:e schola%shi' and 6u%the% education a high
'%o le9
An; language at the cent%e o6 such an e>'losion o6 inte%national
acti:it; .ould suddenl; ha:e 6ound itsel6 .ith a global status9 And
English$as .e shall see in cha'te%s 2 and +$.as a''a%entl; Hin the
%ight 'lace at the %ight ti&eI E'9 15F9 B; the beginning o6 the nine0
teenth centu% ;$B%itain had beco&e the .o%ldIs leading indust%ial
and t%ading count%;9 B; the end o6 the centu%;$the 'o'ulation o6
the USA Ethen a''%oaching ),, &illionF .as la%ge% than that o6
an; o6 the count%ies o6 .este%n Eu%o'e$and its econo&; .as the
&ost '%oducti:e and the 6astest g%o.ing in the .o%ld9 B%itish 'o0
litical i&'e%ialis& had sent English a%ound the globe$du%ing the
nineteenth centu% ;$so that it .as a language Hon .hich the sun
ne:e% setsI9@ Du%ing the t.entieth centu%;$this .o%ld '%esence
.as &aintained and '%o&oted al&ost single0handedl; th%ough
the econo&ic su'%e&ac; o6 the ne. A&e%ican su'e%'o.e%9 Eco0
no&ics %e'laced 'olitics as the chie6 d%i:ing 6o%ce9 And the lan0
guage behind the US dolla% .as English9
@ An e>'%ession ada'ted 6%o& the nineteenth0centu%; a'ho%is& about the
e>tent o6 the B%itish E&'i%e9 It continued to be used in the t.entieth
centu%;$6o% e>a&'le b; Randol'h Lui%/ E)<5?7 )F9
),
.%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e/
Why do we need a global language?
T%anslation has 'la;ed a cent%al Ethough o6ten un%ecogni3edF %ole
in hu&an inte%action 6o% thousands o6 ;ea%s9 -hen &ona%chs o%
a&bassado%s &et on the inte%national stage$the%e .ould in:a%i0
abl; be inte%'%ete%s '%esent9 But the%e a%e li&its to .hat can be
done in this .a;9 The &o%e a co&&unit; is linguisticall; &i>ed$
the less it can %el; on indi:iduals to ensu%e co&&unication be0
t.een di66e%ent g%ou's9 In co&&unities .he%e onl; t.o o% th%ee
languages a%e in contact$bilingualis& Eo% t%ilingualis&F is a 'ossi0
ble solution$6o% &ost ;oung child%en can acCui%e &o%e than one
language .ith unsel6conscious ease9 But in co&&unities .he%e
the%e a%e &an; languages in contact$as in &uch o6 A6%ica and
South0east Asia$such a natu%al solution does not %eadil; a''l;9
The '%oble& has t%aditionall; been sol:ed b; nding a language
to act as a lingua 6%anca$o% Hco&&on languageI9 So&eti&es$
.hen co&&unities begin to t%ade .ith each othe%$the; co&0
&unicate b; ado'ting a si&'li ed language$/no.n as a 'idgin$
.hich co&bines ele&ents o6 thei% di66e%ent languages91 "an; such
'idgin languages su% :i:e toda; in te%%ito%ies .hich 6o%&e%l; be0
longed to the Eu%o'ean colonial nations$and act as lingua 6%ancasK
6o% e>a&'le$-est A6%ican Pidgin English is used e>tensi:el;
bet.een se:e%al ethnic g%ou's along the -est A6%ican coast9 So&e0
ti&es an indigenous language e&e%ges as a lingua 6%anca D usuall;
the language o6 the &ost 'o.e%6ul ethnic g%ou' in the a%ea$as in
the case o6 "anda%in Chinese9 The othe% g%ou's then lea%n this
language .ith :a%;ing success$and thus beco&e to so&e deg%ee
bilingual9 But &ost o6ten$a language is acce'ted 6%o& outside the
co&&unit;$such as English o% !%ench$because o6 the 'olitical$
econo&ic$o% %eligious in uence o6 a 6o%eign 'o.e%9
The geog%a'hical e>tent to .hich a lingua 6%anca can be used is
enti%el; go:e%ned b; 'olitical 6acto%s9 "an; lingua 6%ancas e>tend
o:e% Cuite s&all do&ains D bet.een a 6e. ethnic g%ou's in one
'a%t o6 a single count%;$o% lin/ing the t%ading 'o'ulations o6 =ust
a 6e. count%ies$as in the -est A6%ican case9 B; cont%ast$Latin .as
a lingua 6%anca th%oughout the .hole o6 the Ro&an E&'i%e D at
1 !o% the %ise o6 'idgin Englishes$see Todd E)<5+F9
))
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
least$at the le:el o6 go:e%n&ent E:e%; 6e. Ho%dina% ;I 'eo'le in
the sub=ugated do&ains .ould ha:e s'o/en &uch LatinF9 And in
&ode%n ti&es S.ahili$A%abic$S'anish$!%ench$English$Hindi$
Po%tuguese and se:e%al othe% languages ha:e de:elo'ed a &a=o%
inte%national %ole as a lingua 6%anca$in li&ited a%eas o6 the .o%ld9
The '%os'ect that a lingua 6%anca &ight be needed 6o% the .hole
.o%ld is so&ething .hich has e&e%ged st%ongl; onl; in the t.en0
tieth centu% ;$and since the )<?,s in 'a%ticula%9 The chie6 inte%na0
tional 6o%u& 6o% 'olitical co&&unication D the United Nations D
dates onl; 6%o& )<+?9 Since then$&an; inte%national bodies
ha:e co&e into being$such as the -o%ld Ban/ Ealso )<+?F$
UNESC and UNICE! Eboth )<+@F$the -o%ld Health %0
gani3ation E)<+5F and the Inte%national Ato&ic Ene%g; Agenc;
E)<?1F9 Ne:e% be6o%e ha:e so &an; count%ies Ea%ound )<,$in
the case o6 so&e UN bodiesF been %e'%esented in single &eeting0
'laces9 At a &o%e %est%icted le:el$&ultinational %egional o% 'oliti0
cal g%ou'ings ha:e co&e into being$such as the Co&&on.ealth
and the Eu%o'ean Union9 The '%essu%e to ado't a single lingua
6%anca$to 6acilitate co&&unication in such conte>ts$is conside%0
able$the alte%nati:e being e>'ensi:e and i&'%acticable &ulti0.a;
t%anslation 6acilities9
Usuall; a s&all nu&be% o6 languages ha:e been designated o60
cial languages 6o% an o%gani3ationIs acti:ities7 6o% e>a&'le$the
UN .as established .ith :e o6 cial languages D English$!%ench$
S'anish$Russian and Chinese9 The%e is no. a .ides'%ead :ie.
that it &a/es sense to t%; to %educe the nu&be%s o6 languages
in:ol:ed in .o%ld bodies$i6 onl; to cut do.n on the :ast a&ount
o6 inte%'%etation8t%anslation and cle%ical .o%/ %eCui%ed9 Hal6 the
budget o6 an inte%national o%gani3ation can easil; get s.allo.ed
u' in t%anslation costs9 But t%i&&ing a t%anslation budget is ne:e%
eas;$as ob:iousl; no count% ; li/es the thought o6 its language
being gi:en a %educed inte%national standing9 Language choice is
al.a;s one o6 the &ost sensiti:e issues 6acing a 'lanning co&&it0
tee9 The co&&on situation is one .he%e a co&&ittee does not
ha:e to be in:ol:ed D .he%e all the 'a%tici'ants at an inte%national
&eeting auto&aticall; use a single language$as a utilita%ian &ea0
su%e Ea H.o%/ing languageIF$because it is one .hich the; ha:e
all co&e to lea%n 6o% se'a%ate %easons9 This situation see&s to be
)(
.%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e/
slo.l; beco&ing a %ealit; in &eetings a%ound the .o%ld$as gene%al
co&'etence in English g%o.s9
The need 6o% a global language is 'a%ticula%l; a''%eciated b; the
inte%national acade&ic and business co&&unities$and it is he%e
that the ado'tion o6 a single lingua 6%anca is &ost in e:idence$both
in lectu%e0%oo&s and boa%d0%oo&s$as .ell as in thousands o6 indi0
:idual contacts being &ade dail; all o:e% the globe9 A con:e%sation
o:e% the Inte%net Esee cha'te% +F bet.een acade&ic 'h;sicists in
S.eden$Ital;$and India is at '%esent '%acticable onl; i6 a co&0
&on language is a:ailable9 A situation .he%e a Ja'anese co&'an;
di%ecto% a%%anges to &eet #e%&an and Saudi A%abian contacts in
a Singa'o%e hotel to 'lan a &ulti0national deal .ould not be i&0
'ossible$i6 each 'lugged in to a 20.a; t%anslation su''o%t s;ste&$
but it .ould be 6a% &o%e co&'licated than the alte%nati:e$.hich
is 6o% each to &a/e use o6 the sa&e language9
As these e>a&'les suggest$the g%o.th in inte%national con0
tacts has been la%gel; the %esult o6 t.o se'a%ate de:elo'&ents9 The
'h;sicists .ould not be tal/ing so con:enientl; to each othe% at all
.ithout the technolog; o6 &ode%n co&&unication9 And the busi0
ness contacts .ould be unable to &eet so easil; in Singa'o%e .ith0
out the technolog; o6 ai% t%ans'o%tation9 The a:ailabilit; o6 both
these 6acilities in the t.entieth centu% ;$&o%e than an;thing else$
'%o:ided the ci%cu&stances needed 6o% a global language to g%o.9
Peo'le ha:e$in sho%t$beco&e &o%e &obile$both 'h;sicall;
and elect%onicall;9 Annual ai%line statistics sho. that steadil; in0
c%easing nu&be%s a%e nding the &oti:ation as .ell as the &eans
to t%ans'o%t the&sel:es 'h;sicall; a%ound the globe$and sales o6
6a>es$&ode&s$and 'e%sonal co&'ute%s sho. an e:en g%eate% in0
c%ease in those '%e'a%ed to send thei% ideas in .o%ds and i&ages
elect%onicall;9 It is no. 'ossible$using elect%onic &ail$to co';
a &essage to hund%eds o6 locations all o:e% the .o%ld :i%tuall;
si&ultaneousl;9 It is =ust as eas; 6o% &e to send a &essage 6%o& &;
house in the s&all to.n o6 Hol;head$No%th -ales$to a 6%iend
in -ashington as it is to get the sa&e &essage to so&eone li:ing
=ust a 6e. st%eets a.a; 6%o& &e9 In 6act$it is '%obabl; easie%9 That
is .h; 'eo'le so o6ten tal/$these da;s$o6 the Hglobal :illageI9
These t%ends .ould be ta/ing 'lace$'%esu&abl;$i6 onl; a
hand6ul o6 count%ies .e%e tal/ing to each othe%9 -hat has been so
)2
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
i&'%essi:e about the de:elo'&ents .hich ha:e ta/en 'lace since
the )<?,s is that the; ha:e a66ected$to a g%eate% o% lesse% e>tent$
e:e%; count%; in the .o%ld$and that so &an; count%ies ha:e co&e
to be in:ol:ed9 The%e is no nation no. .hich does not ha:e so&e
le:el o6 accessibilit; using tele'hone$%adio$tele:ision$and ai%
t%ans'o%t$though 6acilities such as 6a>$elect%onic &ail and the
Inte%net a%e &uch less .idel; a:ailable9
The scale and %ecenc; o6 the de:elo'&ent has to be a''%eciated9
In )<+?$the United Nations began li6e .ith ?) &e&be% states9
B; )<?@ this had %isen to 5, &e&be%s9 But the inde'endence
&o:e&ents .hich began at that ti&e led to a &assi:e inc%ease
in the nu&be% o6 ne. nations du%ing the ne>t decade$and this
'%ocess continued steadil; into the )<<,s$6ollo.ing the colla'se
o6 the USSR9 The%e .e%e )<, &e&be% states in (,,( D nea%l; 6ou%
ti&es as &an; as the%e .e%e 6t; ;ea%s ago9 And the t%end &a;
not ;et be o:e%$gi:en the g%o.th o6 so &an; %egional nationalistic
&o:e&ents .o%ld.ide9
The%e a%e no '%ecedents in hu&an histo%; 6o% .hat ha''ens
to languages$in such ci%cu&stances o6 %a'id change9 The%e has
ne:e% been a ti&e .hen so &an; nations .e%e needing to tal/ to
each othe% so &uch9 The%e has ne:e% been a ti&e .hen so &an;
'eo'le .ished to t%a:el to so &an; 'laces9 The%e has ne:e% been
such a st%ain 'laced on the con:entional %esou%ces o6 t%anslat0
ing and inte%'%eting9 Ne:e% has the need 6o% &o%e .ides'%ead
bilingualis& been g%eate%$to ease the bu%den 'laced on the '%o0
6essional 6e.9 And ne:e% has the%e been a &o%e u%gent need 6o% a
global language9
What are the dangers of a global language?
The bene ts .hich .ould o. 6%o& the e>istence o6 a global
language a%e conside%ableK but se:e%al co&&entato%s ha:e 'ointed
to 'ossible %is/s95 Pe%ha's a global language .ill culti:ate an elite
&onolingual linguistic class$&o%e co&'lacent and dis&issi:e in
5 These %is/s$and all the associated 'oints discussed in this section$a%e gi:en
a 6ull t%eat&ent in the co&'anion :olu&e to this one$ Language death
EC%;stal (,,,F9
)+
.%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e/
thei% attitudes to.a%ds othe% languages9 Pe%ha's those .ho ha:e
such a language at thei% dis'osal D and es'eciall; those .ho ha:e it
as a &othe%0tongue D .ill be &o%e able to thin/ and .o%/ Cuic/l;
in it$and to &ani'ulate it to thei% o.n ad:antage at the e>'ense
o6 those .ho do not ha:e it$thus &aintaining in a linguistic guise
the chas& bet.een %ich and 'oo%9 Pe%ha's the '%esence o6 a global
language .ill &a/e 'eo'le la3; about lea%ning othe% languages$o%
%educe thei% o''o%tunities to do so9 Pe%ha's a global language .ill
hasten the disa''ea%ance o6 &ino%it; languages$o% D the ulti&ate
th%eat D &a/e all othe% languages unnecessa% ;9 HA 'e%son needs
onl; one language to tal/ to so&eone elseI$it is so&eti&es a%gued$
Hand once a .o%ld language is in 'lace$othe% languages .ill si&'l;
die a.a;I9 Lin/ed .ith all this is the un'alatable 6ace o6 linguistic
t%iu&'halis& D the dange% that so&e 'eo'le .ill celeb%ate one
languageIs success at the e>'ense o6 othe%s9
It is i&'o%tant to 6ace u' to these 6ea%s$and to %ecogni3e that
the; a%e .idel; held9 The%e is no sho%tage o6 &othe%0tongue
English s'ea/e%s .ho belie:e in an e:olutiona%; :ie. o6 language
EHlet the ttest su%:i:e$and i6 the ttest ha''ens to be English$
then so be itIF o% .ho %e6e% to the '%esent global status o6 the
language as a Hha''; accidentI9 The%e a%e &an; .ho thin/ that
all language lea%ning is a .aste o6 ti&e9 And &an; &o%e .ho see
nothing .%ong .ith the :ision that a .o%ld .ith =ust one language
in it .ould be a :e%; good thing9 !o% so&e$such a .o%ld .ould be
one o6 unit; and 'eace$.ith all &isunde%standing .ashed a.a; D
a .idel; e>'%essed ho'e unde%l;ing the &o:e&ents in su''o%t
o6 a uni:e%sal a%ti cial language Esuch as Es'e%antoF9 !o% othe%s$
such a .o%ld .ould be a desi%able %etu%n to the HinnocenceI that
&ust ha:e been '%esent a&ong hu&an beings in the da;s be6o%e
the To.e% o6 Babel9<
It is di6 cult to deal .ith an>ieties .hich a%e so s'eculati:e$o%$
in the absence o6 e:idence$to dete%&ine .hethe% an;thing can
< The Babel &;th is 'a%ticula%l; .idel; held$because o6 its status as 'a%t o6
a biblical na%%ati:e E#enesis$cha'te% ))F9 E:en in biblical te%&s$ho.e:e%$
the%e is no g%ound 6o% sa;ing that Babel int%oduced &ultilingualis& as a
Hcu%seI o% H'unish&entI9 Languages .e%e al%ead; in e>istence be6o%e Babel$
as .e lea%n 6%o& #enesis$cha'te% ),$.he%e the sons o6 Ja'heth a%e listed
Hacco%ding to thei% count%ies and each o6 thei% languagesI9 See Eco E)<<?F9
)?
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
be done to %educe o% eli&inate the&9 The last 'oint can be Cuite
b%ie ; dis&issed7 the use o6 a single language b; a co&&unit; is
no gua%antee o6 social ha%&on; o% &utual unde%standing$as has
been %e'eatedl; seen in .o%ld histo%; Ee9g9 the A&e%ican Ci:il
-a%$the S'anish Ci:il -a%$the Vietna& -a%$6o%&e% Yugosla:ia$
conte&'o%a%; No%the%n I%elandFK no% does the '%esence o6 &o%e
than one language .ithin a co&&unit; necessitate ci:il st%i6e$as
seen in se:e%al success6ul e>a&'les o6 'eace6ul &ultilingual coe>0
istence Ee9g9 !inland$Singa'o%e$S.it3e%landF9 The othe% 'oints$
ho.e:e%$need to be ta/en &o%e slo.l;$to a''%eciate the alte%na0
ti:e 'e%s'ecti:e9 The a%gu&ents a%e each illust%ated .ith %e6e%ence
to English D but the sa&e a%gu&ents .ould a''l; .hate:e% lan0
guage .as in the %unning 6o% global status9
% Linguistic 'o.e% -ill those .ho s'ea/ a global language as a
&othe% tongue auto&aticall; be in a 'osition o6 'o.e% co&'a%ed
.ith those .ho ha:e to lea%n it as an o6 cial o% 6o%eign languageA
The %is/ is ce%tainl; %eal9 It is 'ossible$6o% e>a&'le$that scientists
.ho do not ha:e English as a &othe% tongue .ill ta/e longe% to
assi&ilate %e'o%ts in English co&'a%ed .ith thei% &othe%0tongue
colleagues$and .ill as a conseCuence ha:e less ti&e to ca%%; out
thei% o.n c%eati:e .o%/9 It is 'ossible that 'eo'le .ho .%ite u'
thei% %esea%ch in languages othe% than English .ill ha:e thei% .o%/
igno%ed b; the inte%national co&&unit;9 It is 'ossible that senio%
&anage%s .ho do not ha:e English as a &othe% tongue$and .ho
nd the&sel:es .o%/ing 6o% English0language co&'anies in such
'a%ts o6 the .o%ld as Eu%o'e o% A6%ica$could nd the&sel:es
at a disad:antage co&'a%ed .ith thei% &othe%0tongue colleagues$
es'eciall; .hen &eetings in:ol:e the use o6in6o%&al s'eech9 The%e
is al%ead; anecdotal e:idence to suggest that these things ha''en9
Ho.e:e%$i6 '%o'e% attention is 'aid to the Cuestion o6 language
lea%ning$the '%oble& o6 disad:antage d%a&aticall; di&inishes9
I6 a global language is taught ea%l; enough$6%o& the ti&e that
child%en begin thei% 6ull0ti&e education$and i6 it is &aintained
continuousl; and %esou%ced .ell$the /ind o6 linguistic co&'e0
tence .hich e&e%ges in due cou%se is a %eal and 'o.e% 6ul bilin0
gualis&$indistinguishable 6%o& that 6ound in an; s'ea/e% .ho has
encounte%ed the language since bi%th9 These a%e eno%&ous Hi6sI$
)@
.%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e/
.ith costl; nancial i&'lications$and it is the%e6o%e not su%'%ising
that this /ind o6 cont%ol is cu%%entl; achie:ed b; onl; a &ino%it;
o6 non0nati:e lea%ne%s o6 an; languageK but the 6act that it is
achie:able Eas e:idenced %e'eatedl; b; English s'ea/e%s 6%o& such
count%ies as Den&a%/$S.eden and the Nethe%landsF indicates
that the%e is nothing ine:itable about the disad:antage scena%io9
It is .o%th %e ecting$at this 'oint$on the notion that child%en
a%e bo%n %ead; 6o% bilingualis&9 So&e t.o0thi%ds o6 the child%en
on ea%th g%o. u' in a bilingual en:i%on&ent$and de:elo' co&0
'etence in it9 The%e is a natu%alness .ith .hich the; assi&ilate
anothe% language$once the; a%e %egula%l; e>'osed to it$.hich
is the en:; o6 adults9 It is an abilit; .hich see&s to die a.a; as
child%en %each thei% teens$and &uch acade&ic debate has been
de:oted to the Cuestion o6 .h; this should be Ethe Cuestion o6
Hc%itical 'e%iodsIF9), The%e is ho.e:e% .ides'%ead ag%ee&ent that$
i6 .e .ant to ta/e the tas/ o6 6o%eign language lea%ning se%iousl;$
one o6 the /e; '%inci'les is Hthe ea%lie% the bette%I9 And .hen that
tas/ is ta/en se%iousl;$.ith %e6e%ence to the acCuisition o6 a global
language$the elitis& a%gu&ent e:a'o%ates9
% Linguistic co&'lacenc; -ill a global language eli&inate the
&oti:ation 6o% adults to lea%n othe% languagesA He%e too the '%ob0
le& is %eal enough9 Clea% signs o6 linguistic co&'lacenc;$co&&on
obse%:ation suggests$a%e al%ead; '%esent in the a%chet;'al B%itish
o% A&e%ican tou%ist .ho t%a:els the .o%ld assu&ing that e:e%;one
s'ea/s English$and that it is so&eho. the 6ault o6 the local 'eo0
'le i6 the; do not9 The ste%eot;'e o6 an English tou%ist %e'eatedl;
as/ing a 6o%eign .aite% 6o% tea in a loud H%ead &; li'sI :oice is too
nea% the %ealit; to be co&6o%table9 The%e see&s al%ead; to be a
genuine$.ides'%ead lac/ o6 &oti:ation to lea%n othe% languages$
6uelled 'a%tl; b; lac/ o6 &one; and o''o%tunit;$but also b; lac/ o6
inte%est$and this &ight .ell be 6oste%ed b; the inc%easing '%esence
o6 English as a global language9
It is i&'o%tant to a''%eciate that .e a%e dealing he%e .ith
Cuestions o6 attitude o% state o6 &ind %athe% than Cuestions o6
), !o% bilingual acCuisition$see De Hou.e% E)<<?F$Ba/e% and P%;s Jones
E)<<5F9
)1
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
abilit; D though it is the latte% .hich is o6ten cited as the e>'lana0
tion9 HII& no good at languagesI is '%obabl; the &ost .idel; hea%d
a'olog; 6o% not &a/ing an; e66o%t at all to acCui%e e:en a basic
/no.ledge o6 a ne. language9 Co&&onl;$this sel60denig%ation
de%i:es 6%o& an unsatis6acto%; language lea%ning e>'e%ience in
school7 the s'ea/e% is 'e%ha's %e&e&be%ing a 'oo% %esult in school
e>a&inations D .hich &a; %e ect no &o%e than an unsuccess0
6ul teaching a''%oach o% a not unusual b%ea/do.n in teache%D
adolescent %elationshi's9 HI ne:e% got on .ith &; !%ench teache%I
is anothe% t;'ical co&&ent9 But this does not sto' 'eo'le going
on to gene%ali3e that Hthe B%itish Eo% the A&e%icans$etc9F a%e not
:e% ; good at lea%ning languagesI9
These da;s$the%e a%e clea% signs o6 g%o.ing a.a%eness$.ithin
English0s'ea/ing co&&unities$o6 the need to b%ea/ a.a; 6%o&
the t%aditional &onolingual bias9)) In econo&icall; ha%d0'%essed
ti&es$success in boosting e>'o%ts and att%acting 6o%eign in:est0
&ent can de'end on subtle 6acto%s$and sensiti:it; to the language
s'o/en b; a count%;Is 'otential 6o%eign 'a%tne%s is /no.n to be
'a%ticula%l; in uential9)( At least at the le:els o6 business and in0
dust%;$&an; %&s ha:e begun to &a/e 6%esh e66o%ts in this di0
%ection9 But at g%ass0%oots tou%ist le:el$too$the%e a%e signs o6
a g%o.ing %es'ect 6o% othe% cultu%es$and a g%eate% %eadiness to
engage in language lea%ning9 Language attitudes a%e changing all
the ti&e$and &o%e and &o%e 'eo'le a%e disco:e%ing$to thei%
g%eat delight$that the; a%e not at all bad at 'ic/ing u' a 6o%eign
language9
In 'a%ticula%$state&ents 6%o& in uential 'oliticians and ad&in0
ist%ato%s a%e beginning to be &ade .hich a%e hel'ing to 6oste%
a 6%esh cli&ate o6 o'inion about the i&'o%tance o6 language
lea%ning9 A good e>a&'le is an add%ess gi:en in )<<@ b;
the 6o%&e% sec%eta% ;0gene%al o6 the Co&&on.ealth$Si% S%idath
)) The a.a%eness is b; no &eans %est%icted to English0s'ea/ing co&&uni0
ties$as .as de&onst%ated b; the s'%ead o6 acti:ities associated .ith the
Eu%o'ean Yea% o6 Languages$(,,) EEu%o'ean Co&&ission E(,,(aFF9
)( !o% econo&ic a%gu&ents in su''o%t o6 &ultilingualis& and 6o%eign lan0
guage lea%ning$see the )<<@ issue o6 the Inte%national Jou%nal o6 the
Sociolog; o6 Language on HEcono&ic A''%oaches to Language and Lan0
guage PlanningIK also Coul&as E)<<(F9
)5
.%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e/
Ra&'hal9 His title$H-o%ld language7 o''o%tunities$challenges$
%es'onsibilitiesI$itsel6 contains a co%%ecti:e to t%iu&'halist thin/0
ing$and his te>t %e'eatedl; a%gues against it7)2
It is all too eas; to &a/e ;ou% .a; in the .o%ld linguisticall; .ith
English as ;ou% &othe% tongue 9 9 9 -e beco&e la3; about lea%ning othe%
languages999-e all ha:e to &a/e a g%eate% e66o%t9 English &a; be the
.o%ld languageK but it is not the .o%ldIs onl; language and i6 .e a%e to
be good global neighbou%s .e shall ha:e to be less condescending to
the languages o6 the .o%ld D &o%e assiduous in culti:ating acCuaintance
.ith the&9
It %e&ains to be seen .hethe% such a6 %&ations o6 good .ill ha:e
long0te%& e66ect9 In the &eanti&e$it is saluta%; to %ead so&e
o6 the co&'a%ati:e statistics about 6o%eign language lea%ning9
!o% e>a&'le$a Eu%o'ean Business Su%:e; b; #%ant Tho%nton
%e'o%ted in )<<@ that <, 'e% cent o6 businesses in Belgiu&$The
Nethe%lands$Lu>e&bou%g and #%eece had an e>ecuti:e able to
negotiate in anothe% language$.he%eas onl; 25 'e% cent o6 B%itish
co&'anies had so&eone .ho could do so9 In (,,( the gu%es
%e&ained high 6o% &ost Eu%o'ean count%ies in the su%:e;$but
had 6allen to (< 'e% cent in B%itain9)+ The U*0based Cent%e 6o%
In6o%&ation on Language Teaching and Resea%ch 6ound that a
thi%d o6 B%itish e>'o%te%s &iss o''o%tunities because o6 'oo% lan0
guage s/ills9)? And English0&onolingual co&'anies a%e inc%eas0
ingl; encounte%ing language di6 culties as the; t% ; to e>'and in
those a%eas o6 the .o%ld thought to ha:e g%eatest '%os'ects o6
g%o.th$such as East Asia$South A&e%ica$and Easte%n Eu%o'e D
a%eas .he%e English has t%aditionall; had a %elati:el; lo. '%es0
ence9 The issues a%e beginning to be add%essed D 6o% e>a&'le$
&an; Aust%alian schools no. teach Ja'anese as the %st 6o%eign
language$and both the USA and U* a%e no. 'a;ing &o%e atten0
tion to S'anish E.hich$in te%&s o6 &othe%0tongue use$is g%o.ing
&o%e %a'idl; than EnglishF D but .e a%e still a long .a; 6%o& a
.o%ld .he%e the econo&ic and othe% a%gu&ents ha:e uni:e%sall;
)2 Ra&'hal E)<<@F9 )+ #%ant Tho%nton E(,,(F9
)? !o% a %ecent state&ent$see CILT E(,,(F9
)<
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
'e%suaded the English0s'ea/ing nations to %enounce thei% linguis0
tic insula%it;9
% Linguistic death -ill the e&e%gence o6 a global language
hasten the disa''ea%ance o6 &ino%it; languages and cause .ide0
s'%ead language deathA To ans.e% this Cuestion$.e &ust %st
establish a gene%al 'e%s'ecti:e9 The '%ocesses o6 language do&0
ination and loss ha:e been /no.n th%oughout linguistic histo% ;$
and e>ist inde'endentl; o6 the e&e%gence o6 a global language9
No one /no.s ho. &an; languages ha:e died since hu&ans be0
ca&e able to s'ea/$but it &ust be thousands9 In &an; o6 these
cases$the death has been caused b; an ethnic g%ou' co&ing to be
assi&ilated .ithin a &o%e do&inant societ;$and ado'ting its lan0
guage9 The situation continues toda;$though the &atte% is being
discussed .ith inc%easing u%genc; because o6 the un'%ecedented
%ate at .hich indigenous languages a%e being lost$es'eciall; in
No%th A&e%ica$B%a3il$Aust%alia$Indonesia and 'a%ts o6 A6%ica9
At least ?, 'e% cent o6 the .o%ldIs @$,,, o% so li:ing languages
.ill die out .ithin the ne>t centu%;9)@
This is indeed an intellectual and social t%aged;9 -hen a lan0
guage dies$so &uch is lost9 Es'eciall; in languages .hich ha:e
ne:e% been .%itten do.n$o% .hich ha:e been .%itten do.n onl;
%ecentl;$language is the %e'osito% ; o6 the histo% ; o6 a 'eo'le9 It
is thei% identit;9 %al testi&on;$in the 6o%& o6 sagas$6ol/tales$
songs$%ituals$'%o:e%bs$and &an; othe% '%actices$'%o:ides us
.ith a uniCue :ie. o6 ou% .o%ld and a uniCue canon o6 lite%atu%e9
It is thei% legac; to the %est o6 hu&anit;9 nce lost$it can ne:e% be
%eca'tu%ed9 The a%gu&ent is si&ila% to that used in %elation to the
conse% :ation o6 s'ecies and the en:i%on&ent9 The docu&entation
and D .he%e '%acticable D conse% :ation o6 languages is also a '%io%0
it;$and it .as good to see in the )<<,s a nu&be% o6 inte%national
o%gani3ations being 6o%&ed .ith the decla%ed ai& o6 %eco%ding
6o% 'oste%it; as &an; endange%ed languages as 'ossible9)1
)@ This is an a:e%age o6 the esti&ates .hich ha:e been '%o'osed9 !o% a de0
tailed e>a&ination o6 these esti&ates$see C%;stal E(,,,7 cha'te% )F9
)1 These o%gani3ationsinclude The Inte%national Clea%ing House 6o%Endan0
ge%ed Languages in To/;o$The !oundation 6o% Endange%ed Languages
(,
.%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e/
Ho.e:e%$the e&e%gence o6 an; one language as global has
onl; a li&ited causal %elationshi' to this unha''; state o6 a66ai%s9
-hethe% So%bian su% :i:es in #e%&an; o% #alician in S'ain has to
do .ith the local 'olitical and econo&ic histo%; o6 those coun0
t%ies$and .ith the %egional do&inance o6 #e%&an and S'anish
%es'ecti:el;$and bea%s no i&&ediate %elationshi' to the standing
o6 #e%&an o% S'anish on the .o%ld stage9)5 No% is it eas; to see
ho. the a%%i:al o6 English as a global language could di%ectl; in0
uence the 6utu%e o6 these o% &an; othe% &ino%it; languages9 An
e66ect is li/el; onl; in those a%eas .he%e English has itsel6 co&e
to be the do&inant %st language$such as in No%th A&e%ica$
Aust%alia and the Celtic 'a%ts o6 the B%itish Isles9 The ea%l; his0
to%; o6 language contact in these a%eas .as indeed one o6 con0
Cuest and assi&ilation$and the e66ects on indigenous languages
.e%e disast%ous9 But in &o%e %ecent ti&es$the e&e%gence o6 En0
glish as a t%ul; global language has$i6 an;thing$had the %e:e%se
e66ect D sti&ulating a st%onge% %es'onse in su''o%t o6 a local
language than &ight othe%.ise ha:e been the case9 Ti&es ha:e
changed9 "o:e&ents 6o% language %ights Ealongside ci:il %ights
in gene%alF ha:e 'la;ed an i&'o%tant 'a%t in se:e%al count%ies$
such as in %elation to the "ao%i in Ne. Bealand$the Abo%iginal
languages o6 Aust%alia$the Indian languages o6 Canada and the
USA$and so&e o6 the Celtic languages9 Although o6ten too late$
in ce%tain instances the decline o6 a language has been slo.ed$and
occasionall; Eas in the case o6 -elshF halted9
The e>istence o6 :igo%ous &o:e&ents in su''o%t o6 linguistic
&ino%ities$co&&onl; associated .ith nationalis&$illust%ates an
i&'o%tant t%uth about the natu%e o6 language in gene%al9 The
in the U*$and The Endange%ed Language !und in the USA9 Contact
details 6o% these and si&ila% o%gani3ations a%e gi:en in C%;stal E(,,,7
A''endi>F9
)5 The 'oint can be &ade e:en &o%e st%ongl; in such 'a%ts o6 the .o%ld as
Latin A&e%ica$.he%e English has t%aditionall; had negligible in uence9
Thehund%eds o6 A&e%indianlanguages .hich ha:e disa''ea%ed in Cent%al
and SouthA&e%ica ha:e donesoas a %esult o6 cultu%es .hichs'o/eS'anish
and Po%tuguese$not English9 Chinese$Russian$A%abic and othe% &a=o%
languages ha:e all had an i&'act on &ino%it; languages th%oughout thei%
histo%;$and continue to do so9 The %es'onsibilit; 6o% language '%ese%:a0
tion and %e:itali3ation is a sha%ed one9
()
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
need 6o% &utual intelligibilit;$.hich is 'a%t o6 the a%gu&ent
in 6a:ou% o6 a global language$is onl; one side o6 the sto% ;9
The othe% side is the need 6o% identit; D and 'eo'le tend to
unde%esti&ate the %ole o6 identit; .hen the; e>'%ess an>ieties
about language in=u%; and death9 Language is a &a=o% &eans
Eso&e .ould sa; the chie6 &eansF o6 sho.ing .he%e .e belong$
and o6 distinguishing one social g%ou' 6%o& anothe%$and all
o:e% the .o%ld .e can see e:idence o6 linguistic di:e%gence
%athe% than con:e%gence9 !o% decades$&an; 'eo'le in the
count%ies o6 6o%&e% Yugosla:ia &ade use o6 a co&&on language$
Se%bo0C%oatian9 But since the ci:il .a%s o6 the ea%l; )<<,s$the
Se%bs ha:e %e6e%%ed to thei% language as Se%bian$the Bosnians to
thei%s as Bosnian$and the C%oats to thei%s as C%oatian$.ith each
co&&unit; d%a.ing attention to the linguistic 6eatu%es .hich
a%e distincti:e9 A si&ila% situation e>ists in Scandina:ia$.he%e
S.edish$No% .egian$and Danish a%e la%gel; &utuall; intelligible$
but a%e none the less conside%ed to be di66e%ent languages9
A%gu&ents about the need 6o% national o% cultu%al identit; a%e
o6ten seen as being o''osed to those about the need 6o% &utual
intelligibilit;9 But this is &isleading9 It is 'e%6ectl; 'ossible to
de:elo' a situation in .hich intelligibilit; and identit; ha''il;
co0e>ist9 This situation is the 6a&ilia% one o6 bilingualis& D but
a bilingualis& .he%e one o6 the languages .ithin a s'ea/e% is
the global language$'%o:iding access to the .o%ld co&&unit;$
and the othe% is a .ell0%esou%ced %egional language$'%o:iding
access to a local co&&unit;9 The t.o 6unctions can be seen as
co&'le&enta%;$%es'onding to di66e%ent needs9 And it is because
the 6unctions a%e so di66e%ent that a .o%ld o6 linguistic di:e%sit;
can in '%inci'le continue to e>ist in a .o%ld united b; a co&&on
language9
None o6 this is to den; that the e&e%gence o6 a global language
can in uence the st%uctu%e o6 othe% languages D es'eciall; b;
'%o:iding a 6%esh sou%ce o6 loan0.o%ds 6o% use b; these othe%
languages9 Such in uences can be .elco&ed Ein .hich case$
'eo'le tal/ about thei% language being H:a%iedI and Hen%ichedIF
o% o''osed Ein .hich case$the &eta'ho%s a%e those o6 Hin=u% ;I
and HdeathIF9 !o% e>a&'le$in %ecent ;ea%s$one o6 the healthiest
languages$!%ench$has t%ied to '%otect itsel6 b; la. against .hat
((
.%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e/
is .idel; 'e%cei:ed to be the &align in uence o6 English7 in
o6 cial conte>ts$it is no. illegal to use an English .o%d .he%e
a !%ench .o%d al%ead; e>ists$e:en though the usage &a; ha:e
.ides'%ead 'o'ula% su''o%t Ee9g9 co&'ute% 6o% o%dinateu% F9 Pu%ist
co&&entato%s 6%o& se:e%al othe% count%ies ha:e also e>'%essed
conce%n at the .a; in .hich English :ocabula%; D es'eciall; that
o6 A&e%ican English D has co&e to 'e%&eate thei% high st%eets
and TV '%og%a&&es9 The a%gu&ents a%e ca%%ied on .ith g%eat
e&otional 6o%ce9 E:en though onl; a tin; 'a%t o6 the le>icon is
e:e% a66ected in this .a;$that is enough to a%ouse the .%ath o6
the '%o'hets o6 doo&9 EThe; usuall; 6o%get the 6act that English
itsel6$o:e% the centu%ies$has bo%%o.ed thousands o6 .o%ds 6%o&
othe% languages$and const%ucted thousands &o%e 6%o& the
ele&ents o6 othe% languages D including co&'ute%$incidentall;$
.hich de%i:es 6%o& Latin$the &othe%0language o6 !%ench9F)<
The %elationshi' bet.een the global s'%ead o6 English and
its i&'act on othe% languages att%acted inc%easing debate du%ing
the )<<,s9 The 6act that it is 'ossible to sho. a co%%elation
bet.een the %ate o6 English ado'tion and the de&ise o6 &ino%it;
languages has led so&e obse% :e%s to %easse%t the conclusion
that the%e is a si&'le causal lin/ bet.een the t.o 'heno&ena$
igno%ing the 6act that the%e has been a si&ila% loss o6 linguistic
di:e%sit; in 'a%ts o6 the .o%ld .he%e English has not had a histo% ;
o6 signi cant '%esence$such as Latin A&e%ica$Russia and China9
A &o%e dee'0%ooted '%ocess o6 globali3ation see&s to be at .o%/
toda;$t%anscending indi:idual language situations9 Anach%onistic
:ie.s o6 linguistic i&'e%ialis&$.hich see as i&'o%tant onl; the
'o.e% as;&&et% ; bet.een the 6o%&e% colonial nations and the
nations o6 the Hthi%d .o%ldI$a%e ho'elessl; inadeCuate as an
)< English has bo%%o.ed .o%ds 6%o& o:e% 2?, othe% languages$and o:e%
th%ee0Cua%te%s o6 the English le>icon is actuall; Classical o% Ro&ance
in o%igin9 Plainl;$the :ie. that to bo%%o. .o%ds leads to a languageIs
decline is absu%d$gi:en that English has bo%%o.ed&o%e .o%ds than &ost9
Languages changethei% cha%acte%$as a %esult o6 such bo%%o.ing$o6 cou%se$
and this too u'sets 'u%ists$.ho see& unable to a''%eciate the e>'%essi:e
gains .hich co&e 6%o& ha:ing the o'tion o6 choosing bet.een le>ical
alte%nati:es$as in such Ht%i'letsI as EAnglo0Sa>onF /ingl;$E!%enchF %o;al
and ELatinF %egal9 !o% 6u%the% e>a&'les$see the classic sou%ce$Se%=eantson
E)<2?F$also C%;stal E)<<?aF9 See also # M o%lach E(,,(F9
(2
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
e>'lanation o6 linguistic %ealities9(, The; es'eciall; igno%e the
6act that H %st .o%ldI count%ies .ith st%ong languages see& to be
unde% =ust as &uch '%essu%e to ado't English$and that so&e o6
the ha%shest attac/s on English ha:e co&e 6%o& count%ies .hich
ha:e no such colonial legac;9 -hen do&inant languages 6eel the;
a%e being do&inated$so&ething &uch bigge% than a si&'listic
conce'tion o6 'o.e% %elations &ust be in:ol:ed9()
These othe% 6acto%s$.hich include the %ecognition o6 global
inte%de'endence$the desi%e to ha:e a :oice in .o%ld a66ai%s$
and the :alue o6 &ultilingualis& in att%acting t%ade &a%/ets$all
su''o%t the ado'tion o6 a 6unctionalist account o6 English$.he%e
the language is seen as a :aluable inst%u&ent enabling 'eo'le to
achie:e 'a%ticula% goals9 Local languages continue to 'e%6o%& an
i&'o%tant set o6 6unctions Echie ;$the e>'%ession o6 local identit;F
and English is seen as the '%i&a%; &eans o6 achie:ing a global
'%esence9 The a''%oach %ecogni3es the legac; o6 colonialis&$as a
&atte% o6 histo%ical 6act$but the e&'hasis is no. on discontinu0
ities$a.a; 6%o& 'o.e% and to.a%ds 6unctional s'eciali3ation9((
It is a &odel .hich sees English 'la;ing a cent%al %ole in e&'o.0
e%ing the sub=ugated and &a%ginali3ed$and e%oding the di:ision
bet.een the Hha:esI and the Hha:e notsI9 Those .ho a%gue 6o% this
'osition ha:e been dis&issed as dis'la;ing Hnai:e libe%al idealis&I
and ado'ting a Hlibe%al laisse306ai%e attitudeI9(2 Rathe%$it is the
linguistic i&'e%ialis& 'osition .hich is nai:e$dis%ega%ding the
(, T.o '%o&inent 'ositions a%e Philli'son E)<<(F and Penn;coo/ E)<<+F9
() The 'oint is also &ade b; L;sand%ou and L ;sand%ou Ein '%ess7 2F7 HThe
'ace o6 English language ado'tion o:e% the 'ast decade o% so has been so
e>'losi:e as to &a/e it di6 cult i6 not i&'ossible to acce't that those
accounts o6 the 'heno&enon .hich 6ocus on 'o.e% as;&&et%ies can
bea% the bu%den o6 e>'lanation9I It is %ein6o%ced b; the lite%atu%e on lan0
guage endange%&ent$.hich has &ade it :e%; clea% that the su%:i:al o6
a language de'ends la%gel; on 6acto%s othe% than 'olitical 'o.e% Ee9g9
B%en3inge% E)<<5F$C%;stal E(,,,FF9 !ocusing on A6%ica$6o% e>a&'le$
"u6.ene E(,,)$(,,(F has d%a.n attention to the &an; A6%ican lan0
guages .hich ha:e lost thei% :italit; because s'ea/e%s ha:e ado'ted 'ee%
languages that ha:e gua%anteed a su%e% econo&ic su%:i:al9
(( !o% e>a&'le$!ish&an$Con%ad and Rubal0Lo'e3 E)<<@F9
(2 The na&e0calling is Penn;coo/Is E(,,)7 ?@F$.ho uses these 'h%ases .ith
%e6e%ence to the %st edition o6 the '%esent EHo:e%&a%/etedI EsicFF boo/9
!o% a 6u%the% e>a&'le o6 .hat &ight eu'he&isticall; be called HdebateI$
see Philli'son E)<<58)<<<F and C%;stal E)<<<8(,,,F9
(+
.%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e/
co&'le> %ealities o6 a .o%ld in .hich a histo%ical conce'tion
o6 'o.e% %elations has to be seen alongside an e&e%ging set o6
e&'o.e%ing %elationshi's in .hich English has a ne. 6unctional
%ole$no longe% associated .ith the 'olitical autho%it; it once held9
I6 .o%/ing to.a%ds the abo:e goal is idealis&$then I a& ha'';
to be an idealistK ho.e:e%$it is b; no &eans laisse306ai%e$gi:en
the a&ount o6 ti&e$ene%g; and &one; .hich ha:e been de:oted
in %ecent ;ea%s to language %e:itali3ation and %elated &atte%s9 Ad0
&ittedl;$the '%og%ess .hich has been &ade is tin; co&'a%ed .ith
the disast%ous e66ects o6 globali3ation on global di:e%sit;9 But to
'lace all the bla&e on English$and to igno%e the &o%e 6unda0
&ental econo&ic issues that a%e in:ol:ed$is$as t.o %ecent co&0
&entato%s ha:e 'ut it$Hto attac/ the .%ong ta%get$to indulge in
linguistic luddis&I9(+ Solutions a%e &o%e li/el; to co&e 6%o& the
do&ain o6 econo&ic 'olic;$not language 'olic;9 As L;sand%ou
and L;sand%ou conclude7
I6 English can 6acilitate the '%ocess o6 uni:e%sal dis'ossession and loss$
so can it be tu%ned %ound and &ade to 6acilitate the cont%a%; '%ocess o6
uni:e%sal e&'o.e%&ent and gain9
Could anything stop a global language?
An; discussion o6 an e&e%ging global language has to be seen in
the 'olitical conte>t o6 global go:e%nance as a .hole9 In Janua% ;
)<<?$the Co&&ission on #lobal #o:e%nance 'ublished its %e0
'o%t$u% global neighbou%hood9(? A ;ea% late%$the Co&&issionIs
co0chai%&an$S%idath Ra&'hal$co&&ented Ein the 'a'e% %e6e%%ed
to on '9 )<F7
The%e .e%e$6o% the &ost 'a%t$'eo'le .ho .e%e 'leased that the Re'o%t
had engaged the cent%al issue o6 a global co&&unit;$but the; too/ us
to tas/ 6o% not going on D in as the; thought in a logical .a; D to call 6o%
a .o%ld language9 The; could not see ho. the global neighbou%hood$
the global co&&unit;$.hich the; ac/no.ledged had co&e into being$
could 6unction e66ecti:el; .ithout a .o%ld language9 A neighbou%hood
(+ L ;sand%ou and L ;sand%ou Ein '%ess7 (+F9
(? Co&&ission on #lobal #o:e%nance E)<<?F9
(?
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
that can onl; tal/ in the tongues o6 &an; .as not a neighbou%hood that
.as li/el; to be cohesi:e o%$'e%ha's$e:en coo'e%ati:e 9 9 9 And the; .e%e
%ight in one %es'ectK but the; .e%e .%ong in the sense that .e ha:e a
.o%ld language9 It is not the language o6 i&'e%ialis&K it is the language
.e ha:e seen that has e:ol:ed out o6 a histo%; o6 .hich .e need not
al.a;s be '%oud$but .hose legacies .e &ust use to good e6 6ect9
And at anothe% 'lace$he co&&ents7 Hthe%e is no %et%eat 6%o&
English as the .o%ld languageK no %et%eat 6%o& an English0
s'ea/ing .o%ldI9
St%ong 'olitical state&ents o6 this /ind i&&ediatel; '%o&'t
the Cuestion$HCould an;thing sto' a language$once it achie:es a
global statusAI The sho%t ans.e% &ust be H;esI9 I6 language do&0
inance is a &atte% o6 'olitical and es'eciall; econo&ic in uence$
then a %e:olution in the balance o6 global 'o.e% could ha:e conse0
Cuences 6o% the choice o6 global language9(@ The%e is no sho%tage
o6 boo/s D chie ; .ithin the gen%e o6 science ction D .hich 6o%e0
see a 6utu%e in .hich$6ollo.ing so&e catacl;s&ic scena%io$the
uni:e%sal language is Chinese$A%abic o% e:en so&e Alien tongue9
But to end u' .ith such a scena%io$the %e:olution .ould indeed
ha:e to be catacl;s&ic$and it is di6 cult to s'eculate sensibl; about
.hat this &ight be9(1 S&alle%0scale %e:olutions in the .o%ld o%de%
.ould be unli/el; to ha:e &uch e66ect$gi:en that D as .e shall
see in late% cha'te%s D English is no. so .idel; established that it
can no longe% be thought o6 as Ho.nedI b; an; single nation9
A %athe% &o%e 'lausible scena%io is that an alte%nati:e &ethod o6
co&&unication could e&e%ge .hich .ould eli&inate the need 6o%
a global language9 The chie6 candidate he%e is auto&atic t%ansla0
tion EH&achine t%anslationIF9 I6 '%og%ess in this do&ain continues
to be as %a'id as it has been in the 'ast decade$the%e is a dis0
tinct 'ossibilit; that$.ithin a gene%ation o% t.o$it .ill be %outine
6o% 'eo'le to co&&unicate .ith each othe% di%ectl;$using thei%
%st languages$.ith a co&'ute% Hta/ing the st%ainI bet.een the&9
(@ #%addol E)<<5F e>'lo%es this scena%io9
(1 S'eculation about the 'olitical state o6 the .o%ld leads Dalb; E(,,(F to
en:ision (,, languages %e&aining in (,, ;ea%sI ti&e9 Janson E(,,(F ta/es
linguistic s'eculation to an e:en &o%e a'ocal;'tic 'oint$%e ecting on the
state o6 hu&an language ( &illion ;ea%s 6%o& no.9
(@
.%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e/
This state o6 a66ai%s can al%ead; be seen$to a li&ited e>tent$on the
Inte%net$.he%e so&e %&s a%e no. o66e%ing a basic t%anslation
se%:ice bet.een ce%tain language 'ai%s9 A sende% t;'es in a &es0
sage in language N$and a :e%sion o6 it a''ea%s on the %ecei:e%Is
sc%een in language Y9 The need 6o% 'ost0editing is still conside%0
able$ho.e:e%$as t%anslation so6t.a%e is cu%%entl; :e% ; li&ited in
its abilit; to handle idio&atic$st;listic$and se:e%al othe% linguistic
6eatu%esK the &achines a%e no.he%e nea% %e'lacing thei% hu&an
counte%'a%ts9 Si&ila%l;$not.ithstanding the %e&a%/able '%og%ess
in s'eech %ecognition and s;nthesis .hich has ta/en 'lace in %ecent
;ea%s$the state o6 the a%t in %eal0ti&e s'eech0to0s'eech auto&atic
t%anslation is still '%i&iti:e9 The HBabel shI$inse%ted into the ea%$
thus &a/ing all s'o/en languages Ein the gala>;F intelligible$is no
&o%e than an int%iguing conce't9(5
The accu%ac; and s'eed o6 %eal0ti&e auto&atic t%anslation is
undoubtedl; going to i&'%o:e d%a&aticall; in the ne>t t.ent;0
:e to 6t; ;ea%s$but it is going to ta/e &uch longe% be6o%e this
&ediu& beco&es so globall; .ides'%ead$and so econo&icall; ac0
cessible to all$that is 'oses a th%eat to the cu%%ent a:ailabilit; and
a''eal o6 a global language9 And du%ing this ti&e 6%a&e$all the e:i0
dence suggests that the 'osition o6 English as a global language
is going to beco&e st%onge%9 B; the ti&e auto&atic t%anslation
&atu%es as a 'o'ula% co&&unicati:e &ediu&$that 'osition .ill
:e%; li/el; ha:e beco&e i&'%egnable9 It .ill be :e%; inte%esting
to see .hat ha''ens then D .hethe% the '%esence o6 a global lan0
guage .ill eli&inate the de&and 6o% .o%ld t%anslation se% :ices$o%
.hethe% the econo&ics o6 auto&atic t%anslation .ill so unde%cut
the cost o6 global language lea%ning that the latte% .ill beco&e
otiose9 It .ill be an inte%esting battle ),, ;ea%s 6%o& no.9
A critical era
It is i&'ossible to &a/e con dent '%edictions about the e&e%0
gence o6 a global language9 The%e a%e no '%ecedents 6o% this /ind
o6 linguistic g%o.th$othe% than on a &uch s&alle% scale9 And the
s'eed .ith .hich a global language scena%io has a%isen is t%ul;
(5 E>'lo%ed b; Douglas Ada&s E)<1<7 cha'te% @F9
(1
EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E
%e&a%/able9 -ithin little &o%e than a gene%ation$.e ha:e &o:ed
6%o& a situation .he%e a .o%ld language .as a theo%etical 'ossi0
bilit; to one .he%e it is an e:ident %ealit;9
No go:e%n&ent has ;et 6ound it 'ossible to 'lan con dentl;$in
such ci%cu&stances9 Languages o6 identit; need to be &aintained9
Access to the e&e%ging global language D .idel; 'e%cei:ed as a
language o6 o''o%tunit; and e&'o.e%&ent D needs to be gua%0
anteed9 Both '%inci'les de&and &assi:e %esou%ces9 The i%on; is
that the issue is a''%oaching a cli&a> at a ti&e .hen the .o%ld
nancial cli&ate can least a66o%d it9
!unda&ental decisions about '%io%ities ha:e to be &ade9 Those
&a/ing the decisions need to bea% in &ind that .e &a; .ell be
a''%oaching a c%itical &o&ent in hu&an linguistic histo%;9 It is
'ossible that a global language .ill e&e%ge onl; once9 Ce%tainl;$
as .e ha:e seen$a6te% such a language co&es to be established it
.ould ta/e a %e:olution o6 .o%ld0shatte%ing '%o'o%tions to %e'lace
it9 And in due cou%se$the last Cua%te% o6 the t.entieth centu%; .ill
be seen as a c%itical ti&e in the e&e%gence o6 this global language9
!o% the %easons '%esented in the ne>t th%ee cha'te%s$all the
signs suggest that this global language .ill be English9 But the%e
is still so&e .a; to go be6o%e a global lingua 6%anca beco&es
a uni:e%sal %ealit;9 Des'ite the %e&a%/able g%o.th in the use o6
English$at least t.o0thi%ds o6 the .o%ld 'o'ulation do not ;et
use it9 In ce%tain 'a%ts o6 the .o%ld E&ost o6 the states o6 the
6o%&e% So:iet Union$6o% e>a&'leF$English has still a :e%; li&ited
'%esence9 And in so&e count%ies$inc%eased %esou%ces a%e being
de:oted to &aintaining the %ole o6 othe% languages Esuch as the
use o6 !%ench in se:e%al count%ies o6 A6%icaF9 Not.ithstanding the
gene%al .o%ld t%end$the%e a%e &an; linguistic con6%ontations still
to be %esol:ed9
#o:e%n&ents .ho .ish to 'la; thei% 'a%t in in uencing the
.o%ldIs linguistic 6utu%e should the%e6o%e 'onde% ca%e6ull;$as the;
&a/e 'olitical decisions and allocate %esou%ces 6o% language 'lan0
ning9 No.$&o%e than at an; ti&e in linguistic histo% ;$the; need
to ado't long0te%& :ie.s$and to 'lan ahead D .hethe% thei% in0
te%ests a%e to '%o&ote English o% to de:elo' the use o6 othe%
languages in thei% co&&unit; Eo%$o6 cou%se$bothF9 I6 the; &iss
this linguistic boat$the%e &a; be no othe%9
(5