Chapter 38 ANGIOSPERM REPORDUCTION AND

BIOTECHNOLOGY
The life cycle of angiosperms is characterized by an alternation of generations, in which the
haploid (n) and diploid (2n) generations take turns producing each other
!porophyte generation is diploid, 2n, and produces haploid spores through meiosis
"ametophyte generation is haploid, n, and produces haploid gametes through
mitosis
#ertilization restores the diploid stage$ meiosis restores the haploid stage
%n flowering plants the diploid sporophyte generation is larger and nutritionally independent
The sporophyte produces spores by meiosis
The haploid gametophyte generation, which is located in the flower, is microscopic in size
and nutritionally dependent of the sporophyte
The gametophyte gi&es rise to gametes by mitosis
The pollen grain is the male gametophyte of angiosperms
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male structures to the female structures in the
same or different flower
#ertilization is a different process and takes place inside the o&ary of the flower as does the
de&elopment of the seed
The o&ary becomes the fruit, another uni'ue structure of the angiosperm
STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER
The flower is a modified branch ape(, and is in&ol&ed in se(ual reproduction %t is a uni'ue
structure of the angiosperms
#lowers are a collection of organs designed to produce gametes, attract gametes, and
de&elop seeds
The flower is typically composed of four whorls of highly modified lea&es called floral
organs, which are separated by &ery short internodes
#lowers, the reproducti&e shoots, show determinate growth
!epals, petals stamens, and carpels
The whorls of organs sit on an enlarged branch end called the reeptale
The !epal! form the al"# and protect the flower bud
The petal! form the orolla and attract animals to assist in pollination )etals may or may
not be present
The !ta$en! are the male reproducti&e organs
They consist of a %ila$ent and an ant&er
)ollen grains form in the anthers
*ach pollen grain contains two cells$ one produces t'o !per$ n(lei, and the
other produces a pollen t()e to transfer the sperm nuclei to the o&ule
+ pollen grain represents a male gametophyte
The arpel! are the female reproducti&e structures
+ flower may ha&e one or se&eral carpels
Carpels may be separate or fused
Carpel usually has a !t"le and !tig$a
O*ar" is another name for the lower portion of the carpel
+n o&ary may be formed by &arious fused carpels
Pi!til is another name for the female reproducti&e structure
+ pistil may be formed by a single carpel or by se&eral fused carpels
The o&ary contains one or se&eral o&ules
The o*(le produces contains the embryo sac
The embryo sac produces two polar nuclei and one egg
The egg and the polar nuclei are in&ol&ed in the process of double fertilization
+ariation! in %lo'er !tr(t(re,
#loral whorls,
Complete, sepals, petals, stamens and carpels
%ncomplete flowers lack one or se&eral floral whorls
!e(ual parts of the flower,
)erfect, bise(ual, both stamens and carpels present
%mperfect, unise(ual, the flower has only stamens (staminate) or carpels
(carpellate)
!e( of the plants,
-onoecious, the plant has both staminate and carpellate flowers$ flowers imperfect
.ioecious, staminate and carpellate flowers are found on separate plants$ flowers
imperfect
/ermaphroditic, plant with flowers perfect
01ikos0 2 house (eg monoecious 2 one house)
Pro-(ing t&e $ale ga$etop&"te
ANTHER . SPOROGENOUS TISSUE 3 MICROSPORE . MICROGAMETOPHYTE /POLLEN GRAIN0 .
GENERATI+E CELL . MALE NUCLEI
4 The ant&er and the %ila$ent make the male reproducti&e organ of the plant
2 %nside the anther, the diploid cells of the !porogeno(! ti!!(e di&ide meiotically to
produce haploid $iro!pore!
3 *ach diploid cell produces four haploid microspores
5 *ach of the four cells forming called now microspores, di&ide mitotically to form pollen
grain! made of generati*e ell enclosed in a larger *egetati*e or t()e ell
6 + &ery resistant outer layer of !poropollenin and an inner layer of pectin surround this
two7cell structure or pollen grain
Pro-(ing t&e %e$ale ga$etop&"te,
O+ULE . MEGASPORE . MEGAGAMETOPHYTE /EMBRYO SAC0 . EGG
4 The o*(le consists of an inner tissue called the n(ell(! and one or two protecti&e
layers called integ($ent!
2 The integuments form one small opening at one end of the o&ule, the $irop"le
3 1ne diploid cell in the nucellus produces four haploid cells or $ega!pore! through
meiosis
5 Three nuclei degenerate and one haploid nucleus remains
6 The functional megaspore enlarges at the e(pense of the other cells of the nucellus
8 This nucleus inside the cell di&ides mitotically twice, forming first four nuclei and then
eight nuclei
9 The eight nuclei separate and form si( small cells and one large cell, the
megagametophyte or female gametophyte
8 Three cells migrate towards the micropylar end, one cell becomes the egg and the two
others are called !"nergi-! e&entually degenerate
: Three other cells migrate to the end opposite to the micropyle These are called
antipo-al ell!
4; Two nuclei remain the in the center of the large cell These two nuclei are called the
polar n(lei
44 +t this point this structure is called the female gametophyte or $egaga$etop&"te or
e$)r"o !a
42 The o&ule now consists of the embryo sac and its integuments
%nteresting site,
http,<<wwwemcmaricopaedu<faculty<farabee<biobk<=io=ookflowers%%html
Me&ani!$! t&at pre*ent !el%1%ertili2ation
!ome plants can self7fertilize if pollen from the same plant fall on the stigma
1ther plants cannot self7fertilize, these plants are !el%1ino$pati)le
There are se&eral mechanisms in&ol&ed in the compatibility or not of the pollen and the
stigma
The ! locus in the cabbage family,
4 The 0! locus0 consists in reality of three loci
2 There are multiple alleles of these genes, up to 6;
3 The proteins coded by these loci are located one in the membrane of the stigma cells,
another in the cell wall of the stigma cells, and the third is secreted by mature pollen
grains
5 %f the proteins secreted by the pollen are the same as one or both of the proteins in the
cell membrane and wall of the stigma, the pollen grain does not form a pollen tube
!imilarity of alleles means that they are probable from the same plant
6 %f the proteins secreted by the pollen tube are different from both of those in the cell wall
and the cell membrane of the stigma, the pollen tube forms The pollen comes from a
different plant
A%ter %ertili2ation3
Fertili2ation is the fusion of gametes
%t restores the diploid condition in the zygote
The male gametophyte produces a long tube that grows through the stigma, the style and
enters the micropyle of the female gametophyte (syn embryo sac)
The generati*e ell of the pollen di&ides to form two sperm nuclei that mo&e into the pollen
tube
.ouble fertilization is a uni'ue phenomenon that occurs in angiosperms only
*gg and one sperm form the 2"gote, 2n
The two polar nuclei and the second sperm form the en-o!per$, 3n
The endosperm stores food for the de&eloping embryo
The o&ule will de&elop into a seed and the o&ary will de&elop into a fruit
>ike in animals, after the fusion of gametes there is
an increase in the amount of Ca
2?
in the cytoplasm$
a block to pol"!per$", the fertilization of the egg by more than one sperm
En-o!per$ -e*elop$ent
+fter double fertilization, the triploid nucleus of o&ule@s central cell di&ides mitotically forming
a $(ltin(leate large cell
The li'uid mass of the endosperm becomes $(ltiell(lar when cytokinesis forms plasma
membranes and di&ides the endosperm into many cells
Then these cells de&elop cell wall around them and the endosperm becomes solid
%n monocots and many eudicots, the endosperm stores the nutrients that are going to be
used by the embryo during germination
%n some eudicots, the food reser&es of the endosperm are completely e(ported to the
cotyledons before the seed completes its de&elopment$ the mature seed lacks endosperm
(eg beans)
E$)r"ogene!i!
*mbryonic de&elopment follows a pattern,
The zygote di&ides into two cells$ the ter$inal ell de&elops into the embryo proper, and
)a!al ell de&elops into a column of cells, t&e !(!pen!or that brings in nutrients and
gibberellins to the de&eloping embryo
The suspensor is short li&ed and undergoes a process of programmed cell death or
apopto!i!
)roembryo globular embryo heart7shaped embryo mature embryo
T&e $at(re e$)r"o
+ mature embryo consists of a ra-ile, &"poot"l, one or two ot"le-on! and the
pl($(le
Aadicle, embryonic root Cotyledons, embryonic or seed lea&es
/ypocotyl, embryonic or seed stem )lumule, shoot ape( or meristem
%n some species, the cotyledons absorb the food from the endosperm and become the
storage structure, e g beans, peanuts
%n other species, the food remains stored in the endosperm and their cotyledons are &ery
thin
!eeds of monocots ha&e a single cotyledon
The grass family has a specialized cotyledon called the !(tell($
The scutellum is thin and in contact with the cotyledon
.uring germination, the scutellum absorbs food from the endosperm and transfers it
to the de&eloping embryo
The embryonic root is co&ered by protecti&e sheath called the oleor&i2a, and the
shoot ape( by a sheath called the oleoptile
T&e %r(it
!eeds are enclosed in fruits
#ruits are ripened o&aries and may or may not include other parts of the flower
The fruit protects the seed and aids in seed dispersal
The o&ary wall or periarp thickens during maturation
#ruits may be fleshy like pears and oranges, or dry like wheat and string beans
+s the fruit ripens, enzymes digest the cell walls and organic acids and starch are
con&erted to sugars, which may reach a concentration of 2;B in some cases
.ry fruits ha&e a dry pericarp and are usually confused with seeds, e g wheat, corn and
acorns
Si$ple %r(it! de&elop from one o&ary (eg peach) or se&eral fused o&aries (eg
tomato)
Aggregate %r(it! de&elop from many separate carpels of one flower, eg
blackberry
M(ltiple %r(it! de&elop from many carpels of many flowers, eg pineapple and fig
See- -or$an"
+s the seed matures, it dehydrates and enters a phase referred to as -or$an", to sleep
.ehydration
>ow metabolic rate
!uspension of growth and de&elopment
!eed dormancy increases the chances that germination will occur at a time and place most
ad&antageous to the seedling
!eed dormancy is characteristic of plants that li&e in seasonal climates
There is not one single mechanism in&ol&ed in seed dormancy
%n some plants, dormant seeds ha&e high concentration of a)!i!i ai- (+=+), which
inhibits germination
Chen the dormant seeds are e(posed to water, the abscisic acid washes out and
germination starts
.esert plants ha&e phenolics compounds that inhibit dormancy .uring the short rainy
season, the phenolics compounds are washed away and the seed germinates when there
is water a&ailable
!ome seeds ha&e a &ery thick and resistant coat that does not allow water or o(ygen to
reach the embryo These seeds must be scarified by abrasion, fire or passage through the
digesti&e track of an animal
1ther seeds must undergo a period of cool or freezing weather before germination
!ome &arieties of lettuce re'uire light to germinate$ other plant seeds are inhibited by light
See- ger$ination
.uring germination, glucose breakdown may be entirely anaerobic
%ncrease in water uptake, o(ygen consumption, and protein production
+fter hydration, enzymes begin the digestion of food in the endosperm or cotyledons
and nutrients are transferred to the embryo
Cells enlarge and the embryo burst through the seed coat
Aadicle emerges and begins to penetrate into the soil
/ypocotyl elongates
The process is controlled by mAD+ stored in the seed
%n dicots,
The pri$ar" root emerges through the seed coats while the seed is still buried in
the soil and grows down
The &"poot"l emerges from the seed coats and pushes its way up through the
soil %t is bent into what is called the &"poot"l ar&
The t'o ot"le-on! protect the epicotyl structures E the pl($(le E from
mechanical damage
1nce the hypocotyl arch emerges from the soil, it straightens out This response is
triggered by light =oth
red light, absorbed by phytochrome and
blue light, absorbed by r"pto&ro$e can do the Fob
The cotyledons spread apart e(posing the epicotyl, consisting of two pri$ar"
lea*e! and the apical meristem
%n many dicots, the cotyledons not only supply their food stores to the de&eloping
plant but also turn green and make more food by photosynthesis until they drop off
%n monocots,
The pri$ar" root grows through the seed (and fruit) co&erings and grows down into
the soil
The first or pri$ar" lea% grows up protected by the oleoptile as it pushes up
through the soil
The coleoptile stops growing once it reaches the surface, then the primary leaf
pushes through its ape( and begins to e(pand
!ource, http,<<usersrcncom<Fkimballmaultranet<=iology)ages<"<"erminationhtml
ASE4UAL REPRODUCTION
!e(ual and ase(ual reproductions are complementary in the life of plants
+se(ual reproduction enables successful clones to spread$ se(ual reproduction generates
the genetic &ariation that makes e&olutionary adaptation possible
+se(ual reproduction is also called *egetati*e repro-(tion
1ffspring are formed without the fusion of gametes
1ffspring are genetically similar to the parent plant
!tems, lea&es and roots may be adapted to ase(ual reproduction
%f a plant is &ery well adapted to a particular en&ironment, there is great ad&antage in
producing offspring that are clones of the &ery well adapted parent
-odified stems may gi&e rise to independent plants in time by %rag$entation
The root system may gi&e rise to many ad&entitious aerial shoots that e&entually separate
from the parent These new plants are lone! of the original parent
Apo$i#i! is the formation of seeds without fertilization, akin to parthenogenesis is animals
The new generation can come from an unfertilized o&ule or from a &egetati&e cell
+ diploid cell in the o&ule gi&es rise to an embryo
-odified lea&es can produce plantlet! that break off and gi&e rise to new plants
Gegetati&e reproduction of plants is common in horticulture
.esirable &arieties can be cloned from single cells taken from the parent plant
!hoot or stem (tting! can be used to form undifferentiated masses of cells called a callus
that e&entually will form roots and a shoot
Gra%ting allows combining the best characteristics of two plants
The plant that pro&ides the root system is called the !to5
The twig that is grafted is called the !ion
%t is possible to grow whole plants by culturing small e#plant! (pieces of tissue cut from the
parent) on an artificial medium containing hormones and nutrients
This method is used to propagate orchids and pine trees that produce wood at a &ery fast
rate
Protopla!t %(!ion is a new method used to make plant hybrids from species that are
se(ually incompatible +fter the fusion of protoplasts, the new cell is cultured using standard
tissue culture techni'ues
PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology refers to any technique that uses living organisms, or parts of these
organisms. Such techniques are used to make or modify products for a practical purpose.
Modern medicine, agriculture, and industry make use of biotechnology on a large scale.
Copyright H "reen#acts asbl<&zw 2;;4I2;;8
http,<<wwwgreenfactsorg<gmo<J4
+griculture began between 44,;;; and 4;,;;; years
#rom that time on, humans ha&e been selecting plants for their desired characteristics by
means of arti%iial !eletion
%nterspecific hybridization is common in plants, and has been used by breeders to introduce
new genes into crops
-odern plant biotechnology uses techni'ues of genetic engineering to introduce genes of a
species into the .D+ of an unrelated species
The genetiall" $o-i%ie- organi!$! are called GMO!
These organisms that ha&e genetically engineered to e(press a foreign gene from another
species are called tran!geni
"enetically modified plants ha&e the potential of increasing the 'uality and 'uantity of food
There are many concerns about the unknown risks of releasing genetically modified
organisms into the en&ironment
*ffects on non7target organisms
%ntroduction of genes from "-1s to weed species that may become resistant to
control methods
*ffects on human health related to the de&elopment of allergies, effects of newly
created proteins that are being ingested, long term effects presently unknown,
antibiotic resistance, etc
K!leeperL genes could accidentally be turned on and cause harmful effects
%nteresting sites on biotechnology,
http,<<wwwgreenfactsorg<gmo<J4
http,<<wwwmacalesteredu<Mmontgomery<"-1s2htm
http,<<enhsumnedu<64;3<gm<harmfulhtml
http,<<wwwfaoorg<english<newsroom<focus<2;;3<gmo8htm
http,<<wwwsoilassociationorg<web<sa<sawebnsf<printableNlibrary<DT;;;22862