GRADE 10 EXAM UNIT OBJECTIVES 2014

UNIT 1: CHEMISTRY
Guiding Question: To what extent have understanding chemicals and/or chemical reactions been linked
to human development?


THE ATOM

Protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions from the mass number,
atomic number and charge.

Proton Neutron Electron
Electrical charge Positive Neutral negative
Symbol p+ n e-
Location Nucleus Nucleus Orbit around nucleus

The number of protons is equal to the atomic number of the element. Atoms are electrically neutral so
they have the same number of electrons as protons in each atom. To obtain the number of neutrons,
you subtract the atomic number from the mass number; mass number atomic number.


Positively charge ion (cation):
Depending on the number with a plus right beside it, on the top right corner of the elements symbol
that will determine the number of electrons the atom will have lost. Subtract this number from the
atomic number and the difference will determine the number of electrons.
Atomic number = number of protons



Negatively charged ions (anion):
Depending on the number with a minus right beside it, on the top right corner of the elements symbol,
that will determine the number of electrons gained. Add this number to the atomic number and the
sum will determine the number of electrons in the atom.
Atomic number = number of protons










Deduce the electron arrangement for atoms and ions up to Z = 20.

Hydrogen H
Helium He
Lithium Li
Beryllium Be
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Fluorine F
Neon Ne
Sodium Na
Magnesium Mg
Aluminum Al
Silicon Si
Phosphorus P
Sulfur S
Chlorine Cl
Argon Ar
Potassium K
Calcium Ca









PERIODIC TABLE

Arrangement of elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic
number
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into a simpler chemical substance by any
physical or chemical means. The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing
atomic number. The atomic number tells us the amount of electrons and protons in each atom. As you
move down a column of metals, they become more reactive. It is rare that you find metals in their
elemental form.

The way the periodic table is arranged is that the elements that have the same number of valence
electrons in their outermost shell are placed in the same column, in order of increasing atomic numbers
vertically. This is called a group.

Periods of the periodic table tell us how many shells (energy level) the elements in the same horizontal
row have. The members of a period are also positioned after increasing atomic number (from left to
right).


Apply the relationship between the electron arrangement of elements and their
position in the periodic table up to Z = 20.
The position of elements on the periodic table is determined by their atomic number and the amount of
valence electrons they have. Elements are put in the same group because they have the same amount of
valence electrons. The number of valence electrons determines how stable and reactive a substance is.

Apply the relationship between the number of electrons in the highest occupied
energy level for an element and its position in the periodic table.
As you go across the table the number of electrons in the outermost shell increases.

Group Number
The same as the number of electrons in the outer shell
Group 1 = 1 outer shell electron

Period Number
The same as the number of shells in the atom
All except the outer shell will be full

Define the term electronegativity.
Electronegativity is a number that describes the ability of an individual atom, when bonded, to attract
bonding electrons to itself.



Trends in atomic radii and electronegativitys for the alkali metals (LiCs)
(group 1) and the halogens (F I) (group 7).
In LiCs there is a large atomic radius, making the electronegativity decrease because the valence
electrons are far apart and the pull is very weak. Alkali Metals are in the 1st group on the periodic table.
In the 1st group, the atomic radii increases as you go down because each period is a new shell in the
electron. The Alkali metals have the biggest atoms/atomic radii because since there is the least amount
of valence electrons, the protons in the center of the atom dont have as much mass to attract in to
compact the atom. It is easier for them to lose electrons because they are farther away from the nucleus
and so the strength of the force is decreased and the electron can be transferred.

In FI there is a small atomic radius so the valence electrons are closer to the nucleus and the pull is
greater, therefore the electronegativity is high. Halogens are in the 7th group on the periodic table. The
atomic radii increase as you go down, similarly to the alkali metals, because each period is a new shell in
the electron. The halogens have small electrons compared to the alkali metals because they have more
valence electrons for the protons to attract inward.

Trends in atomic radii and electronegativitys for elements across period 3.
As the atomic radius increases at the left side, and the electronegativity decreases because there are
less valence electrons and the protons in the centre of the atom dont have as much mass to compact
the atom. When the atomic radius decreases towards the right side, the electronegativity increases
because the amount of valence electrons increase, giving more mass to compact the atom making it
harder for electrons to transfer because the pull is strong.



Compare the relative electronegativity values of two or more elements based
on their positions in the periodic table.
Na and O
Na < 1.7
O > 1.7
O (EN) - Na (EN) = relative electronegativity
0.9-3.0=-2.1









































BONDING

Describe the ionic bond as the electrostatic attraction between oppositely
charged ions.
The ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. The electrostatic
attraction between oppositely charged ions, causes them to form a neutral lattice. The charges of the
ions in the lattice will cancel each other out.
Ions have different charges depending on the number of electrons they lose or gain to form a stable
configuration. Ions with a positive charge are called cations, and ions with negative charges are known
as anions.
Ionic compounds are often called salts.


Describe how ions can be formed as a result of electron transfer.











Deduce which ions will be formed when elements in groups 1, 2 and 3 lose
electrons.
Metals tend to lose electrons to form cations (+). Elements in groups 1, 2, and 3 will form cations when
they lose electrons.

Deduce which ions will be formed when elements in groups 5, 6 and 7 gain
electrons.
Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form anions (-). Elements in groups 5, 6 and 7 will form anions
when they gain electrons.


State that transition elements can form more than one ion.
This is referring to the roman numerals that some elements require when bonding because they can
have multiple charges. The transition elements are less predictable than the ones on the far left and
right.

Predict whether a compound of two elements would be ionic from the position
of the elements in the periodic table or from their electronegativity values.
Position of the elements
The non-metals occur on the right side of the periodic table. The metals are on the left side. An ionic
compound can only form between a metal and a non-metal.
Electronegativity value
Each atom is assigned an electronegativity value. If the two atoms forming the compound have a
difference in electronegativity of more than 1.7, then their bonding will be ionic


Describe the lattice structure
Ionic compounds exist in a regular pattern known as a lattice structure. This can
contain millions of ions that extend in all 3 dimensions. There is no fixed
number of ions that can be involved; however the ratio of positive and negative
ions must be the same as the empirical formula to ensure that all the charges of
the ions cancel each other out.
For the most stable arrangement, cations are packed as closely as possible to
the negative ions, whilst ions of the same charge are as far apart as possible.
This maximises the electrostatic attraction between the ions, while minimizing the repulsion. Many
different arrangements can be generated to do this, which depends on the size of the ions and their
ratio. It will result in the lattice structure of that compound.
Describe the covalent bond as the electrostatic attraction between a pair of
electrons and positively charged nuclei
Outer shell electrons interact and rearrange themselves in to a more
stable arrangement that has lower chemical energy.
The positively charged nucleus of an atom is attracted to the
negatively charged electrons. When two atoms come together to
form a covalent bond, the positively charged nuclei will be attracted
to the electron pairs of the other atom.
However there is repulsion between all the electrons as they have
the same charge. The same is true for the positively charged nuclei,
which also repel each other.
To maintain a covalent bond, a balance must be achieved between attraction and repulsion.
A molecule can be defined as a discrete group of non-metal atoms covalently bonded to one another.
Molecules contain atoms in a set ratio.
Describe how the covalent bond is formed as a
result of electron sharing









Predict whether a compound of two elements would be covalent from their
position in the periodic table or form their electronegativity values.
Position in the periodic table:
a covalent bond is between a non-metal & non-metal
Electronegativity:
a difference of electronegativity values is less than 1.7


Describe how the covalent bond is formed as a result of electron sharing
There is a significant overlap of the atomic radii when a covalent bond is formed.
As the two atoms approach each other electrostatic attractions and repulsions occur between the nuclei
and electrons. Covalent bonding is made up of from shared pairs of electrons, one or more, each from
the binding atom. When only one pair occupies the space between electrons, this is a single covalent
bond. This sharing of electrons allows each of the atoms to fill their outer shells.



Deduce the Lewis structure of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs
on each atom
This can be done using dots, lines or crosses.
All the valence electrons are drawn, as they form part of the bonding. They are used to show how full
outer shell is obtained. In Lewis structures, the valence electrons are represented by dots and crosses,
distinguishing between the different elements electrons.
All group 7 elements and hydrogen form diatomic molecules. There are only two atoms bonded to fill
the outer shell for these elements. In chlorine, which has 7 valence electrons, has a single bond:



Group 6 elements, have six valence electrons so they must be sharing another two electrons to
complete a full outer shell. For the diatomic molecule O
2
, a double bond is formed to fill its shell.



Predict whether a compound of two elements would be covalent from the
position of the elements in the periodic table or from their electronegativity
values.
Molecular elements are made up of more than one atom of the same element covalently bonded.
Molecular compounds are made up of two or more non-metals covalently bonded. Molecular
compounds are made up of covalent bonds with differences in electronegativity that are less than 1.7.

Compare and explain the properties of substances resulting from different types
of bonding. (Including melting and boiling points, electrical conductivity and
solubility in water)
Molecular compounds exist as solids, liquids and gases at room temperature. Some are soft and
malleable, other hard and brittle, they are quite varied. They have relatively low melting and boiling
points and many do not dissolve easily in water.
Ionic compounds are solid at room temperature and hard and brittle. They have relatively high melting
and boiling points and conduct electricity as molten liquids. They are strong electrolytes, which means
that it separates into ions when it dissolves in water, producing a solution that conducts electricity.
Electrolytes are acids bases or ionic compounds that separate into ions when they dissolve in water and
produce a solution that conducts electricity. They are free floating ions in water so electricity can flow
easily through them.


H O F BR I N CL
o Used when its a single element in balancing an equation, but when it happens to be a
HOFBRINCL, you put a 2 in the subscript
o If its not a HOFBRINCL, you leave it as is, and dont put anything in the subscript, just the
symbol

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Define physical and chemical properties of matter. Identify examples.
Physical Property: a description of a substance that does not involve forming a new substance; for
example, colour, texture, density, smell, solubility, taste, melting point, and physical state
Chemical Property: a description of what a substance does as it chances into one or more new
substance(s).
Chemical Property Example
Reaction of an acid with a base Vinegar reacts with baking soda to produce
carbon dioxide gas
Flammability Gasoline burns easily if ignited
Bleaching ability Hydrogen peroxide breaks down the pigment
(colour) in hair
Corrosion Discarded batteries in landfill sites break down
readily when they come in contact with
groundwater

Using the periodic table of elements; be able to name ionic, polyatomic and
molecular compounds.
Ionic compounds:
1. metal ion (as is)
2. non-metal ion (ending changes to ide)
Example:
MgCl
2
magnesium chloride
NaCl sodium chloride
Polyatomic compounds:
1. Write the name of the metal (as is) (*check to see if it has more than one ionic charge)
2. Write the name of the compound
Example:
Na
2
CO
3
sodium carbonate
Ca(OH)
2
calcium hydroxide

Molecular compounds
1. Name both elements in the order that they appear (usually right most element on right, left
most element on left)
2. Write the ending of the second element to ide
3. Add prefixes to each element (the prefix mono is never added to the first element)
Example:
SO
2
sulfur dioxide

Using the periodic table of elements; be able to write formula for ionic,
polyatomic and molecular compounds.
Ionic compounds:
1. Write the symbols of the elements (metal first)
2. Add the ionic charge of each element
3. Criss-cross the ionic charges so that they become subscripts
4. Rewrite the formula with the numbers (no charges)
Example:
Magnesium and chlorine MgCl
2

Magnesium and Sulfur MgS


Polyatomic compounds:
1. Write the symbols and charges for each ion
2. Criss-cross the charges and write them as subscripts without charges
3. Rewrite the formula with the numbers (no charges)
Example:
Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)
2





Molecular compounds:
1. The prefixes of the name of the elements indicate the number of atoms of each element
Example:
diphosphorus pentoxide P
2
O
nitrogen trioxide NO
3



Deduce balanced chemical equations when all reactants and products are given
Chemical equations are shorthand representations of compounds. Chemical reactions are represented
by equations using the chemical formulas and symbols of the substance involved in the reaction.
Chemical equations use chemical formulas to represent the word equation and include the different
states of the compounds.
Word equation
Potassium + water hydrogyn + potassium hydroxide
Chemical equation
K + H2O H2 + KOH


When writing out these, the Law of Conservation must be taken in to account. The Law of Conservation
states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be changed from one form to
another. In the case of chemical equations, that means there must be the same number of every type
of atom on both sides of the equation. All that happens in a chemical reaction is that the bonds in the
reactants break, the atoms rearrange, and bonds between the products are formed. Therefore to
reflect this, all chemical reactions must be balanced. We do this by adding integer coefficents to the
chemical formulas, except, in case of 1.



Apply the state symbols (s), (l), (g) and (aq).
The state symbols in brackets show the physical state of the substance at the reaction temperature.
Solid (s), liquid (l), gas (g), or dissolved in water (aq).
For Example:
The complete equations in words and symbols would be;

potassium + chlorine potassium chloride.
2K(s) + Cl2(g) 2KCl(s)

lithium + oxygen lithium oxide.
4Li(s) + O2(g) 2Li2O(s)

Identify 6 main types of chemical reactions as; synthesis, decomposition, single
displacement, double displacement, neutralization and combustion.
Synthesis Reaction: two simple reactants combine to make a larger or more complex product. The
chemical equation is: A+ABAB
Decomposition Reaction: a reaction in which a large or more complex molecule breaks down to from
two (or more) simpler products.
The chemical equation is: ABA+B
Single Displacement Reaction: a reaction in which an element displaces another element in a compound,
producing a new compound and a new element.
The chemical equation is: A+BCAC+B
Double Displacement Reaction: a reaction that occurs when elements in different compounds displace
each other or exchange places, producing two new compounds.
The chemical equation is: AB+DCAD+CB
Combustion: the rapid reaction of a substance with oxygen to produce oxides and energy; burning.
The chemical equation is: CXHy+O2CO2+H2O
Neutralization: a chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react to form an ionic compound (a salt)
and water; the resulting pH is closer to 7.
The chemical equation is: Same as Double Displacement.

Predict the products of the 6 main types of chemical reactions studied in class
when the reactants are given
1. write the chemical equations of the given reactants
2. using the general chemical equations of the main types of chemical reactions, match the
chemical equation of the reactants with the general chemical equation of the reactions

_2_Mg + O2 _2_MgO

NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3

Mg + _2_AgNO3 _2_ Ag + Mg(NO3)2




































ACIDS AND BASES

Define acids and bases
Acids are hydrogen ion (H+) donors
Bases are hydrogen ion (H+) acceptors (NH3)




Outline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in aqueous solution.
Acids: produce H
+
(as H
3
O
+
) ions in water
HCL(aq)H
+
(aq) +ML-(aq)

Produce a negative ion (-) too
Taste sour
Corrode metals
React with bases to form salts and water
React with Metals

Bases: produce OH
-
ions in water
Taste bitter and chalky
Are electrolytes
Feel soapy and slippery

Distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or alkaline using
the pH scale.
The pH scale is used to give a scale of how acidic or alkaline a solution is based on the concentration of
H
+
ions in a solution. Any solution with a pH of less than 7 is acidic. A solution with a pH of 7 is neutral,
and a solution with a pH of more than 7 is an alkaline.



Identify which of two or more aqueous solutions is more acidic or alkaline using
pH values.
When two solutions are compared, the one with the smaller pH value is more acidic and the one with
the larger pH value is more alkaline. In order to determine pH, indicator substances or pH meters can be
used.
Universal indicator
If the indicator paper is used, the pH is determined based on the colour the paper turns when placed in
the solution. Different indicators can be used to accurately determine the pH, although the problem
arises that people interpret colours differently. Alternatively, indicator solution can be dropped into the
solution, allowing the entire solution to change colour. The pH is likewise determined by the new colour
of the solution.
pH Meter
This reads the concentration of H
+
ions through an electrode, giving the pH with an accuracy of a few
decimal points. This method is more accurate than universal indicators.

State that each change of one pH unit represents a 10-fold change in the
hydrogen ion concentration [H
+
(aq)].
The concentration of H
+
ions in a solution and the pH of the solution have an inverse relationship. A
change of one pH unit equates to a ten-fold change in [H
+
] because the scale is logarithmic. If the pH
increases, the [H
+
] decreases, and vice versa.

pH = -log [h+]
1 = 1.0 H+ ions
2 = 0.1 H+ ions
3 = 0.01 H+ ions
4 = 0.001 H+ ions


Deduce changes in [H+(aq)] when the pH of a solution changes by more than
one pH unit.
When a solution changes by more than one pH unit, it gets either 10 times more or less acidic.



UNIT 2: BIOLOGY
Guiding question: To what extent do individual choices impact the way systems interact?


State and explain the structures and associated functions of mentioned cell
parts in both plant and animal cells
Cell wall (plant cell):
found only in the cells of plants, fungi, and some
unicellular organisms
they provide support for the cell because they are
made of a tough material called cellulose



Cell membrane (plant + animal cell):
the cell membrane surrounds and protects the
contents of cells
it is the structure that controls the movement of
substances in a and out of the cell




Cytoplasm (plant +animal cell):
jelly-like substance that is constantly moving inside
the cell
helps distribute materials such as oxygen and food to
the different parts of the cell
provides support for the organelles inside the cell


Nucleus (plant + animal cell):
the nucleus controls the cell activities
contains chromosomes (structures made of genetic
material that directs cells growth and reproduction)
the nucleus is enclosed in a nuclear membrane,
which controls what enters and leaves the nucleus




Ribosomes (plant +animal cell):
organelles that manufacture proteins
ribosomes are the small dots on the endoplasmic
reticulum






Endoplasmic reticulum (plant + animal cell):
folded membrane that forms a system of internal
canals within the cytoplasm that are used for
transportation within the cell
the rough endoplasmic reticulum contains protein-
manufacturing ribosomes



Explain cell organization by describing the links between cells, tissues, organs,
and systems in the human body
Multicellular organisms have the following 5 levels of organization ranging from simplest to most
complex
Cells
o Are the basic unit of structure and function in living things.
o May serve a specific function within the organism
o Examples- blood cells, nerve cells, bone cells, etc.
Tissues
o Made up of cells that are similar in structure and function and which work together
to perform a specific activity
o Examples - blood, nervous, bone, etc. Humans have 4 basic tissues: connective, epithelial,
muscle, and nerve.

Organisms
o Made up of tissues that work together to perform a specific activity
o Examples - heart, brain, skin, etc.
Organ Systems
o Groups of two or more tissues that work together to perform a specific function for the
organism.
o Examples - circulatory system, nervous system, skeletal system, etc.
o The Human body has 11 organ systems - circulatory, digestive, endocrine, excretory
(urinary), immune (lymphatic), integumentary, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory, and
skeletal.
Organisms
o Entire living things that can carry out all basic life processes. Meaning they can take
in materials, release energy from food, release wastes, grow, respond to the
environment, and reproduce.
o Usually made up of organ systems, but an organism may be made up of only one
cell such as bacteria or protest.
o Examples - bacteria, amoeba, mushroom, sunflower, human

Define cell, tissue, organ, organ system
Cell: The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism, typically microscopic and consisting of
cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane. Microscopic organisms typically consist of a single
cell, which is either eukaryotic or prokaryotic.
Tissue: A group of specialized cells
Organ: a structure composed of different tissues working together to perform a complex body function.
Organ System: a system of one or more organs and structures that work together to perform a major
vital body function such as; digestion or reproduction




Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting
cell size.
o cell needs a large surface area in order to carry out metabolic functions (as chemical reactions
require a surface). As a cell grows, it needs to carry out more and more reactions. Therefore,
since a cell has to maintain a certain surface area to volume ratio, its size is limited.
o The rate of exchange of materials (nutrients/waste) and energy (heat) is a function of its surface
area.
o Thus: As a cell grows in size (volume), the distance increases between the cytoplasm at the
center of the cell and the cell membrane. The rate of chemical exchange with the surrounding
environment may hence become too low to maintain the cell. It is not able to excrete waste
quickly enough or take in important minerals.
Volume of a cell determines requirements while surface area determines supply.

Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis and
cytokinesis.
Interphase:
1. Growth 1
2. Synthesis
3. Growth 2

Mitosis:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase

Cytokinesis










State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many
metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an
increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts
The cell spends the largest percentage of its time in interphase. Interphase is an active period in the life
of a cell when many metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an
increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts. Through gene expression and protein
synthesis there is a specialisation of cell structure and function. During this interphase the cell carries
out growth, cellular respiration, and any specialized functions of that cell type. The length of the
interphase varies from one type of cell to another.
G1: follows cytokinesis. The cell is involved in the synthesis of various proteins which allow the
cell to specialise.
S-phase: involves the replication of DNA molecules which takes place prior to the phases of
mitosis.
G2: growth occurs as cell prepares to divide, which also involves the replication of mitochondria
and in the case of plants, the chloroplast

State that the cell spends the largest percentage of its time in interphase.
Cells spend the most time in interphase (no division is happening). In the center is the nucleus
which holds the DNA.

Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis (prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase).
Mitosis is a process that allows a cell to copy itself and divide making new cells.


Prophase:
o The nuclear envelope that holes DNA in the nucleus breaks down and
disappears. This happens so the genetic material can be expanded and
copied.
o The DNA will condense to form chromosomes
o Anchors called centrioles will appear to hold the spindle.
o The spindle is a thread-like fiber that will attach to each chromosome at
its center.
o The spindle helps pull each side of the sister chromatid to opposite sides.

Metaphase (middle)
o The chromosomes are about to move to opposite sides for cell division.
o They must line up so they can divide perfectly in half.
o Easy to spot because the lining up of chromosomes appear like little xs in
the center of the cell.

Anaphase (away)
o Ripping apart of the chromosomes
o They begin to migrate as they are pulled by the spindle to the centrioles.
o You no longer see the x shape of the chromosomes, rather half of one.
o He genetic material is now split into two identical parts
o Each side of the cell will have one copy

Telophase
o Opposite of prophase
o Nuclear membrane reappears and surrounds DNA as it condenses into
chromatin
o Centrioles and spindle will disintegrate and disappear
o The cell will now be nearly ready for division
o It is now clear that there are almost two cells, each identical






State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual
reproduction involve mitosis.
Growth
Multicellular organisms increase their size through growth. This growth involves increasing the number
of cells through mitosis. These cells will differentiate and specialise their function.

Embryonic development
When the fertilised egg cell (zygote) divides to form the multicellular organism. Each cell in the
organisms is identical (genetically) to all the other cells. However, each cell will express only a few of its
genes to determine its overall specialisms, a process called differentiation. In this way a stem cell may
become a muscle, or it may become a nerve cell or any one of the many different kinds of cells found in
a complex multicellular organism.

Tissue Repair
As tissues are damaged they can recover through replacing damaged or dead cells. This is easily
observed in a skin wound.

Asexual Reproduction
This the production of offspring from a single parent using mitosis. The offspring are therefore
genetically identical to each other and to their parent- in other words they are clones.


State that tumours are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can
occur in any organ or tissue.
Tumors are formed when cell division goes wrong and is no longer controlled. This can happen in
any organ or tissue.
Distinguish between a malignant and a benign tumour.
A tumour is a mass of cells that continue to grow and divide without any obvious function in the
body.
Malignant: a tumour that interferes with the functioning of surrounding cells; a cancerous tumors.
Benign: a tumour that does not affect surrounding tissues other than by physically crowding them







Define carcinogen.
o Any environmental factor that causes cancer
o Tobacco smoke; radiation, such as X-rays and UV rays from tanning beds and sunlight; some
viruses such as, HPV and hepatitis B; certain chemicals in plastics; and many organic solvents.

State that the goal of cancer treatment is to slow down the growth of the
tumours or destroy as many cancer cells as possible
The goal of cancer treatment is to slow down the growth of the tumors or destroy as many cancer cells
as possible. There are currently 3 main conventional methods of treating cancer: surgery,
chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. A cancer treatment plan may consist of one or a combination of
these methods.

State and describe three types of cancer treatments; radiation, surgery,
chemotherapy.
Surgery
o Physically removing he cancerous tissues
o Only possible if the tumour is easily accessible and fairly well defined

Chemotherapy
o Treating cancer using drugs
o Slows or stops the cancer cells from dividing and spreading to other body parts by killing the
cells
o The drugs can be injected or orally (by mouth)
o Side effects: hair loss, nausea and fatigue
o Its aim is to shrink a tumour for surgical removal or for radiation treatments
o The drug travels throughout the body and reaches almost all tumours

Radiation
o Cancer cells are easily damaged by ionizing radiation because they divide rapidly
o Radiation therapy takes advantage of this
o The DNA of many daughter cells are damaged by the radiation, so the cells cannot divide further
o Radiation is directed at the tumour by using a focused beam or implanting a radioactive source
into the tumour; minimizes side effects






Discuss two cellular occurrences that can be used to explain aging.
Not enough cell division
1. An increasing number of faulty cell division
o Starting in the middle age
o Results in a gradual increase in cells throughout the body that do not function properly
o May lead to problems such as Alzheimers and Osteoporosis
o Errors in cell division affect one part of the body by damaging genetic information
i.e. cells contain a gene called COX-2 which makes protein, errors during DNA
duplication and cell division produce defective copies of the gene in daughter
cells which can lead to hear and kidney failure
2. Chromosomes change
o Telomeres (regions of DNA located at the end of each chromosome) protect the
chromosomes from damage during cell division
o As a cell ages, the telomeres on chromosomes get shorter
o When telomeres get too short cell division stops
3. Centromere location
o Cell division is stalled until the centromeres line up properly
o The orientation of the centromeres may determine the rates of cell division

Explain why chemical and mechanical digestion of ingested food is essential
Chemical Digestion
o The chemical breakdown of foods into simpler compounds
o Enzyme: pepsin and hydrochloric acid
Pepsin: breakdown of protein in the stomach due to its low pH levels
Hydrochloric acid
o Salivary glands release saliva to soften the food and allow it to move

Mechanical Digestion
o The physical breakdown of food to increase its surface area
o Mechanical digestions commences the process of digestion with the breakdown of
foods in the mouth. Without this, the surface area of the food would be too large to
travel down the esophagus and this would not be digested. Then the chemical digestion
breaks down the food into simpler compounds by releasing enzymes and using the
salivary glands to soften the food and allow it to travel the digestive tract. Both of these
digestion processes are essential as they decrease the surface area of the food.





Outline the structures and respective functions of the human digestive system.
Organ Role in Digestion

mouth

o Begins break down of food.
o Creates a softened, moistened mass (called a bolus) that can easily be
swallowed
o Saliva moistens food
Contains salivary amylase to begin digestion of carbohydrate

esophagus

The part of the alimentary canal that
connects the throat/mouth to the stomach
There are two processes in the esophagus
that help digest food:
Peristalsis
o moves food at variable rates
along the digestive tract
o According to the Mayo Clinic
it takes food roughly 50
hours in adults and 33 hours
in children.
Segmentation
o simultaneous circular fiber contractions at several separate points
along the digestive tract

stomach

o Liquefies meal with the help of HCl
o No digestion of carbohydrates or fat; some
protein digestion
o Slowly releases thick liquid (chyme) into the
small intestine
o Very little absorption

liver

o Secretes bile, which is a chemical needed to break down lipids/fats, into the
small intestine
gall bladder

o Stores bile

pancreas

o secretes pancreatic lipase which further aids in the breakdown of lipids
secretes bicarbonate (to neutralize acidic chyme) into intestine
secretes proteases (which function at neutral pH) to break down
o proteins in the small intestine
secretes insulin to regulate blood sugar

secretes pancreatic amylase to continue breaking down
carbohydrates

small
intestine

~ 6-9 meters in length
o Here is where digestion is completed with the help of the pancreas, gall
bladder and liver
o Almost all absorption is completed
o Small intestine is divided into three sections
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Absorption of nutrients
The majority of nutrient absorption occurs in the duodenum mainly due to the villi
and the microvilli found on the lining
The villi structures massively increase thee SA of absorption, bringing more
of the gut in contact with the products of digestion
The epithelium (surface layer of the villi) are also covered in microvilli
Every villus also has an excellent network of capillaries that allow the end
products of digestion to be absorbed quickly in to the bloodstream



large
intestine

~ 1-2 meters long
o Secretes mucus protects from mechanical damage, lubricates mass
o Absorbs some water & salts

rectum

o Used for storage of feces
o Distention of rectum elicits defecation reflex (anal sphincter under
voluntary control)
o Feces: bacteria, dead cells, salts, bile pigments, indigestible cellulose, water

anus

o Is the final opening through which digested materials pass



Label a diagram of the digestive system

Explain how the structure of the villus is ideally suited to its role in absorption
and transport of the products of digestion.
The majority of nutrient absorption occurs in the duodenum mainly due to the villi and the microvilli
found on the lining. The structure of the villus is very specific. Firstly there is a great number of them so
this increases the surface area for absorption in the small intestine. In addition the villi also have their
own projections which are called microvilli. The many microvilli increase the
surface area for absorption further. These microvilli have protein channels and
pumps in their membranes to allow the rapid absorption of food by facilitated
diffusion and active transport. Also, the villi contains an epithelial layer which is
only one cell layer thick so that food can pass through easily and be absorbed
quickly. The blood capillaries in the villus are very closely associated with the
epithelium so that the distance for the diffusion of the food molecules is small.
This thin layer of cells contains mitochondria to provide the ATP needed for the
active transport of certain food molecules. Finally, there is a lacteal branch at the
center of the villus which carries away fats after absorption.
Summary
1. Many villi increase the surface area for absorption.
2. Epithelium is only one cell layer thick and so food is quickly absorbed.
3. Microvilli on the villi increase the surface area for absorption further.
4. Protein channels and pumps are present in the microvilli for rapid
absorption.
5. The mitochondria in the epithelium provide ATP needed for active transport.

6. Blood capillaries are very close to the epithelium so diffusion distance is small.
7. The lacteal takes away fats after absorption.
State that the three main parts of the circulatory system are the blood, heart,
and blood vessels.
The three main parts of the circulatory system are the blood, heart, and blood vessels. The heart
pumps the blood through large blood vessels, called arteries, which branch into smaller capillaries.
In the capillaries, blood exchanges many substances with the surrounding tissue. After this
exchange, blood flows into larger blood vessels called veins and eventually returns to the heart.

State the function of the circulatory system.
The function of the circulatory system is to transport substances around the body. It moves nutrients
absorbed from the intestine to all of the bodys cells.
o Blood flows through the lungs to pick up oxygen and then flows through the body to deliver it
to active cells
o Blood also carries wastes from the body tissues for disposal. It carries carbon dioxide to the
lungs, where it is released into the air
o Other waste substances are carried to the kidneys, the substances are filtered out and excreted.
The other vital functions of the circulatory system are the regulation of body temperature and the
transport of disease-fighting white blood cells to areas of the body where there are viruses or bacteria.
Organ Role in Circulation

erythrocytes

Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)
o primary function is to carry oxygen
o proteins on the surface of the RBC determine a persons blood type (A, B, AB,
or O)


leucocytes

White Blood Cells (leucocytes)
o responsible for helping defend the body from disease and infection

thrombocytes
Platelets (thrombocytes)
o responsible for blood clotting

plasma

o is the liquid component of the blood
o it is composed mostly of water, but also contains blood proteins and
electrolytes


arteries

o Blood is pumped AWAY from the heart in thick walled vessels called
ARTERIES
o transport blood under high pressure throughout the body


veins
o Blood is pumped TO the heart in thin walled vessels called VEINS
have valves that allow blood to flow in one direction



capillaries

o Connect the arteries to the veins
o Narrowest of all blood vessels
RBC travel through in single file
Walls are one cell layer thick
o Single file and thin walls ensures RBCs travel at slow speeds and allows them
to pick up and unload carbon dioxide & oxygen by diffusion
o Branching in capillaries means there is a large surface area for diffusion





heart

The Heart
o The heart is a muscular organ that functions primarily as a pump
o It has chambers to receive and deliver blood
o It has valves that direct the flow of blood through the chambers
o Your heart is about the size of a clenched fist

Blood Supply To the Heart
o The heart is no different from every other muscle in your body it constantly
requires a fresh supply of oxygen

o Coronary circulation delivers oxygenated blood directly to the heart tissues
o Disease in the coronary arteries prevents the heart from receiving enough
oxygen
o The sudden blockage of a coronary artery can cause a heart attack



Blood Flow
through the
Heart
o Blood returns from systemic circulation,
through the superior & inferior vena cava, to
the right atrium
o Blood then passes to the right ventricle which
contracts to send blood through the pulmonary
arteries to the lungs
o After picking up oxygen in the lungs, blood
flows through pulmonary veins back to the left
atrium of the heart
o Blood then travels into the left ventricle, which
contracts to pump blood through the aorta to
the rest of the body


right atrium

o Blood returns from systemic circulation, through the superior & inferior vena
cava, to the right atrium
left atrium

o After picking up oxygen in the lungs, blood flows through pulmonary veins
back to the left atrium of the heart
right ventricle

o Blood then passes to the right ventricle which contracts to send blood
through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs
left ventricle

o Blood then travels into the left ventricle, which contracts to pump blood
through the aorta to the rest of the body

atrio-ventricular
valves
(AV valves)
o The right atrioventricular (AV) valve, controls the flow of blood between the
right atrium and the right ventricle

o The left atrioventricle (AV) valve controls the flow of blood between the left
atrium and the left ventricle
pulmonary
semi-lunar valve
o The pulmonary semilunar valve controls the flow of blood between the right
ventricle and pulmonary vein

aortic semi-lunar
valve
o The aortic semilunar valve controls the flow of blood between the left
ventricle and the aorta
Aorta

o The main artery of the body, supplying oxygenated blood to the circulatory
system. In humans it passes over the heart from the left ventricle and runs
down in front of the backbone.

vena cava

o A large vein carrying
deoxygenated blood into
the heart.
o There are two in humans,
the inferior vena cava
(carrying blood from the
lower body) and the
superior vena cava (carrying
blood from the head, arms,
and upper body).








Describe the flow of blood through the heart
The right and left sides of the heart work together
Right Side
Blood enters the heart through two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava,
emptying oxygen-poor blood from the body into the right atrium.
Left Side
The pulmonary vein empties oxygen-rich blood, from the lungs into the left atrium.

Atrial contraction
Right Side
Blood flows from your right atrium into your right ventricle through the open tricuspid
valve. When the ventricles are full, the tricuspid valve shuts. This prevents blood from
flowing backward into the atria while the ventricles contract (squeeze).
Left Side
Blood flows from your left atrium into your left ventricle through the open mitral valve.
When the ventricles are full, the mitral valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing
backward into the atria while the ventricles contract (squeeze).
Ventricular contraction
Right Side
Blood leaves the heart through the pulmonic valve, into the pulmonary artery and to the
lungs.
Left Side
Blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve, into the aorta and to the body. This
pattern is repeated, causing blood to flow continuously to the heart, lungs and body.







Distinguish between arteries, veins, and capillaries.
Arteries, veins, and capillaries are the three types of blood vessels that form a network of tubes
throughout the body to transport blood.
Artery
o Thick-walled blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart
o Because the blood in the arteries is being pumped away from the heart, and it is under greater
pressure than the blood in other blood vessels
o The walls of the arteries are thicker in order to withstand this pressure
Vein
o A blood vessel that returns blood to the heart
o Blood is at a lower pressure, so the walls of the vein are not as thick
o Arteries and veins are largest near the heart, where just a few blood vessels carry large volumes
of blood. Further from the heart, the blood vessels are much smaller, and there are more of
them
o Arteries and veins are linked together by the capillaries
Capillary
o A tiny, thin-walled blood Bessel that enables the exchange of gases, nutrients and wastes
between the blood and the body tissue

Define blood and state a description of the four components of blood
Blood is a type of connective tissue that circulates throughout all parts of your body. The blood consists
of four components;
Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)
o Primary function is to carry oxygen
o Proteins on the surface of the RBC determine a persons blood type (A, B, AB, or O)
o Contain a protein called hemoglobin which allows it to transport oxygen
o Hemoglobin makes it appear red
White Blood Cells (leucocytes)
o Responsible for helping defend the body from disease and infection
o Recognize and destroy invading bacteria and viruses
o Make up less than 1% of the volume of blood
o Only blood cells that have a nucleus

Platelets (thrombocytes)
o Responsible for blood clotting
o Also compromise less than 1% of the blood
Plasma
o Is the liquid component of the blood
o It is composed mostly of water, but also contains blood proteins and electrolytes
o Makes up over half the volume of blood

Explain how heart attack, arteriosclerosis and stroke occur.
Heart Attack
o During a heart attack, a clot completely blocks a coronary artery and there is death of cardiac
cells
o Symptoms: fatigue, dizziness, indigestion, chest pain
o Risk Factors: increasing age, smoking, poor diet, obesity lack of exercise, stress, family, history
of heart diabetes
Stroke
o Occurs when a blood vessel leading to the brain is damaged
o A clot forms in the vessel, or the vessel bursts due to high blood pressure
o Symptoms depend on the vessel involved and the part of the brain affected (opposite side of
the body)
o Symptoms: weakness, slurred speech, numbness
o Some symptoms are reversible with time, others may be permanent
Arteriosclerosis
o Hardening and narrowing of the arteries
o Usual cause of heart attacks, strokes, and peripheral vascular disease -- what together are called
"cardiovascular disease."

Explain the need for a ventilation (respiratory) system.
A ventilation system is needed to maintain the concentration gradients of gases in the alveoli. Diffusion
of gases occurs due to the concentration gradient of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and
the blood. The body needs to get rid of carbon dioxide which is a product of cell respiration and needs
to take in oxygen as it is needed for cell respiration to make ATP. There must be a low concentration of
carbon dioxide in the alveoli so that carbon dioxide can diffuse out of the blood in the capillaries and
into the alveoli. Also there must be a high concentration of oxygen in the in the alveoli so that oxygen
can diffuse into the blood in the capillaries from the alveoli. The ventilation system makes this possible
by getting rid of the carbon dioxide in the alveoli and bringing in more oxygen.
Summary:
1. To maintain the concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli.
2. The body needs oxygen to make ATP via cell respiration.
3. The body needs to get rid of carbon dioxide which is a product of cell respiration.
4. Oxygen needs to diffuse from the alveoli into the blood. Carbon dioxide needs to diffuse from
the blood into the alveoli.
5. To do so there must be a high oxygen concentration and a low carbon dioxide concentration in
the alveoli.
6. A ventilation system makes this possible by getting rid of the carbon dioxide in the alveoli and
bringing in more oxygen.

Outline the structures and respective functions for all parts of the human
respiratory system.
Organ Role in Respiration

nose
o the part projecting above the mouth on the face of a person or animal,
containing the nostrils and used for breathing and smelling

mouth

o It is one of the opening the air comes into it is also an area where a certain
amount of dust and impurities are intercepted and detected

pharynx

o section of alimentary canal that connects the mouth and nasal cavity to the
larynx and esophagus

trachea

o flexible tube commonly called the windpipe
o semicircular rings of cartilage prevent trachea from collapsing
o trachea eventually branches into two smaller passageways called bronchi
(singular bronchus)

bronchi

o One bronchus enters each lung
o In the lung, each bronchus divides many
times to produce a network of
bronchioles
o Like the upper respiratory tract, the
bronchi and bronchioles are lined with a
ciliated mucous membrane


bronchioles
what is the difference between bronchi and bronchioles?


alveoli

o At the end of each bronchiole is a grape-
like cluster of tiny sacs called alveoli
o Alveoli are the site of gas exchange



lung


o Characteristic of air-breathing vertebrates
o A lung is an internal respiratory surface connected to air by means of internal
passageways
o All lung systems contain 3 basic elements one or two lungs that have a moist
respiratory surface
a way of forcibly bringing air in contact with the lung surface
a circulatory system to carry gases between the lungs and body cells

Describe the features of alveoli that adapt them to gas exchange.
Even though alveoli are so small there are huge numbers of them which results in a large surface area
for gas exchange. Also the wall of the alveoli is made up of a single layer of thin cells and so are the
capillaries, this creates a short diffusion distance for the gases. Therefore this allows rapid gas exchange.
The alveoli are covered by a dense network of blood capillaries which have a low oxygen and high
carbon dioxide concentrations. This allows oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide to
diffuse out of the blood. Finally, there are cells in the alveolar walls which secrete a fluid that keeps the
inner surface of the alveoli moist, allowing gases to dissolve. This fluid also contains a natural detergent
that prevents the sides of the alveoli from sticking together.
Summary:
1. Great numbers increase the surface area for gas exchange.
2. Wall made up of single layer of cells and so are the walls of the capillaries so diffusion distance is
small allowing rapid gas exchange.
3. Covered by a dense network of capillaries which have low oxygen and high carbon dioxide
concentrations. This allows oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide to diffuse out of
the blood.
4. Some cells in the walls secret fluid allowing gases to dissolve. Fluid also prevents the sides of
alveoli from sticking together.
Label a diagram of the ventilation system


Explain the difference between breathing and gas exchange.

Ventilation (breathing) is the process of bringing fresh air into the
alveoli and removing the stale air. It maintains the concentration
gradient of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the alveoli and the
blood in the capillaries (vital for oxygen to diffuse into the blood from
the alveoli and carbon dioxide out of the blood into the alveoli).

Gas exchange is the process of swapping one gas for another. It occurs
in the alveoli of the lungs. Oxygen diffuses into the capillaries from the
air in the alveoli and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the
capillaries and into the air in the alveoli.
Oxygen enters the bloodstream in the lungs by diffusion.
Carbon dioxide leaves the blood in the same way. The
respiratory system is adapted in several ways to make these
processes as efficient as possible. Each of the bronchi
branch again and again, ending in tiny air sacs called alveoli.

Explain the mechanism of ventilation of the lungs
Inhalation:

o The external intercostal muscles contract. This moves the ribcage up and out.
o The diaphragm contracts. As it does so it moves down and becomes relatively flat.
o Both of these muscle contractions result in an increase in the volume of the thorax which in turn
results in a drop in pressure inside the thorax.
o Pressure eventually drops below atmospheric pressure.
o Air then flow into the lungs from outside the body, through the mouth or nose, trachea, bronchi
and bronchioles.
o Air continues to enter the lungs until the pressure inside the lungs rises to the atmospheric
pressure.
o Exhalation:

o The internal intercostal muscles contract. This moves the ribcage down and in.
o The abdominal muscles contract. This pushes the diaphragm up, back into a dome shape.
o Both of these muscle contractions result in a decrease in the volume of the thorax.
o As a result of the decrease in volume, the pressure inside the thorax increases.
o Eventually the pressure rises above atmospheric pressure.
o Air then flows out of the lungs to outside of the body through the nose or mouth.
o Air continues to flow out of the lungs until the pressure in the lungs has fallen back to
atmospheric pressure.






UNIT 3: PHYSICS
Guiding question: How has the scientific and mathematical development of optical technologies been
co-factors in the furthering of human understanding?


Describe what light is
o Light is electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye.
o A medium is any physical substance that acts as a carrier for the transmission of energy.
Light travels through the vacuum of outer space which means it does not require a medium
for transmission.
o Light energy is transferred through radiation
o Light is an electromagnetic wave that does not require a medium for transmission and
travels at the speed of light.

Discuss the electromagnetic spectrum
o The electromagnetic spectrum is the classification of electromagnetic waves by energy.
Type of Electromagnetic Wave Use/Phenomena
Radio Waves AM/FM radio stations
TV signals
Cellphones
Radar
Astronomy (discovery of pulsars)
Microwaves Telecommunications
Microwave ovens
Astronomy (background radiation
associated with the big bang)
Infrared light Remote controls
Lasers
Heat detection
Physical therapy
Visible light Human vision
Theatre/concert lighting
Rainbows

Ultraviolet Causes skin to tan/sunburn
Increases risk of skin cancer
Ultraviolet lasers
X-rays Medical imaging
Cancer treatments
Security equipment (scanning luggage)
Gamma Rays Cancer treatment
Product of some nuclear decay

Define the terminology of reflection and laws of reflection
Plane: flat mirror
Incident ray: the incoming ray that strikes a surface
Reflected ray: the ray that bounces off a reflective surface
Normal: the perpendicular line to a mirror surface
Perpendicular: at right angles
Angle of incidence: the angle between the incident ray and the normal
Angle of reflection: the angle between the reflected ray and the normal

Law of reflection: when light reflects off a surface, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection as measured from the normal.


Draw ray diagrams for plane, convex and concave mirrors.
Plane:


o Plane mirrors use only the laws of reflection to determine the SALT properties of an object




Concave and Convex:








Rules for Convex & Concave Mirrors diagrams
The image can be located by using any two of these following rules


Rules:
1. Incident rays travelling parallel to the principle axis, strike the mirror and are reflected
through the focus.

Convex mirror*
Concave mirror





2. Incident rays that go through the center of the curvature are reflected perfectly back on
themselves

Convex mirror Concave Mirror





*With convex mirror, as if it were to go
through the focus


3. Incident rays that go through the focus (convex mirror: as if it were going through) are
reflected parallel to the principle axis

Convex Mirror Concave Mirror



4. A ray aimed at the vertex will follow the law of reflection

Convex Mirror Concave Mirror


Explain using S.A.L.T., all the properties of the images produced in plane,
concave and convex mirrors
Plane:
They all create images with the same SALT properties
o S The image is the same size as the object
o A the image produced is upright
o L the image is on the opposite side of the mirror as the object, the same distance from the
mirror as the object
o T the image is a virtual image
Convex:
All convex mirrors create images with the same SALT properties
o S smaller
o A upright
o L on opposite side as object, before C
o T virtual image

Concave:
Concave mirrors produce different images depending on where the object is located


Discuss refraction by referencing that light travels at different speed in different
media (substances)
Refraction is the bending of light as it travels from one medium (one refractive index) into another
medium (a material with a different refractive index)

o The angle of incidence is still defined as the angle between the normal and the incident ray
o The refracted ray is the ray that is bent upon entering a second medium
o The angle of refraction is the angle between the normal and a refracted ray
*Going from a slow (more dense) to a fast (less dense) medium results in the ray being bent AWAY from
the normal
*Going from a fast (less dense) to a slow medium (more dense) results in the ray being bent TOWARDS
the normal




Define the index of refraction as the ratio of the speed of light in a substance
and the speed in vacuum.
o Ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum (or air) to the speed of light in a given medium.
n=c/v
o n is the index of refraction
o c is the speed of light in a vacuum (3.00 x 10^8 m/s)
o v is the speed of light in a medium

Perform calculations to find the speed of light in different media.
o Light travels through air into a second medium that has a speed of 2.29 x 10^8 m/s.
Find the index of refraction and identify medium B.
o n=c/v
= 3.00 x 10^8 m/s / 2.29 x 10^8 m/s
= 1.31
o medium B is ice


Explain that the index of refraction (n) can also be determined by using the
Snells Law equation. n
1
sin
1
= n
2
sin
2
You can also use the index of refraction of any known substance, sin
1
& sin
2,
to determine the index of
refraction of any unknown substance.
*Going from a slow (more dense) to a fast (less dense) medium results in the ray being bent AWAY from
the normal
*Going from a fast (less dense) to a slow medium (more dense) results in the ray being bent TOWARDS
the normal

Perform calculations using the sine laws for incident
and refracted light rays
o The index of refraction for ice is 1.31.if the angle of
incidence is 50, what will the angle of refraction be in ice,
coming in from air?
o n
1
(sin
1
) = n
2
(sin
2
)
sin
1
= n
2
(sin
2
) / n
1
= (1) sin50 / 1.31
R= 35.8




Explain and calculate the critical angle.
o Light bends away from the normal when it speeds up at the boundary
of two media (example: light travels from acrylic to air).
o In this situation, the angle of refraction is always larger than the angle
of incidence

o In fact, the angle of refraction continues to increase as the angle of
incidence increases.
o Eventually the angle on incidence will create an angle of refraction of
90.
o The critical angle is the angle of incidence that produces a refracted angle of 90.


Calculating the CA:

n2 = index of refraction for medium 2 (refracted side)
n1 = index of refraction for medium (incident side)
This formula comes from Snells law to derive to the following
Example:
Calculate the Critical Angle using the information on the diagram below


Explain the conditions where total internal reflection happens.
o If you increase the angle of incidence past the critical angle, the refracted ray will no longer
exit the medium
o Instead, it will reflect back into the medium
o In other words, the refracted ray disappears; only a reflected ray is visible
o This is called total internal reflection



Identify several real life examples caused by refraction and total internal
reflection.
Fiber Optics
o A technology that uses light (totally internally reflected) to transmit information along a
glass cable.
o The light must not escape the cable, so the material must have a higher index of refraction
which leads to a small critical angle of incidence.
o This is used intensively in the communications industry because it is able to carry much
more signal and requires less power.

Periscopes and Binoculars
o Glass has a critical angle of about 4.41. Therefore, if a prism is created in
such a way that the angle of incidence is greater than 41.1, total internal
reflection will result and the resultant image is better than one reflected
off a mirrored surface.
Periscopes: use triangular prisms to change the direction of light by 90 twice.
Binoculars: use two triangular prisms to change the path of light.

Diamonds
Diamonds are a real life example of total internal reflection. The sparkling effect
that diamonds display is due to the cut of the diamond faces, which, combined with
the high index of refraction for diamonds (n = 2.42), results in the total internal

reflection of light. The high refractive index means that the diamonds have very small critical angle. So
a great deal of incident light undergoes total internal reflection inside the diamond before eventually
exiting through a top face of the gemstone. This causes the sparkling effect.

Understand that lenses work by the refraction of light through a curved surface,
resulting in light rays being converged or diverged in a regular pattern

Distinguish between converging (convex) and diverging (concave) lenses
Converging Lens:
A lens that is thickest in the middle and that causes incident
parallel light rays to converge through a single point after
refraction.


Diverging Lens
A lens that is thinnest in the middle and that causes incident
parallel light rays to spread apart after refraction.





Define all the relevant terminology for thin lens diagrams
Optical Centre (O): the point at the exact center of the lens
Principal Focus (F): The point on the principal axis of a lens, where light rays parallel to the principal axis
converge after refraction
Principal Axis: the line that joins the optical center to the principal focus
Secondary Principal Focus (F): the focus on the other side of the lens




Draw ray diagrams for both types of lenses to find the location, size, type and
orientation of the image
Rules for converging
1. A ray parallel to the Principal axis is refracted through the Focus (F)

2. a ray through the Secondary Principal Focus (F) is refracted parallel to the Principal Axis (PA

3. A ray through the optical centre (O) continues straight through the lens, without being refracted

Rules for diverging
1. A ray parallel to the Principal axis is refracted as though it had come from the Focus (F)

2. A ray that is aimed at the secondary principal focus (F) will refract parallel to the principal axis

3. A ray through the optical centre (O) continues straight through the lens, without being refracted


The Thin Lens Equation

d
o
distance from the object to the optical centre
d
i
distance from the image to the optical centre
o (+ for real, - for virtual)
f focal length of the lens; distance from the optical centre to the principal focus (F)
o (+ for converging, - for diverging)

The Magnification Equation

h
o
height of the object
h
i
height of the image
M magnification (+ for upright, - for inverted)

Define the basic anatomy of the eye and
functions of each part
Sclera: white of the eye
Cornea: the clear bulging
surface in front of the eye. It is the main refractive
surface of the eye.
Pupil: the opening at the centre of the iris. The
iris adjusts the size of the pupil and controls the
amount of light that can enter the eye
Lens: a clear part of the eye behind the iris that helps to focus light, or an image, on the retina
Vitreous Humor: a clear gel that fills the space between lens and retina
Retina: the light sensitive tissue lining at the back of the eye. The retina converts light into electrical
impulses that are sent to the brain through the optic nerve.
Iris: the coloured part of the eye that regulates amount of light entering the eye
Optic nerve: a bundle of more than 1million nerve fibers that carries visual messages from the retina to
the brain

Describe several applications of lenses including
The Camera
A converging lens produces an inverted, real image as long as the object is at a distance greater than F
(the secondary principle focus). A camera is a device that makes use of this fact.

o A camera takes light from large, distant objects and forms of smaller, real images on the film
o This means that the object must be located at more than twice the focal length of the lens. As
the object changes position, its image will change location
o The location of the real image, however will be somewhere between F and 2F
o You cannot move the film in a camera back and forth to create a sharp

o So to compensate for the fixed position of the film, you move the lens in and out (Focusing)



The Movie Projector
The movie project is the opposite of a camera. A projector takes a small object (the film) and projects a
large, inverted, real image on a screen. Because the image is larger than the object, the film must be
located F and 2F. Also, because the image is inverted, the film must be loaded in to the projector
upside down so that what you see on the movie screen is upright. An overhead projector works in a
similar way.


The Magnifying Glass
The simplest optical device is the magnifying glass. It is a simple converging lens in which the object is
located between F and the lens. No real image is produced at this object location. The refracted rays
spread apart or diverge. However, the human brain extends these rays backwards and produces an
enlarged, virtual image located on the same side of the lens as the object.



Discuss near and far sightedness
Hyperopia Farsightedness
o Can see far
o Difficulty seeing close

Myopia near sightedness
o Can see near
o Difficulty seeing far


Describe how corrective lenses, contact lenses, or laser eye surgery can correct
vision defects.

Contac-t Lenses
o Placed directly on the cornea of the eye and serves the same purpose as glasses
o Shaped precisely so it can be used for correcting near and far sightedness
o Contacts allow the eye to focus light in the right spot of the retina the spot that produces the
clearest image
Corrective Lenses
o Designed to help your eyes focus light properly onto the retina
o They bend light rays (before entering the eye) to the degree required by the condition of the
person
o Different types of corrective lens include glasses, contacts and intraocular lenses
Lazy eye surgery
o Helps correct Amblyopia which is known as a lazy eye(s)
o This is a problem in the way the brain intercepts visual images from one or both eyes which
makes it harder for people to do things like reading a sign from a distance or catching a ball
o Treatment for amblyopia can correct the way the brain processes visual images and ultimately,
strengthen vision




UNIT 4: CLIMATE CHANGE
Guiding question: What are the uses and limitations of science in addressing issues of natural, built and
virtual environments?


Define climate
The average of the weather in a region over a long period of time


Describe how the earth maintains an energy balance
Earth is constantly absorbing energy from the sun. Earths surface absorbs energy from the sun at
different wavelengths (UV, visible light and infrared). As the energy is absorbed, earths surface gains
thermal energy and therefore its temperature rises. However, Earths surface both absorbs energy and
emits energy. The amount of energy Earths systems absorbs from the system is equal to the amount of
energy radiated by Earths systems. As a result of this balance of energy, Earths global temperature
stays fairly constant


Describe the Greenhouse Effect and identify at least 4 of the corresponding
greenhouse gases
The atmosphere allows much of the higher energy radiation from the sun to pass through it. This
radiation is absorbed by Earths surface, becoming thermal energy. Earths warm surface then emits
lower-energy infrared (IR) radiation. Gases in Earths atmosphere trap much of the IR radiation. These
gases then radiate the energy equally in all directions which means that about half of the radiation get
sent back towards Earths surface. This warms the earths surface and atmosphere even more. The
trapped energy, keeps earths temperature much warmer than it otherwise would be. This energy-
trapping process is known as the Greenhouse Effect.
Carbon dioxide
Water vapour
Methane
Ozone
Nitrous oxide



Explain how greenhouse gases trap radiation
Water, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide consist of 3 or more atoms and have different types
of atoms. The atoms in these molecules can vibrate and wiggle in many ways, and can absorb different
types of energy. Thus when IR radiation reaches these greenhouse gases, the molecules trap the IR
energy and re-radiate it back out in every direction.


Discuss the effect carbon dioxide and water vapor have on the environment
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and therefore does aid in the process of the greenhouse
effect
The carbon cycle is the movement of carbon through living things, the lithosphere, the
atmosphere and the hydrosphere
Living things and oceans are important carbon sinks
o They remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store the carbon atoms in a
different form. Example: trees and other plants
when trees decompose or burn, the carbon is released back in to the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide

Water vapor
2/3 of earths natural greenhouse effect is caused by water vapour in the atmosphere.
Water evaporates more readily when it is heated and warmer air can hold more water vapour
Thus as earths temp increases, more liquid water becomes water vapour
Because water vapour traps energy, the more water vapour there is in the atmosphere, the
warmer Earth becomes
This relationship is known as a positive feedback loop
o The effect enhances the original cause water vapour and temperature


Discuss some of the evidence that shows how climate is changing
Rising temperatures
Weather stations have recorded daily temperatures and other weather data around the world
since the 1800s
This historical record shows that he average temperature goes up and down from year to year
but the long-term trends show that earths average temperature have rose
Since 2006 11 of the previous 12 years were the warmest every recorded






Melting Glaciers, Ice Sheets and Sea Ice
Over the last few decades, the average size of glaciers all over the world have decreased due to
the rising global temperatures
Ice sheets that covered expanses of Greenland and Antarctica are melting
Arctic sea ice is also disappearing

Rising sea level
Global sea levels have risen significantly over the past 120 years
When glaciers and ice sheets on land melt, water runs in to the oceans, causing the sea level to
rise.
The melting of frozen water sources may explain why sea level rise is accelerating
In addition, thermal expansion (water expanding slightly when it warms up) could also lead to
rising sea levels

Changes in severe weather
Certain types of severe weather events, such as heat waves and hurricanes are becoming more
intense
In 2003, Europe experienced one of the most intense heat waves, where thousands of people
died. Hurricanes have also become stronger over the past 50 years, fuelled by warmer ocean
temperatures

Changes in precipitation
In the northern hemisphere, more precipitation is falling as rain and less as snow
There are more heavy precipitation events such as rainstorms and snowstorms
Countries in more southern hemispheres are becoming more arid
Precipitation is one of the main factors used to identify the climate of a region changes in
precipitation point to changes in climate

Changing seasons
Seasons in Canada and other parts of the world are gradually changing
The amount of snow that remains on the ground in winter is decreasing throughout the
northern hemisphere
The frequency of cold days has been decreasing worldwide
Very cold days and frosty nights are coming later in the year and ending earlier in the spring
As a result, many regions are experiencing longer growing seasons

Changes in ecosystems
Trees and shrubs and other plants across north America are flowering earlier in the spring and
animals are breeding earlier in the year

Animal and plant communities are slowly migrating toward the poles, this will also result in
undesirable insects and plants also moving north in to newer regions

Describe what a feedback loop is
A feedback loop is when the cause creates an effect that impacts the original cause.
In a positive feedback loop, the effect increases the original cause.
In a negative feedback loop the effect decreases the original cause


Identify and describe examples of positive and negative feedback loops
Positive feedback loop: water vapour
The more water vapour enters the atmosphere when the climate warms up, due to increased
evaporation from earths lakes and oceans.
This causes the climate to warm up even more because water vapour is a greenhouse gas and
traps infrared vapor emitted by earth
If more relatively low clouds form in the atmosphere, then they trap thermal energy near
Earths surface, creating a more complex positive feedback loop
Water temperatures more (low) clouds even warmer temperatures

CONVERSELY If the climate cools down, less water vapour forms and climate cools further (still a
positive feedback loop)


Negative feedback loop: high altitude clouds
As temperatures increase this can cause clouds to form at high altitudes
High clouds reflect the suns radiation back out to space which cools the temperature
Water temperatures more (high) clouds cooler temperatures


Negative feedback loop: birth
When woman are giving birth their muscles in the uterus contract
This contraction of muscles causes the brain to send hormones to relieve pain in that area
More contractions occur which results in more hormones being sent due to the pain
The effect (or hormones being sent from the brain) are decreasing the original cause
(contraction of muscles/pain)




Explain the Albedo Effect
Albedo: the proportion of radiation reflected by a surface. Ice and snow have high albedos because
they reflect more radiation than grass or trees. The albedo effect is the relationship between ice and
earths temperature.
The albedo warming effect is the positive feedback loop in which
There is a rise in temperature
Ice melts
Which results in less of the suns radiation to be reflected by ice
Leading to further increases in temperatures



Albedo cooling effect is also a positive feedback loop
Earths temperature decreases
More ice is able to form
Resulting in more of suns radiation reflected by the ice
Leading to a further decrease in temperature


Explain how we can take actions to limit climate change
Do not pollute
Decrease carbon footprint
Use renewable energy sources