Biology For Form II-iV(Notes)

NUTRITION: Is The process of digestion and absorption of foods and the

bodys use it for growth and replacement of cells.

Plant Nutrition

(i)Photosynthesis
1. Photosynthesis:
It is the process of making food by using carbon dioxide, water, with the help
of sunlight and chlorophyll by green plants.
2. Photosynthesis required:
Carbon dioxide(CO2),
Water,
Chlorophyll,
Sunlight.
Word Equation for photosynthesis:
Carbon dioxide + water sunlight ----> glucose + oxygen.

chlorophyll
Chemical equation for photosynthesis:
6(CO2) + 6(H20) sunlight-----> C6H12O6 + 6(H2O)
chlorophyll
3. Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis:
1) Light intensity (The strength of light).

Graph of rate of photosynthesis against light intensity
A) Between regions A and B, an increase in the brightness of light increases
the rate of photosynthesis.
B) This indicates that the speed at which photosynthesis is taking place is
limited by the amount of light available.
C) At higher light intensities (i.e. after point C) a further increase in light
intensity would not increase the rate of photosynthesis.
D) This implies that the photosynthetic process is receiving the maximum
amount of light it can make use of.
E) Hence, an increase in light intensity will not increase the rate.
2) Temperature.
Effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis
A) At low temperature, photosynthesis is inactive.
B) As the temperature increase, the rate of photosynthesis also increase.
C) At optimum temperature, photosynthesis is in its most active state.
D) Above optimum temperature, the rate of photosynthesis decreases.
E) At extreme temperature, photosynthesis stops, because the enzymes
involved in this process are denatured.
NOTE:Since photosynthesis can be affected negatively by heat, enzymes must
be involved.
3) Concentration of CO2.
A) As there are more CO2, the faster the rate of photosynthesis.
B) CO2 concentration cannot exceed 0.03%, because that is the amount of
CO2 in the air.
C) It can only exceed 0.03% under experimental conditions.
4. Importance of photosynthesis:
It reduces the amount of CO2 in the air which is the main cause of global
warming.
It produces oxygen to support other organisms for doing respiration.
It produces food which is the source of energy of other organism and itself.
5. The leaf:

The External structure of Leaf

The internal structure of a leaf
6. The important features about leaves:
The cells in the palisade layer are packed with chloroplasts which contain
lots of chlorophyll.

This is where the photosynthesis goes on.
The palisade and spongy layers are full of air spaces to allow CO2 to reach
the palisade cells.
The cells in the epidermis make wax which covers the leaf structures,
especially the top surface. This is to prevent water loss.
The lower surface is full of biddy little holes called stomata. They are there to
let CO2 in. They also allow water to escape - this is how the transpiration
stream comes about.
Xylem and phloem vessels cover the whole leaf like tiny "veins", to deliver
water to every part of the leaf and then to take away the food produced by the
leaf.
7. The stomata:
Stomata closes automatically when supplies of water from the roots start to
dry up.
The guard cells control this. When water is scarce, they become flaccid, and
they change shape, which closes the stomatal pores.
This prevents any more water being lost, but also stops CO2 getting in, so the
photosynthesis stops as well.
(ii)Plant Mineral Nutrition
1. Nitrogen:
Plants need nitrogen to make proteins. They got nitrogen from the
compounds of nitrogen from the soil.
2. Magnesium:
Important for making chlorophyll.
3. Plants lacking of magnesium:
They will have leaves not healthily green.
4. Nitrogen -------> proteins --------> new cells.
5. Nitrogen-containing ions + carbohydrates --------> amino acids -------->
proteins.
6. Plants lacking of nitrogen:
They will not grow properly.

______________


(2)Animal Nutrition

(i)Food
1. There are 7 types of food:
Carbohydrates.
Fats.
Proteins.
Minerals.
Vitamins.
Fibre or roughage .
Water.
2. Carbohydrates can be divided into two:
Starch (To test for starch, use iodine solution, the colour will change from
orange to blue-black if starch is present).
Glucose (To test for glucose, use benedict's reagent, the colour of the reagent
will change if glucose is present).
3. Proteins:
To test for the presence of proteins, use biuret's reagent. If the colour of the
reagent changes to violet, it means that proteins are present.
4. Fats:
Its presence can be tested by using the filter paper experiment or the alcohol
test. A grease spot can be seen if fats are present using the filter paper
experiment.
5. Minerals:
They are the inorganic salts which do not provide energy but are
indispensable to bodily functions.
Examples of minerals are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, potassium
and iron.
6. Vitamins:
They are not energy-providing food nor are they body-building food.
They are for maintaining normal health and development.
Lack of vitamins can cause diseases such as scurvy and rickets.
7. Fibre or roughage:
They are the indigestible fibrous materials, e.g. cellulose, present in the diet.
It provides bulk to the intestinal contents and helps peristalsis.
Insufficient of fibre can cause constipation.
8. Water:
They are the essential constituent of protoplasm.
Insufficient of fibre can cause constipation.
9. A balanced diet is a type of diet which consists of all types of food at the
correct amount.
10.Factors affecting the diet of individuals: Activity.
Age.
Sex.
Body size.
11. Malnutrition (Unbalanced diet):
Obesity - extremely overweight.
Constipation - difficulty to remove faeces.
12. Carbohydrates and fats are the main source of energy. While proteins are
used for growth i.e. to make new cells and repairing damaged tissues.
13. Carbohydrates are from glucose and starch. Fats are from fatty acids and
glycerol. Proteins are from amino acids.
Cholesterol is a kind of sterol which is essential for the formation cell
membrane.
14.Vitamin C maintains healthy skin, gum and the lining of blood vessels. Lack
of Vitamin C can cause scurvy. Vitamin C helps our cells to stick together.
15. Vitamin D helps the absorption of calcium. Lack of Vitamin D can cause
rickets.
16. Calcium is a type of mineral, it has the function:
1) For strong bones and teeth.
2) Clotting of blood.
17. Lack of calcium can cause rickets.
18. Iron is also a type of mineral, it has the function of making haemoglobin in
red blood cells.
19. Lack of red blood cells can cause anaemia.
20. Stages of nutrition:
1) Ingestion.
2) Digestion.
3) Absorption.
4) Assimilation.
5) Egestion.
(ii) Digestion and the digestive system
1. Digestion is the process of breaking down food into its simplest form. This is
necessary so that food substances are small enough to be carried by the blood
and able to pass into the cells.
2. Mouth:
Chews food up into easy-to-swallow balls.
3. Salivary glands:
Produce an enzyme called amylase to start the breakdown of starch.
Saliva contains mucous (sticky, slippery substance).
4. Oesophagus (Gullet):
The food chutes from the mouth to the stomach.
5. Stomach:
It pummels food with its muscular walls.
It produces pepsin (an enzyme for digesting proteins) and renin (an enzyme
for digesting milk proteins), they are also called the protease enzyme.
It produces hydrochloric acid for three reasons:
1) To kill bacteria.
2) To give the right pH for pepsin and renin to work (pH2-acidic).
3) To neutralise the alkaline effect of saliva.
Hydrochloric acid, pepsin and renin are called the gastric juice.
6. Small intestine:
Duodenum: 1) Secretion of pancreatic juice which consists of the pancreatic
amylase, trypsin (protease), lipase and bile.
2) Bile are emulsifying agent created in the liver, stored in the gall bladder and
transferred to the duodenum through the bile duct to emulsify fats.
3) Sodium bicarbonate are secreted into the duodenum to neutralise the acidic
effect of hydrochloric acid.
Ileum:
1) Secretion of intestinal juice which consists of the intestinal amylase,
maltase, lipase and protease.
2) It is where the foods are completely digested into its simplest form.
3) Carbohydrates are digested into glucose, proteins are digested into amino
acids, and fats are digested into glycerol and fatty acids.
4) This is also where the "food" is absorbed into the blood.
5) It is long and folded to increase surface area. Tiny finger-like things called
villi cover the inner surface to increase the surface area for absorption.
7. Large intestine:
Colon:
1) Excess water is absorbed from the food.
Rectum:
1) To store faeces.
8. Anus:
The faeces (the indigestible food) are expelled.



A) Tongue.
B) Salivary gland.
C) Buccal cavity
D) Oesophagus/gullet.
E) Stomach.
F) Duodenum.
G) Ileum.
H) Small intestine.
I) Colon;
Ascending colon.
Transverse colon.
Descending colon.
J) Rectum.
K) Large intestine.
L) Anus.
M) Gall bladder.
N) Liver.
O) Pancreas.
(iii)Absorption.
1. Absorption is the process by which digested food are transferred into the
blood stream through the villi of the ileum.
2. The capillaries of the villi will join up to form the hepatic portal vein which
carries blood to the liver.
3. Glucose & amino acids will be sent to parts of the body that need them.
4. Excess glucose will be converted by the liver into a storage substance called
glycogen & stored in the liver.
5. Glycogen can be converted back to glucose when the body needs more
glucose.
6. Any more excess glucose will be converted to fats and stored in the adipose
tissues under the skin.
7. Excess amino acids will undergo a process called deamination which is done
by the liver.
8. Deamination is the process by which amino acids are broken down into
glucose and urea. Urea is a nitrogenous substance which is sent to the kidneys
for disposal.
9. Another function of the liver is the breakdown of alcohol: Alcohol ----->
carbon dioxide + water + energy.
10. Too much alcohol in the body can make the person unconscious.
(iv)Assimilation.
1. Assimilation is the process by which some of the absorbed food materials
are converted into new protoplasm or used to provide energy.
2. Uses of glucose and fats:
For energy (to respire).
Making new cells.
Repair & replace damaged tissues.
Production of other proteins such as enzymes and hormones.
Fats are used to form part of a cell such as the cell membrane and the nuclear
membrane.
Fats are used as insulators.


TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS IN LIVING THINGS
1. Transport in plants

(i)Water and ion uptake.
1. Ion is taken up into the plants by:
Osmosis.
Active transport.
2. Water is taken up into the plants by:
Root pressure.
Transpiration pull.
(ii) Transpiration and translocation.
1. Transpiration is the process by which water is lost from the leaves of the
plants.
2. Factors affecting the rate of transpiration:
Humidity.
Temperature.
Wind.
Light.
3. Light:
The rate of transpiration will be high when there is light.
4. Temperature:
The higher the temperature, the higher the rate of transpiration.
5. Humidity & wind:
The lower the humidity, the higher the rate of transpiration.
The wind blows away the water vapour surrounding the leaves, in other
words, the humidity surrounding the leaves become low, so the rate of
transpiration is high.
6. Higher rate of transpiration when it is:
Windy.
Hot.
Less humid.
Daylight.
7. How to measure the rate of transpiration:
Using a potometer.
8. Translocation is the process by which food substances(glucose) are
transported to other parts of the plant through the phloem.
9. The foods are transported to other parts of the plant because:
For energy.
To make new cells.

2. Transport in humans

(i) The Heart.


The structure of the heart.

NOTE: The thickest part of the cardiac muscle indicates that it is the left part
of the heart.
1. Functions of valves:
To allow the blood to flow in one direction only.
To prevent the backflow of blood.
2. The Double circulation:


a) Pulmonary and (b) systemic circuit.

3. The blood which carries oxygen is called oxygenated blood (from lungs to
body). The blood which doesn't carry oxygen is called deoxygenated blood
(from body to lungs).
4. The left side of the heart is more muscular and thicker because it pumps
blood to all parts of the body.
(ii) The Blood Vessels.
1. There are three types of blood:
Arteries.
Veins.
Capillaries. (smallest)
2. Differences between arteries and veins:
1) Arteries have smaller central cavity than veins.
2) Arteries have thicker elastic and muscular wall than veins.
3) Veins have valves while arteries don't have valves.
4) The blood flows slower, smoother and at low pressure than arteries.
5) All arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery while all veins
carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins.
6) Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the body while veins carry blood
to the heart from the body.
7) The blood carried by arteries are bright red in colour while the blood carried
by veins are dark red in colour.
8) Blood in arteries flow due to the pumping action of the heart while veins
flow due to the contraction of the heart.
NOTE:Veins are big, slow and evil.
(iii) The Blood.
1. Components of the blood:
Plasma.
Blood cells.
Platelets.
2. Plasma is the liquid part of the blood, it contains:
Blood cells.
Platelets.
Water.
Blood proteins.
Waste products.
Hormones.
Food substances; glucose, proteins, vitamins, etc.
3. The blood cells consist of two parts:
Red blood cells.
White blood cells.
4. Red blood cells are also known as erythrocytes which have the function of
transporting oxygen.
5. White blood cells are also known as leucocytes which have the function as a
defense mechanism.
6. Platelets which are also known as thrombocytes have the function to clot
blood. (involving the use of fibrinogen)
7. Fibrinogen work together with platelets to form fibrin.
8. Factors that may cause heart diseases:
1) Smoking.
2) Stress.
3) Malnutrition i.e. obesity.
4) Lack of physical exercise.


GASEOUS EXCHANGE AND RESPIRATION
2. Respiration

(i) Respiration.
1. Respiration is the process of breaking down food to release energy in the
presence of oxygen.
2. There are two types of respiration:
i) Aerobic respiration.
ii) Anaerobic respiration.
3. Aerobic respiration is the process of breaking down food in living cells to
release a large amount of energy in the presence of oxygen.
4. Anaerobic respiration is the process of breaking down food in living cells to
release a small amount of energy in the absence of oxygen.
5. Aerobic respiration:
Glucose + oxygen -------> 'E' + carbon dioxide + water
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -------> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 'E'
6. Anaerobic respiration:
Glucose --------> 'e' + ethanol(alcohol) + carbon dioxide (Microorganism and
plants)
Glucose --------> 'e' + lactic acid (Humans)
(ii)Human Respiratory System.
1. Breathing is a mechanical process that involves taking in air into the lungs &
takes out air from the lungs.

2. Inspired and expired air:
Substance Inspired air Expired air
1. Nitrogen
2. Oxygen
3. Carbon dioxide
4. Noble gases
5. Water vapour 78%
21%
0.03%
1%
Varies 78%
16%
4.5%
1%
Saturated

3. Temperature of:
1) Inspired air is lower than body temperature.
2) Expired air is about the same as body temperature.
(iii)Human Gaseous Exchange.
1. The respiratory system consists of:
Lungs.
Nose.
Mouth.
Trachea.
Bronchi (bronchus sg.)
Bronchioles.
Alveoli (alveolus sg.)
2. The gas exchange system in man:


The gas exchange system in man (left lung cut open to show alveoli)

3. Inspiration & Expiration:


(a) Inspiration and (b) expiration.

A) Inspiration is an active process involving the contraction of:
The external intercostal muscles; and
The diaphragm muscles.
B) Contraction of the external intercostal muscles pulls the rib cage upwards
and outwards, while contraction of the diaphragm muscles result in the
flattening of the diaphragm.
C) The net result is an increase in the volume of the thorax (the part of the
body between the neck and the abdomen where the heart and lungs lie).
D) Pressure in the thorax is thus reduced.
E) Air is then sucked into the lungs, inflating the alveoli until the internal
pressure equals that of the atmosphere.
F) Expiration is a passive process.
G) During expiration, only the internal intercostal muscles contract. The rib
cage drops, mainly due to its own weight.
H) The diaphragm relaxes and is forced into a dome shape by the falling rib
cage.
I) The volume of the thorax is decreased.
J) Pressure is then exerted on the air in the lungs, forcing it out.
K) During forced breathing, such as during exercise or sneezing, expiration
becomes a much more active and forceful process as the ribs are moved more
vigorously downwards and the diaphragm is moved upwards.
4. Structure of the alveolus:

A) The alveoli are where gaseous exchange takes place between the air in the
sacs and the blood in the capillaries surrounding each alveolus.
B) The distance over which the gases must diffuse is about 0.01 mm - two cell
layers thick.
C) A thin film of moisture covers the surface of the alveolar wall. This has been
found to contain a chemical which lowers surface tension. This makes it easier
for the lungs to be inflated during breathing in. Without this chemical or
surfactant, the alveoli would collapse and become stuck together each time air
passes out of the lungs.
5. Diffusion across the alveoli is enhanced by the following features:
Large surface area of the alveoli;
Short distance between the air and the blood;
Steep concentration gradient maintained by constant movement of blood
through the tissues and ventilation of the lungs; and
Ability of blood to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide.
6. Exchange of oxygen:
Each haemoglobin molecule present in red blood cells can combine
reversibly with up to four molecules of oxygen, forming the compound
oxyhaemoglobin.
As the red blood cells move through the blood capillaries surrounding the
alveoli, the narrowness of the capillaries forces them to slow down and
become distroted.
This increases the time available for gaseous exchange to take place, as well
as exposes a larger surface area of the cell.
7. Exchange of carbon dioxide:
Carbon dioxide is transported in a variety of ways by blood.
A very small percentage is dissolved in plasma as carbonic acid.
Some carbon dioxide becomes attached to haemoglobin to form the
compound carbamino haemoglobin.
Most of the carbon dioxide is carried by the plasma as hydrogen carbonate
ions.

CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom Plantae, Division Coniferophyta (Conifers )
Division Coniferophyta or the conifers belong to Kingdom Plantae. These
plants are gymnosperms meaning non-flowering. They are non-flowering but
seed bearing plants. They have vascular tissues. They are woody plants
majority being evergreen trees. Few varieties are shrubs.
General and distinctive features of the Division Coniferophyta

General characteristics
1. They have secondary growth whose thickening can be observed in cross
section of a stem revealing annual rings. Secondary Growth is the result of
growth Lateral Meristems (Vascular Cambium & Cork Cambium).
2. Most of the members of Coniferophyta live in cool climates where they
form evergreen forests. They keep their leaves year-round.
3. They have a large amount of internodal elongation which allows them to
grow faster than the other higher plants.
4. They are Xeromorphic, a characteristic that help to protect them from
excessive loss of water and therefore adapt survival in extreme habitats.
5. Most are large trees while a few are shrubs and other small plants.
6. Most of them have hard barks which protect inner softwood.
Distinctive characteristics
1. Conifers are non-flowering but seed producing plants.
2. They have seeds born in cones shaped structures rather than in fruits.
3. They are gymnosperms which mean naked-seed plants because they
produce seeds in cones rather than inside an embryo.
4. The leaves are needle-shaped and have a thick cuticle for protection and
to decrease water loss.


The structure of Pinus
The structure of a pine tree
Pines are evergreen, coniferous resinous trees growing 380 m tall.
The bark of most pines is thick and scaly. They have needle like leaves. Pines
are among the most well- known coniferous trees in the world. They thrive in
temperate mountainous regions, but can also survive in tropical spots in the
northern hemisphere. Pines live relatively long time than other coniferous
plants. They may live between 100 and 1,000 years.

The Stem
The bark of most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaking
bark. The branches are produced in regular whorls appearing like a ring of
branches arising from the same point.

Leaves
A cross-section of pine stem has several concentric rings with distinct borders
between each ring. The center of the stem is called pith. These rings are called
annual rings because they grow seasonally and they help a plant to undergo
secondary thickening. Generally adult pines have needle-shaped leaves which
are green and photosynthetic. The leaves are in bundles or clusters. The leaves
(cotyledons) on seedlings are borne in a whorl of 424. Juvenile
leaves, which follow immediately after seedlings, have single, green leaves
arranged spirally on the shoot. They also have non- photosynthetic scale
leaves, similar to bud scales. They are arranged spirally like the juvenile
leaves.

Cones
A cone is an organ of pines that contains the reproductive structures. The
woody cone is the female cone, which produces seeds. The male cones, which
produce pollen, are usually herbaceous and much less conspicuous.

The advantages and disadvantages of the Division Coniferophyta

Advantages of Conifers

1. Conifers are very important for our economy because of their softwood,
which is used for paper and timber, as well as cedar which many people use
for their homes because of its beauty and resistance to insects. They have a
large economic use as softwood in furniture. In temperate and tropical
regions, they are fast-growing softwoods that will allow harvesting in close
succession.

2. Decoration and ceremony
Many pine species make attractive ornamentals. They are planted in parks and
larger gardens. Some varieties are suitable for smaller spaces. Pines are also
commercially grown and harvested for Christmas trees.

3. As medicine, Pines and cypress are rich in vitamin; their branches cones
and oils can be extracted and used as nutrient supplements.

4. Due to its soft texture conifers are widely used to manufacture Play
wood.
5. As other higher plants conifers are source of heat energy, used as
firewood and charcoal.
6. Thick forests of conifers form green belts that modify the climate.
7. Conifers form a large arena for Biological research Ecological studies.
8. Food uses: Some species have large seeds, called pine nuts that are
harvested and sold for cooking and baking. The soft, moist, white inner bark
(cambium) found clinging to the woody outer bark is edible and very high in
vitamins A and C. It can be eaten raw in slices as a snack or dried and ground
up into a powder for use as bread flour. Also White Pines are rich in Vitamin A
and C; flour can be made from the Pine tree's inner bark. By chewing bark of
pine you can eliminate bad breath. Pines can reduce the pain of skin infections
by applying warm pine sap.


Division Angiospermophyta ( Flowering Plants )

Angiosperms are flowering plants under kingdom Plantae and division
Angiospermophyta. This group of plants is sometimes called Magnoliophyta.
Angiosperms are the most abundant land plants. Like gymnosperms,
angiosperms are seed-producing plants but they are distinguished from
gymnosperms by their characteristic of producing flowers. These plants
produce fruits that contain seeds instead of cones like it is in gymnosperms.
The term angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within fruits.

Angiosperms life cycle
The ovary has ovules that contain mega-sporocyte. Mega-sporophyte has four
haploid megaspores; three megaspores disintegrate and the remaining one
divides by mitotic divisions to produce eight nuclei in an embryo sac. The
three nuclei are organized into the egg whereby one cell is the egg cell; the two
others are egg helpers. Although these three cells look are similar, only the egg
cell continues to develop to an embryo sac. The embryo sac at this stage is the
female gametophyte or mega-gametophyte.

Pollination and fertilization
The pollen from the anther is transported to the stigma of a flower. In the
stigma pollen tube emerges. The mature male gametophyte therefore is a
germinated pollen grain, pollen tube and three sperm nuclei. The pollen tube
grows downward toward the ovary through the style and penetrates the
embryo sac. After discharging its contents one of the sperm nuclei fuses with
the egg nucleus and form a zygote, the other sperm fuses with the polar cell of
the ovary, forming the endosperm nucleus. This is what is known as double
fertilization. Fertilization in angiosperms begins very soon after pollination.
Note: In gymnosperms, fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination.

Double fertilization
Double fertilization is a distinctive characteristic of the angiosperms and
results in a polyploid endosperm tissue. In double fertilization each ovule
receives a pollen tube that delivers two sperm cells to the embryo sac. One
sperm fertilizes the egg cell to form the diploid zygote, while the other sperm
fertilizes the central polar cell to form triploid endosperm. After double
fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed and the ovary into a fruit.

General and distinctive features of the Division Angiospermophyta

General features of angiosperms
They bear flowers which are reproductive structures. Fertilization takes
place between male and female flower by pollination that includes insect
pollination, wind pollination and animal pollination.

Angiosperms have underground root as well as aerial shoot system.
Angiosperms have very well-developed conducting tissues. These tissues
include the xylem and the phloem arranged in form of vascular bundles.
They have root that helps absorption of water and minerals from the
soil.
Most of them have leaves that carry out photosynthesis, so they are
autotrophs.
They have alternation of generation, Sporophyte generation alternate
with gametophyte generation. The sporophyte is the dominant, diploid stage
and is the more visible form of the plant, with the leaves, stems, roots, and
flowers. Gametophyte generation is reduced and it is found within the ovary
and anther.
Distinctive features of angiosperms
The most obvious distinguishing feature of angiosperms is the
possession of reproductive structures called flowers.

They bear seeds enclosed in a carpel (the fruit). The seeds are the
fertilized ovules.
They have endosperm produced after fertilization and before the zygote
undergo its first division. Endosperm has nourishing function, it nourishes the
embryo.

They have double fertilization whereby each ovule receives a pollen tube
that delivers two sperm cells to the embryo sac. One sperm fertilizes the egg
cell to form the diploid zygote, while the other sperm fertilizes the central
polar cell to form triploid endosperm.

Their haploid gametophyte is confined inside the ovary (female) or
anther (male) of the flower, unlike the free- living gametophytes of most other
plants.

They have conducting tissues phloem and xylem. Unlike gymnosperms
which have xylem tracheid angiosperms has xylem vessels.
The Classes of the Division Angiospermophyta and their distinctive features
Division Angiosperms is divided into two classes which are Monocotyledonae
and Dicotyledonae. These two classes are distinguished from each other by
their morphology and anatomy.

Features of Class Monocotyledonae
Monocots have one cotyledon (or one seed leaf)
Monocots have broad leaves with parallel venation.
Monocots have fibrous root systems.
The floral parts in monocots occur in threes, or multiple of three.
PMonocots lack cambium secondary growth.
Monocots have scattered vascular bundles in their stems.Typical
example of monocot is a maize plant.
Features of Class Dicotyledonae
Dicots have two cotyledons (or two seed leaves).
Dicots have net venation.
Dicots have tap root system
Dicots floral parts occur in fours and fives and multiple of four or five.
Dicots have cambium secondary growth.
Dicots have vascular bundles arranged into a ring. A Typical example of
dicot is a bean plant.
Advantages and disadvantages of Division Angiospermophyta
Advantages of Angiosperms
Agriculture. Agriculture depends on angiosperms. Angiosperms provide
human food. Example; plants belonging to grass family (grains), are the most
important food stocks. They include rice, maize, wheat, barley, millet, sugar
cane and sorghum. Legume provides beans, several varieties of nuts and soy.
Also of potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers, pumpkins, melons and varieties of
vegetables to include cabbage and lettuce. Many fruits oranges, lemons and
grapefruits are angiosperms.
Livestock. Plants belonging to grass family are the world number one
feeds of livestock. Many types of grassland in Africa are either grazed by cattle
or wild animals. Also almost all feeds consumed by human are also used by
domestic animals as food.
Wood. Angiosperms provide different varieties of wood for furniture,
paper and building materials. Carpentry and masonry depends largely on
angiosperms for both soft and hard wood.
Textile. Different varieties of fibers including cotton, flax, and hemp are
important raw materials for textile industry. Cotton is the word first class
material for clothes.
Medicine. Many organic drugs are coming from angiosperm herbs. They
are either industrial made or can be utilized in its raw form. Today it is
believed that herbs form the best medicine when used in their fresh form than
when industrial made.
Floriculture. Flowers from angiosperms have great social significance as
they are used in different kinds of ceremony. Roses for instance are the most
sold flowers and they are highly purchased and used in wedding and burial
ceremonies.
Forestry. Forestry is the field of study whose base depends on both
angiosperms and gymnosperms. Many forests form green belts that habit
different varieties of plants.
Ecology. Angiosperms provide a wide range of habitats for different
species of organisms. They also serve as primary producers of energy.
Climate. Angiosperms are used to modify climate. Green belts are
established in order to absorb carbon and reduce global warming.
Tourism. Many sites of tourism are plants oriented. Ecotourism for
instance depends largely on different plant species that host different kinds of
land animals.
Disadvantages of Angiosperms
Toxins. Some plants are poisonous when eaten by human and other
animals. They cause death to human and other living organisms. Some
cassava varieties are a good example. They have cyanide acid that inhibits
cellular respiration.
Drugs. Some angiosperm varieties are drugs that can be abused when
taken. Examples are marijuana, cocaine, tobacco and some caffeine varieties.
Weeds. Some angiosperm varieties are bad weeds; they reduce crop
yields. Some weeds are parasites. Example, Cuscuta kilimanjari is parasitic to
coffee plantations.

GENETICS
What is genetics?

The study of heredity and the variation in living organisms is called genetics.
Genetics deals with the molecular structure and function of genes. It is the
study of heredity, the process in which a parent passes certain genes to their
children. Characteristics passed from parents to offspring include height, color
and shape. Those characteristics are determined by genes.

Common terms used in Genetics

Gene.
A gene is the unit of heredity in living organisms, typically encoded in a
sequence of nucleotide that makes up a long strand of DNA. A particular gene
can have multiple different forms, or alleles, which are defined by different
sequences of DNA. Genes are sections of DNA. The location of the gene is
called the locus.

Allele.
An allele is one of multiple alternative forms of a single gene occupying a
given position, or locus on a chromosome.

Locus.
Locus (plural-Loci) is a particular point or position in a chromosome where a
given gene is located.

Chromosome.
A chromosome is a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in
the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form
genes. It is a molecule that carries DNA in cells.

Phenotype.
The observable physical or behavior of an organism. Phenotype is determined
by the organism's genotype.


Zygosity.
Zygosity is the degree of similarity of the alleles for a trait in an organism.

Homozygous.
If both alleles of a diploid organism are the same, the organism is homozygous
for the trait. Examples are sex chromosomes XX in human being. A cell is said
to be homozygous for a particular gene when identical alleles of the gene are
present on both homologous chromosomes.

Heterezoygous.
If the alleles of a diploid organism are different, the organism is heterozygous
for that trait. Examples are XY chromosomes in human being. Organism is
heterozygous at a gene locus when its cells contain two different alleles of a
gene.Characteristics of organisms are controlled by alternative alleles
occurring in pairs. In case one allele is expressed, but not the other one, the
expressed allele is called dominant.

Recessive.
Recessive is the allele which is not expressed. That is, the presence of a
dominant allele for a particular trait prevents occurrence of a recessive allele.
For a recessive trait to be expressed, the two alleles have to be homozygous.
Genetics materials

The concept of Genetics Materials
There are two kinds of genetic materials; these are Deoxyribonucleic acid DNA
and ribonucleic acid RNA.

DNA is a genetic material and it is a structural and functional unit that control
molecular basis inheritance.

The DNA segments called genes carry genetic information from parents to
offsprings.
RNA (Ribonucleic acid) is a genetic material and it is a chain of molecules that
works together with DNA by copying DNA genes for protein synthesis. RNA
plays a role in the synthesis of proteins.

The structure and composition of Genetics Materials (Deoxyribonucleic Acid
and Ribonucleic Acid )

DNA
DNA is a double-helix and has two strands running in opposite directions.
Each of the two strands of DNA is a polymer of four different nucleotides
differing only in the nitrogenous base.

The four nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and Thymine
(T). These four nucleotides form the bases of DNA and they join the two
strands of DNA. Normally the four bases form hydrogen bonds between them
and the bonds help them to join each other. In this process Cytosine join with
Guanine and Adenine join with Thymine.

Base pairing
Hydrogen bonds join the two strands of DNA by attaching to the nitrogen
bases.
This links the opposite bases from each strand making a long chain of many
nucleotides (polynucleotide). The rule of base pairing is such that, adenine
pair with thymine and cytosine pair with guanine.

(Key: A for Adenine, C for Cytosine, G for Guanine and T for Thymine)
Why A does not pair with C and G with T? The reason is due to chemical
nature of these nucleotides. Only with A & T and with C & G are there
opportunities to establish hydrogen bonds between them. Between A and T
there are two hydrogen bonds and between C and G there are three hydrogen
bonds.
Chemical structure Types of bases in a DNA

Purine bases: PAdenine and guanine are purines. Purines are the larger
of the two types of bases found in DNA. Notice that purines have double rings.
Pyrimidine Bases: Cytosine and thymine are pyrimidine bases. Notice
that pyrimidines have single rings.

DNA Backbone
The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and
sugar residues.
The sugar in DNA is a pentose meaning five-carbon sugar chemically known
as 2-dioxyribose sugar. So, Purine and Pyrimidine bases are strengthened by
this backbone.
There are two hydrogen bonds between A & T and three between C & G.
These relationships are often called the rules of Watson-Crick base pairing.
The rules of base pairing tell us that if we can "read" the sequence of
nucleotides on one strand of DNA, we can immediately deduce the
complementary sequence on the other strand.Chargaff's rule

Difference between Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Differences between RNA and DNA in terms of chemical structure:

DNA is double-stranded while RNA is a single-stranded molecule.

RNA has a much shorter chain of nucleotides.

DNA contains deoxyribose while RNA contains ribose. In deoxyribose
there is no hydroxyl group in carbon number 2. Presence of hydroxyl
group makes RNA less stable than DNA because it is more prone to
hydrolysis.

RNAs complementary base to adenine is uracil instead of thymine as it
is in DNA. RNA structure RNA strands have a backbone
made from groups of phosphates and ribose, to which four bases can attach.
The four bases are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil. Unlike DNA, RNA
consists of a single strand, it contain uracil instead of thymine. In RNA
adenine and guanine are purines while cytosine and uracil are pyrimidines. An
important structural feature of RNA that distinguishes it from DNA is the
presence of a hydroxyl group.

The rules of base- pairing states that, whatever the amount of adenine (A) in
the DNA of an organism, the amount of thymine (T) is the same. Similarly,
whatever the amount of guanine (G), the amount of cytosine (C) is the same
and the amount of bases differs from one organism to another.

Example:
RNA
RNA Synthesizes protein.
RNA plays a critical role in helping DNA to copy and express genes, and to
transport genetic material around in the cell.

RNA and Protein Synthesis
There are three types of RNA; each type serves a particular role in protein
synthesis.
Messenger RNA: Messenger RNA (mRNA) is synthesized by DNA and it
contains the information of primary sequence of amino acids in a protein to be
synthesized. The messenger RNA carries this information to the cytoplasm
where protein synthesis occurs.
Ribosomal RNA: In the cytoplasm, ribsomal RNA (rRNA) combine with a
specific protein to form a ribosome. The ribosome serves as the site of the
enzymes necessary for protein synthesis. The ribosome attaches itself to m-
RNA and provides the structure for the protein is synthesized.

Transfer RNA: Transfer RNA (tRNA) contains a set of nucleotides which are
called anticodons. Each set also contain one amino acid. The tRNA reads the
code and carries the amino acid to be incorporated into the developing
protein. On one end, the amino acid is attached and on the opposite end the
anticodon is used to read the codons on the mRNA the process that
synthesizes a certain type of protein.

Principle of Inheritance, concept of Inheritance
The concept of Inheritance
Mendelian Inheritance
About Gregor Mendel. Gregor Mendel (1822 - 1884) was an Austrian scientist
who introduced basic rules of inheritance by using garden peas in his monk
garden. He used garden peas because many varieties that bred true were
available; also the observable characteristics like seed texture, color and height
were clearly seen. Peas are also easy to self-pollinate because normally the
stamens and carpels are enclosed within the petals.

Mendelian's first law of Inheritance
Mendelian's first law: The law of segregation
The Law of Segregation states that every individual possesses a pair of alleles
for any particular trait (characteristic) and that each parent passes a randomly
selected copy (allele) of only one of these to its offspring.

Mendelian's second law: The Law of Independent Assortment
The Law of Independent Assortment, also known as "Inheritance Law", states
that separate genes for separate traits are passed independently of one
another from parents to offspring. It means that alleles of different genes
assort independently of one another during gamete formation.

Illustrate monohybrid crosses and interpret their results of crosses and ratios
Monohybrid crosses and interpret their results of crosses and ratios Interpret
data from monohybrid experiments to demonstrate Mendelian's first law of
Inheritance.
Interpretation of data from monohybrid experiments to demonstrate
Mendelian's first law of Inheritance
Patterns of Inheritance that follow Mendelian's first law
Non-Mendelism Inheritance

A non Mendelian inheritance is a general term that refers to any pattern of
inheritance in which traits do not segregate in accordance with Mendelian's
laws.

Concepts of incomplete Dominance and Co Dominance
According to Mendelian's first Law (law of Segregation), every individual
possesses a pair of genes for any particular trait and that each parent passes a
randomly selected copy of only one of these genes to its offspring. According
to the first law, the two coexisting allele of an individual for each trait
segregate (separate) during gamete formation so that each gamete gets only
one of the two alleles. Alleles again unite at random fertilization of gametes.

Also Mendel postulated the second law (Law of Independent Assortment)
which states that separate genes for 2 separate traits are passed independently
of one another from parents to offspring. That is, the biological selection of a
particular gene in the gene pair for one trait to be passed to the offspring has
nothing to do with the selection of the gene for any other trait. It means that
alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete
formation.

Patterns of Inheritance that deviates from Mendelian's First Law of
Inheritance
There are conditions that deviate from Mendelian inheritance as a result they
give different phenotypic ratios other than those achieved by Mendel for
monohybrid cross 3:1 and dihybrid cross 9:3:3:1. Here are the conditions:

Incomplete Dominance in Plants
When a homozygous red flowered pea plant is crossed with a homozygous
white flowered pea plant, the F1 heterozygotes are found to have pink flowers.
When the F1 pink flowered heterozygotes are self-crossed, they produce a F2
progeny having identical phenotypic and genotypic ratio of 1 red (RR) : 2 pink
(Rr): 1 white (rr). The ratio 1:2:1 does not follow Mendelian monohybrid
inheritance that gives the ratio 3:1.

If Mendelian first law was to be followed we expected to get 3 flowers red and
one white (3:1). However the dominant and recessive allele failed to express
fully their characteristics and another colour (pink) appears to all f1
generation. In f2 one flower is red, two are pink and 1 is white giving 1:2:1
phenotypic ratio which deviates from 3:1 ratio as per Mendel law
.
Co-dominance
In the phenomenon of co dominance, both dominant and recessive alleles lack
their dominant and recessive relationships and both have capability to express
their characteristics phenotypically in the heterozygous condition. The F1
heterozygotes produce an F2 progeny to phenotypic and genotypic ratios of
1:2:1 like the incomplete dominance. PFrankly speaking both white and red
colours collaborate in passing their phenotypes to f1 generation hence the
term co-dominance.

In one breed of cattle a genotype of WW will be expressed phenotypically in
white coat colour, while the genotype of ww into a red coat colour. When
white-coated zebu is crossed with red-coated bull, the F1 heterozygotes are
found to have a phenotype of patches of red and white colour. Gene-
Interaction (Epistasis)

When many traits are controlled by more than one pair of genes, an
interaction of these genes affect the phenotype. A recessive allele in one locus
might prevent the expression of a dominant allele at another locus. Example,
in sweat peas when two varieties of white plants are crossed, F1 generation has
purple flowers, but among the F2, 9/16 have purple flowers and 7/16 have
white flowers. Reason for 9:7 ratio is that if a gene carries recessive allele in its
homozygous form a dominant allele loses dominance power.
Lethal gene alleles

The term Lethal (or lethal gene character) is applied to those changes in the
genes of an organism which produce effects severe enough to cause death.
Lethality is a condition in which death of a certain genotype occurs
prematurely, that is before they produce progenies.
In one condition the fully dominant lethal allele kills the carrier individual
both in its homozygous and heterozygous conditions. In another condition the
recessive lethal allele kills the carrier individual only in homozygous
condition. The lethal alleles modify the 3: 1 phenotypic ratio into 2 : 1

Sickle cell anemia
Example of lethal genes in human is Sickle cell anemia. Sickle-cell disease, or
sickle-cell anemia, is a genetic blood disorder with incomplete dominance,
characterized by red blood cells that assume an abnormal, rigid, sickle shape
that decrease the ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen. Sickle-cell disease,
usually occur in tropical and sub-tropical regions where malaria is common.
In areas where m alaria is common, there is a fitness benefit in carrying sickle
cell trait. Those with only one of the two alleles of the sickle-cell disease are
more tolerant to the infection and thus show less severe symptoms when
infected.

Sex determination and Inheritance
The mechanism of Sex Determination and Inheritance
Sex determination

The XY sex-determination system occurs in humans, most other mammals,
some insects (Drosophila), and some plants (Ginkgo).

Sex determination involves sex chromosomes X and Y of an individual. The
sex of an individual is determined by a pair of sex chromosomes. Females have
two of the same kind of sex chromosome (XX), and are called the
homogametic sex. Males have two distinct sex chromosomes (XY), and are
called the heterogametic sex. The sex determination in humans is principally
influenced by fathers than mothers. This is because mother has only XX
chromosomes and will always contribute haploid X (according to first law of
Mendel). Father contributes either X or Y.

On one hand, whenever father contributes X the child will be female because
haploid X of father will collaborate with haploid X of mother to form diploid
XX which is a female child. On the other hand whenever father contributes Y
the child will be male because haploid Y of father will collaborate with haploid
X of mother to form diploid XY which is a male child.
The concept of Sex Linked, Sex Limited and Sex Influenced Characters
Sex influenced traits are genes present in both sexes but expressed in only one
sex. These genes cause the two sexes to show different phenotypes. Although
they are sex limited (male or female) they only affect autosomal traits and
therefore not sex linked (chromosomes). Example these genes instruct male
elephant seals grow gig and like to fight while female elephant seals grow
small and avoid fighting.

Sex limited traits are autosomal genes which are expressed differently in
males and females. Example male pattern baldness occurs more frequently in
men than in women. Another example is breast cancer that occurs more
frequently in women than in men.

Sex linked traits Sex linkage is the phenotypic expression of an allele related to
the chromosomal sex of the individual. This inheritance is in contrast to the
inheritance of traits on autosomal chromosomes, where both sexes have the
same probability of inheritance. Since humans have many more genes on the
X than on Y, there are many more X-linked traits than Y-linked traits. If a
woman is a carrier of an X-linked recessive allele for a disorder and her mate
does not have it, their boys will have a 50% chance of inheriting the disorder.
None of their girls will have it, but half of them are likely to be carriers. If a
man has an X-linked recessive disorder and his mate does not carry the allele
for it, all of their girls will be carriers. None of their boys will inherit the allele.
Only girls receive X chromosomes from their fathers.

Examples of sex linked traits:
1. Haemophilia
Haemophilia is an x-linked genetically inherited recessive disease in which
one or more of the normal blood clotting factors is not produced. This results
in prolonged bleeding from even minor cuts and injuries. Swollen joints
caused by internal bleeding are a common problem for hemophiliacs.
Hemophilia, most often afflicts males.

2. Colourblindness
Colour blindness is an X-linked genetically inherited color vision deficiency in
which an individual cannot perceive red and green in the same way as people
with normal vision. This condition most often afflicts males.

3. Albinism
Albinism is a congenital disorder characterized by the complete or partial
absence of pigment in the skin, hair and eyes due to absence or defect of an
enzyme involved in the production of melanin. Albinism results from
inheritance of recessive gene alleles and is known to affect all vertebrates
including humans. Lack of skin pigmentation makes the organism more
susceptible to sunburn and skin cancers.

Note that albinism is expressed only when a recessive gene occurs in
homozygous condition. In heterozygous condition an individual is a carrier.

Food tests
A. Benedicts test for reducing sugars
Reducing sugars include all monosaccharides (e.g. glucose and fructose) and
some disaccharides (e.g. maltose).

Benedicts solution contains copper sulphate. Reducing sugars reduce
copper(II) ions present in the blue copper sulphate solution to insoluble brick-
red copper(I) oxide which is a precipitate.

Procedure
1. Add 2 cm3 of 0.1% glucose solution to a test tube.
2. Add an equal volume of Benedicts solution.
3. Shake and boil the mixture.

Note
1. The initial blue colouration of the mixture turns green, then yellow and may
finally form a brick-red precipitate.
The amount of precipitate gives a rough indication of the amount of reducing
sugars present.

CAUTION
The mixture is likely to bump violently during heating and extra care should
therefore be taken. It is safer to use a water bath to heat up the mixture.

B. Iodine test for starch
Starch is only slightly soluble in water and it forms a colloidal solution in
water. Starch is a mixture of two polysaccharides, amylose and amylopectin.
The relative amounts of the two polysaccharides vary widely in different types
of starch.

Amylose molecules consist of long straight chains of glucose units.
Amylopectin has a complicated branched structure. The two polysaccharides
combine with iodine to give the characteristic blue-black colour of the
standard iodine test.
Procedure
1. Add 2 cm3 of 1% starch solution to a test tube.
2. Add a few drops of iodine solution.

Note
1. A blue-black colouration indicates the presence of starch due to the
formation of a complex.
C. Sudan III test for lipids
Lipids include oils, fats and waxes.
Procedure
1. Add 2 cm3 of oil to 2 cm3 of water to a test tube.
2. Add a few drops of Sudan III and shake.
Note
1. Oils are stained red with Sudan III. Since they are less dense than water,
they separate out as a red layer on the water surface.
D. Biuret test for proteins
Egg albumen is a suitable material for Biuret test which tests for the presence
of peptide bonds. When mixed with dilute alkaline copper sulphate solutions,
nitrogen atoms in the peptide bonds form a violet complex with copper(II)
ions.
Procedure
1. Add 2 cm3 of protein solution to a test tube.
2. Add an equal volume of 5% sodium hydroxide solution and mix.
3. Add 2 drops of 1% copper sulphate solution and mix.
Note
1. Violet colouration is developed in the presence of protein.
2. Biuret reagent can be used directly for detecting the presence of protein
without heating.