1. The particle size of solid reactants affects the rate of reaction. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area and the faster the reaction proceeds.
2. Temperature has a significant impact on reaction rate. Increasing the temperature causes particles to collide more energetically and frequently, greatly increasing the reaction rate.
3. Concentration also influences reaction rate. Using more of a reactant results in more collisions between particles and a faster reaction.
1. The particle size of solid reactants affects the rate of reaction. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area and the faster the reaction proceeds.
2. Temperature has a significant impact on reaction rate. Increasing the temperature causes particles to collide more energetically and frequently, greatly increasing the reaction rate.
3. Concentration also influences reaction rate. Using more of a reactant results in more collisions between particles and a faster reaction.
1. The particle size of solid reactants affects the rate of reaction. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area and the faster the reaction proceeds.
2. Temperature has a significant impact on reaction rate. Increasing the temperature causes particles to collide more energetically and frequently, greatly increasing the reaction rate.
3. Concentration also influences reaction rate. Using more of a reactant results in more collisions between particles and a faster reaction.
Increasing the rates of chemical reactions is important in industry because it helps to
reduce costs. The rate of reaction is the speed at which a chemical change takes place. It is followed by measuring the rate at which reactants are used up or the rate at which products are formed. This allows a comparison to be made of the changing rate of a chemical reaction under different conditions. Rate = amount of reactant used or Rate = amount of product formed time time Chemical reactions can occur only when reacting particles collide with each other with sufficient energy. The minimum amount of energy which particles must have to react is called the activation energy. Various factors alter the rate of a reaction: the state of division of the reactants i.e. the particle si!e of a solid": the smaller the particle si!e# the faster the reaction is. the concentration of dissolved reactants or the pressure of gases: the higher the concentration or the pressure# the faster the reaction is. the temperature of the reaction mi$ture: the higher the temperature# the faster the reaction is. the addition of a catalyst speeds up the reaction 1. The Particle Size of Solid Reactants The reaction used to study the effect of particle si!e is the reaction of calcium carbonate# in the form of marble# with dilute hydrochloric acid. CaC%&s" ' ()Cla*" CaCl(a*" ' )(%l" ' C%(g" The reaction is followed by the change in mass of the reaction flask with time as carbon dio$ide is given off. It would also be possible to measure the change in the volume of carbon dio$ide given off with time by collecting the gas in# for e$ample# a gas syringe. Method: + constant mass of marble chips was weighed out and placed into a (,-cm & conical flask. .--cm & of ./ hydrochloric acid was added from a measuring cylinder. The flask was loosely stoppered with cotton wool to allow the gas to escape but to prevent the loss of li*uid splashes" then placed onto an electronic balance. The mass of the conical flask was recorded every .,s for the first minute# then every &-s for a total of ten minutes. It is assumed that the temperature of the reaction mi$ture stayed constant. The e$periment was repeated with three different si!es of marble chips# keeping all other variables the same. The results were tabulated and a graph of mass of carbon dio$ide y0a$is" against time $0a$is" was plotted. TOPIC 11.2.: RATES AN! ENER"# 1 Res$lts: 1arge 2articles /edium 2articles 3mall 2articles TOPIC 11.2.: RATES AN! ENER"# 2 Time 4s /ass of flask4g /ass of C%( 4g /ass of flask 4g /ass of C%( 4g /ass of flask 4g /ass of C%( 4g - ., &- 5- 6- .(- .,- .7- (.- (8- (9- &-- &&- &5- &6- 8(- 8,- 87- ,.- ,8- ,9- 5-- Inter%retation of Res$lts: The reaction occurs only on the surface of the calcium carbonate. :or a given mass of calcium carbonate# the smaller the si!e of the particles# the greater is the surface area and the faster the reaction. This is shown on the graph by the gradient becoming steeper as the particle si!e decreases. 3ince the same *uantities of reactants are involved in all three reactions# the same mass of carbon dio$ide is given off in all of them# if the reaction is allowed to go to completion. This is shown by all three curves levelling off at the same total mass of carbon dio$ide. The calcium carbonate is in e$cess# so the hydrochloric acid is used up completely as the reaction takes place. 3ince its concentration decreases with time# the reaction becomes slower and slower. This shown on the graph by a curve of steadily decreasing gradient. The e$pected mass of carbon dio$ide can be calculated. 3ince the calcium carbonate is in e$cess# the mass of carbon dio$ide depends on the amount of hydrochloric acid used. .--cm & of ./ )Cl contains -..mole of )Cl. CaC%&s" ' ()Cla*" CaCl(a*" ' )(%l" ' C%(g" ( moles . mole -.. mole -.-, mole -.. mole -.-, $ 88 g -.. mole (.(g TOPIC 11.2.: RATES AN! ENER"# & The smaller the particle size (the bigger the surface area) , the faster the reaction 2. The Te'%erat$re The reaction used to study the effect of temperature is the reaction of sodium thiosulphate solution with dilute hydrochloric acid. ;a(3(%&a*" ' ()Cla*" (;aCla*" ' 3s" ' )(%l" ' 3%(g" The reaction is followed by the appearance of colloidal sulphur as the reaction proceeds. The formation of sulphur begins as soon as the reactants are mi$ed# but it takes time for observable amounts to be produced. The time taken to reach a particular point in the reaction can be determined by standing the reaction flask on a piece of paper marked with a feint cross and timing how long it takes for the cross to be obscured when looked at from above. Method: .-cm & of sodium thiosulphate stock solution concentration 8-g per litre" were measured out into a measuring cylinder and poured into a (,-cm & conical flask. 8-cm & of water were measured out in a similar way and added to the flask. The flask was heated gently over a <unsen burner to a temperature slightly above the desired temperature. The flask was placed on a piece of paper marked with a feint cross. ,cm & of (/ hydrochloric acid were measured out into a second measuring cylinder. +s the acid was poured into the conical flask# a stopwatch was started and the mi$ture gently swirled. The initial temperature was recorded. The stopwatch was stopped when the cross# viewed from above# became obscured. The time and the final temperature were recorded. The mean of the initial and final temperatures was taken as the temperature of the reaction. The e$periment was repeated for five different temperatures# keeping all other variables constant. The results were tabulated and from the results a graph of .---4 time y0a$is" against temperature $0a$is" was plotted. .---4 time is a measure of the rate" Res$lts: Initial temp. / o C Final temp. / o C Mean temp. / o C Time /s !!!/time /s " Inter%retation of Res$lts: The graph is an e$ponential curve: the rate of reaction increases rapidly with temperature# a rise in temperature of .- o C appro$imately doubling the rate. TOPIC 11.2.: RATES AN! ENER"# The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction +n increase in temperature increases the rate of reaction in two ways: The %articles collide 'ore ener(eticall) The particles of a substance have a range of different energies# the average energy being proportional to the temperature in =elvins. +s the temperature increases# the particles move faster i.e. they have more kinetic energy"# and the proportion of particles with higher energies increases. Therefore# the number of collisions with energy greater than or e*ual to the activation energy rises rapidly as the temperature increases# and so the rate rises rapidly. This is the ma#or effect. The %articles collide 'ore fre*$entl) The particles move around faster and therefore there is a greater chance that they will be involved in a collision. This is a minor effect. TOPIC 11.2.: RATES AN! ENER"# + reactants bonds forming bonds breaking Reaction path Chemical >nergy products > a ) In the reaction between thiosulphate ions and hydrogen ions# as the ions collide covalent bonds are broken and new bonds are formed. 3ince energy is needed to break bonds# the colliding particles must have a minimum energy on collision sufficient to break the bonds. This energy is known as the activation energy ($a). %nly those collisions with energy greater than or e*ual to the activation energy will result in a reaction. &. The Concentration of Reactants The reaction used to study the effect of concentration is the reaction of sodium thiosulphate solution with dilute hydrochloric acid. ;a(3(%&a*" ' ()Cla*" (;aCla*" ' 3s" ' )(%l" ' 3%(g" The reaction is followed by the appearance of colloidal sulphur as the reaction proceeds. The formation of sulphur begins as soon as the reactants are mi$ed# but it takes time for observable amounts to be produced. The time taken to reach a particular point in the reaction can be determined by standing the reaction flask on a piece of paper marked with a feint cross and timing how long it takes for the cross to be obscured when looked at from above. Method: ,-cm & of sodium thiosulphate stock solution concentration 8-g per litre" were measured out into a measuring cylinder and poured into a (,-cm & conical flask. The flask was placed on a piece of paper marked with a feint cross. ,cm & of (/ hydrochloric acid were measured out into a second measuring cylinder. +s the acid was poured into the conical flask# a stopwatch was started and the mi$ture gently swirled. The stopwatch was stopped when the cross# viewed from above# became obscured. The time was recorded. The e$periment was repeated for five different concentrations# keeping all other variables constant. + graph of .--- 4time y0a$is" against volume of ;a(3(%& $0a$is" was plotted. 3ince the total volume of the reaction mi$ture is constant at ,,cm & " the concentration of ;a(3(%& is proportional to its volume. Res$lts: Constants: total volume of ;a(3(%& solution ,-cm & (/ hydrochloric acid ,cm & temperature .7 o C conical flask ? cross %olume of &a'(')* (+!g/l) /cm * %olume of ,') /cm * Time /s !!!/ time /s " ,- - &( &..& 8- .- 8- (,.- &- (- ,( .6.( (- &- 96 .(.9 .- 8- .9( ,.7 TOPIC 11.2.: RATES AN! ENER"# , Inter%retation of Res$lts: The graph is a straight line through the origin# therefore the rate of the reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of sodium thiosulphate. To react# the reacting particles must collide@ therefore the rate will be faster the greater the number of collisions there are in a given volume in a given time. The more concentrated the solution is# the greater the number of particles there are in a given volume and therefore the greater the fre-uency of collisions. It is important to note that only a very small proportion of the total number of collisions is successful and leads to a reaction. Effect of Press$re 2ressure is important only in reactions involving gases. 2ressure affects gaseous reactions in the same way that the concentration affects reactions in solution. +s the pressure is increased# the greater the number of particles there are in a given volume and therefore the greater the number off collisions in a given time. Therefore# as the pressure increases# the rate increases. TOPIC 11.2.: RATES AN! ENER"# - &- (- .- - .---4 time 4s 0. Volume of ;a ( 3 ( % & 4cm & .- (- &- 8- ,- $ $ $ $ $ The more concentrate. the solution, the faster the reaction . Addition of a Catal)st The reaction used to study the effect of a catalyst is the decomposition of hydrogen pero$ide: ()(%( ()(% ' %( The reaction is catalysed by several metal o$ides@ the compound used here is manganeseIV" o$ide. The reaction is followed by collecting the o$ygen given off and measuring its volume at regular intervals of time. The gas may be collected either in a gas syringe or over water in a burette. Method: 9cm & of (- volume hydrogen pero$ide were measured out using a measuring cylinder and poured into a .--cm & conical flask. 8&cm & of water were measured out in a similar way and added to the conical flask. -.,g of powdered manganeseIV" o$ide was weighed out and added to the flask. The flask was connected by a delivery tube to a .--cm & gas syringe. + stopwatch was started. The volume of o$ygen# which had collected in the gas syringe# was recorded at &- second intervals for ten minutes. =eeping all other variables constant# the e$periment was repeated using -.9,g and ..-g of the same manganeseIV" o$ide. Res$lts: Constants: (- volume )(%( 9cm & water 8&cm & temperature .7 o C %olume of )' /cm * Time /s !./g of Mn)' !.0/g of Mn)' .!g of Mn)' - - - - &- ..7 (.6 &.( 5- 8.. 5.- ,.9 6- 5.( 9.6 6.8 .(- 7.& .-.& .(.- .,- 6.6 .(.. .8.5 .7- ..., .&.7 .9.. (.- .(.7 .,.8 .6.- (8- .8.8 .5.7 (... (9- .5.( .7.( (&.& &-- .9., .6.9 (,.. &&- .7.7 (-.7 (5.7 &5- .6.6 ((.. (7., &6- (..9 (&.. &-.- 8(- ((.7 (8.( &..5 8,- (&., (,.( &(.6 87- (,.- (5.& &8.( ,.- (5.- (9.8 &,., ,8- (9.- (7.& &5.5 ,9- (9.9 (6.- &9.9 5-- (7.7 &-.. &6.- TOPIC 11.2.: RATES AN! ENER"# . +ll three reactions are being observed only in the early stages and are far from complete. 3ince all three reactions use e$actly the same *uantity of hydrogen pero$ide# they should# when complete# give the same total volume of o$ygen. + graph of volume of o$ygen y0a$is" against time $0a$is" was plotted. Inter%retation of Res$lts: The reaction is faster the more catalyst there is present@ this is shown by the increasing steepness of the curves. The reaction takes place on the surface of the catalyst. Increasing the mass of catalyst increases the surface area and therefore speeds up the rate. + catalyst can be used over and over again to speed up the conversion of reactants to products. Aifferent reactions need different catalysts. TOPIC 11.2.: RATES AN! ENER"# / reactants Reaction path Chemical >nergy products > a ) > a cat + catalyst does not affect the outcome of a reaction@ the same product is formed but in a shorter time. + catalyst works by weakening bonds# which lo1ers the activation energy for the reaction. If the activation energy is lowered# more particles have enough energy to react and therefore the reaction goes faster. + catalyst is not used up in the reaction but is recovered unchanged at the end. 2 catalyst is a substance 1hich increases the rate of a chemical reaction but is not use. up in the reaction. ENER"# 0 C1EMICA2 C1AN"E Auring a chemical reaction# e$isting chemical bonds are broken and new bonds are formed. energy must be supplied to break e$isting bonds energy is released when new bonds are formed The overall change in energy# which takes place during the reaction# is called the heat of reaction and is given the symbol ) pronounced Bdelta )C". If the energy needed to break e$isting bonds is less than the energy released when new bonds are formed# the reaction will give out energy usually as heat" to its surroundings. The temperature of the reaction mi$ture will rise. This is called an e3othermic reaction. :or an e$othermic reaction# the sign of the heat change )" is negative. >a is called the activation energy and is the minimum energy needed for a reaction to take place. Dhen a catalyst is added to a reaction# it provides an alternative reaction path with a lower activation energy. If the activation energy is lowered# the reaction goes faster. +ll reactions involving burning# e.g. the burning of magnesium# are e$othermic. >a Chemical >nergy )
Reaction path
De can make use of e$othermic reactions is devices such as hand warmers and self heating cans where heat may be needed in a remote environment. TOPIC 11.2.: RATES AN! ENER"# 13 reactants products bonds forming bonds breaking If the energy needed to break e$isting bonds is greater than the energy released when new bonds are formed# the reaction will absorb energy usually as heat" from its surroundings. The temperature of the reaction mi$ture will fall. This is called an en.othermic reaction. :or an endothermic reaction# the sign of the heat change )" is positive. >a Chemical >nergy
Reaction path The reaction of sodium hydrogencarbonate with hydrochloric acid is endothermic. ;a)C%& ' )Cl ;aCl ' )(% ' C%( De can make use of endothermic reactions is devices such as chemical cold packs to put on an inEury to reduce swelling and numb pain. If a reversible reaction is e$othermic in one direction it will be e*ually endothermic in the other. >g
Cu3%8.,)(- Cu3%8. ' ,)(- Fou need to heat blue hydrated copper sulphate to produce white anhydrous copper sulphate so this process re*uires energy and is therefore endothermic. )owever# when water is added to white anhydrous copper sulphate a lot of heat is given out as it turns blue and so is e$othermic. TOPIC 11.2.: RATES AN! ENER"# 11 reactants products )