Author: Mitchell A. Harris, M.D., Indiana University Learning Objectives Develop the knowledge and skills necessary to diagnose, manage, and refer newborn infants presenting with jaundice, including: Recognizing a newborn with jaundice Understanding bilirubin physiology, including metabolism and toxicity 1. Compare and contrast the important findings and laboratory data helpful in evaluating a newborn with jaundice with the following diagnoses: Physiologic jaundice Hemolytic (Rh or ABO incompatibility, red cell membrane or enzyme defects, infection) Hematomas and bruising Breastfeeding-associated jaundice Liver disease (biliary atresia, neonatal hepatitis) Metabolic disease (hypothyroidism, hypoglycemia, galactosemia) 2. Identify treatment options for hyperbilirubinemia 3. Become familiar with the American Academy of Pediatrics practice guideline "Management of Hyperbilirubinemia in the Healthy Term Newborn." 4. Complete a nutritional assessment of a breastfed infant. 5. Be familiar with nutritional advice related to breastfeeding, including the advantages and common difficulties of breastfeeding. 6. Summary of clinical scenario: 6-day-old Meghan is jaundiced, but otherwise appears healthy. The time frame of Meghans jaundice and total serum bilirubin elevation > 15 mg/dL suggests the jaundice is not physiological. Although Meghan has a positive family history of Mediterranean origin (suggesting the possibility of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase [G6PD] deficiency), a normal newborn screen rules out metabolic disease and hypothyroidism. Normal CBC rules out hemolytic disease. Meghans history of breastfeeding, normal physical exam, and newborn screenand the later appearance of jaundicesupport a diagnosis of breastfeeding-associated jaundice, which is treated by continued breastfeeding medU | Instructors http://www.med-u.org/communities/instructors/clipp/case_sum... 1 of 12 3/29/12 2:44 PM and observation. Key Findings from History Yellow skin Direct Coombs test negative Breastfeeding Healthy Father's Greek heritage Key Findings from Physical Exam Jaundice No cephalohematoma Normal physical exam Differential Diagnosis Physiologic jaundice Breast milk jaundice Hemolysis Metabolic Sepsis Biliary atresia Liver disease Key Findings from Testing Not applicable Final Diagnosis Breastfeeding-associated jaundice Case highlights: Students review bilirubin metabolism and the causes and consequences of hyperbilirubinemia in infants. Students learn how to estimate bilirubin levels in an infant based on the extent of jaundice, why those with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency are at risk for jaundice, and what role blood-type incompatibilities can play. Students learn how to treat jaundiced infants. They also review the nutritional components of breast milk and how to perform the Barlow and Ortolani maneuvers. Multimedia features include: Instructional video on physical exam of a newborn, patient photos hyperlinked to results of HEENT, chest, and abdominal exams. Key Teaching Points Knowledge Jaundice: The physical finding associated with hyperbilirubinemia (either unconjugated or conjugated form). The bilirubin accumulates in the epidermis, resulting in yellow skin, sclera, and mucosae. Sixty percent of newborns have sufficiently elevated bilirubin levels to become clinically jaundiced. medU | Instructors http://www.med-u.org/communities/instructors/clipp/case_sum... 2 of 12 3/29/12 2:44 PM Bilirubin production and metabolism: 75% of bilirubin production in newborns occurs when hemoglobin from red blood cells is broken down and converted to unconjugated bilirubin. The water-insoluble bilirubin binds to albumin and goes to the liver, where it is conjugated with glucuronide by uridine diphosphate glucuronyltransferase (UDPGT) From there, the now-water-soluble bilirubin is excreted into bile. o In adults, intestinal flora metabolize the conjugated bilirubin to urobilinogen, then stercobilinogen, and it is excreted in the stool. Neonates lack the gastrointestinal flora to metabolize the bile, so the !-glucuronidase in the meconium hydrolyzes the conjugated bilirubin back to an unconjugated form. The unconjugated bilirubin is reabsorbed into the bloodstream, where it binds to albumin and is recirculated (enterohepatic circulation). An imbalance of bilirubin production and metabolism causes hyperbilirubinemia. Etiologies of indirect hyperbilirubinemia: Physiologic jaundice: Seen in full-term, healthy infants Total bilirubin " 15 mg/dL (" 257 mmol/L) Treatment not required Usually peaks at 34 days of life May result from numerous factors, including: Increased bilirubin production (from breakdown of the short-lived fetal red cells) Relative deficiency of hepatocyte proteins and UDPGT Lack of intestinal flora to metabolize bile High levels of !-glucuronidase in meconium Minimal oral (enteral) intake in the first two to four days of life resulting in slow excretion of meconium (especially common with breastfed infants). Jaundice associated with breastfeeding: Breastfeeding jaundice: Early in first week of life Decreased milk supply leads to limited enteral intake Increased enterohepatic circulation Decreased gastrointestinal mobility promotes retention of meconium Often difficult to distinguish from physiologic jaundice Breast-milk jaundice: Begins in first 47 days of life but may not peak until 1014 days Not the result of low milk volume Cause not completely understood May be caused by inhibitory substance in breast milk that increases medU | Instructors http://www.med-u.org/communities/instructors/clipp/case_sum... 3 of 12 3/29/12 2:44 PM enterohepatic circulation Can persist for up to 12 weeks Hemolysis: Antibody-positive = Direct Coombs or direct antibody test (DAT) positive Rh incompatibility (i.e., mother is Rh-negative and baby is Rh-positive) ABO incompatibility (i.e., mother is type O and baby is type A or B) Incompatibilities with minor blood group antigens (much less common) Antibody-negative = Direct Coombs or DAT negative Infants with red blood cell membrane defects (e.g., spherocytosisor elliptocytosis) or enzyme defects (G6PD or pyruvate kinase deficiency). Non-hemolytic breakdown of red blood cells: Extensive bruising from birth trauma Large cephalohematoma or other hemorrhage (e.g., intracranial) Polycythemia Swallowed blood during delivery Inborn metabolic disorders: Crigler-Najjar syndrome: Decreased bilirubin clearance caused by deficient or completely absent UDPGT Galactosemia Hypothyroidism Ethnicity: Neonatal jaundice is more common in Asian newborns than Caucasian Less common in black infants than Caucasian Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiencyan X-linked recessive trait that can result in hemolysis and jaundiceis more common in families of Mediterranean origin than in other ethnic groups. Hemoglobinopathies, including sickle cell or one of the thalassemias, are also more common among individuals from the Mediterranean region. A family history of anemia or jaundice is important information. Additional risk factors: Prematurity Bowel obstruction Birth at high altitude Kernicterus: Most serious outcome of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia, but rare in healthy term babies without hemolysis. medU | Instructors http://www.med-u.org/communities/instructors/clipp/case_sum... 4 of 12 3/29/12 2:44 PM Definition: Pathological term used to describe staining of the basal ganglia and cranial nerve nuclei by bilirubin. Also describes the clinical condition that results from the toxic effects of high levels of unconjugated bilirubin. Etiology: In the past, kernicterus among full-term newborn infants primarily resulted from Rh incompatibility (Erythroblastosis fetalis). Infants typically were severely anemic, in shock, and acidotic, and had total bilirubin levels well above 25 mg/dL (428 mol/L). Signs of kernicterus in a seriously affected newborn: Loss of suck reflex Lethargy Hyperirritability Seizures Possible death Possible sequelae: Opisthotonus (abnormal posturing that involves rigidity and severe arching of the back, with the head thrown backward) Rigidity Oculomotor paralysis Tremors Hearing loss Ataxia Prevention: Screening for Rh incompatibility and use of anti-Rh immunoglobulin (RhoGAM) have markedly reduced Rh-induced hemolysis and the incidence of kernicterus. Treatment of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia with phototherapy also has had an important impact. Breastfeeding: Breast milk content: Breast milk contains the perfect balance of carbohydrates, fats, proteins for human infants, as well as antibodies, growth factors, and other components: Carbohydrates: Both human milk and standard infant formulas contain lactose as the major carbohydrate. Lactose intolerance is uncommon in the first year of life. Fats: Represent approximately 50% of calories in human milk. Most of the fat in breast milk appears at the end of feeding on each breast, so it is important that infants empty each breast before going to the other. Proteins: Combination of whey proteins (70%) and casein (30%). Formulas contain slightly more protein than human milk. The casein:whey ratio of cow-milk-based formulas varies. Unmodified cow milk contains medU | Instructors http://www.med-u.org/communities/instructors/clipp/case_sum... 5 of 12 3/29/12 2:44 PM approximately three times the protein content of human milk and approximately 80% casein and 20% whey proteins. As mentioned, infants should not be given cow's milk ("regular" milk from the dairy section) until one year of age. Colostrum: Yellowish fluid produced in the first five days postpartum, and gradually replaced by milk. Concentrated source of non-nutritive substances oligosaccharides, lactoferrin, lysozyme, growth factors, bifidobacteria, and other substances that protect against infection and promote growth. Benefits of breastfeeding: Infants: Maternal-infant bonding Protection against infections (e.g., otitis media, respiratory infections, diarrhea) Reduced rates of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) Reduced rates of some allergic reactions Maternal: Decreased postpartum bleeding and more rapid uterine involution Lactational amenorrhea and delayed resumption of ovulation (increased child spacing) Earlier return to pre-pregnant weight (compared with women who formula-feed) Improved bone remineralization postpartum with reduction in hip fractures in the postmenopausal period Decreased cost, relative to formula Ready availability without preparation time Common breastfeeding problems: Enlarged, tender breasts (commonly caused by engorgement, mastitis, plugged ducts [galactocele]) Improper latch, suckle Prolonged feedings Infants fall asleep before they finish feeding Maternal inexperience/anxiety Skills History: Normal newborn nutrition: Breastfeeding infants nurse 8 to 12 times in 24 hours. Initially infants will spend from 1030 minutes per breast; later, 1015 minutes each. Longer feeds may indicate a problem. medU | Instructors http://www.med-u.org/communities/instructors/clipp/case_sum... 6 of 12 3/29/12 2:44 PM If a mother cannot breastfeed or chooses to not do so, she may feed her infant with a formula made from cow's milk or soy protein isolate, with assurance that the major nutrients will be provided by either. Infants younger than 12 months should not be fed unmodified cows milk. References: Satter E. Child of Mine: Feeding With Love and Good Sense. Palo Alto, CA: Bull Publishing Company, 2000; 100-101. Beckman CRB, Ling FW, Laube DW, Smith RP, Barzansky BM, Herbert WNP. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 4th Ed. Baltimore, Maryland: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2002; 157-159. Normal newborn elimination: Stools By third day of life, bowel movements should start appearing yellow (no longer meconium). By sixth or seventh day, infant should have three to four stools/day (some have stools with every feeding). Voiding By third day of life, infant should be voiding three to four times a day. By the sixth day, infant should be voiding at least six times a day. Urine should be pale yellow. Physical exam: Weight loss Breastfed infants may lose up to 710% of their birth weight during first four to five days. Should return to birth weight by two weeks of age. If weight loss > 10% of birth weightor birth weight not regained by two weeksneed further assessment and intervention. Be consistent when weighing infants (e.g., wet/dirty diapers and IV arm boards can add significant amount of weight) Head findings Fontanelle: Initially anterior fontanelle may barely be open due to overriding sutures. Within a few days, sutures separate. Average diameter of anterior fontanelle 2.55.0 cm. In most full-term newborns the posterior fontanelle is not palpable. Caput succedaneum: Edematous swelling over the presenting portion of the scalp of an infant. It overlies the periosteum and crosses suture lines. Cephalohematoma: Subperiosteal hemorrhage. Does not extend across a suture line. Skin exam medU | Instructors http://www.med-u.org/communities/instructors/clipp/case_sum... 7 of 12 3/29/12 2:44 PM Bilirubin levels can be approximated using dermal zonesobserving how far the jaundice extends down the body. Jaundice typically is first noticed on a newborns face at a bilirubin level of approximately 45 mg/dL (6886 mol/L); it then progresses down the trunk to the extremities (cephalocaudal progression) as the bilirubin level rises. In most infants, bilirubin level could be expected to be in the 1015 mg/dL (171257 mol/L) range when jaundice is visible below the knees. However, these dermal zones simply refer to the area of the body where the jaundice is visible and should be used only to estimate serum bilirubin levels. Whenever there is concern about hyperbilirubinemia, a serum total bilirubin level should be obtained. Chest A term infant normally may have 0.51.0 cm of palpable breast tissue. Unilateral/bilateral engorgement of the breasts can occur in both male and female infants. Distinguish from mastitis, in which breast has redness, warmth and swelling. Abdomen Hepatosplenomegaly may be identified in certain conditions that cause jaundice in the newborn (e.g., galactosemia, significant hemolytic disease). Infants whose jaundice is caused by congenital infections such as cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis, syphilis, rubella, or herpes may have hepatosplenomegaly along with elevated direct and indirect bilirubin levels. Hip exam Need to screen for developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH). Most commonly found in: Left hip (3:1) Females Breech presentation Caucasians, Native Americans Family history of DDH The Barlow maneuver identifies dislocatable hips: Examiner places thumb on region of lesser trochanter and middle finger over greater trochanter. With infants hips flexed to 90 degrees, hip is brought into adduction and gentle downward pressure with the hand is applied to the hip. A normal hip will not dislocate, while a dislocatable hip will subtly move out of socket. The Ortolani maneuver identifies dislocated hips: Examiner places fingers over the greater trochanter and abducts infants hip while pushing femoral head anteriorly. medU | Instructors http://www.med-u.org/communities/instructors/clipp/case_sum... 8 of 12 3/29/12 2:44 PM If hip is dislocated, maneuver will cause the femoral head to relocate with a "clunk." Differential diagnosis More likely diagnoses Physiologic jaundice in term newborn peaks at three to four days and resolves by the fourth or fifth day of life. It is often very difficult to distinguish breast-milk jaundice from physiologic jaundice. 1. Breastfeeding-associated jaundice may be caused either by an inhibitory substance in the milk that increases enterohepatic circulation or by a decreased milk supply, leading to a decreased enteral intake and increased enterohepatic circulation. 2. Hypothyroidism: Untreated congenital hypothyroidism can cause prolonged jaundice, lethargy, large fontanelles, macroglossia, umbilical hernia, constipation, abdominal distention, and severe developmental retardation. Will be detected on the newborn screen. 3. Cephalohematoma: Subperiosteal hemorrhage localized to the cranial bone that was traumatized during delivery. Swelling does not extend across a suture line. Blood reabsorbed from the cephalhematoma will contribute to hyperbilirubinemia. (In contrast, caput succedaneum is an edematous swelling overlying the periosteum and crossing suture lines. The swelling consists of serum and would not cause hyperbilirubinemia.) 4. Bruising: Bruising from birth trauma or any other bleeding can also lead to increased bilirubin production as blood extravasated into tissues will be broken down and converted to bilirubin. 5. Sepsis: Septic infants may have jaundice (with elevated total and direct bilirubin) as one sign of serious infection, along with other clinical manifestations such as temperature instability, respiratory distress, apnea, irritability, lethargy, poor tone, vomiting, or poor feeding. When jaundice is the only clinical finding, however, sepsis is highly unlikely as the cause of the increased bilirubin levels. Breastfeeding offers some protection against infection. 6. Less likely diagnoses: Hemolysis: Hemolytic disease would be expected to cause more severe jaundice at an earlier age. Severe hemolytic disease can cause visible jaundice in the first 24 hours of life. Metabolic disorders such as galactosemia or urea cycle defects usually have signs and symptoms including: lethargy, vomiting, seizures, hypotonia, diarrhea, poor feeding, ascites, and hepatomegaly. Many are ruled out by a normal newborn screen. Biliary atresia: Typically presents later, between three and six weeks of age, with progressive jaundice, dark urine, acholic stools. Causes a direct medU | Instructors http://www.med-u.org/communities/instructors/clipp/case_sum... 9 of 12 3/29/12 2:44 PM hyperbilirubinemia. Must be evaluated with fractionated (total and direct) bilirubin. If biliary atresia is suspected, infant will be referred to a pediatric gastroenterologist or surgeon. When diagnosed early, it can be treated with a surgical procedure called the Kasai procedure, which restores bile flow and prevents liver damage. Liver disease: Intrinsic liver disease is a very rare cause of neonatal jaundice: Gilberts syndrome (reduced activity of the enzyme glucuronyltransferase) is a relatively common cause of harmless jaundice (seen in approximately 5% of the population). Crigler-Najjar syndrome (absence or low levels of UDPGT) can cause severe (type I) or mild (type 2) jaundice. Studies Evaluation of jaundice in a newborn: Total serum bilirubin (TSB) Indicated in all infants with jaundice in the first 24 hours of life or with significant jaundice TSB > 15 mg/dL suggests jaundice that is not physiological Direct bilirubin Indicated if infant is ill or has: Light stools or dark urine Persistent jaundice (> 3 weeks) Complete blood count (CBC) To evaluate for hemolytic disease or anemia If anemia is found, an elevated reticulocyte count would be further evidence of hemolysis. Blood smear Useful in diagnosing ABO hemolytic disease (will see schistocytes or microspherocytes) More essential if jaundice presents in first 24 hours Newborn screen To evaluate for metabolic disease Management Hyperbilirubinemia: medU | Instructors http://www.med-u.org/communities/instructors/clipp/case_sum... 10 of 12 3/29/12 2:44 PM Evaluate risk factors for severe hyperbilirubinemia in infants > 35 weeks gestation: Major risk factors: Pre-discharge total serum bilirubin (TSB) or total conjugated bilirubin (TcB) level in the high-risk zone Jaundice observed in first 24 hours of life Blood group incompatibility, with positive direct antiglobulin test Gestational age 3536 week Previous sibling received phototherapy Cephalohematoma or significant bruising Exclusive breastfeeding, particularly if nursing is not going well and weight loss is excessive East Asian race Minor risk factors: Pre-discharge TSB or TcB level in high intermediate-risk zone Gestational age 3738 week Jaundice observed before discharge Previous sibling with jaundice Macrosomic infant of a diabetic mother Maternal age > 25 years Male gender Decreased risk: TSB or TcB level in the low-risk zone Gestational age 41 week Exclusive bottle feeding Black race Discharge from hospital after 72 hours Treatment: Treatment of jaundice in a newborn is based on assessment of risk factors, the level of serum bilirubin, and family and physician preference: Phototherapy: An effective means of lowering bilirubin. The Bhutani nomogram can be used to determine when to implement (based on age and risk factors). Temporary formula feeding: If serum bilirubin is 1625 mg/dL, many pediatricians may decide to substitute breastfeeding with formula for 2448 hours and then resume breastfeeding. Newborn nutritional supplements Iron: After age six months, all infants need a reliable source of iron. While the iron in breast milk is highly bioavailable, the total amount cannot support adequate hemoglobin production. medU | Instructors http://www.med-u.org/communities/instructors/clipp/case_sum... 11 of 12 3/29/12 2:44 PM Infants who have been exclusively breastfed should be should be started on iron-enriched foods, such as fortified cereals and meats, at six months. Most standard formulas are iron-fortified. Iron supplements may be needed during the first six months if the baby is anemic or has low iron stores (e.g., as in premature infants). Fluoride: Breastfed and bottle-fed infants both should receive fluoride supplements after six months of age if the water supply lacks fluoride (< 0.3 ppm). Vitamin D: Exclusively breastfed infants may need vitamin D supplementation in the first six months. Supplementation with 400 IU of vitamin D should be initiated within days of birth for all breastfed infants. (Infants who are not breastfed should also receive supplementation with 400 IU of vitamin D if they do not ingest at least 1 L of vitamin D-fortified formula daily.) Rickets can occur in strictly breastfed infants (generally appears between six and 24 months and responds to treatment with vitamin D). Breast engorgement from breastfeeding: Instruct mother to apply warm compresses before breastfeeding and cold compresses between feedings to relieve the discomfort. Use manual or mechanical expression of the areola to relieve fullness and facilitate latching-on. Have baby nurse frequently to relieve breast engorgement.
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