Gas Pipeline

GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
E. Shash i Menon
A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Frani! i"print, a "e"#er of the Taylor &
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Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Published in 2005 by
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=enon, ?/ "hashi/
Gas pipeline hydraulics ; ?/ "hashi =enon/
p/ c,/
4ncludes bibliographical re-erences and inde>/
4"$ 0*('3&*2)(5*)
2/ $atural gas pipeline**<esign and construction/ 2/ Pipe**7ydrodyna,ics/ 4/ Title/
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Preface
Gas Pipeline Hydraulics is a practical handboo! -or engineers, technicians, and
others in0ol0ed in the design and operation o- pipelines transporting natural gas and
other co,pressible -luids/ 4t is based on the authorAs &0*year e>perience in the oil and
gas industry/ This boo! #ill help readers better understand and apply the
principles o- -luid ,echanics to their daily #or! in the gas pipeline trans,ission and
distribution industry/ The boo! is di0ided into 20 chapters #ith se0eral e>a,ple
proble,s sol0ed -ully, as #ell as additional proble,s pro0ided as e>ercises/
Chapter 2 introduces the basic properties o- natural gas and other co,pressible
-luids that are i,portant in understanding ho# gas beha0es under 0arious
conditions o- pressure and te,perature as it -lo#s through a pipeline/ The
properties o- hydrocarbon gas ,i>tures, such as gra0ity, 0iscosity, and
co,pressibility, are re0ie#ed, and both analytical and graphical ,ethods are
e>plained #ith illustrati0e e>a,ples/
4n Chapter 2, the ,ethods o- calculating the pressure drop in a gas pipeline are
discussed/ The General Flo# e9uation is introduced as the basic e9uation, and the
0arious correlations -or -riction -actor and trans,ission -actors, such as Colebroo!
and 1G1, are e>plained/ Bther -lo# e9uations, such as Panhandle and %ey,outh,
are also co0ered using e>a,ples/
Chapter & e>tends the concepts o- pressure drop calculations -urther to
deter,ine the total pressure re9uired -or transporting gas in pipelines under
0arious con-igurations, such as series and parallel pipelines/ The e--ects o-
inter,ediate deli0ery 0olu,es and inCection rates along a distribution pipeline
are re0ie#ed/ The i,portance o- the contract deli0ery pressures and the necessity
o- regulating pressures using a control 0al0e or pressure regulator are also
discussed/ The e--ect o- gas te,perature on the pressure drop in a trans,ission
pipeline is re0ie#ed #ith e>a,ple output reports -ro, a co,,ercial gas
hydraulics si,ulation ,odel/ ?9ui0alent lengths in series piping and e9ui0alent
dia,eters in parallel piping are co0ered, as #ell as pipe looping to increase gas
pipeline -lo# rate/ The 9uantity o- gas contained in a section o- a pipeline and
the calculation o- line pac! are also re0ie#ed/
Chapter ' discusses co,pressor stations re9uired to transport gas in a pipeline
and ho# to calculate their nu,bers and opti,u, locations/ Centri-ugal and
positi0e displace,ent co,pressors are e>plained, and their per-or,ances are
co,pared/ Typical per-or,ance characteristics o- a centri-ugal co,pressor are
analy:ed/ 4sother,al, adiabatic, and polytropic co,pression processes and
horsepo#er re9uired are discussed #ith sa,ple calculations/ The discharge
te,perature o- the co,pressed gas and its i,pact on pipeline throughput, along
#ith the necessity o- gas cooling, are e>plained/
4n Chapter 5, installing pipe loops to increase the throughput in a gas pipeline
is e>plored/ Looping is co,pared to the option o- building inter,ediate
co,pressor stations/ The ad0antages and disad0antages o- looping a pipeline
0ersus installing co,pressor stations are discussed/
Chapter 6 co0ers the ,echanical strength o- a pipeline/ The e--ects o- pipe
dia,eter, #all thic!ness, ,aterial o- construction, and speci-ic sa-ety re9uire,ents
dictated by design codes and state and -ederal regulations are re0ie#ed/
7ydrostatic testing re9uire,ents and classi-ication o- pipelines based upon their
pro>i,ity to hu,an d#ellings and industrial establish,ents and population
density are also co0ered/
Chapter ) introduces readers to ther,al hydraulic analysis/ For si,plicity,
long distance gas pipelines can be treated as isother,al -lo#s/ %ith co,pressor
stations, the higher discharge te,perature causes heat trans-er bet#een the pipe*
line gas and its surroundings/ The e--ects o- soil ther,al conducti0ity, burial depth
o- pipeline, and the soil te,perature are analy:ed in deter,ining the te,perature
and pressure pro-ile o- a gas pipeline/ The Doule*Tho,pson cooling e--ect is
re0ie#ed, and the results -ro, a co,,ercial hydraulic si,ulation ,odel are
discussed/
Chapter ( introduces transient pressure analysis/ This is an area that is 9uite
co,ple>, and a co,plete discussion o- the transient hydraulic analysis o- gas
pipelines re9uires a separate boo!/ Readers are re-erred to so,e e>cellent
re-erences on this subCect/
Chapter 3 co0ers 0al0es and -lo# ,easure,ent/ The di--erent types o- 0al0es
used in a gas pipeline and their characteristics are e>plained/ The i,portance o-
accurate -lo# ,easure,ent in gas pipeline transactions is stressed/ The codes and
standards used to ensure proper design, construction, and operation o- ori-ice -lo#
,eters are re0ie#ed/
Chapter 20 e>plores econo,ic aspects o- gas pipeline syste,s/ <eter,ining
the opti,u, pipe si:e -or a particular gas -lo# rate, ta!ing into account the initial
capital cost and annual operating and ,aintenance cost, is e>plained/ For a typical
gas pipeline syste,, the 0arious capital cost co,ponents are re0ie#ed, along #ith
the recurring annual costs such as operation and ,aintenance, -uel, and
ad,inistrati0e costs/ 1lso, the calculation ,ethodology -or deter,ining
transportation cost or tari-- is co0ered/
1t the end o- each chapter, additional proble,s are pro0ided as e>ercises/ 1
list o- re-erences -or the ,aterial co0ered in each chapter is included as #ell/
1ppendices at the end o- the boo! include tables o- con0ersion -actors -ro,
."C" units to "4 units and 0ice 0ersa, along #ith tables o- properties o- natural
gas/ 1lso included are tables sho#ing co,,only used pipe si:es, listing allo#able
internal pressures and hydrotest pressures/ 1 section containing a su,,ary o- all
hydraulic -or,ulas used in the boo! is pro0ided as a handy re-erence/
4 enCoyed #or!ing #ith the -ine sta-- at CRC Press/ 4n particular, 4 #ant to than!
Cindy Carelli, ac9uisitions editorE Theresa <el Forn, proCect coordinatorE and =arsha
7echt, proCect editor, -or their ,eticulous and pro,pt attention to all ,atters con*
cerning the production o- this boo!/ They are indeed a 0ery pro-essional group and
one o- the best 4 ha0e #or!ed #ith o0er the years/ 4 a, indebted to ,y #i-e Pra,ila
-or the enor,ous a,ount o- typing she did preparing the ,anuscript and -or helping
,e proo-read the -inal docu,ent and chec! -or ,athe,atical accuracy/ 4 also appre*
ciate all the good co,,ents and suggestions that 4 recei0ed -ro, practicing pro-e*
ssional engineers such as Fen Gipp, <an ha0sar, and Charles Tateosian/ 4n addition,
4 a, than!-ul to Charles Peterson, Fen Gipp, and Ron %ood -or agreeing to re0ie#
the ,anuscript, #hich resulted in so,e 0aluable co,,ents that enhanced the
9uality o- this boo!/
Finally, 4 #ould li!e to dedicate this boo! to ,y parents, #ho encouraged ,e
in all ,y endea0ors throughout ,y childhood and adult li-e/
&$ 'hashi (enon
Author
&$ 'hashi (enon is an engineering and co,puter consultant at "H"T?F Techno*
logies, 4nc/, La!e 7a0asu City, 1ri:ona/ 7e is a registered pro-essional engineer in
Cali-ornia and the author o- nu,erous engineering so-t#are progra,s and pro-e*
ssional publications/ 7e is an associate -ello# o- the Royal 1eronautical "ociety,
London, and a ,e,ber o- the 1,erican "ociety o- =echanical ?ngineers/ =enon
earned a bachelorAs degree in ,echanical engineering -ro, hopal .ni0ersity, 4ndia,
and an =/"/ in ,echanical engineering -ro, Cali-ornia "tate .ni0ersity, Long each/
7e has #or!ed -or ,ore than &0 years in ,anu-acturing and the oil and gas industry/
7e has held the positions o- design engineer, proCect engineer, proCect ,anager, chie-
engineer, and engineering ,anager -or gas pipeline and li9uid pipeline co,panies/
"ince 233(, =enon has taught pipeline hydraulics courses to engineers in $orth and
"outh 1,erica and has published nu,erous hydraulics and pu,p so-t#are progra,s
currently used by engineers in the oil and gas industry/ 7e has authored boo!s -or
=arcel <e!!er and =cGra#*7ill/
Contents
Cha!ter ) Gas Properties
2/2 =ass and %eight////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2
2/2 Iolu,e///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2
2/& <ensity, "peci-ic %eight, and "peci-ic Iolu,e////////////////////////////////////////////////////&
2/' "peci-ic Gra0ity/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&
2/5 Iiscosity////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////'
2/6 4deal Gases/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////3
2/) Real Gases///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2'
2/( $atural Gas =i>tures//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////26
2/3 Pseudo*Critical Properties -ro, Gas Gra0ity//////////////////////////////////////////////////////23
2/20 4,pact o- "our Gas and $on*7ydrocarbon Co,ponents//////////////////////////////////20
2/22 Co,pressibility Factor///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////22
2/22/2 "tanding*Fat: =ethod//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////22
2/22/2 <ranchu!, Pur0is, and Robinson =ethod/////////////////////////////////////////////2&
2/22/& 1,erican Gas 1ssociation 61G18 =ethod//////////////////////////////////////////2&
2/22/' Cali-ornia $atural Gas 1ssociation 6C$G18 =ethod//////////////////////////2'
2/22 7eating Ialue////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)
2/2& "u,,ary////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)
Proble,s////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2(
Re-erences/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////23
Cha!ter * Pressure <rop <ue to Friction
2/2 ernoulliAs ?9uation////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&2
2/2 Flo# ?9uations////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&2
2/& General Flo# ?9uation////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&&
2/' ?--ect o- Pipe ?le0ations/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&5
2/5 10erage Pipe "eg,ent Pressure//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&)
2/6 Ielocity o- Gas in a Pipeline///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&)
2/) ?rosional Ielocity////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////'0
2/( Reynolds $u,ber o- Flo#//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////'&
2/3 Friction Factor/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////'5
2/20 Colebroo!*%hite ?9uation////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////')
2/22 Trans,ission Factor///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////50
2/22 =odi-ied Colebroo!*%hite ?9uation////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////5'
2/2& 1,erican Gas 1ssociation 61G18 ?9uation/////////////////////////////////////////////////////5)
2/2' %ey,outh ?9uation//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////62
2/25 Panhandle 1 ?9uation////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////6'
2/26 Panhandle ?9uation///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////6(
2/2) 4nstitute o- Gas Technology 64GT8 ?9uation/////////////////////////////////////////////////////)0
2/2( "pit:glass ?9uation///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////)'
2/23 =ueller ?9uation///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////)6
2/20 Frit:sche ?9uation/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////))
2/22 ?--ect o- Pipe Roughness//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////)(
2/22 Co,parison o- Flo# ?9uations/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////(0
2/2& "u,,ary///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////(2
Proble,s////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////(2
Re-erences/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////(&
Cha!ter + Pressure Re9uired to Transport
&/2 Total Pressure <rop Re9uired//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////(5
&/2 Frictional ?--ect///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////(6
&/& ?--ect o- Pipeline ?le0ation/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////(6
&/' ?--ect o- Changing Pipe <eli0ery Pressure/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////30
&/5 Pipeline #ith 4nter,ediate 4nCections and <eli0eries//////////////////////////////////////////3&
&/6 "eries Piping////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////20'
&/) Parallel Piping/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////222
&/( Locating Pipe Loop/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////222
&/3 7ydraulic Pressure Gradient///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////22&
&/20 Pressure Regulators and Relie- Ial0es//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////226
&/22 Te,perature Iariation and Gas Pipeline =odeling///////////////////////////////////////////223
&/22 Line Pac!///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2&2
&/2& "u,,ary///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2&5
Proble,s////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2&6
Re-erences/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2&)
Cha!ter , Co,pressor "tations
'/2 Co,pressor "tation Locations/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2&3
'/2 7ydraulic alance///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2'6
'/& 4sother,al Co,pression//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2'6
'/' 1diabatic Co,pression////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2'(
'/5 Polytropic Co,pression//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////252
'/6 <ischarge Te,perature o- Co,pressed Gas///////////////////////////////////////////////////////252
'/) 7orsepo#er Re9uired//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////25&
'/( Bpti,u, Co,pressor Locations/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////25)
'/3 Co,pressors in "eries and Parallel/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////26&
'/20 Types o- Co,pressorsJCentri-ugal and Positi0e <isplace,ent//////////////////////266
'/22 Co,pressor Per-or,ance Cur0es//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////26(
'/22 Co,pressor "tation Piping Losses////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)2
'/2& Co,pressor "tation "che,atic//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)2
'/2' "u,,ary///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)&
Proble,s////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)'
Re-erences/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)5
Cha!ter - Pipe Loops 0ersus Co,pression
5/2 Purpose o- a Pipe Loop///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2))
5/2 Purpose o- Co,pression//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)(
5/& 4ncreasing Pipeline Capacity///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)3
5/' Reducing Po#er Re9uire,ents///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2(3
5/5 Looping in <istribution Piping//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////232
5/6 "u,,ary////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////23(
Proble,s//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////23(
Re-erences///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////233
Cha!ter . Pipe 1nalysis
6/2 Pipe %all Thic!ness///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////202
6/2 arlo#As ?9uation/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////202
6/& Thic!*%alled Pipes////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////20&
6/' <eri0ation o- arlo#As ?9uation///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////205
6/5 Pipe =aterial and Grade////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////20)
6/6 4nternal <esign Pressure ?9uation////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////20)
6/) Class Location///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////203
6/( =ainline Ial0es/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////220
6/3 7ydrostatic Test Pressure//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////222
6/20 lo#do#n Calculations///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2'2
6/22 <eter,ining Pipe Tonnage//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2'&
6/22 "u,,ary//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2'6
Proble,s//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2'6
Re-erences///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2')
Cha!ter / Ther,al 7ydraulics
)/2 4sother,al 0ersus Ther,al 7ydraulics//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2'3
)/2 Te,perature Iariation and Gas Pipeline =odeling///////////////////////////////////////////252
)/& Re0ie# o- "i,ulation =odel Reports///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////25&
)/' "u,,ary////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)&
Proble,s//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)'
Re-erences///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)'
Cha!ter 0 Transient 1nalysis and Case "tudies
(/2 .nsteady Flo#///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)5
(/ 2/2 Transient <ue to =ainline Ial0e Closure////////////////////////////////////////////2)6
(/2/2 Transient <ue to Co,pressor "hutdo#n//////////////////////////////////////////////2))
(/2 Case "tudies///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)3
(/2/2 B--shore Pipeline Case/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////2)3
(/& "u,,ary////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////236
Proble,s//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////236
Re-erences///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////23)
Cha!ter 1 Ial0es and Flo# =easure,ents
3/2 Purpose o- Ial0es//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////233
3/2 Types o- Ial0es//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&00
3/& =aterial o- Construction////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&02
3/' Codes -or <esign and Construction///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&02
3/5 Gate Ial0e//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&0&
3/6 all Ial0e//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&05
3/) Plug Ial0e//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&05
3/( utter-ly Ial0e///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&05
3/3 Globe Ial0e///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&06
3/20 Chec! Ial0e/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&0)
3/22 Pressure Control Ial0e////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&0(
3/22 Pressure Regulator///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&03
3/2& Pressure Relie- Ial0e///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&03
3/2' Flo# =easure,ent//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&20
3/25 Flo# =eters/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&20
3/25/2 Bri-ice =eter//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&20
3/25/2/2 =eter Tube/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&2&
3/25/2/2 ?>pansion Factor////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&2'
3/26 Ienturi =eter///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&22
3/2) Flo# $o::le////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&2&
3/2( "u,,ary/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&25
Proble,s//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&25
Re-erences///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&25
Cha!ter )2 Pipeline ?cono,ics
20/2 Co,ponents o- Cost////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&2(
20/2 Capital Costs////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&&0
20/2/2 Pipeline///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&&0
20/2/2 Co,pressor "tations///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&&2
20/2/& =ainline Ial0e "tations//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&&&
20/2/' =eter "tations and Regulators///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&&&
20/2/5 "C1<1 and Teleco,,unication "yste,//////////////////////////////////////////&&&
20/2/6 ?n0iron,ental and Per,itting///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&&'
20/2/) Right o- %ay 1c9uisitions//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&&'
20/2/( ?ngineering and Construction =anage,ent//////////////////////////////////////&&5
20/2/3 Bther ProCect Costs/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&&5
20/& Bperating Costs///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&&6
20/' <eter,ining ?cono,ic Pipe "i:e////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&&3
20/5 "u,,ary/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&5&
Proble,s//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&5&
Re-erences///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&5'
3!!endi4 3 .nits and Con0ersions///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&55
3!!endi4 5 Physical Properties o- Iarious Gases/////////////////////////////////////////////////&53
3!!endi4 C Pipe PropertiesJ./"/ Custo,ary "yste, o- .nits///////////////////////////&6&
3!!endi4 D G1"=B< Butput Report//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&)&
3!!endi4 & "u,,ary o- For,ulas////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////&)3
CHAPTER 1
Gas Properties
4n this chapter #e #ill discuss the properties o- gases that in-luence gas -lo#
through a pipeline/ %e #ill e>plore the relationship o- pressure, 0olu,e, and
te,perature o- a gas and ho# the gas properties such as density, 0iscosity, and
co,pressibility change #ith the te,perature and pressure/ "tarting #ith the ideal
or per-ect gases that obey the ideal gas e9uation, #e #ill e>a,ine ho# real gases
di--er -ro, ideal gases/ The concept o- co,pressibility -actor, or gas de0iation
-actor, #ill be introduced and ,ethods o- calculating the co,pressibility -actor
using so,e popular graphical correlation and calculation ,ethods e>plained/ The
properties o- a ,i>ture o- gases #ill be discussed, and ho# these are calculated
#ill be co0ered/ .nderstanding the gas properties is an i,portant -irst step to#ard
analysis o- gas pipeline hydraulics/
1 -luid can be a li9uid or a gas/ Li9uids are generally considered al,ost
inco,pressible/ 1 gas is classi-ied as a ho,ogenous -luid #ith lo# density and
0iscosity/ 4t e>pands to -ill the 0essel that contains the gas/ The ,olecules that
constitute the gas are spaced -arther apart in co,parison #ith a li9uid and,
there-ore, a slight change in pressure a--ects the density o- gas ,ore than that o- a
li9uid/ Gases, there-ore, ha0e higher co,pressibility than li9uids/ This i,plies
that gas properties such as density, 0iscosity, and co,pressibility -actor change
#ith pressure/
1.1 MASS AND WEIGHT
=ass is the 9uantity o- ,atter in a substance/ 4t is so,eti,es used interchangeably
#ith #eight/ "trictly spea!ing, ,ass is a scalar 9uantity, #hereas #eight is a -orce
and, there-ore, a 0ector 9uantity/ =ass is independent o- the geographic location,
#hereas #eight depends upon the acceleration due to gra0ity and,
there-ore, 0aries slightly #ith geographic location/ =ass is ,easured in slugs in
the ./"/ Custo,ary "yste, 6."C"8 o- units and !ilogra,s 6!g8 in "yste,e
4nternational 6"48 units/
(
) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
7o#e0er, -or ,ost purposes, #e say that a 20*lb ,ass has a #eight o- 20 lb/
The pound 6lb8 is a ,ore con0enient unit -or ,ass, and to distinguish bet#een
,ass and #eight, the ter,s pound ,ass 6lb,8 and pound -orce 6lb-8 are
so,eti,es used/ 1 slug is e9ual to appro>i,ately &2/2 lb/
4- so,e gas is contained in a certain 0olu,e and the te,perature and pressure
change, the ,ass #ill re,ain constant unless so,e gas is ta!en out or added to the
container/ This is !no#n as the principle o- conser0ation o- ,ass/ %eight is
,easured in pounds 6lb8 in ."C" units and in $e#ton 6$8 in "4 units/ "o,eti,es
#e tal! about ,ass -lo# rate through a pipeline rather than 0olu,e -lo# rate/
=ass -lo# rate is ,easured in lb;hr in ."C" units or !g;hr in "4 units/
1.2 !"#ME
Iolu,e o- a gas is the space a gi0en ,ass o- gas occupies at a particular te,perature
and pressure/ "ince gas is co,pressible, it #ill e>pand to -ill the a0ailable space/
There-ore, the gas 0olu,e #ill 0ary #ith te,perature and pressure/ 7ence, a certain
0olu,e o- a gi0en ,ass o- gas at so,e te,perature and pressure #ill decrease in
0olu,e as the pressure is increased and 0ice 0ersa/ "uppose a 9uantity o- gas is
contained in a 0olu,e o- 200 -t
&
at a te,perature o- (0KF and a pressure o- 200 psi/ 4-
the te,perature is increased to 200KF, !eeping the 0olu,e constant, the pressure #ill
also increase/ "i,ilarly, i- the te,perature is reduced, gas pressure #ill also reduce,
pro0ided 0olu,e re,ains constant/ CharlesAs la# states that -or constant 0olu,e, the
pressure o- a -i>ed ,ass o- gas #ill 0ary directly #ith the te,perature/ Thus, i-
te,perature increases by 20L, the pressure #ill also rise by 20L/ "i,ilarly, i- pressure
is ,aintained constant, the 0olu,e #ill increase in direct proportion #ith te,perature/
CharlesAs la#, oyleAs la#, and other gas la#s #ill be discussed in detail later in this
chapter/
Iolu,e o- gas is ,easured in -t
&
in ."C" units and ,
&
in "4 units/ Bther units
-or 0olu,e include thousand -t
&
6=-t
&
8 and ,illion -t
&
6==-t
&
8 in ."C"
units and thousand ,
&
6!,
&
8 and ,illion ,
&
6=,
&
8 in "4 units/ %hen re-erred to
standard conditions 6also called base conditions8 o- te,perature and pressure
660KF and 2'/) psia in ."C" units8, the 0olu,e is stated as standard 0olu,e and,
there-ore, ,easured in standard -t
&
6"CF8 or ,illion standard -t
&
6=="CF8/ 4t
,ust be noted that in the ."C" units, the practice has been to use = to
represent a thousand, and there-ore == re-ers to a ,illion/ This goes bac!
to the Ro,an days o- nu,erals, #hen = represented a thousand/ 4n "4
units, a ,ore logical step is -ollo#ed/ For thousand, the letter ! 6-or !ilo8 is
used and the letter = 6-or =ega8 is used -or a ,illion/ There-ore, 500 ="CF< in
."C" units re-ers to 500 thousand standard cubic -eet per day 6500,000
-t
&
;day8, #hereas 25 =,
&
;day ,eans 25 ,illion cubic ,eters per day in "4
units/ This distinction in the use o- the letter = to denote a thousand in ."C"
units and = -or a ,illion in "4 units ,ust be clearly understood/
Iolu,e -lo# rate o- gas is ,easured per unit ti,e and can be e>pressed as
-t
&
;,in, -t
&
;h, -t
&
;day, "CF<, =="CF<, etc/ in ."C" units/ 4n "4 units, gas -lo#
rate is e>pressed in ,
&
;h or =,&;day/
GAS PR*PERTI ES +
1.$ DENSIT%& SPECI'IC WEIGHT& AND SPECI'IC !"#ME
<ensity represents the a,ount o- gas that can be pac!ed in a gi0en 0olu,e/ There-ore,
it is ,easured in ter,s o- ,ass per unit 0olu,e/ 4- 5 lb o- a gas is contained in 200
-t
&
o- 0olu,e at so,e te,perature and pressure, #e say that the gas density is 5;200
M 0/05 lb;-t&/
"trictly spea!ing, in ."C" units density ,ust be e>pressed as slug;-t
&
since ,ass is
custo,arily re-erred to in slug/
Thus,
m M
V
(1.1)
#here
r = density o- gas
m = ,ass o- gas
V M 0olu,e o- gas
<ensity is e>pressed in slug;-t
&
or lb;-t
&
in ."C" units and !g;,
&
in "4 units/
1 co,panion ter, called specific weight is also used #hen re-erring to the density o-
gas/ "peci-ic #eight, represented by the sy,bol g, is the #eight o- gas per unit
0olu,e ,easured in lb;-t
&
in ."C" units, and is, there-ore, contrasted #ith density,
#hich is ,easured in slug;-t
&
/ 4n "4 units, the speci-ic #eight is e>pressed in $e#ton
per ,
&
6$;,
&
8/ Nuite o-ten, density is also re-erred to in lb;-t
&
in ."C" units/
The reciprocal o- the speci-ic #eight is !no#n as the speci-ic 0olu,e/ y de-ini*
tion, there-ore, speci-ic 0olu,e represents the 0olu,e occupied by a unit #eight o-
gas/ 4t is ,easured in -t
&
;lb in ."C" units and ,
&
;$ in "4 units/ 4- the speci-ic #eight
o- a particular gas is 0/06 lb;-t
&
at so,e te,perature and pressure, its speci-ic 0olu,e
isa 06 or 26/6) -t&;lb/
1.( SPECI'IC GRAIT%
"peci-ic gra0ity o- a gas, so,eti,es called gravity, is a ,easure o- ho# hea0y the gas
is co,pared to air at a particular te,perature/ 4t ,ight also be called relative density,
e>pressed as the ratio o- the gas density to the density o- air/ ecause speci-ic gra0ity
is a ratio, it is a di,ensionless 9uantity/
GM g 62/28
air
#here
G M gas gra0ity, di,ensionless
r
g
M density o- gas
rair = density o- air
, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
oth densities in ?9uation 2/2 ,ust be in the sa,e units and ,easured at the sa,e
te,perature/
For e>a,ple, natural gas has a speci-ic gra0ity o- 0/60 6air M 2/008 at 60KF/ This
,eans that the gas is 60L as hea0y as air/
4- #e !no# the ,olecular #eight o- a particular gas, #e can calculate its gra0ity by
di0iding the ,olecular #eight by the ,olecular #eight o- air, as -ollo#s/
62/&8
62/'8
G M g M g air 2(/3625
or
GM g
23
Rounding o-- the ,olecular #eight o- air to 23
#here
G M speci-ic gra0ity o- gas
g
M ,olecular #eight o- gas
air M ,olecular #eight o- air M 2(/3625
"ince natural gas consists o- a ,i>ture o- se0eral gases 6,ethane, ethane, etc/8, the
,olecular #eight
g
in ?9uation 2/' is re-erred to as the apparent ,olecular #eight o-
the gas ,i>ture/
%hen the ,olecular #eight and the percentage or ,ole -ractions o- the indi0idual
co,ponents o- a natural gas ,i>ture are !no#n, #e can calculate the ,olecular
#eight o- the gas ,i>ture by using a #eighted a0erage ,ethod/ Thus, a natural gas
,i>ture consisting o- 30L ,ethane, (L ethane, and 2L propane #ill ha0e a speci-ic
gra0ity o-
GM 60/3 O 28 P 60/0( O 28 P 60/02 O &8 23
#here 2, 2, and & are the ,olecular #eights o- ,ethane, ethane, and propane,
respecti0ely, and 23 represents the ,olecular #eight o- air/
Table 2/2 lists the ,olecular #eights and other properties o- se0eral hydrocarbon
gases/
1.) ISC!SIT%
The 0iscosity o- a -luid represents its resistance to -lo#/ The higher the 0iscosity, the
,ore di--icult it is to -lo#/ Lo#er*0iscosity -luids -lo# easily in pipes and cause less
pressure drop/ Li9uids ha0e ,uch larger 0alues o- 0iscosity co,pared to gases/ For
e>a,ple, #ater has a 0iscosity o- 2/0 centiPoise 6cP8, #hereas 0iscosity o- natural gas
is appro>i,ately 0/000( cP/ ?0en though the gas 0iscosity is a s,all nu,ber, it
GAS PR*PERTI ES
-
has an i,portant -unction in deter,ining the type o- -lo# in pipelines/ The Reynolds
nu,ber 6discussed in Chapter 28 is a di,ensionless para,eter that is used to classi-y
-lo# rate in pipelines/ 4t depends on the gas 0iscosity, -lo# rate, pipe dia,eter,
te,perature, and pressure/ The absolute 0iscosity, also called the dyna,ic 0iscosity, is
e>pressed in lb;-t*s in ."C" units and Poise 6P8 in "4 units/ 1 related ter, is the
!ine,atic 0iscosity/ This is si,ply the absolute 0iscosity di0ided by the density/ The
t#o 0iscosities are related as -ollo#s5
!M"(1.#)
#here, in ."C" units,
n = !ine,atic 0iscosity, -t2;s
m = dyna,ic 0iscosity, lb;-t*s r
= density, lb;-t&
and in "4 units
n = !ine,atic 0iscosity, "t m
= dyna,ic 0iscosity, P r =
density, !g;,&
Fine,atic 0iscosity is e>pressed in -t
2
;s in ."C" units and "to!es 6"t8 in "4 units/
Bther units o- 0iscosity in "4 units include centipoise 6cP8 -or dyna,ic 0iscosity and
centisto!es 6c"t8 -or !ine,atic 0iscosity/ 1ppendi> 1 includes con0ersion -actors -or
con0erting 0iscosity -ro, one set o- units to another/
The 0iscosity o- a gas depends on its te,perature and pressure/ .nli!e li9uids, the
0iscosity o- a gas increases #ith increase in te,perature/ "ince 0iscosity represents
resistance to -lo#, as the gas te,perature increases, the 9uantity o- gas -lo# through a
pipeline #ill decreaseE hence, ,ore throughput is possible in a gas pipeline at lo#er
te,peratures/ This is in sharp contrast to li9uid -lo#, #here the throughput increases
#ith te,perature due to decrease in 0iscosity and 0ice 0ersa/ 4t ,ust be noted that,
unli!e li9uids, pressure also a--ects the 0iscosity o- a gas/ Li!e te,perature, the gas
0iscosity increases #ith pressure/ Figure 2/2 sho#s the 0ariation o- 0iscosity #ith
te,perature -or a gas/ Table 2/2 lists the 0iscosities o- co,,on gases/
"M
62/68
"ince natural gas is a ,i>ture o- pure gases such as ,ethane and ethane, the -ollo#ing
-or,ula is used to calculate the 0iscosity -ro, the 0iscosities o- co,ponent gases5
Q
( " i
y
i
M
i )
Q
(
y
i
M
i )
#here
m = dyna,ic 0iscosity o- gas ,i>ture
A
.
= dyna,ic 0iscosity o- gas co,ponent i
y
i
M ,ole -raction or percent o- gas co,ponent i
i
M ,olecular #eight o- gas co,ponent i
Ta*+e 1.1 Properties of H,-rocar*on Gases
apor
I-ea+ Gas
Pressur
e
Critica+ Constants 1(../. psia& .0.' Specific Heat&
1tu2+*2.'
Mo+ecu+
ar
psia at Pressur
e
Te3peratur
e
o+u
3e
Sp4r 1(../. psia& .0.'
Gas
'or3u+
a
Wei4ht 100.' psia .' ft$2+*
5air61.0
07
ft$2+*8
4as
I-ea+ Gas
/ethane CH, (0'1,+1
-1
11
000'1 2((0'00
1'134
4
1'--+3 )+'0-, 1'-)050
Ethane C)H0 +1'1511 41
1
515'1 31'15 1'154
+
('1+4) ()'0)1 1',1543
Propane C+H4 ,,'1351 (44'0- 0(5'1 )1-'3+ 1'15)
5
('-))0 4'01-3 1'+44,5
I!o#$tane C,H(1 -4'()+1 5)'-4( -)5'3 )5,', 1'15(
,
)'1104 0'-)3( 1'+4003
n6#$tane C,H(1 -4'()+1 -('510 -,4'4 +1-'-) 1'151
+
)'1104 0'-)3( 1'+3-11
I!o6pentane C-H() 5)'(-11 )1',,+ ,31', +04'30 1'104
,
)',3() -')-30 1'+4,,4
n6pentane C-H() 5)'(-11 (-'-5- ,44'( +4-'5 1'103
-
)',3() -')-30 1'+44+(
Neo6pentane C
-
H
() 5)'(-11 +0'5) ,0,'1 +)('1( 1'105
+
)',3() -')-30 1'+31+4
n6he7ane C0H(, 40'(551 ,'3-30 ,+0'3 ,-+'4 1'104
4
)'35-- ,',1+- 1'+40+(
)6"ethyl pentane C
0
H
(,
40'(551 0'503 ,+0'0 ,+-'50 1'104
)
)'35-- ,',1+- 1'+4-)0
+6"ethyl pentane C
0
H
(, 40'(551 0'(1+ ,-)'- ,,4') 1'104
)
)'35-- ,',1+- 1'+531)
Neo he7ane C0H(, 40'(551 3'4-3 ,,0'5 ,(3'3) 1'100
5
)'35-- ,',1+- 1'+4)+(
),+6%i"ethyl#$tane C
0
H
(,
40'(551 5',10 ,-,'1 ,,1'14 1'100
-
)'35-- ,',1+- 1'+550)
n6Heptane C5H(0 (11')1,1 ('0)( +30'4 -()'4 1'104
)
+',-34 +'545) 1'+4,,3
)6/ethylhe7ane C5H(0 (11')1,1 )')5+ +30'1 ,3,',, 1'105
+
+',-34 +'545) 1'+4(51
+6/ethylhe7ane C5H(0 (11')1,1 )'(+ ,15'0 -1+'0) 1'10,
0
+',-34 +'545) 1'+544)
+6Ethylpentane C5H(0 (11')1,1 )'1() ,(3') -(+'(0 1'100
-
+',-34 +'545) 1'+40,0
),)6Di"ethylpentane C5H(0 (11')1,1 +',3, ,1('4 ,50'34 1'100
-
+',-34 +'545) 1'+40-(
),,6Di"ethylpentane C5H(0 (11')1,1 +')3, +35', ,5-'5) 1'100
5
+',-34 +'545) 1'+30)5
+,+6Di"ethylpentane C5H(0 (11')1,1 )'55- ,)5'3 -1-'0 1'100
)
+',-34 +'545) 1'+4+10
Triptane C5H(0 (11')1,1 +'+50 ,)5'3 ,30'), 1'10+
0
+',-34 +'545) 1'+55),
n6otane C4H(4 ((,')+(1 1'-+5( +01'5 -0,'(- 1'105
+
+'3,,( +'+)) 1'+4++,
Di I!o#$tyl C4H(4 ((,')+(1 ('(1)1 +0('( -+1')0 1'105
0
+'3,,( +'+)) 1'+5-5(
I!ootane C4H(4 ((,')+(1 ('5131 +5)'5 -(3')4 1'10-
5
+'3,,( +'+)) 1'+4)))
n6Nonane C3H)1 ()4')-41 1'(5(-- ++1'5 0(1'5) 1'103
+
,',)4, )'3-44 1'+4),4
n6Deane C(1H)) (,)')4-1 1'10144 +1,'0 0-)'( 1'151
)
,'3()5 )'005( 1'+4(4(
Cylopentane
C
-
H
(1 51'(+,1 3'3(5 0-+'4 ,0('( 1'1-3 )',)(- -',(( 1')5())
/ethylylopentane C
0
H
()
4,'(0(1 ,',3( -,4'4 ,33')4 1'101
5
)'31-3 ,'-13 1'+11)5
Cylohe7ane
C
0
H
()
4,'(0(1 +')05 -31'5 -+0'0 1'1-4
0
)'31-3 ,'-13 1')31()
/ethylylohe7ane C5H(, 34'(441 ('013 -1+', -51') 1'1011 +'+31) +'40,3 1'+(31)
Ethylene C)H, )4'1-,1 (,1
1
5+('1 ,4'-, 1'15,0 1'3040 (+'-)5 1'+-543
Propylene C+H0 ,)'14(1 )+)'4 050'0 (34'+( 1'15(5 (',-)3 3'1(53 1'+-04+
8$tylene C,H4 -0'(141 0)'-- -40', )30'(4 1'104+ ('3+5+ 0'50+0 1'+--+-
C,H4 -0'(141 ,3'44 -5,'3 +(('4 1'1053 ('3+5+ 0'50+0 1'+--5,
I!o#$tene C,H4 -0'(141 0,'3- -41') )3)',3 1'104( ('3+5+ 0'50+0 1'+00+0
(6Pentene C-H(1 51'(+,1 (3'() -13'- +50'40 1'105, )',)(- -',(( 1'+-3,,
(,)68$ta%ene C,H0 -,'13)1 +0'-+ 0-0'1 +-, 1'1511 ('4055 5'1(-0 1'+,+,5
(,+68$ta%ene C,H0 -,'13)1 -3',0 0)1'+ +10 1'10-+ ('4055 5'1(-0 1'+,))+
I!oprene C-H4 04'((31 (0'04 -4)'1 ,1+ 1'1001 )'+-)1 -'-5( 1'+-15)
Aetylene C)H) )0'1+41 431', 3-')3 1'103+ 1'4331 (,'-5, 1'+35-,
8en9ene C0H0 54'((,1 +'))- 5(1', --)'(- 1'1-+( )'035( ,'4-4( 1'),)3-
Tol$ene C5H4 3)'(,(1 ('1++ -3-'- 01-'- 1'1-,3 +'(4(, ,'((4, 1')011-
Ethyl6#en9ene C4H(1 (10'(05
1
1'+5(0 -)+ 0-(')) 1'1-0, +'00-5 +'-5,, 1')5504
o6:ylene C4H(1 (10'(05
1
1')0,+ -,('0 05,'4- 1'1--5 +'00-5 +'-5,, 1')430,
"6:ylene C4H(1 (10'(05
1
1'+)0- -()'3 0-1'3- 1'1-05 +'00-5 +'-5,, 1')5,)5
p6:ylene C4H(1 (10'(05
1
1'+,), -13') 0,3',5 1'1-5) +'00-5 +'-5,, 1')5,51
Styrene C4H4 (1,'(-)
1
1')-4) -45'4 51+ 1'1-+, +'-30( +'0,+- 1')004)
I!opropyl#en9ene C3H() ()1'(3,
1
1'(44 ,0-', 050') 1'1-03 ,'(-11 +'(-5+ 1'+151,
/ethyl alohol CH,* +)'1,)1 ,'0+( ((5, ,0+'1( 1'1-31 ('(10+ (('4,+ 1'+),)3
Ethyl alohol C)H0* ,0'1031 )'+(+ 43('5 ,0-'+( 1'1-4( ('-310 4')+5) 1'++15,
Car#on "ono7i%e C* )4'1(11 -10'4 R))1'-( 1'1-)5 1'305( (+'-,4 1'),4,5
Car#on %io7i%e C*) ,,'1(11 (15( 45'5+ 1'1+,) ('-(30 4'0))3 1'(3313
Hy%ro;en !$lfi%e H)S +3,'-3 (+10 )()', 1'1,0( ('(504 (('(+, 1')+4+4
S$lf$r %io7i%e S*) 0,'10-1 4-',0 ((,+ +(-'5 1'1+1- )')()1 -'3)+- 1'(,41)
A""onia NH+ (5'1+1- )(('3 (0,5 )51') 1'104( 1'-441 ))')4+ 1',3054
Air N)<*) )4'30)- -,0'3 R))(')3 1'1-(5 ('1111 (+'(1+ 1')+34
Hy%ro;en H) )'1(-3 (45'- R,11'+ 1'-(1( 1'1030
1
(44')- +',100
*7y;en *) +('3344 5+(', R(4(', 1'1+05 ('(1,4 (('4-3 1')(435
Nitro;en N) )4'1(+, ,3+ R)+)',4 1'1-(1 1'305) (+'-,0 1'),4++
Chlorine Cl) 51'31-, (-5'+ ((-5 )31'03 1'1)41 )',,4) -'+-(3 1'((+5-
=ater H)* (4'1(-+ 1'3- +)11'( 51-'( 1'1,35
-
1'0))1
)
)('10- 1',,,03
Heli$" He ,'11)0 +)'33 2,-1'+( 1')+11 1'(+4) 3,'4(, ('),1,1
Hy%ro;en hlori%e HCl +0',010 310'5( ()1- (),'5- 1'1+-0 (')-43 (1',14 1'(3140
4 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
1'1), 1'1)) 1'1)1 1'1(4 1'1(0 1'1(, 1'1() 1'1(1 1'114 1'110
-1 ( 1 1 ( - 1 ) 1 1 ) - 1 + 1 1 + - 1
Te"perat$re,.F
'i4ure 1.1 >ariation of ;a! &i!o!ity ?ith te"perat$re'
There-ore, a ho,ogeneous ,i>ture that consists o- 20L o- a gas 1 6,olecular
#eight M 2(8 that has a 0iscosity 6 O 20
R6
Poise and (0L o- a gas 6,olecular
#eight M 2)8 that has a 0iscosity ( O 20
R6
Poise #ill ha0e a resultant 0iscosity o-
"M 6 0/ 2O6O 2(8 P6 0/ (O(O 2)8 O20
R 6
M )/ 53 O 20
R 6

Poi s e 6 0/ 2O
$
2(8 P6 0/ (O 2)8
Ta*+e 1.2 iscosities of Co33on Gases
Gas iscosit, 5cP7
/ethane 1'1(15
Ethane 1'1143
Propane 1'115-
i68$tane 1'115(
n68$tane 1'115+
i6Pentane 1'1100
n6Pentane 1'1100
He7ane 1'110+
1'11-1
Nonane 1'11,4
Deane 1'11,-
Ethylene 1'1134
Car#on /ono7i%e 1'1(4,
Car#on Dio7i%e 1'1(,5
Hy%ro;en S$lphi%e 1'1())
Air 1'1(54
Nitro;en 1'1(5+
Heli$" 1'1(3+
GAS PR*PERTIES
3
4t ,ust be noted that all 0iscosities ,ust be ,easured at the sa,e te,perature and
pressure/
The reader is re-erred to %/ =cCainAs boo! -or -urther discussion on calculation o-
0iscosities o- natural gas ,i>tures/ "ee the Re-erence section -or ,ore details/
&4am!le )
1 natural gas ,i>ture consists o- -our co,ponents C(, C), C+, and nC,/ Their ,ole
-ractions and 0iscosities at a particular te,perature and pressure are indicated belo#,
along #ith their ,olecular #eights/
Co3ponent
Mo+e 'raction
y
iscosit,& cP
Mo+ecu+ar
Wei4ht
C( 1'4)11 1'1(+1 (0'1,
C) 1'(111 1'1(() +1'15
C+ 1'1-11 1'1134 ,,'(1
nC, 1'1+11 1'113( -4'()
Total ('111
Calculate the 0iscosity o- the gas ,i>ture/
"olution
.sing the gi0en data, #e prepare a table as -ollo#s/ represents the ,olecular
#eight o- each co,ponent and m the 0iscosity/
Co3ponent
y M M1 2 2 yM1 2 2 9 yM1 2 2
C(
1'4)1
1
(0'1
,
,'1
1
+')4,
(
1'1(+
1
1'1,)
5
C)
1'(11
1
+1'1
5
-',
4
1'-,4
,
1'1((
)
1'110
(
C+
1'1-1
1
,,'(
1
0'0
,
1'++)
1
1'113
4
1'11+
+
nC,
1'1+1
1
-4'(
)
5'0
)
1'))4
5
1'113
(
1'11)
(
Total ('111
,'+3+
)
1'1-,
)
Fro, ?9uation 2/6, the 0iscosity o- the gas ,i>ture is
S 0/05'2 M 0/022& cP "
'/&3&2
1.. IDEA" GASES
1n ideal gas is de-ined as a -luid in #hich the 0olu,e o- the gas ,olecules is negligible
#hen co,pared to the 0olu,e occupied by the gas/ 1lso, the attraction or repulsion
bet#een the indi0idual gas ,olecules and the container is negligible/ Further, in an
ideal gas, the ,olecules are considered to be per-ectly elastic, and there is no internal
energy loss resulting -ro, collision bet#een the ,olecules/ "uch ideal gases are said
(1 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
to obey se0eral gas la#s, such as oyleAs la#, CharlesAs la#, and the ideal gas la# or
the per-ect gas e9uation/ %e #ill -irst discuss the beha0ior o- ideal gases and then
-ollo# it up #ith the beha0ior o- real gases/
4- represents the ,olecular #eight o- a gas and the ,ass o- a certain 9uantity o-
gas is m, the nu,ber o- ,oles is gi0en by
m nM
62/)8
#here n is the nu,ber that represents the nu,ber o- ,oles in the gi0en ,ass/
For e>a,ple, the ,olecular #eight o- ,ethane is 26/0'&/ There-ore, 50 lb o-
,ethane #ill contain appro>i,ately & ,oles/
The ideal gas la#, so,eti,es re-erred to as the per-ect gas e9uation, si,ply
states that the pressure, 0olu,e, and te,perature o- the gas are related to the nu,ber
o- ,oles by the -ollo#ing e9uation5
PV M n$% 6."C" units8 62/(8
#here
P M absolute pressure, pounds per s9uare inch absolute 6psia8
V M gas 0olu,e, -t&
n M nu,ber o- lb ,oles as de-ined in ?9uation 2/)
$ M uni0ersal gas constant, psia -t
&
;lb ,ole KR
% M absolute te,perature o- gas, KR 6KF P '608
The uni0ersal gas constant $ has a 0alue o- 20/)& psia -t
&
;lb ,ole KR in ."C"
units/ %e can co,bine ?9uation 2/) #ith ?9uation 2/( and e>press the ideal gas
e9uation as -ollo#s5
6 2 / 3 8
PV M m$%
1ll sy,bols are as de-ined pre0iously/
4t should be noted that the constant $ is the sa,e -or all ideal gases and, hence, it
is called the uni0ersal gas constant/
4t has been -ound that the ideal gas e9uation is correct only at lo# pressures close
to the at,ospheric pressure/ "ince gas pipelines generally operate at pressures higher
than at,ospheric pressures, #e ,ust ,odi-y ?9uation 2/3 to ta!e into account the
e--ect o- co,pressibility/ The latter is accounted -or by using a ter, called the
co,pressibility -actor, or gas de0iation -actor/ %e #ill discuss real gases and the
co,pressibility -actor later in this chapter/
4n the ideal gas ?9uation 2/3, the pressures and te,peratures ,ust be in absolute
units/ 1bsolute pressure is de-ined as the gauge pressure 6as ,easured by a gauge8
plus the local at,ospheric pressure/
There-ore,
P
a b s M
P
g a u g e P Pa t , 62/208
GAS PR*PERTI ES ((
Thus, i- the gas pressure is 200 psig and the at,ospheric pressure is 2'/) psia, #e
get the absolute pressure o- the gas as
Pabs M 200 P 2'/) M 22'/) psia
1bsolute pressure is e>pressed as psia, #hereas the gauge pressure is e>pressed as
psig/ The adder to the gauge pressure, #hich is the local at,ospheric pressure, is also
called the base pressure/ 4n "4 units, 500 !Pa gauge pressure is e9ual to 602 !Pa
absolute pressure i- the base pressure is 202 !Pa/ Pressure in ."C" units is e>pressed
in pounds per s9uare inch, or psi/ 4n "4 units, pressure is e>pressed in !ilopascal
6!Pa8, ,egapascal 6=Pa8, or ar/ Re-er to 1ppendi> 1 -or unit con0ersion charts/
The absolute te,perature is ,easured abo0e a certain datu,/ 4n ."C" units, the
absolute scale o- te,perature is designated as degree Ran!in 6KR8 and is e9ual to the
su, o- the te,perature in KF and the constant '60/ 4n "4 units the absolute
te,perature scale is re-erred to as degree Fel0in 6F8/ 1bsolute te,perature in F is
e9ual to KC P 2)&/
There-ore,
KR M KF P '60 62/228
F M KC P 2)& 62/228
4t is custo,ary to drop the degree sy,bol -or absolute te,perature in Fel0in/
4deal gases also obey oyleAs la# and CharlesAs la#/ oyleAs la# relates the pressure
and 0olu,e o- a gi0en 9uantity o- gas #hen the te,perature is !ept constant/
Constant te,perature is also called isother,al condition/ oyleAs la# is stated as
-ollo#s5
62/2&8
P MV2 or P
2
V
2
M P2 V2 P
2
V,
#here P
2
and V
2
are the pressure and 0olu,e at condition 2 and P
2
and V
2
are the
corresponding 0alues at so,e other condition 2 #here the te,perature is not
changed/
There-ore, according to oyleAs la#, a gi0en 9uantity o- gas under isother,al
conditions #ill double in 0olu,e i- its pressure is hal0ed and 0ice 0ersa/ 4n other
#ords, the pressure is in0ersely proportional to the 0olu,e, pro0ided the te,perature is
,aintained constant/ "ince density and 0olu,e are in0ersely related, oyleAs la# also
,eans that the pressure is directly proportional to the density at constant te,perature/
Thus, a gi0en 9uantity o- gas at a -i>ed te,perature #ill double its density #hen the
pressure is doubled/ "i,ilarly, a 20L reduction in pressure #ill cause the density to
decrease by the sa,e a,ount/
CharlesAs la# states that -or constant pressure, the gas 0olu,e is directly pro*
portional to its te,perature/ "i,ilarly, i- 0olu,e is !ept constant, the pressure 0aries
directly as the te,perature/ There-ore, #e can state the -ollo#ing5
V, %,
M
V
2
%2 PM% P
2
%2
at constant pressure
62/2'8
at constant 0olu,e
() GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
There-ore, according to CharlesAs la#, -or an ideal gas at constant pressure, the
0olu,e #ill change in the sa,e proportion as its te,perature/ Thus, a 20L increase
in te,perature #ill cause a 20L increase in 0olu,e as long as the pressure does
not change/ "i,ilarly, i- 0olu,e is !ept constant, a 20L increase in te,perature
#ill result in the sa,e percentage increase in gas pressure/ Constant pressure is also
!no#n as isobaric condition/
&4am!le *
1 certain ,ass o- gas occupies a 0olu,e o- 2000 -t
&
at 60 psig/ 4- te,perature is
constant 6isother,al8 and the pressure increases to 220 psig, #hat is the -inal 0olu,e o-
the gasT The at,ospheric pressure is 2'/) psi/
"olution
oyleAs la# can be applied because the te,perature is constant/ .sing ?9uation 2/ 2&, #e
can #rite
V2 M P2V2 P2
or
V M 660 P 2'/)8 O 2000 M 55'/5) -t& 2
220P2'/)
$ote that the pressures ,ust be con0erted to absolute 0alues be-ore being used in
?9uation 2/2&/
&4am!le +
1t )5 psig and )0KF, a gas has a 0olu,e o- 2000 -t
&
/ 4- the 0olu,e is !ept constant
and the gas te,perature increases to 220KF, #hat is the -inal pressure o- the gasT For
constant pressure at )5 psig, i- the te,perature increases to 220KF, #hat is the -inal
0olu,eT .se 2'/) psi -or base pressure/
"olution
"ince the 0olu,e is constant in the -irst part o- the proble,, CharlesAs la# applies/
Fro, ?9uation 2/25
)5P2'/) M )0P'60 P2
220P'60
"ol0ing -or P2, #e get
P2 M 3(/26 psia or (&/'6 psig
GAS PR*PERTI ES
(+
For the second part, the pressure is constant and CharlesAs la# can be applied/
Fro, ?9uation 2/2', #e get
"ol0ing -or V2 #e get
&4am!le ,
2000 M )0
P'60 V2
220P'60
V2 M 203'/&' -t&
1n ideal gas occupies a tan! 0olu,e o- 250 -t
&
at a pressure o- (0 psig and te,perature
o- 220KF/
628 %hat is the gas 0olu,e at standard conditions o- 2'/)& psia and 60KFT 1ssu,e
at,ospheric pressure is 2'/6 psia/
628 4- the gas is cooled to 30KF, #hat is the gas pressureT
"olution
628 4nitial conditions
P2 M (0 P 2'/6 M 3'/6 psia
V2 M 250 -t&
%2 M 220 P '60 M 5)0KR
Final conditions
P2 M 2'/)& psia
V2 is to be calculated
%2 M 60 P '60 M 520KR
.sing the ideal gas ?9uation 2/(, #e can state that
3'/6O250 2'/)&V2 MSSS
5)0 520
V2 M 2'6'/)& -t&
628 %hen the gas is cooled to 30KF, the -inal conditions are %2
M 30 P '60 M 550KR
V2 M 250 -t&
P2 is to be calculated
(, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
The initial conditions are
P2 M (0 P 2'/6 M 3'/6 psia V2
M 250 -t&
%2 M 220 P '60 M 5)0KR
4t can be seen that the 0olu,e o- gas is constant 6tan! 0olu,e8 and the te,perature
reduces -ro, 220K F to 30KF/ There-ore, using CharlesAs la# and ?9uation 2/ 25, #e
can calculate the -inal pressure as -ollo#s/
3'/6 M 5)0 P2
5 5 0
P2 M 32/2( psia M 32/2( U 2'/6 M )6/6( psig
1.9 REA" GASES
%hen dealing #ith real gases, #e can apply the ideal gas e9uation discussed in the
preceding sections and get reasonably accurate results only #hen the pressures are
close to the at,ospheric pressure/ %hen pressures are higher, the ideal gas e9uation
#ill not be accurate -or ,ost real gases/ The error in calculations at high pressures
using the ideal gas e9uation ,ay be as high as 500L in so,e instances/ This co,pares
#ith errors o- 2 to &L at lo# pressures/ 1t higher te,peratures and pressures, the
Ve9uation o- stateW that relates pressure, 0olu,e, and te,perature is used to calculate
the properties o- gases/ =any o- these correlations re9uire a co,puter progra, to
get accurate results in a reasonable a,ount o- ti,e/ 7o#e0er, #e can ,odi-y the
ideal gas e9uation and obtain reasonably accurate results -airly 9uic!ly using ,anual
calculations/
T#o ter,s called critical temperature and critical pressure need to be de-ined/
The critical te,perature o- a pure gas is de-ined as the te,perature abo0e #hich a gas
cannot be co,pressed to -or, a li9uid, regardless o- the pressure/ The critical
pressure is de-ined as the ,ini,u, pressure that is re9uired at the critical te,per *
ature to co,press a gas into a li9uid/
Real gases can be considered to -ollo# a ,odi-ied -or, o- the ideal gas la#
discussed in "ection 2/6/ The ,odi-ying -actor is included in the gas property !no#n
as the co,pressibility -actor &. This is also called the gas de0iation -actor/ 4t can be
de-ined as the ratio o- the gas 0olu,e at a gi0en te,perature and pressure to the
0olu,e the gas #ould occupy i- it #ere an ideal gas at the sa,e te,perature and
pressure/ & is a di,ensionless nu,ber less than 2/0 and it 0aries #ith te,perature,
pressure, and co,position o- the gas/
.sing the co,pressibility -actor &, the ideal gas e9uation is ,odi-ied -or real
gas as -ollo#s5
PV M &n$% 6."C" units8 62/268
GAS PR*PERTI ES
(-
#here
P M absolute pressure o- gas, psia
V M 0olu,e o- gas, -t&
& M gas co,pressibility -actor, di,ensionless
% M absolute te,perature o- gas, KR
n M nu,ber o- lb ,oles as de-ined in ?9uation 2/)
$ M uni0ersal gas constant, 20/)& psia -t
&
;lb ,ole KR
The theore, !no#n as c'rresp'nding states says that the e>tent o- de0iation o- a
real gas -ro, the ideal gas e9uation is the sa,e -or all real gases #hen the gases are
at the sa,e corresponding state/ The corresponding state can be represented by
the t#o para,eters called reduced temperature and reduced pressure. The
reduced te,perature is the ratio o- the te,perature o- the gas to its critical
te,perature/
"i,ilarly, the reduced pressure is the ratio o- the gas pressure to its critical pressure
as indicated in the -ollo#ing e9uations5
62/2)8
62/2(8
S
% %% c
S
P PP c
#here
% M absolute te,perature o- gas, KR
%
r
M reduced te,perature, di,ensionless
P
r
M reduced pressure, di,ensionless
%
c
M critical te,perature, KR
P
c
M critical pressure, psia
For e>a,ple, suppose the critical te,perature and critical pressure o- ,ethane are
&'&KR and 666 psia, respecti0elyE the reduced te,perature and pressure o- the gas at
(0KF and 2000 psia pressure are as -ollo#s5
% M (0P'60 M2/5) r
&'&
and
P M 2000 M2/50 r
666
There-ore, according to the theore, o- corresponding states, t#o gases, 1 and ,
,ay be at di--erent te,peratures and pressuresE ho#e0er, i- their reduced te,perature
and reduced pressure are the sa,e, then their gas de0iation -actors (&) #ill be the
sa,e/ There-ore, generali:ed plots sho#ing the 0ariation o- & #ith reduced
te,perature and reduced pressure can be used -or ,ost gases -or calculating the
///////////////////////////11............ P!e$%o re%$e% /E'''''''
''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' te,perature XSES,EE
+'1 6
)'4 )'0 )', ')')
('1 ('1-
(') 1'3-
1'+ 1')- ('(
Co"pre!!i#ility of
nat$ral ;a!e!
@an' (, (3,(
1'3
5 4 3 (1 (( () (+
P!e$%o re%$e% pre!!$re, Pr
'i4ure 1.2 Co"pre!!i#ility fator hart for nat$ral ;a!e!' AFro" Ga! Proe!!or! S$pplier!
A!!oiation, Eng. Data Book, >ol' II' =ith per"i!!ion'B
co,pressibility -actor/ "uch a plot is sho#n in Figure 2/2/ The calculation o- the
co,pressibility -actor & #ill be discussed in detail in "ection 2/22 o- this chapter/
1.: NAT#RA" GAS MI;T#RES
1s ,entioned earlier, the critical te,perature o- a pure gas is de-ined as the te,per*
ature abo0e #hich it cannot be li9ue-ied, #hate0er the pressure o- the gas/ "i,ilarly,
the critical pressure is de-ined as the pressure abo0e #hich li9uid and gas cannot
GAS PR*PERTI ES
(5
coe>ist, regardless o- the te,perature/ %hen the gas consists o- a ,i>ture o- di--erent
co,ponents, the critical te,perature and critical pressure are called the pseud'(
critical temperature and pseud'(critical pressure, respecti0ely/ 4- #e !no# the
co,position o- the gas ,i>ture, #e can calculate these pseudo*critical 0alues o- the
,i>ture, using the critical pressure and te,perature 0alues o- the pure co,ponents
that constitute the gas ,i>ture/
The reduced te,perature is de-ined as the ratio o- the te,perature o- the gas to its
critical te,perature/ "i,ilarly, the reduced pressure is the ratio o- gas pressure to its
critical pressure/ oth te,perature and pressure are stated in absolute units/ "i,ilar to
the pseudo*critical te,perature and pseudo*critical pressure discussed abo0e, -or a
gas ,i>ture, #e can de-ine the pseudo*reduced te,perature and the pseudo*reduced
pressure/
Thus,
62/238
62/208
%
%prM%pc
P
PprMPpc
#here
P M absolute pressure o- gas ,i>ture, psia
% M absolute te,perature o- gas ,i>ture, KR %pr M
pseudo*reduced te,perature, di,ensionless Ppr M
pseudo*reduced pressure, di,ensionless %pc M pseudo*
critical te,perature, KR
Ppc M pseudo*critical pressure, psia
4n hydrocarbon ,i>tures, -re9uently #e re-er to gas co,ponents as C
2
, C
2
, C&,
etc/ These are e9ui0alent to C7
'
6,ethane8,
C276
6ethane8,
C&7(
6propane8, and so on/ 1
natural gas ,i>ture that consists o- co,ponents such as C
2
, C
2
, C
&
, and so -orth is said
to ha0e an apparent ,olecular #eight as de-ined by the e9uation
a M Qyii 62/228
#here
a
M apparent ,olecular #eight o- gas ,i>ture yi
M ,ole -raction o- gas co,ponent i
i
4n a si,ilar ,anner, -ro, the gi0en ,ole -ractions o- the gas co,ponents, #e
use FayAs rule to calculate the a0erage pseudo*critical properties o- the gas ,i>ture/
%
pc M Qyi%c 62/228
P
pc M QyiPc 62/2&8
(4 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
#here %c and Pc are the critical te,perature and pressure, respecti0ely, o- the pure
co,ponent 6C(, C), etc/8 and yi re-ers to the ,ole -raction o- the co,ponent/ %pc
and Ppc are the a0erage pseudo*critical te,perature and pseudo*critical pressure,
respecti0ely, o- the gas ,i>ture/
&4am!le -
Calculate the apparent ,olecular #eight o- a natural gas ,i>ture that has (5L
,ethane, 3L ethane, 'L propane, and 2L nor,al butane as sho#n belo#5
Co3ponent Percent Mo+ecu+ar Wei4ht
C( 4- (0'1(
C) 3 +1'(1
C+ , ,,'(1
n6C, ) -4'(1
Total (11
"olution
.sing ?9uation 2/22, #e get
aM60/(5O 26/028 P 60/03 O &0/28 P 60/0' O ''/28 P 60/02 O 5(/28 M 23/2'
There-ore, the apparent ,olecular #eight o- the gas ,i>ture is 23/2'/
&4am!le .
Calculate the pseudo*critical te,perature and the pseudo*critical pressure o- a natural
gas ,i>ture consisting o- (&L ,ethane, 22L ethane, and 5L propane/
The critical properties o- C(, C), and C+ co,ponents are as -ollo#s5
Critica+
Critica+ Pressure&
Co3ponents Te3perature& .R psia
C( +,+ 000
C) --1 515
C+ 000 0(5
"olution
.sing the gi0en data, -ro, ?9uation 2/22 and ?9uation 2/2&, #e calculate the pseudo*
critical properties as -ollo#s5
%pc M 60/(& O &'&8 P 60/22 O 5508 P 60/05 O 6668 M &(&/33KR
GAS PR*PERTI ES
(3
and
Ppc M 60/(& O 6668 P 60/22 O )0)8 P 60/05 O 62)8 M 66(/') psia
There-ore, the pseudo*critical te,perature o- the gas ,i>ture M &(&/33KR and the
pseudo*critical pressure o- the gas ,i>ture M 66(/') psia/
&4am!le /
4- the te,perature o- the gas in the pre0ious e>a,ple is )0KF and the a0erage gas
pressure is 2200 psig, #hat are the pseudo*reduced te,perature and pseudo*reduced
pressure o- this gasT .se 2'/) psia -or base pressure/
"olutions
Fro, ?9uation 2/23 and ?9uation 2/20, #e get
The pseudo*reduced te,perature
%
pr M )0P'60 M 2/&(
&(&/33
2200P2'/) M
The pseudo*reduced pressure
P
pr M 66(/') 2/(2
1./ PSE#D!8CRITICA" PR!PERTIES 'R!M GAS GRAIT%
4- the percentages o- the 0arious co,ponents in the natural gas ,i>ture are not
a0ailable, #e can calculate appro>i,ate 0alues o- the pseudo*critical properties o- the
gas ,i>ture i- #e !no# the gas gra0ity/ The pseudo*critical properties are calculated,
appro>i,ately, -ro, the -ollo#ing e9uations5
%
pc M 2)0/'32 P &0)/&'' G 62/2'8
P
pc M )03/60' U 5(/)2( G 62/258 #here
G M gas gra0ity 6air M 2/008
%pc M pseudo*critical te,perature, KR
&4am!le 0
Calculate the gra0ity o- a natural gas ,i>ture consisting o- (&L ,ethane, 22L ethane,
and 5L propane/ Fro, the gas gra0ity, calculate the pseudo*critical te,perature and
pseudo*critical pressure -or this natural gas ,i>ture/
)1 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
"olution
.sing FayAs rule -or ,ultico,ponent ,i>tures and ?9uation 2/' -or gas gra0ity, #e get
G M 60/(& O 26/0'8 P 60/22 O &0/0)8 P 60/05 O ''/20 8 M 0/6535
23
There-ore, the gas gra0ity is 0/6535/
Fro, ?9uation 2/2' and ?9uation 2/25, #e calculate the pseudo*critical properties as
-ollo#s5
%pc M 2)0/'32 P &0)/&'' O 60/65358 M &)&/2(KR Ppc M
)03/60' U 5(/)2( O 60/65358 M 6)0/(( psia
Co,paring the abo0e 0alues #ith the 0alues calculated using the ,ore accurate ,ethod
in the pre0ious e>a,ple, #e -ind that the 0alue o-
%pc
is o-- by 2/(L and Ppc is o-- by
0/'L/ These di--erences are s,all enough -or ,ost calculations related to natural gas
pipeline hydraulics/
1.10 IMPACT !' S!#R GAS AND N!N8H%DR!CAR1!N
C!MP!NENTS
The "tanding*Fat: chart used -or deter,ining the co,pressibility -actor 6discussed in
"ection 2/228 o- a gas ,i>ture is accurate only i- the a,ount o- non*hydrocarbon
co,ponents is s,all/ "ince sour gases contain carbon dio>ide and hydrogen sul-ide,
adCust,ents ,ust be ,ade to ta!e into account these co,ponents in calculations o- the
pseudo*critical te,perature and pseudo*critical pressure/ This ,ethod is described
belo#/ <epending on the a,ounts o- carbon dio>ide and hydrogen sul-ide present in
the sour gas, #e calculate an adCust,ent -actor e -ro,
e = 2206)
0/3
)2/68 + 256*0/5 U *'/08 62/268
#here
e = adCust,ent -actor, R
) M su, o- the ,ole -ractions o- CB
2
and 72"
* M ,ole -raction o- 72"
The pseudo*critical te,perature is ,odi-ied to get the adCusted pseudo*critical
te,perature
%
Y
pc -ro, the -ollo#ing e9uation5
%
Y
pc
M
%pc + e 62/2)8
#here
%Ypc M adCusted pseudo*critical te,perature, KR
GAS PR*PERTI ES )(
"i,ilarly, the pseudo*critical pressure is adCusted as -ollo#s5
62/2(8
P O %Y
P
Y
M pc pc
pc %,*(2J)-
c
#here
PY
pc M adCusted pseudo*critical pressure, psia/
&4am!le 1
The pseudo*critical te,perature and the pseudo*critical pressure o- a natural gas
,i>ture #ere calculated as &)0KR and 6)0 psia, respecti0ely/ 4- the CB
2
content is 20L
and 7
2
" is 20L, calculate the adCust,ent -actor e and the adCusted 0alues o- the
pseudo*critical te,perature and pressure/
"olution
) M 0/20 P 0/20 M 0/&0
* M 0/20
The adCust,ent -actor e -ro, ?9uation 2/26 is
e = 220 60/&0
0/3
U

0/&0
2/6
8 + 25 60/20
0/5
U 0/20
'
8 = 23/(0(2R
There-ore, the adCust,ent -actor e is 23/(2R/
The adCusted 0alues o- the pseudo*critical properties are -ound using ?9uation 2/2) and
?9uation 2/2( as -ollo#s5
%Ypc M &)0 U 23/(2 M &'0/23KR
and
PY M 6)0 O &'0/23 M 60(/2(psia
pc &)0 P 0/2062R 0/208O 23/(0(2 p
There-ore, the adCusted pseudo*critical te,perature M &'0/23KR and the adCusted
pseudo*critical pressure M 60(/2( psia/
1.11 C!MPRESSI1I"IT% 'ACT!R
The co,pressibility -actor, or gas de0iation -actor, #as brie-ly ,entioned in "ection
2/6/ 4t is a ,easure o- ho# close a real gas is to an ideal gas/ The co,pressibility
-actor is de-ined as the ratio o- the gas 0olu,e at a gi0en te,perature and pressure to
the 0olu,e the gas #ould occupy i- it #ere an ideal gas at the sa,e te,perature and
pressure/ The co,pressibility -actor is a di,ensionless nu,ber close to 2/00 and is
)) GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
a -unction o- the gas gra0ity, gas te,perature, gas pressure, and the critical properties o-
the gas/ 1s an e>a,ple, a particular natural gas ,i>ture can ha0e a co,pressibility
-actor e9ual to 0/() at 2000 psia and (0KF/ Charts ha0e been constructed that depict
the 0ariation o- & #ith the reduced te,perature and reduced pressure/ 1nother ter,,
the Vsuperco,pressibility -actor,W
.pv,
#hich is related to the co,pressibility -actor &,
is de-ined as -ollo#s5
62/238
62/&08
. M 2 &
or
&M
2
(.pv)2
1s an e>a,ple, i- the co,pressibility -actor & M 0/(5, using ?9uation 2/23, #e
calculate the superco,pressibility -actor,
.pv,
as -ollo#s5
.pv M
M
2/0(')
There are se0eral approaches to calculating the co,pressibility -actor -or a par*
ticular gas te,perature % and pressure P. Bne ,ethod uses the critical te,perature and
critical pressure o- the gas ,i>ture/ First, the reduced te,perature, %r, and reduced
pressure, Pr, are calculated -ro, the gi0en gas te,perature and gas pressure and the
critical te,perature and critical pressure using ?9uation 2/2) and ?9uation 2/2(/
Bnce #e !no# the 0alues o- %r and Pr, the co,pressibility -actor can be -ound
-ro, charts si,ilar to the "tanding*Fat: chart/ This #ill be illustrated using an e>a,ple/
The -ollo#ing ,ethods are a0ailable to calculate the co,pressibility -actor5
a/ "tanding*Fat: ,ethod
b/ <ranchu!, Pur0is, and Robinson ,ethod
c/ 1G1 ,ethod
d/ C$G1 ,ethod
1lthough the "tanding*Fat: ,ethod is the ,ost popular, #e #ill discuss this as
#ell as the 1G1 and C$G1 ,ethods/
1.11.1 Stan-in48<at= Metho-
The "tanding*Fat: ,ethod o- calculating co,pressibility -actor is based on the use o-
a graph that has been constructed -or binary ,i>tures and saturated hydrocarbon
0apor/ This ,ethod is used generally -or s#eet natural gas ,i>tures containing 0arious
hydrocarbon co,ponents/ %hen the natural gas ,i>ture contains appreciable a,ounts o-
non*hydrocarbons such as nitrogen, hydrogen sul-ide, and carbon dio>ide, certain
corrections ,ust be applied -or these co,ponents/ These adCust,ents are applied to
GAS PR*PERTI ES
)+
the critical te,peratures and pressures and #ere discussed in "ection 2/20/ The
"tanding*Fat: chart -or co,pressibility -actors is sho#n in Figure 2/2/ The use o- this
chart #ill be e>plained in an e>a,ple proble,/
1.11.2 Dranchu>& Pur?is& an- Ro*inson Metho-
4n this ,ethod o- calculating the co,pressibility -actor, the enedict*%ebb*Rubin
e9uation o- state is used to correlate the "tanding*Fat: chart/ The coe--icients )2, )
2
,
etc/ are used in a polyno,ial -unction o- the reduced density
r
as -ollo#s5
&
)2
) 2
Z
P,
)
5
)
))
6

r
2
/
0
M P P
%
P
C
r
P
%
'
%
P
P r
%
&[
4
pr
pr
pr
pr
p
\
2P
)(
r
#
h
e
r
62/&28
0
/
62/&28 r M &%
and
p
r
)
2
M
0/&25062&)
)
2
M
R2/0'6)0330
)
&
M
R0/5)(&2)23
)
'
M
0/5&5&0))2
M
0/6(''65'3
P
pr
M pseudo*reduced pressure
%
pr
M pseudo*reduced te,perature
Bther sy,bols ha0e been de-ined earlier/
1.11.$ A3erican Gas Association 5AGA7 Metho-
The 1G1 ,ethod -or the co,pressibility -actor uses a co,plicated ,athe,atical
algorith, and, there-ore, does not lend itsel- easily to ,anual calculations/ Generally, a
co,puter progra, is used to calculate the co,pressibility -actor/ =athe,atically, the
1G1 ,ethod is represented by the -ollo#ing -unction5
& M Function 6gas properties, pressure, te,perature8 62/&&8
#here gas properties include the critical te,perature, critical pressure, and gas gra0ity/
), GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
The 1G1*4GT Report $o/ 20 describes in detail this ,ethod o- calculating &. This
approach is 0alid -or gas te,peratures in the range o- &0 to 220KF and -or pressures
not e>ceeding 2&(0 psig/ The co,pressibility -actors calculated using this ,ethod
are 9uite accurate and generally #ithin 0/0&L o- those calculated using the "tanding*
Fat: chart in this range o- te,peratures and pressures/ %hen te,peratures and
pressures are higher than these 0alues, the co,pressibility -actor calculated using this
,ethod is #ithin 0/0)L o- the 0alue obtained -ro, the "tanding*Fat: chart/
The reader ,ay also re-er to the 1G1 publication Report $o/ (, "econd ?dition,
$o0e,ber 2332, -or ,ore in-or,ation on co,pressibility -actor calculation ,ethods/
1.11.( Ca+ifornia Natura+ Gas Association 5CNGA7 Metho-
This is a -airly si,ple e9uation -or 9uic!ly calculating the co,pressibility -actor
#hen the gas gra0ity, te,perature, and pressure are !no#n/ The -ollo#ing e9uation is
used -or calculating the co,pressibility -actor &1
&M 2 62/&'8
Z P avg&'','0062082/)(5G ZX 2P f%&/(25
Z
This -or,ula -or the co,pressibility -actor is 0alid #hen the a0erage gas pressure,
P
avg
,

is ,ore than 200 psig/ For pressures less than 200 psig, & is appro>i,ately e9ual
to 2/00
#here
P
avg
M a0erage gas pressure, psig
%
f
M a0erage gas te,perature, KR
$ote that the pressure used in ?9uation 2/&' is the gauge pressure/
4n a gas pipeline, the pressure 0aries along the length o- the pipeline/ The co,*
pressibility -actor & also 0aries and ,ust there-ore be calculated -or an a0erage
pressure at any location on the pipeline/ 4- t#o points along the pipeline are at
pressures P2 and P
2
, #e could use an a0erage pressure o- P2 PP2 / 7o#e0e
r
, the -ollo#ing
-or,ula is used -or a ,ore accurate 0alue o- the a0erage pressure5
62/&58
62/&68
2Z P2OP2 PavgM&ZP2PP2RPP P ZZ
2 2
1nother -or, o- the a0erage pressure in a pipe seg,ent is
M2ZP2&RP2&Z Pavg &ZP2
2
R P: Z
GAS PR*PERTIES
)-
&4am!le )2
.sing the "tanding*Fat: co,pressibility chart, calculate the co,pressibility -actor
-or the gas in ?>a,ple ) at )0KF and 2200 psig/ .se the 0alues o-
%pc
and
Ppc
calculated in
?>a,ple )/
"olutions
Fro, pre0ious ?>a,ple ),
The pseudo*reduced te,perature
%
pr M 2/&(
The pseudo*reduced pressure
P
pr M 2/(2
.sing the "tanding*Fat: chart in Figure 2/2, #e read the 0alue o- & as & M
0/))0
&4am!le ))
1 natural gas ,i>ture consists o- the -ollo#ing co,ponents5
Co3ponent Mo+e 'raction y
C( 1'541
C) 1'11-
C+ 1'11)
N) 1'1(+
C*) 1'1(0
H)S 1'(4,
6a8 Calculate the apparent ,olecular #eight o- the gas, gas gra0ity, and the pseudo*
critical te,perature and pseudo*critical pressure/
6b8 Calculate the co,pressibility -actor o- the gas at 30KF and 2200 psia/
"olution
.sing Table 2/2, #e create the -ollo#ing table sho#ing the ,olecular #eight (),
critical te,perature (%c), and critical pressure (Pc) -or each o- the co,ponent gases/ The
,olecular #eight o- the ,i>ture and the pseudo*critical te,perature and pseudocritical
pressure are then calculated using ?9uation 2/22 and ?9uation 2/2&/
Co3ponent y M yM TC PC yTC yPC
C(
1'54
1
(0'1
,
()'-((
)
+,+'+
,
005'11
)05'4
(
-)1')
0
C)
1'11
-
+1'1
5
1'(-1, --1'1
5
515'41 )'5- +'-,
1'1(
+
)4'1
(
1'+0,( ))5'-
)
,3)'41 )'30 0',(
C*)
1'1(
0
,,'1
(
1'51,) -,5'5
+
(151'1
1
4'50 (5'()
H)S
1'(4
,
+,'1
4
0')515
05)',
1
(+11'1
1
()+'5
)
)+3')
1
Total
('11
1
)1'144
4
,15'+
+
545'5
0
)0 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
There-ore, the apparent ,olecular #eight o- the natural gas is
w M Qy M 20/03
The gas gra0ity, using ?9uation 2/', is
G M 20/03 M 0/632( 23
$e>t, #e calculate the pseudo*critical 0alues
Pseudo*critical te,perature M Qy%c M '0)/&&KR
Pseudo*critical pressure M QyPc M )()/)6 psia
"ince this sour gas contains ,ore than 5L non*hydrocarbons, #e #ill adCust the
pseudo*critical properties using ?9uation 2/26 through ?9uation 2/2(/
%e -irst calculate the te,perature adCust,ent -actor e, using ?9uation 2/26, as -ollo#s5
) M 60/026 P 0/2('8 M 0/20
and
* M 0/2('
There-ore, the adCust,ent -actor is
e = 220]60/28
0/3
U 60/28
2/6
^

+ 25 ]60/2('8
0/5
U 60/2('8' /0^ = 25/')R
The adCusted pseudo*critical te,perature -ro, ?9uation 2/2) is %Ypc
M '0)/&& U 25/') M &(2/(6KR and the adCusted
pseudo*critical pressure -ro, ?9uation 2/2( is
P
Y
M )()/ )6 O &(2/ (6 M )&2/6&psia
p c '0)/&& P 0/2(' O 62R 0/2('8 O 25/') p
$e>t, #e calculate the co,pressibility -actor at 30KF and 2200 psia pressure using
these 0alues as -ollo#s5
Fro, ?9uation 2/23,
pseudo*reduced te,perature M 30P'60 M2/''
&(2/(6
Fro, ?9uation 2/20,
2200
pseudo*reduced pressure M M2/6' )&2/6&
Finally, -ro, the "tanding*Fat: chart, #e get the co,pressibility -actor -or the reduced
te,perature and reduced pressure as
& M 0/(25
GAS PR*PERTI ES
)5
&4am!le )*
The gra0ity o- a natural gas ,i>ture is 0/60/ Calculate the co,pressibility -actor o-
this gas at 2200 psig pressure and a te,perature o- )0KF, using the C$G1 ,ethod/
"olution
Gas te,perature %
f
M )0 P '60 M 5&0KR
Fro, ?9uation 2/&', the & -actor can be #ritten as
2 M 2 P 2200 O &'','00 O 62082/)(520/60 M 2/2('3
& 5&0&/(25
There-ore, sol0ing -or &, #e get
& M 0/(''0
1.12 HEATING A"#E
The heating 0alue o- a gas is de-ined as the ther,al energy per unit 0olu,e o- the gas/
4t is e>pressed in tu;-t
&
/ For natural gas, it is appro>i,ately in the range o- 300 to
2200 tu;-t
&
/ There are t#o heating 0alues used in the industry/ These are the lo#er
heating 0alue 6L7I8 and higher heating 0alue 677I8/ For a gas ,i>ture, the ter,
gr'ss heating value is used/ 4t is calculated based upon the heating 0alues o- the
co,ponent gases and their ,ole -ractions using the -ollo#ing e9uation5
H
m
M Q(y
i
H
i
) 62/&)8
#here
H
m
M gross heating 0alue o- ,i>ture, tu;-t&
y
i
M ,ole -raction or percent o- gas co,ponent i H
i
M
heating 0alue o- gas co,ponent, tu;-t&
For e>a,ple, a natural gas ,i>ture consisting o- (0L o- gas 1 6heating 0alue M
300 tu;-t
&
8 and 20L o- gas 6heating 0alue M 2000 tu;-t
&
8 #ill ha0e a gross heating
0alue o- H
m
M 60/( O 3008 P 60/2 O 20008 M 320 tu;-t&/
1.1$ S#MMAR%
%e discussed se0eral gas properties that in-luence gas pipeline transportation/ The
ideal gas e9uation #as introduced along #ith oyleAs la# and CharlesAs la#, and ho#
they can be applied #ith ,odi-ications to real gases and real gas ,i>tures #as
e>plained/ The gas de0iation -actor, or co,pressibility -actor, #hich ,odi-ies ideal
gas beha0ior, #as introduced/ Critical properties o- hydrocarbon gases and ,i>tures
and the reduced te,perature and pressure that deter,ine the state o- a gas #ere
)4 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
e>plained/ Iariation o- the co,pressibility -actor #ith pressure and te,perature #as
e>plored, and calculation ,ethodologies using analytical and graphical approaches
#ere co0ered/ The in-luence o- non*hydrocarbon co,ponents in a natural gas ,i>ture
#as also discussed, along #ith correction -actors -or CB
2
and 7
2
" in sour gas/
PR!1"EMS
2/ 1 natural gas ,i>ture consists o- three co,ponents, C
2
, C
2
, and C
&
/ Their ,ole
-ractions and 0iscosities at a particular te,perature are indicated belo#5
Co3ponent Mo+e 'raction y iscosit,& cP
C
2
1'3111 1'1(+1
C
2
1'1411 1'1(()
C
&
1'1)11 1'1134
Total ('111
Calculate the 0iscosity o- the gas ,i>ture/
2/ 1t 200 psig and )5KF, a gas has a 0olu,e o- (00 -t
&
/ 4- the 0olu,e is !ept constant
and the gas te,perature increases to 200KF, #hat is the -inal pressure o- the gasT
Feeping the pressure constant at 200 psig, i- the te,perature increases to 200KF,
#hat is the -inal 0olu,eT .se 2'/)& psi -or base pressure/
&/ Calculate the apparent ,olecular #eight o- a natural gas ,i>ture that has (3L
,ethane, (L ethane, 2L propane, and 2L nor,al butane as sho#n belo#/
Co3ponent Percent Mo+ecu+ar Wei4ht
C
2
43 (0'1(
C
2
4 +1'(1
C
&
) ,,'(1
C
'
( -4'(1
Total (11
'/ Calculate the pseudo*critical te,perature and the pseudo*critical pressure o- a
natural gas ,i>ture consisting o- (3L ,ethane, (L ethane, and &L propane/ The
critical properties o- C
2
, C
2
, and C
&
co,ponents are as -ollo#s5
Co3ponents Critica+ Te3perature& .R Critica+ Pressure& psia
C( +,+ 005
C) --1 514
C+ 000 0(-
5/ 4- the te,perature o- the gas in the pre0ious e>a,ple is (0KF and the a0erage
gas pressure is 2000 psig, #hat are the pseudo*reduced te,perature and pseudo*
reduced pressure o- this gasT .se 2'/) psia -or base pressure/
GAS PR*PERTIES
)3
6/ Calculate the gra0ity o- a natural gas ,i>ture consisting o- ('L ,ethane, 20L
ethane, and 6L propane/ Fro, the gas gra0ity, calculate the pseudo*critical
te,perature and pseudo*critical pressure -or this natural gas ,i>ture/
)/ The pseudo*critical te,perature and pressure o- a natural gas ,i>ture #ere cal*
culated as &(0KR and 6)5 psia/ 4- the CB
2
content is 22L and 7
2
" is 22L,
calculate the adCust,ent -actor e and the adCusted 0alues o- the pseudo*critical
te,perature and pseudo*critical pressure/
(/ .sing the "tanding*Fat: co,pressibility chart, calculate the co,pressibility -actor
-or the gas in Proble, ) at (0KF and 2000 psig/ .se the 0alues o- %pc and
Ppc
calculated in Proble, )/
3/ 1 natural gas ,i>ture consists o- the -ollo#ing co,ponents5
Co3ponent Mo+e 'raction y
C(
C)
C+ N) C*)
H)S
1'4
-1
1'1
1,
1'1
1)
1'1
6a8 Calculate the apparent ,olecular #eight o- the gas, gra0ity, and the pseudo*
critical te,perature and pseudo*critical pressure/
6b8 Calculate the co,pressibility -actor o- the gas at 200KF and 2'00 psia/
20/ The gra0ity o- a natural gas ,i>ture is 0/62/ Calculate the co,pressibility -actor o-
this gas at 2'00 psig and a te,perature o- (0KF, using the C$G1 ,ethod/
RE'ERENCES
2/ =cCain, %/</ Dr/, %he Pr'perties 'f Petr'leum .luids, Petroleu, Publishing Co,*
pany, Tulsa, BF, 23)&/
2/ 7ol,an, D/P/, %herm'dynamics, 2nd ed/, =cGra#*7ill, $e# Hor!, 23)'/
&/ Gas Processors "uppliers 1ssociation, 3ngineering 4ata *''5, 20th ed/, Tulsa, BF,
233'/
'/ 1G1 Report $o/ 20, 6teady .l'w in Gas Pipelines, 1G1, 2365/
5/ 1G1 Report $o/ (, 7'mpressi8ility .act'rs, 1G1, $o0/ 2332/
CHAPTER 2
Pressure Drop Due to 'riction
4n this chapter #e #ill discuss the 0arious ,ethods o- calculating the pressure drop
due to -riction in a gas pipeline/ The pipeline throughput 6-lo# rate8 #ill depend upon
the gas properties, pipe dia,eter and length, initial gas pressure and te,perature, and the
pressure drop due to -riction/ Co,,only used -or,ulas #ill be re0ie#ed and
illustrated using e>a,ples/ The i,pact o- internal conditions o- the pipe on the pipe
capacity #ill also be e>plored/
2.1 1ERN!#""I@S EA#ATI!N
1s gas -lo#s through a pipeline, the total energy o- the gas at 0arious points consists o-
energy due to pressure, energy due to 0elocity, and energy due to position or ele0ation
abo0e an established datu,/ ernoulliAs e9uation si,ply connects these co,ponents
o- the energy o- the -lo#ing -luid to -or, an energy conser0ation e9uation/ ernoulliAs
e9uation is stated as -ollo#s, considering t#o points, 2 and 2, as sho#n in Figure 2/2/
52.17
2 :
&
)
P
P )
P
V )

P H M &
*
P
P *
P
V *
P h
9 2g p 9 2g f
#here H
p
is the e9ui0alent head added to the -luid by a co,pressor at 1 and hf
represents the total -rictional pressure loss bet#een points 1 and /
"tarting #ith the basic energy ?9uation 2/2, applying gas la#s, and a-ter so,e
si,pli-ication, 0arious -or,ulas #ere de0eloped o0er the years to predict the per*
-or,ance o- a pipeline transporting gas/ These -or,ulas are intended to sho# the
relationship bet#een the gas properties, such as gra0ity and co,pressibility -actor,
#ith the -lo# rate, pipe dia,eter and length, and the pressures along the pipeline/
Thus, -or a gi0en pipe si:e and length, #e can predict the -lo# rate possible through
a pipeline based upon an inlet pressure and an outlet pressure o- a pipe seg,ent/
"i,pli-ications are so,eti,es introduced, such as uni-or, gas te,perature and no
heat trans-er bet#een the gas and the surrounding soil in a buried pipeline, in order
+(
+) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
'i4ure 2.1 Ener;y of flo? of a fl$i%'
to adopt these e9uations -or ,anual calculations/ %ith the ad0ent o- ,icroco,puters,
#e are able to introduce heat trans-er e--ects and, there-ore, ,ore accurately ,odel
gas pipelines, ta!ing into consideration gas -lo# te,peratures, soil te,peratures, and
ther,al conducti0ities o- pipe ,aterial, insulation, and soil/ 4n this chapter #e #ill
concentrate on steady*state isother,al -lo# o- gas in pipelines/ 1ppendi> < includes
an output report -ro, a co,,ercial gas pipeline si,ulation ,odel that ta!es into
account heat trans-er/ For ,ost practical purposes, the assu,ption o- isother,al -lo#
is good enough, since in long trans,ission lines the gas te,perature reaches constant
0alues, any#ay/
2.2 '"!W EA#ATI!NS
"e0eral e9uations are a0ailable that relate the gas -lo# rate #ith gas properties, pipe
dia,eter and length, and upstrea, and do#nstrea, pressures/ These e9uations are
listed as -ollo#s5
2/ General Flo# e9uation
2/ Colebroo!*%hite e9uation
&/ =odi-ied Colebroo!*%hite e9uation
'/ 1G1 e9uation
5/ %ey,outh e9uation
6/ Panhandle 1 e9uation
)/ Panhandle e9uation
(/ 4GT e9uation
3/ "pit:glass e9uation
20/ =ueller e9uation
22/ Frit:sche e9uation
%e #ill discuss each o- these e9uations, their li,itations, and their applicability to
co,pressible -luids, such as natural gas, using illustrated e>a,ples/ 1 co,parison o-
these e9uations #ill also be discussed using an e>a,ple pipeline/
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRICTI*N ++
2.$ GENERA" '"!W EA#ATI!N
The General Flo# e9uation, also called the Funda,ental Flo# e9uation, -or the
steady*state isother,al -lo# in a gas pipeline is the basic e9uation -or relating the
pressure drop #ith -lo# rate/ The ,ost co,,on -or, o- this e9uation in the ./"/
Custo,ary "yste, 6."C"8 o- units is gi0en in ter,s o- the pipe dia,eter, gas
properties, pressures, te,peratures, and -lo# rate as -ollo#s/ Re-er to Figure 2/2 -or
an e>planation o- sy,bols used/
Z Z Z 2 2Z0/5
: M ))/5' Z %8 D 4 P 2 R P 2
Z
Z4
2/5
6."C" units8 62/28
Z P
8
Z G%f;&f
#here
: M gas -lo# rate, ,easured at standard conditions, -t
&
;day 6"CF<8
f M -riction -actor, di,ensionless P
8
M
base pressure, psia
%
8
M base te,perature, KR6'60 P KF8
P
2
M upstrea, pressure, psia
P
2
M do#nstrea, pressure, psia G
M gas gra0ity 6air M 2/008
%
f
M a0erage gas -lo#ing te,perature, KR 6'60 P KF8
; M pipe seg,ent length, ,i
& M gas co,pressibility -actor at the -lo#ing te,perature, di,ensionless
4 M pipe inside dia,eter, in/
4t ,ust be noted that -or the pipe seg,ent -ro, section 2 to section 2, the gas
te,perature %
f
is assu,ed to be constant 6isother,al -lo#8/
4n "4 units, the General Flo# e9uation is stated as -ollo#s5
(P
2
RP28_0/5
: M2/2'3' O 20R&Z%8 2
2`425/ 6"4 units8 62/&8
Z
Z
P8 G%f;&f
Z Z
Dia"eter D
Pre!!$re P(
Te"perat$re Tf
Flo? C
Pre!!$re
P)
'i4ure 2.2 Stea%y flo? in ;a! pipeline'
+, GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
#here
: M gas -lo# rate, ,easured at standard conditions, ,&;day
f M -riction -actor, di,ensionless
P
8
M base pressure, !Pa
%
8
M base te,perature, F 62)& P KC8
P
2
M upstrea, pressure, !Pa
P
2
M do#nstrea, pressure, !Pa
%f M a0erage gas -lo#ing te,perature, F 62)& P KC8
; M pipe seg,ent length, !,
4 M pipe inside dia,eter, ,,
<ue to the nature o- ?9uation 2/&, the pressures can also be in =Pa or ar, as long
as the sa,e consistent unit is used/
?9uation 2/2 relates the capacity 6-lo# rate or throughput8 o- a pipe seg,ent o-
length ;, based on an upstrea, pressure o- P
2
and a do#nstrea, pressure o- P
2
as
sho#n in Figure 2/2/ 4t is assu,ed that there is no ele0ation di--erence bet#een the
upstrea, and do#nstrea, pointsE there-ore, the pipe seg,ent is hori:ontal/
.pon e>a,ining the General Flo# ?9uation 2/2, #e see that -or a pipe seg,ent o-
length ; and dia,eter 4, the gas -lo# rate : 6at standard conditions8 depends on
se0eral -actors/ : depends on gas properties represented by the gra0ity G and the
co,pressibility -actor &. 4- the gas gra0ity is increased 6hea0ier gas8, the -lo# rate
#ill decrease/ "i,ilarly, as the co,pressibility -actor & increases, the -lo# rate #ill
decrease/ 1lso, as the gas -lo#ing te,perature %
f
increases, throughput #ill decrease/
Thus, the hotter the gas, the lo#er the -lo# rate #ill be/ There-ore, to increase the
-lo# rate, it helps to !eep the gas te,perature lo#/ The i,pact o- pipe length and
inside dia,eter is also clear/ 1s the pipe seg,ent length increases -or gi0en pressure
P2 and P
2
, the -lo# rate #ill decrease/ Bn the other hand, the larger the dia,eter, the
larger the -lo# rate #ill be/ The ter, P
2
2
+ P
2
2
represents the dri0ing -orce that causes
the -lo# rate -ro, the upstrea, end to the do#nstrea, end/ 1s the do#nstrea,
pressure P
2
is reduced, !eeping the upstrea, pressure P
2
constant, the -lo# rate #ill
increase/ 4t is ob0ious that #hen there is no -lo# rate, P
2
is e9ual to P
2
. 4t is due to
-riction bet#een the gas and pipe #alls that the pressure drop (P
2
+ P
2
) occurs -ro,
the upstrea, point 2 to do#nstrea, point 2/ The -riction -actor f depends on the
internal condition o- the pipe as #ell as the type o- -lo# 6la,inar or turbulent8 and
#ill be discussed in detail beginning in "ection 2/(/
"o,eti,es the General Flo# e9uation is represented in ter,s o- the trans,ission
-actor . instead o- the -riction -actor f. This -or, o- the e9uation is as -ollo#s/
Z R 2 0/5
: M &(/)). Z P8CXP2Z G%f;&) 42/5
6."C" units8
62/'8
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRI CTI *N +-
#here the trans,ission -actor . and -riction -actor f are related by
2 .M
62/58
and in "4 units
0
%e #ill discuss se0eral aspects o- the General Flo# e9uation be-ore ,o0ing on
to the other -or,ulas -or pressure drop calculation/
2.( E''ECT !' PIPE E"EATI!NS
%hen ele0ation di--erence bet#een the ends o- a pipe seg,ent is included, the
General Flo# e9uation is ,odi-ied as -ollo#s5
and in "4
2 s2
&()).2
: M .(./8CX
0
/
42/5 6."C"
units8
62/)8
P8 G%f;e&2
uni
ts
Z
(
P
2
2

ResP
2

)
%8
: M 5/)') O 20R'
Z
Z
2s 6"4
units8
62/(8
G%f &`
#here
; e
;(e
s
R28
62/38
M
s
The e9ui0alent length, ;
e
, and the ter,
e
s

ta!e into account the ele0ation
di--erence bet#een the upstrea, and do#nstrea, ends o- the pipe seg,ent/ The
para,eter s depends upon the gas gra0ity, gas co,pressibility -actor, the -lo#ing
te,perature, and the ele0ation di--erence/ 4t is de-ined as -ollo#s in ."C" units5
ned as -ollo#s in ."C" units5
Z
Z
s M 0/0&)5G Z H% R & 2 ZZ6."C" units8
62/208 f Zs M 0/0&)5G Z 7TRG 2
ZZ6."C" units8 62/208 - Copyright 2005 by Taylor &
Francis Group, LLC
Z
+0 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
#here
s M ele0ation adCust,ent para,eter, di,ensionless
H
2
M upstrea, ele0ation, -t
H
2
M do#nstrea, ele0ation, -t
e M base o- natural logarith,s (e M 2/)2(///8
Bther sy,bols are as de-ined earlier/
4n "4 units, the ele0ation adCust,ent para,eter s is de-ined as -ollo#s5
62/228
s M 0/ 06('G X H 2 %
&
2
6 "4 uni t s8
f
#here
H
2
M upstrea, ele0ation, ,
H
2
M do#nstrea, ele0ation, ,
4n the calculation o- ;
e
in ?9uation 2/3, #e ha0e assu,ed that there is a single
slope bet#een the upstrea, point 2 and the do#nstrea, point 2 in Figure 2/2/ 4-,
ho#e0er, the pipe seg,ent o- length ; has a series o- slopes, then #e introduce a
para,eter < as -ollo#s -or each indi0idual pipe subseg,ent that constitutes the pipe
length -ro, point 2 to point 2/
62/228
esR2
<M s
The para,eter < is calculated -or each slope o- each pipe subseg,ent o- length ;2,
;
2
, etc/ that ,a!e up the total length ;. The e9ui0alent length ter, ;
e
in ?9uation 2/)
and ?9uation 2/( is calculated by su,,ing the indi0idual slopes as de-ined belo#/
;
e
M <2;2 P <2;2es2 P <&;&es2 P /// 62/2&8
The ter,s <
2
, <
2
, etc/ -or each rise or -all in the ele0ations o- indi0idual pipe
subseg,ents are calculated -or the para,eters s
2
, s
2
, etc/ -or each seg,ent in accor*
dance #ith ?9uation 2/22, -ro, the pipeline inlet to the end o- each seg,ent/
4n the subse9uent sections o- this chapter, #e #ill discuss ho# the -riction -actor
and trans,ission -actor are calculated using 0arious e9uations such as Colebroo!*
%hite and 1G1/ 4t is i,portant to note that the General Flo# e9uation is the ,ost
co,,only used e9uation to calculate the -lo# rate and pressure in a gas pipeline/ 4n
order to apply it correctly, #e ,ust use the correct -riction -actor or trans,ission
-actor/ The Colebroo! e9uation, 1G1 e9uation, and other e,pirical e9uations are
used to calculate the -riction -actor to be used in the General Flo# e9uation/ "e0eral
other e9uations, such as Panhandle 1, Panhandle , and %ey,outh, calculate the
-lo# rate -or a gi0en pressure #ithout using a -riction -actor or trans,ission -actor/
7o#e0er, an e9ui0alent -riction -actor 6or trans,ission -actor8 can be calculated using
these ,ethods as #ell/
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRI CTI *N +5
2.) AERAGE PIPE SEGMENT PRESS#RE
4n the General Flo# e9uation, the co,pressibility -actor & is used/ This ,ust be
calculated at the gas -lo#ing te,perature and a0erage pressure in the pipe
seg,ent/ There-ore, it is i,portant to -irst calculate the a0erage pressure in a
pipe seg,ent, described in Figure 2/2/
Consider a pipe seg,ent #ith upstrea, pressure P
2
and do#nstrea,
pressure P2, as in Figure 2/2/ 1n a0erage pressure -or this seg,ent ,ust be
used to calculate the co,pressibility -actor o- gas at the a0erage gas
te,perature %
f
. 1s a -irst appro>i,ation, #e ,ay use an arith,etic a0erage o-
(P
2
P P
2
8;2/ 7o#e0er, it has been -ound that a ,ore accurate 0alue o- the
a0erage gas pressure in a pipe seg,ent is
62/2'8
62/258
S 2 Z PP 2 Z Pa0gJ &
Z
P
2P
P
2R
PPP

Z
2 2
1nother -or, o- the a0erage pressure in a pipe seg,ent is
P M 2ZP
2
&
R P
2
&
C &ZP2P2
a0g
2R2
4t ,ust be noted that the pressures used in the General Flo# e9uation are
all in absolute units/ There-ore, gauge pressure units should be con0erted to
absolute pressure by adding the base pressure/
For e>a,ple, the upstrea, and do#nstrea, pressures are 2000 psia and
300 psia, respecti0ely/ Fro, ?9uation 2/2', the a0erage pressure is
Pa0g M Z2& Z2000 P 300R2000300 00 CZM 350/(( psia
Co,pare this to the arith,etic a0erage o-
Pa0g 2 62000 P 3008 M 350 psia
2.. E"!CIT% !' GAS IN A PIPE"INE
The 0elocity o- gas -lo# in a pipeline represents the speed at #hich the gas
,olecules ,o0e -ro, one point to another/ .nli!e a li9uid pipeline, due to
co,pressibility, the gas 0elocity depends upon the pressure and, hence, #ill
0ary along the pipeline e0en i- the pipe dia,eter is constant/ The highest
0elocity #ill be at the do#nstrea, end, #here the pressure is the least/
Correspondingly, the least 0elocity #ill be at the upstrea, end, #here the
pressure is higher/
+4 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
Consider a pipe transporting gas -ro, point 1 to point as sho#n in Figure 2/2/
.nder steady state -lo#, at 1, the ,ass -lo# rate o- gas is designated as and #ill be
the sa,e as the ,ass -lo# rate at point , i- bet#een 1 and there is no inCection or
deli0ery o- gas/ The ,ass being the product o- 0olu,e and density, #e can #rite the
-ollo#ing relationship -or point 15
M :r 62/268
The 0olu,e rate : can be e>pressed in ter,s o- the -lo# 0elocity u and pipe cross
sectional area ) as -ollo#s5
: M u ) 62/2)8
There-ore, co,bining ?9uation 2/26 and ?9uation 2/2) and applying the conser0ation
o- ,ass to points 1 and , #e get
2 M
u
2
)
2r2 M
2 M u 2) 2r2 62/2(8
#here subscripts 2 and 2 re-er to points 1 and , respecti0ely/ 4- the pipe is o-
uni-or, cross section bet#een 1 and , then )
2
M )
2
M ).
There-ore, the area ter, in ?9uation 2/2( can be dropped, and the 0elocities at 1
and are related by the -ollo#ing e9uation5
u
2r2 M u 2r2 62/238
"ince the -lo# o- gas in a pipe can result in 0ariation o- te,perature -ro, point 1 to
point , the gas density #ill also 0ary #ith te,perature and pressure/ 4- the density and
0elocity at one point are !no#n, the corresponding 0elocity at the other point can be
calculated using ?9uation 2/23/
4- inlet conditions are represented by point 1 and the 0olu,e -lo# rate : at
standard conditions o- 60KF and 2'/) psia are !no#n, #e can calculate the 0elocity at
any point along the pipeline at #hich the pressure and te,perature o- the gas are P and
%, respecti0ely/
The 0elocity o- gas at section 2 is related to the -lo# rate :
2
at section 2 and
pipe cross*sectional area ) as -ollo#s -ro, ?9uation 2/2)5
:
2
M u2)
The ,ass -lo# rate at section 2 and 2 is the sa,e -or steady*state -lo#/
There-ore,
M : 2r2 M : 2r2 M : 8r8 62/208
#here :
b
is the gas -lo# rate at standard conditions and r
b
is the corresponding gas
density/
There-ore, si,pli-ying ?9uation 2/20,
:
2
M :8 (8
Z
Z
2 62/228
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRI CTI *N +3
1pplying the gas la# ?9uation 2/3, #e get
2P M &2$%
2
'r
62/228
62/2&8
2
M P2 &2$%2
where P
1
and %
1
are the pressure and temperature at pipe secti'n 1. 6imilarly, at
standard c'nditi'ns,
P 8
8
M &8$%8
Fro, ?9uation 2/22, ?9uation 2/22, and ?9uation 2/2&, #e get
:
2
M :8 %
8
P
2
&8 62/2'8
6ince &
8
= 1.>>, appr'2imately, we can simplify this t'
62/258
:
2
M :8( P8 C (P4C&2
%8
%heref're, the gas vel'city at secti'n 1 is, using 3?uati'n @.1A and 3?uati'n @.@#,
u
2
M
or
:
)
2 % 8 P ' B < ' ' :8 & 2 %
8
P 2
u2 M 0/002222 Z Nb D6Pb D6G2T2Z<2 Tb P
2
Z
6."C" units8 62/268
where
u
2
M upstrea, gas 0elocity, -t;s
:
8
M gas -lo# rate, ,easured at standard conditions, -t
&
;day 6"CF<8
P
8
M base pressure, psia
%
8
M base te,perature, KR6'60 P KF8
P
2
%
2
M upstrea, gas te,perature, KR6'60 P KF8
&
2
M gas co,pressibility -actor at upstrea, conditions, di,ensionless
,1 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
"i,ilarly, the gas 0elocity at section 2 is gi0en by
u
2
M 0/002222 C :
8
Z 6 P
8
ZZ& 2% 2Z
42 %
8
P2
6."C" units8
62/2)8
4n general, the gas 0elocity at any point in a pipeline is gi0en by
62/2(8
62/238
Z N Z Z P ZuM0/002222Z <2Z4 (&%D P
8
4n "4 units, the gas 0elocity at any point in a gas pipeline is gi0en by
u :
M2'/)&'3 Z 6"4 units8 742 ZZ%8 Z( P)
#here
u M gas 0elocity, ,;s
:
8
M gas -lo# rate, ,easured at standard conditions, ,&;day
P
8
%
8
M base te,perature, F62)& P KC8
P M pressure, !Pa
% M a0erage gas -lo#ing te,perature, F62)& P KC8
"ince the right*hand side o- ?9uation 2/23 contains ratios o- pressures, any
consistent unit can be used, such as !Pa, =Pa, or ar/
2.9 ER!SI!NA" E"!CIT%
%e ha0e seen -ro, the preceding section that the gas 0elocity is directly related to
the -lo# rate/ 1s -lo# rate increases, so does the gas 0elocity/ 7o# high can the gas
0elocity be in a pipelineT 1s the 0elocity increases, 0ibration and noise are e0ident/
4n addition, higher 0elocities #ill cause erosion o- the pipe interior o0er a long
period o- ti,e/ The upper li,it o- the gas 0elocity is usually calculated appro>i,ately
-ro, the -ollo#ing e9uation5
u,a > M 200 62/&08
#here
u,a> M ,a>i,u, or erosional 0elocity, -t;s
r = gas density at -lo#ing te,perature, lb;-t&
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRI CTI *N
,(
"ince the gas density r ,ay be e>pressed in ter,s o- pressure and te,perature,
using the gas la# ?9uation 2/(, the ,a>i,u, 0elocity ?9uation 2/&0 can be re#ritten as
62/&28
u,a > M 200
& $ %
6 ."C" uni t s 8 23GP
#here
& M co,pressibility -actor o- gas, di,ensionless $ M
gas constant M 20/)& -t
&
psia;lb*,oleR % M gas
te,perature, KR
P M gas pressure, psia
.sually, an acceptable operational 0elocity is 50L o- the abo0e/
&4am!le )
1 gas pipeline, $P" 20 #ith 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, transports natural gas 6speci-ic
gra0ity M 0/68 at a -lo# rate o- 250 =="CF< at an inlet te,perature o- 60KF/ 1ssu,ing
isother,al -lo#, calculate the 0elocity o- gas at the inlet and outlet o- the pipe i- the
inlet pressure is 2000 psig and the outlet pressure is (50 psig/ The base pressure and
base te,perature are 2'/) psia and 60KF, respecti0ely/ 1ssu,e co,pressibility -actor &
M 2/00/ %hat is the erosional 0elocity -or this pipeline based on the abo0e data and a
co,pressibility -actor & M 0/30T
"olution
4- #e assu,e co,pressibility -actor & M 2/00, then using ?9uation 2/26, the 0elocity o-
gas at the inlet pressure o- 2000 psig is
M
002222 C 250 O 206CX60 2'/) Z Z 60 P '60Z M 22/23 -t;s u2
l 23/0
2
P'6
ZZZZ
202'/)
ZZ
and the gas 0elocity at the outlet is by proportions
u2 M 22/ 23 O 202'/ ) M 2'/ 3( -t ; s
(6'/)
The erosional 0elocity is -ound -or & M 0/ 30, using ?9uation 2/& 2,
u, a > M200
0/ 3 O 20/ )& O 520 M 5&/&&
-t;s 23 O 0/6 O 202'/)
&4am!le *
1 gas pipeline, <$ 500 #ith 22 ,, #all thic!ness, transports natural gas 6speci-ic
gra0ity M 0/68 at a -lo# rate o- )/5 =,
&
;day at an inlet te,perature o- 25KC/ 1ssu,ing
,) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
isother,al -lo#, calculate the 0elocity o- gas at the inlet and outlet o- the pipe i- the
inlet pressure is ) =Pa and the outlet pressure is 6 =Pa/ The base pressure and base
te,perature are 0/2 =Pa and 25KC/
1ssu,e co,pressibility -actor & M 0/35/
"olution
4nside dia,eter o- pipe 4 M 500 U 62 O 228 M ')6 ,,/
Flo# rate at standard conditions :8 M )/5 O 20
6
,&;day/
.sing ?9uation 2/23, the 0elocity o- gas at the inlet pressure o- ) =Pa is
u2 M2'/)&'3)/5 O 206Z Z 0/2 CX0/35O2((D M6/62 ,;s')62 Z4225P2)&
)/0
and the gas 0elocity at the outlet is by proportions
u2 M6/62OJ M )/)2 ,;s
6/0
4n the preceding ?>a,ples 2 and 2, #e ha0e assu,ed the 0alue o- co,pressibility
-actor & to the constant/ 1 ,ore accurate solution #ill be to calculate the 0alue o- &
using one o- the ,ethods outlined in Chapter 2, such as the C$G1 or "tanding*Fat:
,ethod/
For e>a,ple, i- #e used the C$G1 ?9uation 2/&', the co,pressibility -actor in
?>a,ple 2 #ill be
&2 M
2
ZZ2P 2000O&'''00O62082/)(5O0/6
520&/(25
M 0/(5)( at an inlet pressure o- 2000 psig/
and
2 Z2 P (50O&'''00O62082/)(5O0/6_
MSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS ZZ 520&/(25 a
2
M 0/()65 at an outlet pressure o- (50 psig/ The
inlet and outlet gas 0elocities then #ill be ,odi-ied as -ollo#s5
4nlet 0elocity u2 M 0/(5)( O 22/23 M 2(/26 -t;s Butlet
0elocity u2 M 0/()65 O 2'/3( M 22/30 -t;s
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRI CTI *N ,+
2.: RE%N!"DS N#M1ER !' '"!W
1n i,portant para,eter in -lo# o- -luids in a pipe is the nondi,ensional ter, $eyn'lds
num8er. The Reynolds nu,ber is used to characteri:e the type o- -lo# in a pipe, such
as la,inar, turbulent, or critical -lo#/ 4t is also used to calculate the -riction -actor in
pipe -lo#/ %e #ill -irst outline the calculation o- the Reynolds nu,ber based upon the
properties o- the gas and pipe dia,eter and then discuss the range o- Reynolds
nu,ber -or the 0arious types o- -lo# and ho# to calculate the -riction -actor/ The
Reynolds nu,ber is a -unction o- the gas -lo# rate, pipe inside dia,eter, and the gas
density and 0iscosity and is calculated -ro, the -ollo#ing e9uation5
$e M u4 6."C" units8 62/&28 "
#here
$e M Reynolds nu,ber, di,ensionless
u M a0erage 0elocity o- gas in pipe, -t;s
4 M inside dia,eter o- pipe, -t
r = gas density, lb;-t&
m = gas 0iscosity, lb;-t*s
The abo0e e9uation -or the Reynolds nu,ber is in ."C" units/ The corresponding
e9uation -or the Reynolds nu,ber in "4 units is as -ollo#s5
$e M u4 6"4 units8 62/&&8 "
#here
$e M Reynolds nu,ber, di,ensionless
u M a0erage 0elocity o- gas in pipe, ,;s
4 M inside dia,eter o- pipe, ,
r = gas density, !g;,&
m = gas 0iscosity, !g;,*s
4n gas pipeline hydraulics, using custo,ary units, a ,ore suitable e9uation -or the
Reynolds nu,ber is as -ollo#s5
$e M Z0/000'))(Z
C61
Z
Z6."C" units8
%
8
4 62/&'8
#here
P
8
%
8
M base te,perature, KR 6'60 P KF8 G M
speci-ic gra0ity o- gas 6air M 2/08
: M gas -lo# rate, standard -t
&
;day 6"CF<8 4
M pipe inside dia,eter, in/
m = 0iscosity o- gas, lb;-t*s
,, GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
4n "4 units, the Reynolds nu,ber is
62/&58
$e M 0/ 52&' 6
P8
D 6
G :

Z
6 "4 uni t s 8
%
8

"4
#here
P
8
%
8
M base te,perature, KF 62)& P KC8
G M speci-ic gra0ity o- gas 6air M 2/08
: M gas -lo# rate, ,
&
;day 6standard conditions8 4
M pipe inside dia,eter, ,,
m= 0iscosity o- gas, Poise
La,inar -lo# occurs in a pipeline #hen the Reynolds nu,ber is belo# a 0alue o-
appro>i,ately 2000/ Turbulent -lo# occurs #hen the Reynolds nu,ber is greater than
'000/ For Reynolds nu,bers bet#een 2000 and '000, the -lo# is unde-ined and is
re-erred to as critical -lo#/
Thus,
For la,inar -lo#, $e b 2000
For turbulent -lo#, $e c '000
For critical -lo#, $e c 2000 and $e b '000
=ost natural gas pipelines operate in the turbulent -lo# region/ There-ore, the
Reynolds nu,ber is greater than '000/ Turbulent -lo# is -urther di0ided into three
regions !no#n as s,ooth pipe -lo#, -ully rough pipe -lo#, and transition -lo#/ %e #ill
discuss these -lo# regions in ,ore detail in the subse9uent sections o- this chapter/
&4am!le +
1 natural gas pipeline, $P" 20 #ith 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, transports 200 =="CF</
The speci-ic gra0ity o- gas is 0/6 and 0iscosity is 0/00000( lb;-t*s/ Calculate the 0alue
o- the Reynolds nu,ber o- -lo#/ 1ssu,e the base te,perature and base pressure are
60KF and 2'/) psia, respecti0ely/
"olution
Pipe inside dia,eter M 20 U 2 O 0/5 M 23/0 in/
The base te,perature M 60 P '60 M 520 KR .sing
?9uation 2/&', #e get
$e M 0/000'))(2'/) 2 0/6 O 200 O 20 6 5,&&2,)26
C 5200/00000( O 23 C
"ince $e is greater than '000, the -lo# is in the turbulent region/
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRI CTI *N ,-
&4am!le ,
1 natural gas pipeline, <$ 500 #ith 22 ,, #all thic!ness, transports & =,&;day/
The speci-ic gra0ity o- gas is 0/6 and 0iscosity is 0/00022 Poise/ Calculate the 0alue o-
the Reynolds nu,ber/ 1ssu,e the base te,perature and base pressure are 25KC and
202 !Pa, respecti0ely/
"olution
Pipe inside dia,eter M 500 U 2 O 22 M ')6 ,,
The base te,perature M 25 P 2)& M 2(( F
.sing ?9uation 2/&5, #e get
Z 202SSSSS ZZ0/6O&O20 6
$e M 0/52&'Z D 5)&5 6)&
M ,,
Z 25 P 2)& 0/00022 > ')6
"ince $e is greater than '000, the -lo# is in the turbulent region/
2./ 'RICTI!N 'ACT!R
4n order to calculate the pressure drop in a pipeline at a gi0en -lo# rate, #e ,ust -irst
understand the concept o- -riction -actor/ The ter, fricti'n fact'r is a di,ensionless
para,eter that depends upon the Reynolds nu,ber o- -lo#/ 4n engineering literature,
#e -ind t#o di--erent -riction -actors ,entioned/ The <arcy -riction -actor is ,ore
co,,on and #ill be used throughout this boo!/ 1nother -riction -actor !no#n as the
Fanning -riction -actor is pre-erred by so,e engineers/ The Fanning -riction -actor is
nu,erically e9ual to one*-ourth the <arcy -riction -actor as belo#/
ff M Cd 62/&68
#here
ff M Fanning -riction -actor fd M
<arcy -riction -actor
To a0oid con-usion, in subse9uent discussions, the <arcy -riction -actor is used
and #ill be represented by the sy,bol f. For la,inar -lo#, the -riction -actor is
in0ersely proportional to the Reynolds nu,ber, as indicated belo#/
6'
f M$e
62/&)8
For turbulent -lo#, the -riction -actor is a -unction o- the Reynolds nu,ber, pipe
inside dia,eter, and internal roughness o- the pipe/ =any e,pirical relationships -or
'i4ure 2.$ /oo%y %ia;ra"'
La"inar Critia
Flo? UDone Tran!ition
Done E
1'1- 1'1,
1'1+
1'1)
1'1(-
1'1( 1'114
1'110
1'11)
1'11( 1'1114 1'1110
1'111,
1'111)
1'111(
1'111,1-
,5
calculating f ha0e been put -orth by researchers/ The ,ore popular correlations include
the Colebroo!*%hite and 1G1 e9uations/
e-ore #e discuss the e9uations -or calculating the -riction -actor in turbulent
-lo#, it is appropriate to analy:e the turbulent -lo# regi,e/ Turbulent -lo# in pipes
($ec '0008 is subdi0ided into three separate regions as -ollo#s5
2/ Turbulent -lo# in s,ooth pipes
2/ Turbulent -lo# in -ully rough pipes
&/ Transition -lo# bet#een s,ooth pipes and rough pipes
For turbulent -lo# in s,ooth pipes, the -riction -actor f depends only on the
Reynolds nu,ber/ For -ully rough pipes, f depends ,ore on the pipe internal
roughness and less on the Reynolds nu,ber/ 4n the transition :one bet#een s,ooth
pipe -lo# and -lo# in -ully rough pipes, f depends on the pipe roughness, pipe inside
dia,eter, and the Reynolds nu,ber/ The 0arious -lo# regi,es are depicted in the
=oody diagra,, sho#n in Figure 2/&/
The =oody diagra, is a graphic plot o- the 0ariation o- the -riction -actor #ith
the Reynolds nu,ber -or 0arious 0alues o- relati0e pipe roughness/ The latter ter, is
si,ply a di,ensionless para,eter obtained by di0iding the absolute 6or internal8 pipe
roughness by the pipe inside dia,eter as -ollo#s5
Relati0e roughness M 4 62/&(8
#here
e M absolute or internal roughness o- pipe, in/ 4 M
pipe inside dia,eter, in/
The ter,s absolute pipe roughness and internal pipe roughness are e9ui0alent/
Generally, the internal pipe roughness is e>pressed in ,icroinches 6one*,illionth
o- an inch8/ For e>a,ple, an internal roughness o- 0/0006 in/ is re-erred to as 600
,icroinches or 600 din/ 4- the pipe inside dia,eter is 25/5 in/, the relati0e roughness
is, in this case,
Relati0e roughness M 0/0006 M 0/0000&() M &/() O 20R5 25/5
For e>a,ple, -ro, the =oody diagra, in Figure 2/&, -or $e M 20 ,illion and e;4 M
0/0002, #e -ind that f M 0/022/
2.10 C!"E1R!!<8WHITE EA#ATI!N
The Colebroo!*%hite e9uation, so,eti,es re-erred to si,ply as the Colebroo!
e9uation, is a relationship bet#een the -riction -actor and the Reynolds nu,ber, pipe
roughness, and inside dia,eter o- pipe/ The -ollo#ing -or, o- the Colebroo!
,4 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
e9uation is used to calculate the -riction -actor in gas pipelines in turbulent
-lo#/
62/&38
Z 2 M R2 Log20Z&/ASP
2 / 5 2
Z
- o r

$ e c ' 0 0 0 4
$e/Vr
#here
e M absolute pipe roughness, in/
$e M Reynolds nu,ber o- -lo#, di,ensionless
"ince $e and f are di,ensionless, as long as consistent units are used -or both e
and 4, the Colebroo! e9uation is the sa,e regardless o- the units e,ployed/ There*
-ore, in "4 units, ?9uation 2/&3 is used #ith e and 4 e>pressed in ,,/
4t can be seen -ro, ?9uation 2/&3 that in order to calculate the -riction -actor f,
#e ,ust use a trial*and*error approach/ 4t is an i,plicit e9uation in f, since f
appears on both sides o- the e9uation/ %e -irst assu,e a 0alue o- f 6such as
0/028 and substitute it in the right*hand side o- the e9uation/ This #ill yield a
second appro>i,ation -or f, #hich can then be used to calculate a better 0alue
o- f, and so on/ Generally & to ' iterations are su--icient to con0erge on a
reasonably good 0alue o- the -riction -actor/
4t can be seen -ro, the Colebroo! ?9uation 2/&3, -or turbulent -lo# in
s,ooth pipes, the -irst ter, #ithin the s9uare brac!ets is negligible co,pared
to the second ter,, since pipe roughness e is 0ery s,all/
There-ore, -or s,ooth pipe -lo#, the -riction -actor e9uation reduces to
ZSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSZ
2
M R2
Log
20

Z 2 52 4Z, -or turbulent -lo# in s,ooth pipes 62/'08
f f Z $e v Z
"i,ilarly, -or turbulent -lo# in -ully rough pipes, #ith $e being a large
nu,ber, f depends ,ostly on the roughness e and, there-ore, the -riction
-actor e9uation reduces to
2M R2 Log20 ZZ&/) 4) -or turbulent -lo# in -ully rough pipes
62/'28
Table 2/2 lists typical 0alues o- pipe internal roughness used to calculate the
-riction -actor/
1s an e>a,ple, i- $e M 200 ,illion or larger and e;4 M 0/0002, the -riction
-actor -ro, ?9uation 2/'2 is
2 Z0/0002 Z M R2
Log20 ZZ
f&/) ZZ
or f M 0/02&), #hich correlates #ell #ith the -riction -actor obtained -ro, the
=oody diagra, in Figure 2/&/
,3
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRICTI*N
Ta*+e 2.1 Pipe Interna+ Rou4hness
Pipe Materia+
Rou4hness&
in.
Rou4hnes
s&
33
Ri&ete% !teel 1'1+-, to 1'+-, 1'3 to 3'1
Co""erial !teelF?el%e% !teel 1'11(4 1'1,-
1'11-3 1'(-
A!phalte% a!t iron 1'11,5 1'()
=ro$;ht iron 1'11(4 1'1,-
P>C, %ra?n t$#in;, ;la!! 1'1111-3 1'11(-
Conrete 1'1((4 to 1'((4 1'+ to +'1
&4am!le -
1 natural gas pipeline, $P" 20 #ith 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, transports 200 =="CF</
The speci-ic gra0ity o- gas is 0/6 and 0iscosity is 0/00000( lb;-t*s/ Calculate the -riction
-actor using the Colebroo! e9uation/ 1ssu,e absolute pipe roughness M 600 d in/
The base te,perature and base pressure are 60KF and 2'/) psia, respecti0ely/
"olution
1bsolute pipe roughness M 600 d in/ M 0/0006 in/
First, #e calculate the Reynolds nu,ber using ?9uation 2/&'5
2'/) 0/6O200O SSS20 6 C
$e M 0/000'))( M 20,66&,'52
660P'60 0/00000( O 23
.sing ?9uation 2/&3,
0/ 0006 2/52
R2 Log20X&/)O23 P 20,66&,'52 C
This e9uation #ill be sol0ed by successi0e iteration/
1ssu,e f M 0/02 initiallyE substituting abo0e, #e get a better appro>i,ation as f M
0/0202/ Repeating the iteration, #e get the -inal 0alue as f M 0/0202/ There-ore, the
-riction -actor is 0/0202/
&4am!le .
1 natural gas pipeline, <$ 500 #ith 22 ,, #all thic!ness, transports 6 =,&;day/ The
speci-ic gra0ity o- gas is 0/6 and 0iscosity is 0/00022 Poise/ Calculate the
-1 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
-riction -actor using the Colebroo! e9uation/ 1ssu,e absolute pipe roughness M
0/0& ,, and assu,e the base te,perature and base pressure are 25KC and 202 !Pa,
respecti0ely/
"olution
First, #e calculate the Reynolds nu,ber using ?9uation 2/&55
Z2020/6O6O20 6$e M 0/52&'M 22,&'),')0 Z
Z
25 2)&
P ZZ ZZ 000022 O ')6 ZZ
.sing ?9uation 2/&3, the -riction -actor is
2 Z 0/0&0 2/52 Z
IfM R2
Log20Z
Z&/)

O ')6 P 22, &'), ')0 f Z
This e9uation #ill be sol0ed by successi0e iteration/
1ssu,e f M 0/02 initiallyE substituting abo0e, #e get a better appro>i,ation as f M
0/0222/ Repeating the iteration, #e get the -inal 0alue as f M 0/0222/ There-ore, the
-riction -actor is 0/0222/
2.11 TRANSMISSI!N 'ACT!R
The trans,ission -actor . is considered the opposite o- the -riction -actor f. %hereas
the -riction -actor indicates ho# di--icult it is to ,o0e a certain 9uantity o- gas
through a pipeline, the trans,ission -actor is a direct ,easure o- ho# ,uch gas can
be transported through the pipeline/ 1s the -riction -actor increases, the trans,ission
-actor decreases and, there-ore, the gas -lo# rate also decreases/ Con0ersely, the
higher the trans,ission -actor, the lo#er the -riction -actor and, there-ore, the higher
the -lo# rate #ill be/
The trans,ission -actor . is related to the -riction -actor f as -ollo#s5
2
.M
62/'28
There-ore,
S '
f .2
62/'&8
-(
#here
f M -riction -actor
.M trans,ission -actor
4t ,ust be noted that the -riction -actor f in the abo0e e9uation is the <arcy
-riction -actor/ "ince so,e engineers pre-er to use the Fanning -riction -actor, the
relationship bet#een the trans,ission -actor . and the Fanning -riction -actor is
gi0en belo# -or re-erence/
2
.M
62/''8
#here f
f

is the Fanning -riction -actor/
For e>a,ple, i- the <arcy -riction -actor is 0/025, the trans,ission -actor
is, using ?9uation 2/'2,
. M 2 M22/65
The Fanning -riction -actor in this case #ill be 0/025 M 0/00625/ There-ore, the
'
trans,ission -actor using ?9uation 2/'' is .M K Ko6:s M 22/65, #hich is the sa,e D
as calculated using the <arcy -riction -actor/
Thus, it ,ust be noted that there is only one trans,ission -actor, #hereas
there are t#o di--erent -riction -actors/
7a0ing de-ined a trans,ission -actor, #e can re#rite the Colebroo! ?9uation
2/&3 in ter,s o- the trans,ission -actor using ?9uation 2/'2 as -ollo#s5
62/'58
.MR'
e

Lo SSSSSSSSS P 2/255 .
g20
Z&/)4 $e ZZ
"ince $e and . are di,ensionless, as long as consistent units are used -or
both e and 4, the trans,ission -actor e9uation is the sa,e regardless o- the units
e,ployed/ There-ore, in "4 units, ?9uation 2/'5 is used #ith e and 4 e>pressed in
,,/
"i,ilar to the calculation o- the -riction -actor f -ro, ?9uation 2/&3, to
calculate the trans,ission -actor . -ro, ?9uation 2/'5, an iterati0e approach
,ust be used/ This #ill be illustrated using an e>a,ple/
&4am!le /
For a gas pipeline, -lo#ing 200 =="CF< gas o- speci-ic gra0ity 0/6 and
0iscosity o- 0/00000( lb;-t*s, calculate the -riction -actor and trans,ission -actor
considering an $P" 20 pipeline, 0/500*in/ #all thic!ness, and an internal
roughness o- 600 ,icroinches/ 1ssu,e the base te,perature and base pressure are
60KF and 2'/) psia, respecti0ely/ 4- the -lo# rate increases by 50L, #hat is the
i,pact on the -riction -actor and trans,ission -actorT
-) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
"olution
The base te,perature M 60 P '60 M 520KR
.sing ?9uation 2/&', #e calculate the Reynolds nu,ber as
$e M 0/000'))(2'/) 2 0/6 O 200 O 20 6
5,&&2,)26
C 5200/00000( O 23 C
The relati0e roughness M 600 2 3 0 R6 M 0/0000&26
Z 2 0 / 0 0 0 0 & 2 6
Z X
M R 2 L o g 2 0
Z & / )
P
5 , & & 2 , ) 2 6 Z
"ol0ing by successi0e iteration, #e get
f M 0/0205
There-ore, the trans,ission -actor . is -ound -ro, ?9uation 2/'2 as -ollo#s5
.M
2
M 2 3 / 5 &
0/0205
4t ,ust be noted that the -riction -actor calculated abo0e is the <arcy -riction -actor/
The corresponding Fanning -riction -actor #ill be one*-ourth the calculated 0alue/
%hen -lo# rate is increased by 50L, the Reynolds nu,ber beco,es, by proportion,
$e M 2/5 O 5,&&2,)26 M ),33),5(3
The ne# -riction -actor -ro, ?9uation 2/&3 is
Z Z
0 / 0000&26 2 /52
M R 2 L o g 2 0 Z P Z
&/) ),33),5(3 Z
"ol0ing -or f by successi0e iteration, #e get
f M 0/020&
The corresponding trans,ission -actor is
M23/
)'
-+
Co,pared to the pre0ious 0alues o- 0/0205 -or the -riction -actor and 23/5& -or the
trans,ission -actor, #e see the -ollo#ing changes5
<ecrease in -riction -actor M 0/0205 R 0 /020& M 0/023 or 2/3L
0/0205
23/)' R23/5&
4ncrease in trans,ission -actor M M 0/020( or 2/0(L
23/5&
Thus, increasing the -lo# rate by 50L reduces the -riction -actor by 2/3L and
increases the trans,ission -actor by 2/0(L/
&4am!le 0
For a gas pipeline, -lo#ing & =,
&
;day gas o- speci-ic gra0ity 0/6 and 0iscosity o-
0/000223 Poise, calculate the -riction -actor and trans,ission -actor
considering a <$ '00 pipeline, 20 ,, #all thic!ness, and an internal
roughness o- 0/02 ,,/ The base te,perature and base pressure are 25KC and
202 !Pa, respecti0ely/ 4- the -lo# rate is doubled, #hat is the i,pact on the
-riction -actor and trans,ission -actorT
"olution
Pipe inside dia,eter M '00 U 2 O 20 M &(0 ,,
.sing ?9uation 2/&5, #e calculate the Reynolds nu,ber as
$e M 0/52&' 202 0/6 O & O 206Z),266,(2&
62((8Z
Z
0/000223O&(0 ZZ
The relati0e roughness M &/(02 M 0/0000526
Z0/0000
526
2/52 Z
2Lo
M
2
&/) ),266,
(2&
Z
"ol0ing by iteration, #e get
f M 0/0222
M2(/
3(
-, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
4t ,ust be noted that the -riction -actor calculated abo0e is the <arcy -riction -actor/
The corresponding Fanning -riction -actor #ill be one*-ourth the calculated 0alue/
%hen the -lo# rate is doubled, the Reynolds nu,ber beco,es $e
M 2 O ),266,(2& M 2',&&&,6'6 The ne# 0alue o- the
-riction -actor -ro, ?9uation 2/&3 is
Z Z
2 0 / 0 0 0 0 5 2 6 2/52
f M R 2 L o g 2 0 Z & )
P
2 ' , & & & , 6 ' 6 Z
f M 0/0203
and the trans,ission -actor is
.M
2
23/26
0/0203 M
There-ore, doubling the -lo# rate increases the trans,ission -actor and decreases the
-riction -actor as -ollo#s5
<ecrease in -riction -actor M 0/0222R0/0203 M 0/02( or 2/(L
0/0222
4ncrease in trans,ission -actor M 23/26R2(/3( M 0/0035 or 0/35L 2(/3(
2.12 M!DI'IED C!"E1R!!<8WHITE EA#ATI!N
The Colebroo!*%hite e9uation discussed in the preceding section has been in use -or
,any years in both li9uid -lo# and gas -lo#/ The ./"/ ureau o- =ines, in 2356,
published a report that introduced a ,odi-ied -or, o- the Colebroo!*%hite e9uation/
The ,odi-ication results in a higher -riction -actor and, hence, a s,aller 0alue o- the
trans,ission -actor/ ecause o- this, a conser0ati0e 0alue o- -lo# rate is obtained due
to the higher -riction and pressure drop/ The ,odi-ied 0ersion o- the Colebroo!%hite
e9uation -or turbulent -lo# is as -ollo#s5
62/'68
2Z
U
e 2/(25 C
f U2 Log20 &/)4 P $e/f((
Re#riting ?9uation 2/'6 in ter,s o- the trans,ission -actor, #e get the -ollo#ing
0ersion o- the ,odi-ied Colebroo!*%hite e9uation5
. M R' Log20 Z e P 2/'225. Z 6."C" and "4 units8 62/')8
4
e

&/)4 $e
--
"ince $e, f, and . are di,ensionless, as long as consistent units are used -or
both e and 4, the ,odi-ied Colebroo! e9uation is the sa,e, regardless o- the units
e,ployed/ There-ore, in "4 units, ?9uation 2/'6 and ?9uation 2/') are used #ith e and
4 e>pressed in ,,/
.pon co,paring ?9uation 2/&3 #ith ?9uation 2/'6, it is seen that the di--erence
bet#een the Colebroo! e9uation and the ,odi-ied Colebroo! e9uation lies in the
second constant ter, #ithin the s9uare brac!ets/ The constant 2/52 in ?9uation 2/&3
is replaced #ith the constant 2/(25 in ?9uation 2/'6/ "i,ilarly, in the trans,ission
-actor e9uations, the ,odi-ied e9uation has 2/'225 instead o- 2/255 in the original
Colebroo!*%hite e9uation/ =any co,,ercial hydraulic si,ulation progra,s list
both Colebroo!*%hite e9uations/ "o,e use only the original Colebroo!*%hite
e9uation/
&4am!le 1
For a gas pipeline, -lo#ing 200 =="CF< gas o- speci-ic gra0ity 0/6 and 0iscosity o-
0/00000( lb;-t*s, calculate, using the ,odi-ied Colebroo!*%hite e9uation, the -riction
-actor and trans,ission -actor assu,ing an $P" 20 pipeline, 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness,
and an internal roughness o- 600 din/ The base te,perature and base pressure are 60KF
and 2'/) psia, respecti0ely/
7o# do these nu,bers co,pare #ith those calculated, using the original Colebroo!
e9uationT
"olution
.sing ?9uation 2/&', #e calculate the Reynolds nu,ber as
2'/) 0/6O200O20 6
$e M 0/000'))( M 5,&&2,)26
6520 0/00000( O 23 C
The relati0e roughness is
e 600 O 206
M &/26 O 20R5
4 23
Fro, ?9uation 2/'6, the -riction -actor using the ,odi-ied Colebroo! e9uation is
2Z0/0000&26 2/(25
f X
MR2Log20
Z&/)
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
P5 , & & 2, ) 2 6
f M 0/0206
-0 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
M23/
'&
y co,paring these results #ith the -riction -actor and the trans,ission
-actor calculated in ?>a,ple ) using the un,odi-ied Colebroo! e9uation, it can
be seen that the ,odi-ied -riction -actor is appro>i,ately 0/35L higher than that
calculated using the original Colebroo!*%hite e9uation, #hereas the
trans,ission -actor is appro>i,ately 0/52L lo#er than that calculated using the
original Colebroo!*%hite e9uation/
&4am!le )2
1 gas pipeline, $P" 20 #ith 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, -lo#s 200 =="CF< gas
o- speci-ic gra0ity 0/6 and 0iscosity o- 0/00000( lb;-t*s/ .sing the ,odi-ied
Colebroo!%hite e9uation, calculate the pressure drop in a 50 ,i seg,ent o-
pipe, based on an upstrea, pressure o- 2000 psig/ 1ssu,e an internal pipe
roughness o- 600 d in/ and the base te,perature and base pressure o- 60KF and
2'/)& psia, respecti0ely/ $eglect ele0ation e--ects and use 60KF -or gas -lo#ing
te,perature and co,pressibility -actor & M 0/((/
"olution
4nside dia,eter o- pipe M 20 U 2 O 0/5 M 23/0 in/
The base te,perature M 60 P '60 M 520 KR
Gas -lo# te,perature M 60 P '60 M 520 KR
First, #e calculate the Reynolds nu,ber using ?9uation 2/&'/
$e M 0/000'))(2'/)& 0/6 O 200 O 20 6Z20,6(5,22'
C 5208Z
Z
0/00000( O 23 ZZ
The trans,ission -actor . is calculated -ro, ?9uation 2/') as -ollo#s5
. M R' Lo C 600 O 20R6 P 2/'225 . Z
g20 &/)O23 20,6(5,22' Z
"ol0ing -or . by successi0e iteration,
. M 23/(2
$e>t, using General Flo# ?9uation 2/', #e calculate the do#nstrea, pressure
P2 as -ollo#s5
Z 60SSSSP '60 ZZ202'/)&
2
R P 2
0/5
200O206M&(/))O23/(2Z D 2 O232/5
Z 2'/)& 0/6>520>50>0/(( a
-5
"ol0ing -or P
2
, #e get
P
2
M (5&/2& psia M (&(/5 psig
There-ore, the pressure drop M 202'/)& U (5&/2& M 262/5 psi/
2.1$ AMERICAN GAS ASS!CIATI!N 5AGA7 EA#ATI!N
4n 236' and 2365, the 1,erican Gas 1ssociation 61G18 published a report on ho# to
calculate the trans,ission -actor -or gas pipelines to be used in the General Flo#
e9uation/ This is so,eti,es re-erred to as the 1G1 $*2& ,ethod/ .sing the ,ethod
outlined in this report, the trans,ission -actor . is calculated using t#o di--erent
e9uations/ First, . is calculated -or the rough pipe la# 6re-erred to as the -ully
turbulent :one8/ $e>t, . is calculated based on the s,ooth pipe la# 6re-erred to as the
partially turbulent :one8/ Finally, the s,aller o- the t#o 0alues o- the trans,ission -actor is
used in the General Flo# ?9uation 2/' -or pressure drop calculation/ ?0en though the
1G1 ,ethod uses the trans,ission -actor . instead o- the -riction -actor f, #e can still
calculate the -riction -actor using the relationship sho#n in ?9uation 2/'2/
For the -ully turbulent :one, 1G1 reco,,ends using the -ollo#ing -or,ula -or ., based
on relati0e roughness e;4 and independent o- the Reynolds nu,ber5
62/'(8
.M'Log2 0 C &/ e4 Z e
?9uation 2/'( is also !no#n as the Ion Far,an rough pipe -lo# e9uation/
Z.
$e M '4 Loglo
For the partially turbulent :one, . is calculated -ro, the -ollo#ing e9uations using
the Reynolds nu,ber, a para,eter 4
f
!no#n as the pipe drag -actor, and the Ion Far,an
s,ooth pipe trans,ission -actor .t1
f
2/'225
62/'38
a
n
Z Z
.
M'Log
20Z

.eZR0/6
Z t
M IonM pipeintoinde>d bends in the pipe seg,ent, di0ided by the total length o- the
pipe section under consideration/
.
t
, -ittings, etc/ 4ts 0alue ranges -ro, 0/30 to 0/33/ The end
inde
is the su, o-
all the angles a
d bends in the pipe seg,ent, di0ided by the total length o- the pipe
section under consideration/
62/528 #here 62/528
*D
M
totaldegrees o- all bends in pipe section total length o- pipe section
Mtota
degrees o- all bends in pipe section total length o- pipe
section
-4 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
Ta*+e 2.2 1en- In-eB an- Dra4 'actor
1en-
In-eB
EBtre3e+, "oC A?era4e EBtre3e+, Hi4h
). to 10.
.0. to
:0.
200. to $00.
8are !teel 1'35-G1'35+
1'301G
1'3-0
1'3+1G1'311
Pla!ti line% 1'353G1'350 1'30,G
1'301
1'3+0G1'3(1
Pi; #$rni!he% 1'34)G1'341 1'304G
1'30-
1'3,,G1'3)1
San% #la!te% 1'34-G1'34+
1'350G
1'351
1'3-(G1'3+1
Note: The %ra; fator! a#o&e are #a!e% on ,16ft Hoint! of pipeline! an% "ainline
&al&e! at (16"ile !pain;'
The 0alue o- 4
f
is generally chosen -ro, Table 2/2/
For -urther discussion on the bend inde> and drag -actor, the reader is re-erred
to 6teady .l'w in Gas Pipelines listed in the Re-erence section/
&4am!le ))
.sing the 1G1 ,ethod, calculate the trans,ission -actor and -riction -actor -or gas
-lo# in an $P" 20 pipeline #ith 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness/ The -lo# rate is 200
=="CF<, gas gra0ity M 0/6, and 0iscosity M 0/00000( lb;-t*sec/ The absolute pipe
roughness is )00 d in/ 1ssu,e a bend inde> o- 60K, base pressure o- 2'/)& psia, and
base te,perature o- 60KF/
"olution
%e #ill -irst calculate the Reynolds nu,ber using ?9uation 2/&'/
$e M 0/000'))( O 200 O 20
6
O 0/6 O 2'/)& M 20,6(5,22'
23 O 0/00000( O 520
$e>t, calculate the t#o trans,ission -actors/
The -ully turbulent trans,ission -actor, using ?9uation 2/'(, is
.M'Lo
&/)O23
20/02
g20Z0/000) C
For the s,ooth pipe :one, using ?9uation 2/50, the Ion Far,an trans,ission -actor is
. M'Lo
20,6(5,22'Z
0/6
.t g20 .Z t
-3
"ol0ing this e9uation by trial and error, #e get .t M 22/2&/
Fro, Table 2/2, -or a bend inde> o- 60K, the drag -actor 4f is 0/36/
There-ore, -or the partially turbulent -lo# :one, using ?9uation 2/'3, the trans,ission
-actor is
. M ' O 0/36Log20Z 20,6(5,22' Z M22/25 Z 2/'225
O 22/2& ZZ
Fro, the abo0e t#o 0alues o- ., using the s,aller nu,ber, #e get the 1G1 trans,ission
-actor as
. M 20/02
There-ore, the corresponding -riction -actor f is -ound -ro, ?9uation 2/'2 as
or
2 M 20/02
f M 0/0200
&4am!le )*
.sing the 1G1 ,ethod, calculate the trans,ission -actor and -riction -actor -or gas -lo#
in a <$ 500 pipeline #ith 22 ,, #all thic!ness/ The -lo# rate is 6 =,&;day, gas
gra0ity M 0/6, and 0iscosity M 0/00022 Poise/ The absolute pipe roughness is 0/02
,,/ 1ssu,e a bend inde> o- 60K, base pressure o- 202 !Pa, and base te,perature o- 25KC/
For a 60 !, pipe length, calculate the upstrea, pressure needed to hold a do#nstrea,
pressure o- 5 =Pa 6absolute8/ 1ssu,e -lo# te,perature M 20KC and co,pressibility
-actor & M 0/(5/ $eglect ele0ation e--ects/
"olution
4nside dia,eter o- pipe M 500 U 2 O 22 M ')6 ,,
Gas -lo#ing te,perature M 20 P 2)& M 23& F
%e -irst calculate the Reynolds nu,ber -ro, ?9uation 2/&5/
$eM0/52&'r202 Z Z
0/6O6O206
CM22,&'),')0 Z2(( Z
4l0/00022O')6
01 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
$e>t, calculate the t#o trans,ission -actors as -ollo#s5
.M'Log2 0 r &/ )O')6 Z M 23/ )( Z
0 / 0 2 ZZ
. M'Lo
22,&'),')0 Z
0/6
t g20 . Z t
.t M 22/2&
Fro, Table 2/2, -or a bend inde> o- 60K, the drag -actor is 0/36/
There-ore, -or the partially turbulent -lo# :one, using ?9uation 2/'3, the trans,ission
-actor is
. M ' O 0/36 Log20 C 22, &'), ')0 Z M 22/&' l
2/'225 O 22/2& ZZ
.sing the s,aller o- the t#o 0alues o- ., the 1G1 trans,ission -actor is . M
23/)(
There-ore, the corresponding -riction -actor is -ound -ro, ?9uation 2/'2 as
2 M23/)(
or
f M 0/0202
.sing the General Flo# ?9uation 2/(, #e calculate the upstrea, pressure P2 as -ollo#s5
Z 6O206 M5/ )')O20* ' O23/ )(OZ
2 R :
0 / 5
^ZO')62/5
((
D
0/
6
23&O60> 0/(
P2 M 62&0 !Pa M 6/2& =Pa
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRI CTI *N 0(
2.1( WE%M!#TH EA#ATI!N
The %ey,outh e9uation is used -or high pressure, high -lo# rate, and large
dia,eter gas gathering syste,s/ This -or,ula directly calculates the -lo# rate through a
pipeline -or gi0en 0alues o- gas gra0ity, co,pressibility, inlet and outlet pressures, pipe
dia,eter, and length/ 4n ."C" units, the %ey,outh e9uation is stated as -ollo#s5
Z 2 s 2
%
8
ZZPR e P2 2
0/5
:M '&&/53 Z
P
8
G%f;e
42/ 66)
62/528
#here
: M 0olu,e -lo# rate, standard -t
&
;day 6"CF<8
3 M pipeline e--iciency, a deci,al 0alue less than or e9ual to 2/0 P
8

%
8
M base te,perature, KR 6'60 P KF8
P
2
P
2
M do#nstrea, pressure, psia
%
f
M a0erage gas -lo# te,perature, KR 6'60 P KF8
;
e
M e9ui0alent length o- pipe seg,ent, ,i
#here the e9ui0alent length ;
e
and s #ere de-ined earlier in ?9uation 2/3 and
?9uation 2/20/
y co,paring the %ey,outh e9uation #ith the General Flo# e9uation, #e can
isolate an e9ui0alent trans,ission -actor as -ollo#s5
The %ey,outh trans,ission -actor in ."C" units is
. M 22/2(648
2;6
62/5&8 4n "4 units, the %ey,outh
e9uation is as -ollo#s5
:M &/)'&5 O 20R&3 Z P8 Z 4 G%
f
;
e
& Z 42/66)
Z ZZP
2
R e s P2Z0/ 5 62/5'8
#here
: M gas -lo# rate, standard ,&;day
%
8
P
8
%
f
M a0erage gas -lo# te,perature, F 62)& P KC8
P
2
P
2
M do#nstrea, pressure, !Pa
;
e
M e9ui0alent length o- pipe seg,ent, !,
Bther sy,bols are as de-ined pre0iously/
0) GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
The %ey,outh trans,ission -actor in "4 units is
. M 6/522648
2;6
62/5&a8
Hou #ill notice that a pipeline e--iciency -actor, 3, is used in the %ey,outh
e9uation so #e can co,pare the throughput per-or,ance o- a pipeline using the
General Flo# e9uation that does not include an e--iciency -actor/
&4am!le )+
Calculate the -lo# rate using the %ey,outh e9uation in a gas pipeline syste,, 25 ,iles
long, $P" 22 pipe #ith 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness, at an e--iciency o- 0/35/ The upstrea,
pressure is 2200 psia, and the deli0ery pressure re9uired at the end o- the pipe seg,ent
is )50 psia/ .se gas gra0ity M 0/53 and 0iscosity M 0/00000( lb;-t*sec/ The -lo#ing
te,perature o- gas M )5KF, base pressure M 2'/) psia, and base te,perature M 60KF/
1ssu,e co,pressibility -actor to be 0/3'/
$eglect ele0ation di--erence along the pipe/ 7o# does this co,pare #ith the -lo# rate
calculated using the General Flo# e9uation #ith the Colebroo! -riction -actorT
1ssu,e a pipe roughness o- )00 d in/
"olution
.sing ?9uation 2/52, #e get the -lo# rate -or the %ey,outh e9uation as -ollo#s5
C 60P'60 C]0/53O6)5P'608O25O0/3'Z 22002 R )502 0/5 2
2/66)
:M'&&/5O0/35
2'/)
``O22/25
: M 26&,255,(5( "CF<
or
: M 26&/26 =="CF<
$e>t, #e #ill calculate the Reynolds nu,ber using ?9uation 2/&'/
$e M 0/000'))( O : O 0/53 O 2'/)
22/25 O 0/00000( O 520
#here : is the -lo# rate in "CF</
"i,pli-ying, #e get $e M 0/0(2& :.
"ince : is un!no#n, #e #ill -irst assu,e a trans,ission -actor . M 20 and calculate the
-lo# rate -ro, the General Flo# ?9uation 2/'/
: 2_05
520 2200 R )50
: M &(/)) O
20Z
2'/)8 0/53 O 5&5 O 25 O 0/3' O 22/25
2/5
M 202,2(',)') "CF<
0+
or
: M 202/2( =="CF<
$e>t, #e #ill calculate the Reynolds nu,ber and the trans,ission -actor based on
this -lo# rate as
$e M 0/0(2& O 202,2(',)') M 26/'5 ,illion and,
using ?9uation 2/'5,
. M R' Lo C )00 O 20R6 P 2/255 . Z g20 &/) O
22/25 26/'5 O 20
6
Z "ol0ing -or ., #e get
. M 23/03
.sing this 0alue, the re0ised -lo# rate is -ound by proportion as
23/03
: M 202/2( O 20 M 23&/0( =="CF<
Repeating the calculation o- $e and ., #e get
$e M26/'5 O 23&/0( M25/) ,illion
202/2(
and
. M R' Lo )00 O 20R6 P 2/255 .
g20
Z&/)O22/25 25/)O206
There-ore, . M 23/0(/
This is -airly close to the pre0ious 0alue o- . M 23/03E there-ore, #e #ill use this 0alue
and calculate the -lo# rate as
23/0(
: M 202/2( O M 232/3( =="CF< 20
Co,paring this result using the General Flo# e9uation #ith that calculated using the
%ey,outh e9uation, #e see that the latter e9uation is 9uite conser0ati0e/
&4am!le ),
1 natural gas trans,ission line transports &0 ,illion ,
&
;day o- gas -ro, a processing
plant to a co,pressor station site 200 !, a#ay/ The pipeline can be assu,ed to be
along a -lat terrain/ Calculate the ,ini,u, pipe dia,eter re9uired such that the
,a>i,u, pipe operating pressure is li,ited to (500 !Pa/ The deli0ery pressure desired
at the end o- the pipeline is a ,ini,u, o- 5500 !Pa/ 1ssu,e a pipeline e--iciency o-
0/35/ The gas gra0ity is 0/65, and the gas te,perature is 2(KC/ .se the %ey,outh
e9uation, considering a base te,perature M 25KC and base pressure 202 !Pa/ The gas
co,pressibility -actor & M 0/32/
0, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
"olution
The gas -lo#ing te,perature M 2( P 2)& M 232 F
%e #ill assu,e that gi0en pressures are absolute 0alues/
.pstrea, pressure M (500 !Pa 6absolute8
<o#nstrea, pressure M 5500 !Pa 6absolute8
.sing the %ey,outh ?9uation 2/52 and substituting gi0en 0alues, #e get
o/s
C Z Z (5 002 J 55002 _
&0 O 20
6
M &/)'&5 O 20
R&
O 0/35 O 2(( DZL
Z O 42/66) 202 0/65O232O200O0/32
"ol0ing -or dia,eter, 4, #e get
4 M (26/2 ,,
There-ore, the ,ini,u, dia,eter re9uired #ill be <$ (50 #ith 20 ,, #all thic!ness/
2.1) PANHAND"E A EA#ATI!N
The Panhandle 1 ?9uation #as de0eloped -or use in natural gas pipelines, incorpo*
rating an e--iciency -actor -or Reynolds nu,bers in the range o- 5 to 22 ,illion/ 4n
this e9uation, the pipe roughness is not used/ The general -or, o- the Panhandle 1
e9uation is e>pressed in ."C" units as -ollo#s5
%
2/0)((
P J E P 0/5&3'
2 s 2
: M '&5/()3Z8 2 2
P
8
G0/(5&3%f; & e
42/62
(2
6."C" units8 62/558
#here
&
;day 6"CF<8
3 M pipeline e--iciency, a deci,al 0alue less than 2/0 P
8
M base
pressure, psia
%
8
P
2
P
2
%
f
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRI CTI *N 0-
;
e
4n "4 units, the Panhandle 1 e9uation is
6;82/0)(( 0/5&3'
2s2: M '/5365 O 20R& 3P
&
e P2 42/62(2 6"4 units8 62/568
P
8
G0/(5&3%f;e&
#here
3 M pipeline e--iciency, a deci,al 0alue less than 2/0
%
8
P
8
%
f
P
2
M upstrea, pressure, !Pa 6absolute8
P
2
M do#nstrea, pressure, !Pa 6absolute8
;
e
<ue to the e>ponents in0ol0ed in this e9uation, all pressures ,ust be in !Pa/ y
co,paring the Panhandle 1 e9uation #ith the General Flo# e9uation, #e can
calculate an e9ui0alent trans,ission -actor in ."C" units as -ollo#s5
and in "4 units, it is
. M
)/22223
C :G \
0/0)&05 4 D
6."C"8 62/5)8
6NGZ0/0&05F M22/(5?
Z
Z6"48
62/5(8
"o,eti,es the trans,ission -actor is used to co,pare the results o- calculations
using the General Flo# e9uation and the Panhandle 1 e9uation/
&4am!le )-
.sing the Panhandle 1 e9uation, calculate the outlet pressure in a natural gas
pipeline, $P" 26 #ith 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness, 25 ,iles long/ The gas -lo#
rate is 200 =="CF< at an inlet pressure o- 2000 psia/ The gas gra0ity M 0/6
and 0iscosity M 0/00000( lb;-t*sec/ The a0erage gas te,perature is (0KF/
1ssu,e base pressure M 2'/)& psia and base te,perature M 60KF/ For
co,pressibility -actor &, use the C$G1 ,ethod/ 1ssu,e pipeline e--iciency o-
0/32/
00 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
"olution
The a0erage pressure,
Pa0g, needs to be calculated be-ore the co,pressibility
-actor & can be deter,ined/ "ince the inlet pressure P2 M 2,000 psia, and the
outlet pressure P2 is un!no#n, #e #ill ha0e to assu,e a 0alue o- P2 6such as
(00 psia8 and calculate
P
a0g and then calculate the 0alue o- &. Bnce & is !no#n,
-ro, the Panhandle 1 e9uation #e can calculate the outlet pressure P2/ .sing
this 0alue o- P2, a better appro>i,ation -or & is calculated -ro, a ne#
Pa0g/ This
process is repeated until successi0e 0alues o- P2 are #ithin allo#able li,its,
such as 0/5 psia/
1ssu,e P2 M (00 psia/ The a0erage pressure -ro, ?9uation 2/2' is
Pa0g M &Z2000P(00 Z2000P(00RSS8ZM 30&/) psia
$e>t, #e calculate the co,pressibility -actor & using the C$G1
,ethod/ Fro, ?9uation 2/&',
2
&M
2P 630&/)R2'/)&8O&/'''O205O62082/)(5O0/6 6(0P'608&/(25
or
& M 0/((63
Fro, Panhandle 1 ?9uation 2/55, substituting gi0en 0alues, neglecting
ele0ations, #e get
60 P '60
20)((
20002 R P2 0/5&3'
200 O 20
6
M '&5/() O 0/32 C 2'/)& 8 C60/680f5&365'0O25O0/((638D 625/582/62(2
P2 M 36(/02 psia
"ince this is di--erent -ro, the assu,ed 0alue o- P2 M (00, #e recalculate the
a0erage pressure and & using
P2 M 36(/02 psia
The re0ised a0erage pressure is
P
a0g M 2 X2000P36(/02R2000 O 36(/02Z M 3('/20 psia &
2000P36(/02 ZZ
05
.sing this 0alue o-
Pa0g,
#e recalculate & as
&M
or
2
2P 6 3('/ 20 R 2'/ )&8 O &/ ''' O 20 5 O 6 208 2/ )( 5O0/ 6 6(0P'608&/(25
& M 0/()(0
Recalculating P
2
-ro, the Panhandle 1 ?9uation 2/55, #e get
2/0)(( 0/5&3'
6 200 0 2 R P 2
200 O 20
6
M '&5/() O 0/320P' 60 C 2'/)& 8
X60/680f5&365'0O25O0/()(080 Z 625/582/62(2
"ol0ing -or P
2
,

#e get
P2 M 36(/&5 psia
This is #ithin 0/5 psi o- the pre0iously calculated 0alue/ 7ence, #e #ill not continue the
iteration any -urther/
There-ore, the outlet pressure is 36(/&5 psia/
&4am!le ).
.sing the Panhandle 1 e9uation, calculate the inlet pressure re9uired in a natural gas
pipeline, <$ &00 #ith 6 ,, #all thic!ness, 2' !, long, -or a gas -lo# rate o- &/5
=,
&
;day/ The gas gra0ity M 0/6 and 0iscosity M 0/000223 Poise/ The a0erage gas
te,perature is 20KC/ The deli0ery pressure is 6000 !Pa 6absolute8/ 1ssu,e base pressure
M 202 !Pa, base te,perature M 25KC, and co,pressibility -actor & M 0/30, #ith a pipeline
e--iciency o- 0/32/
"olution
Pipe inside dia,eter 4 M &00 U 2 O 6 M 2(( ,,
Gas -lo# te,perature M 20 P 2)& M 23& F
.sing Panhandle 1 ?9uation 2/56 and neglecting ele0ation e--ect, #e substitute
6 & 25 P 2)& C 20)(( P22 R 60002 0/5&3' 2/62(2
&/5 O 20 M '/5365 O 20
*
O 0/32
202
62((8
6 60/680/(5&3 623& > 2' > 0/38
04
GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
"ol0ing -or inlet pressure, #e get
P22U 660008
2
M 23,(22,)(&
or
P
2
M )')2 !Pa 6absolute8
2.1. PANHAND"E 1 EA#ATI!N
% 2 / 0 2 P + e P D 0 / 5 2
P
2
2
e
s
P22
)&)
8Z@ :
6 P
8
G0/362%f; & e
42/5&
The Panhandle e9uation, also !no#n
as the re0ised Panhandle e9uation, is
used in large dia,eter, high pressure
trans,ission lines/ 4n -ully turbulent -lo#,
it is -ound to be accurate -or 0alues o-
Reynolds nu,ber in the range o- ' to '0
,illion/ This e9uation in ."C" units is as
-ollo#s5
: M
6."C"
units8
62/538
#here
&
;day
6"CF<8
3 M pipeline e--iciency, a deci,al 0alue
less than 2/0
P
8
%
8
P
2
P
2

M

d
o
#
n
s
t
r
e
a
,

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
a

G

M

g
a
s

g
r
a
0
i
t
y

6
a
i
r

M

2
/
0
0
8
%
f
M a0erage gas -lo# te,perature, KR
6'60 P KF8
;
e
M e9ui0alent length o- pipe seg,ent,
,i
& M gas co,pressibility -actor,
di,ensionless
4n "4 units, the Panhandle e9uation is
Z 2/ 0 2 Z s 2 Z0 / 5 2
: M2/002 O 20
R2
3 Z %8 Z PZ
Z
ZZ G0/362%f;e&
42 / 5 & 6"4 units8 62/608
#here
: M gas -lo# rate, standard
,&;day
3 M pipeline
e--iciency, a deci,al
0alue less than 2/0 %
8

M base te,perature, F
62)& P KC8
P
8
%
f
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRI CTI *N 03
P2 M upstrea, pressure, !Pa 6absolute8
P2 M do#nstrea, pressure, !Pa 6absolute8
;
e
The e9ui0alent trans,ission -actor -or the Panhandle e9uation in ."C" is
gi0en by
Z Z0/02362
. M26/)3 Z :G ZZ6."C" units8 62/628
Z 4
4n "4 units, it is
. M23/0(3
C :G \
0/02362
6"4 units8 62/628
&4am!le )/
.sing the Panhandle e9uation, calculate the outlet pressure in a natural gas pipeline,
$P" 26 #ith 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness, 25 ,iles long/ The gas -lo# rate is 200
=="CF< at 2000 psia inlet pressure/ The gas gra0ity M 0/6 and 0iscosity M 0/00000(
lb;-t*sec/ The a0erage gas te,perature is (0KF/ 1ssu,e base pressure M 2'/)& psia and
base te,perature M 60KF/ The co,pressibility -actor & M 0/30 and pipeline e--iciency is
0/32/
"olution
Gas -lo# te,perature M (0 P '60 M 5'0KR
.sing Panhandle ?9uation 2/53, substituting the gi0en 0alues, #e get
60 P '60 Z
2/02
20002 R P2 0/52
200 O 20
6
M )&) O 0/32 C 2'/)&ZC60/680/36265'0O25O0/308D 25/5 2/5&
2000
2
U P2
2
M 60, ))(
P2 M 363/2& psia
Co,pare this #ith the results o- Panhandle 1 e9uation in ?>a,ple 25, #here the outlet
pressure P2 M 36(/&5 psia/ There-ore, the Panhandle e9uation gi0es a slightly lo#er
pressure drop co,pared to that -ro, the Panhandle 1 e9uation/ 4n other #ords,
Panhandle 1 is ,ore conser0ati0e and #ill gi0e a lo#er -lo# rate -or the
51 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
sa,e pressures co,pared to Panhandle / 4n this e>a,ple, #e use the constant
0alue o- & M 0/3, #hereas in e>a,ple 25, & #as calculated using the C$G1 e9uation as
& M 0/()(0/ 4- #e -actor this in, the result -or the outlet pressure in this e>a,ple #ill be
363/3 psia, #hich is not too di--erent -ro, the calculated 0alue o- 363/2& psia/
&4am!le )0
.sing the Panhandle e9uation, calculate the inlet pressure in a natural gas pipeline,
<$ &00 #ith 6 ,, #all thic!ness, 2' !, long/ The gas -lo# rate is &/5 =,&;day, gas
gra0ity M 0/6, and 0iscosity M 0/000223 Poise/ The a0erage gas te,perature is 20KC, and
the deli0ery pressure is 6,000 !Pa 6absolute8/ 1ssu,e base pressure M 202 !Pa, base
te,perature M 25KC, and co,pressibility -actor & M 0/30/ The pipeline e--iciency is 0/32/
"olution
4nside dia,eter o- pipe M &00 U 2 O 6 M 2(( ,,
Gas -lo# te,perature M 20 P 2)& M 23& F
$eglecting ele0ations, using Panhandle ?9uation 2/60, #e get
25 P 2)& Z2/02
&/5 O 20
6
M2/002 O 20
R2
O 0/32 C 202 Z 6 P 22R 6000
2Z0/52
60/68
0
*
362
623& O 2' O 0/38
Z 2((2/5&
"ol0ing -or the inlet pressure P2, #e get
P2
2
+ 660008
2
M 23,3'5,'63
P2 M )'(0 !Pa 6absolute8
Co,pare this #ith the results o- the Panhandle 1 e9uation in ?>a,ple 26, #here the
inlet pressure P2 M )')2 !Pa 6absolute8/ 1gain, #e see that the Panhandle e9uation
gi0es a slightly lo#er pressure drop co,pared to that obtained -ro, the Panhandle 1
e9uation/
2.19 INSTIT#TE !' GAS TECHN!"!G% 5IGT7 EA#ATI!N
The 4GT e9uation proposed by the 4nstitute o- Gas Technology is also !no#n as the
4GT distribution e9uation and is stated as -ollo#s -or ."C" units5
Z 0/ 555
:M2&6/33Z
%
8l P 22 J e s p 2 Z P
8
Z G
0/(
%
f
;e"0/ 2
42/
66)
6."C" units8
62/6&8
#here
&
;day 6"CF<8
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRI CTI *N 5(
P
8
%
8
P
2
P
2
%
f
;
e
M e9ui0alent length o- pipe seg,ent, ,i & M
gas co,pressibility -actor, di,ensionless
m= gas 0iscosity, lb;-t*s
4n "4 units, the 4GT e9uation is e>pressed as -ollo#s5
0 / 5 5 5
2 s
p
.
2
:M2/2(22 O 20
R&
3ZP Go () R o242/66)
8 f ; e"
#here
3 M pipeline e--iciency, a deci,al 0alue less than 2/0 %
8
M base
te,perature, F 62)& P KC8
P
8
%
f
P
2
P
2
;
e
m= gas 0iscosity, Poise
6"4 units8
62/6'8
&4am!le )1
.sing the 4GT e9uation, calculate the -lo# rate in a natural gas pipeline, $P" 26
#ith 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness, 25 ,i long/ The inlet and outlet pressure are 2000 psig
and (00 psig, respecti0ely/ The gas gra0ity M 0/6 and 0iscosity M 0/00000( lb;-t*s/ The
a0erage gas te,perature is (0KF, base pressure M 2'/) psia, and base te,perature M
60KF/ The co,pressibility -actor & M 0/30, and the pipeline e--iciency is 0/35/
"olution
The pressures gi0en are in psig, and they ,ust be con0erted to absolute pressures/
There-ore,
P2 M 2000 P 2'/) M 202'/) psia
P2 M (00 P 2'/) M (2'/) psia %8
M 60 P '60 M 520KR %f M (0
P '60 M 5'0KR
"ubstituting in 4GT ?9uation 2/6&, #e get
: M2&6/3 O 0/35 520 202'/ ) 2 R(2'/ ) 2 62'/)8Z60/68
0/(
O 5'0 O 25 O 6(
O 20R6 8 0 / 2 0 / 5 5 5
25/5
2/66)
: M 26&/2 O 20
6
-t
&
;day M 26&/2 =="CF<
There-ore, the -lo# rate is 26&/2 =="CF</
&4am!le *2
1 natural gas pipeline, <$ '00 #ith 6 ,, #all thic!ness, 2' !, long, is used to
transport gas at an inlet pressure o- )000 !Pa 6gauge8 and an outlet pressure o- 5500
!Pa 6gauge8/ The gas gra0ity M 0/6 and 0iscosity M 0/000223 Poise/ The a0erage gas
te,perature is 20KC/ 1ssu,e base pressure M 202 !Pa and base te,perature M 25KC/
The co,pressibility -actor & M 0/30 and pipeline e--iciency is 0/35/
a8 Calculate the -lo# rate using the 4GT e9uation/
b8 %hat are the gas 0elocities at inlet and outletT
c8 4- the 0elocity ,ust be li,ited to 20 ,;s, #hat should the ,ini,u, pipe si:e be,
assu,ing the -lo# rate and inlet pressure re,ain constantT
"olution
4nside dia,eter o- pipe 4 M '00 U 2 O 6 M &(( ,,
1ll pressures are gi0en in gauge 0alues and ,ust be con0erted to absolute 0alues/
4nlet pressure P2 M )000 P 202 M )202 !Pa 6absolute8
Butlet pressure P2 M 5500 P 202 M 5602 !Pa 6absolute8
ase te,perature %8 M 25 P 2)& M 2(( F
Flo#ing te,perature %f M 20 P 2)& M 23& F
Fro, 4GT ?9uation 2/6', #e get the -lo# rate in ,
&
;day as
: M2/2(22 O 20
R&
O 0/35Z2(( ZZ)202 2 R 5602 2
202 60/68
0/(
O 23& O 2' O 62/23 O 20@ 8 0 2 / Z0 / 5 5 5
6&((82
/66)
5+
or
: M ),665,&2( ,
&
;day M )/6) =,&;day
6a8 There-ore, the -lo# rate is )/6) =,&;day/
6b8 .sing ?9uation 2/23, #e calculate the a0erage 0elocity o- the gas at the
inlet pressure as
)/6) O 20
6
202 0/3 O 23& S
4nlet 0elocity u2 M2'/)&'3 &((
2
D62((ZZZ ;s )202 8ZM 3/)( ,
4n the preceding, #e assu,ed a constant co,pressibility -actor, & M
0/3/ "i,ilarly, at the outlet pressure, the a0erage gas 0elocity is
)/6) O 20
6
g202 0/3 O 23&
Butlet 0elocity u2 M2'/)&'3 &((
2
2((86 5602 8ZM 22/' ,;s
6c8 "ince the 0elocity ,ust be li,ited to 20 ,;s, the pipe dia,eter ,ust be
increased/ 4ncreasing the pipe dia,eter #ill also increase the outlet pressure i-
#e !eep both the -lo# rate and inlet pressure the sa,e as be-ore/ The
increased outlet pressure #ill also reduce the gas 0elocity as can be seen -ro,
?9uation 2/23/ %e #ill try a <$ '50 pipe #ith 20 ,, #all thic!ness/
4nside dia,eter o- pipe 4 M '50 U 2 O 20 M '&0 ,,
1ssu,ing P2 and : are the sa,e as be-ore, #e calculate the ne# outlet
pressure P2 -ro, 4GT ?9uation 2/6' as
0/55
6'&082/66)
: 2
)/6) O 20
6
M2/2(22 O 20
R&
O 0/35Z2(( )202 R P 2
202 60/68
0/(
O 23& O 2' O 62/23O 20R'80/2
P2 M 622( !Pa
The ne# 0elocity at the outlet #ill be
F,2 )/6'& 0 2 0 6 22((S8
Z0/3

622( &8ZM 3/0( ,;s
"ince this is less than the 20 ,;s speci-ied, the <$ '50 pipe is satis-actory/
4n the preceding calculations #e assu,ed the sa,e co,pressibility -actor -or
both inlet and outlet pressures/ 1ctually, a ,ore nearly correct solution #ould
be to calculate & using the C$G1 e9uation at both inlet and outlet conditions
and using these 0alues in the calculation o- gas 0elocities/ This is le-t as an
e>ercise -or the reader/
5, GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
2.1: SPITDG"ASS EA#ATI!N
The "pit:glass e9uation has been around -or ,any years and originally #as used in
-uel gas piping calculations/ There are t#o 0ersions o- the "pit:glass e9uation/ Bne
e9uation is -or lo# pressure 6less than or e9ual to 2 psig8 and another is -or high
pressure 6,ore than 2 psig8/ These e9uations ha0e been ,odi-ied to include a pipeline
e--iciency and co,pressibility -actor/
The lo#*pressure 6less than or e9ual to 2 psig8 0ersion o- the "pit:glass e9uation
in ."C" units is
:M&/(&3O20&
Z
8
P
8
ZP
P G
2
0/5
42/5
6."C"
units8
f
0/0&48
G%LeG(1, < P
Z
62/658
#here
&
;day 6"CF<8
P
8
%
8
P
2
P
2
%
f
M a0erage gas -lo# te,perature, KR 6'60 P KF8 ;
e

The lo#*pressure 6less than 6/3 !Pa8 0ersion o- the "pit:glass e9uation in "4
units is
:M5/6
O20R2 Z
8
P
8
%Z
ZP
2 R P2
0
/
4
2/
5
6"4
units8
G%; P
3
P
f
H <
Z
Z
62/668
#here
%
8
P
8
P
2
P
2
%
f
5-
;
e
The high*pressure 6,ore than 2 psig8 0ersion in ."C" units is as -ollo#s/
: M
Z
%
8
P22 R esP:
)23/60()?
0/5
42/5
6."C"
units8
G%
f
;
e
&(2P &/6P0/0&48 4
Z
62/6)8
#here
&
;day 6"CF<8
P
8
%
8
P2 M upstrea, pressure, psia
P2 M do#nstrea, pressure, psia
%
f
M a0erage gas -lo# te,perature, KR 6'60 P KF8 ;
e

4n "4 units, the high*pressure 6,ore than 6/3 !Pa8 0ersion o- the "pit:glass e9uation is
Z%8
2R s
2
0/5
: M2/0(25 O 20R2 P2
P
425/
6"4
32/'P
G%;2P P
8
<6/002248 Z
f
62/6(8
#here
%
8
P
8
P2 M upstrea, pressure, !Pa 6absolute8
P2 M do#nstrea, pressure, !Pa 6absolute8
%
f
M a0erage gas -lo# te,perature, F 62)& P KC8 ;
e

50 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
&4am!le *)
Calculate the -uel gas capacity o- an $P" 6 pipe, #ith an inside dia,eter o- 6/065 in/
and a total e9ui0alent length o- 2(0 -t/ The -lo#ing te,perature o- -uel gas is
60KF, and the inlet pressure is 2/0 psig/ Consider a pressure drop o- 0/) in the #ater
colu,n and the speci-ic gra0ity o- gas M 0/6/ 1ssu,e pipeline e--iciency 3 M 2/0
and co,pressibility -actor & M 2/0/ The base pressure and base te,perature are
2'/) psia and 60KF, respecti0ely/
"olution
ase te,perature M 60 P '60 M 520KR
Gas -lo#ing te,perature M 60 P '60 M 520KR
Pressure drop (P
2
+ P
2
) M2/0 R 022 O 0/'&& M 0/3)') psi
"ince this is lo# pressure, using "pit:glass ?9uation 2/65, #e get
Z 0 / 5 ( 0 : M & / ( & 3 O 2 0 & O 2 / 0 O Z
Z
0/3)')
0/6 O520 O522(
O2
0 62P 6SSSh65 P 0/0& O 6/0658
5 2 0
2'/)
6/065 2/5
: M 2,)3',('2 "CF< M 2/)3 =="CF<
There-ore, the -uel gas capacity is 2/)3 =="CF</
2.1/ M#E""ER EA#ATI!N
The =ueller e9uation is another -or, o- the -lo# rate 0s/ pressure relationship in gas
pipelines/ 4n ."C" units, it is e>pressed as -ollo#s5
Z
: M (5/)&6(3 Z %8 Z P2 2 R e
s
P2 Z
ZP G o /)& 3 2 %
;
"0/ 2 6 0 3 0/ 5 ) 5
42 /
) 2 5
6."C" units8 62/638
#here
&
;day 6"CF<8
3 M pipeline e--iciency, a deci,al 0alue less than 2/0 P
8
M base
pressure, psia
%
8
P
2
P
2
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRI CTI *N 55
% f M a0erage gas -lo# te,perature, KR 6'60 P KF8 ; e M
e9ui0alent length o- pipe seg,ent, ,i
m= gas 0iscosity, lb;-t*s
4n "4 units, the =ueller e9uation is as -ollo#s5
: M&/0&3(O20R23 6% 8 Z
4\P DD 8
P22Res Pi
0/
5)
5
42/)25
62/)0
8
G
0/)&32%;
0/2603
f e"
#here
%8 M base te,perature, F 62)& P KC8
P 8 M base pressure, !Pa
P
2
P
2
% f M a0erage gas -lo# te,perature, F 62)& P KC8 ; e
m= gas 0iscosity, cP
2.20 'RITDSCHE EA#ATI!N
0/5&( 2 2
: M '2
26((
%8ZZP2 P2 42/63 C .ZP
8
G 0/(5()% ;
f e
6."C" units8 62/)28
The Frit:sche -or,ula, de0eloped in Ger,any in 230(, has -ound e>tensi0e use in
co,pressed air and gas piping/ 4n ."C" units, it is e>pressed as -ollo#s5
1ll sy,bols are as de-ined
4n "4 units,
:M2/(2)36
l8
P Z8
be-o
re/
0/5&(
P22ResP2
Z
6"4
units8
62/)28
Z
G0/(5()% ;
f
e Z
1ll sy,bols are as de-ined be-ore/
54 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
2.21 E''ECT !' PIPE R!#GHNESS
4n the preceding sections, #e used the pipe roughness as a para,eter in the -riction
-actor and trans,ission -actor calculations/ oth the 1G1 and Colebroo!*%hite
e9uations use the pipe roughness, #hereas the Panhandle and %ey,outh e9uations do
not use the pipe roughness directly in the calculations/ 4nstead, these e9uations use a
pipeline e--iciency to co,pensate -or the internal conditions and age o- the pipe/
There-ore, #hen co,paring the predicted -lo# rates or pressures using the 1G1
or Colebroo!*%hite e9uations #ith the Panhandle or %ey,outh e9uations, #e can
adCust the pipeline e--iciency to correlate #ith the pipe roughness used in the
-or,er e9uations/
"ince ,ost gas pipelines operate in the turbulent :one, the la,inar -lo# -riction
-actor, #hich is independent o- pipe roughness, is o- little interest to us/ Concen*
trating, there-ore, on turbulent -lo#, #e see that Colebroo!*%hite ?9uation 2/'5 is
a--ected by 0ariation in pipe internal roughness/ For e>a,ple, suppose #e #ant to
co,pare an internally coated pipeline #ith an uncoated pipeline/ The internal rough*
ness o- the coated pipe ,ight be in the range o- 200 to 200 din/, #hereas the
uncoated pipe ,ight ha0e a roughness o- 600 to (00 din/ or ,ore/ 4- the pipe is
$P" 20 #ith a 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, the relati0e roughness using the lo#er
roughness 0alue is as -ollo#s5
For coated pipe,
e M 200 O 20R6 M 5/26& O 20R6 4
23
and
For uncoated pipe,
e M 600 O 20R6 M &/25)3 O 20R5 4
23
"ubstituting these 0alues o- relati0e roughness in ?9uation 2/'5 and using a
Reynolds nu,ber o- 20 ,illion, #e calculate the -ollo#ing trans,ission -actors5
. M 22/5' -or coated pipe
and
. M 23/(& -or uncoated pipe
"ince the -lo# rate is directly proportional to the trans,ission -actor ., -ro,
General Flo# ?9uation 2/' #e see that the coated pipe #ill be able to transport
22/'*23/(& ( 2&/(& M 0/0(6 M (/6L ,ore -lo# rate than the uncoated pipe, i- all other para,eters
re,ain the sa,e/
This is true in the -ully turbulent :one #here the Reynolds nu,ber has little e--ect
on the -riction -actor f and the trans,ission -actor .. 7o#e0er, in the s,ooth
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRICTI*N
53
pipe :one, pipe roughness has less e--ect on the -riction -actor and the trans,ission
-actor/ This is e0ident -ro, the =oody diagra, in Figure 2/&/
.sing a Reynolds nu,ber o- 20
6
, #e -ind -ro, the =oody diagra, in Figure 2/&,
-or coated pipe, that
f M 0/022( and . M 2(/'2 and,
-or the uncoated pipe,
f M 0/0222 and . M 2(/20
There-ore, the increase in -lo# rate in this case #ill be
2(/'2R2(/20 M0/02)M2/)L
2(/20
Thus, the i,pact o- pipe roughness is less in the s,ooth pipe :one or -or a lo#er
Reynolds nu,ber/ 1 si,ilar co,parison can be ,ade using the 1G1 e9uation/
Figure 2/' sho#s the e--ect o- pipe roughness on the pipeline -lo# rate consid*
ering the 1G1 and Colebroo!*%hite e9uations/ The graph is based on $P" 20 pipe,
0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, 220 ,iles long, #ith 2200 psig upstrea, pressure and (00
psig do#nstrea, pressure/ The -lo#ing te,perature o- gas is )0KF/
4t can be seen that as the pipe roughness is increased -ro, 200 to (00 din/, the
-lo# rate decreases -ro, 22' =="CF< to 206 =="CF< -or the Colebroo!*%hite
e9uation and -ro, 220 =="CF< to 236 =="CF< -or the 1G1 e9uation/
),1
(41 IIIIIIIIIIIIII
)11 ,11 011 411 (111
Ro$;hne!!, "iroinhe!
'i4ure 2.( Effet of pipe ro$;hne!!'
41 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
%e can there-ore conclude that decreasing the pipe roughness directly results in a
throughput increase in a pipeline/ 7o#e0er, the cost o- internally coating a pipe to
reduce the pipe roughness ,ust be #eighed against the re0enue increase due to
enhanced -lo# rate/ %e #ill re0isit this issue in Chapter 20, #hen #e discuss pipeline
econo,ics/
2.22 C!MPARIS!N !' '"!W EA#ATI!NS
4n the preceding sections, #e calculated the -lo# rates and pressures in gas pipelines
using the 0arious -lo# e9uations/ ?ach e9uation is slightly di--erent -ro, the other,
and so,e e9uations consider the pipeline e--iciency #hile others use an internal pipe
roughness 0alue/ 7o# do these e9uations co,pare #hen predicting -lo# rates
through a gi0en pipe si:e #hen the upstrea, or do#nstrea, pressure is held con*
stantT Bb0iously, so,e e9uations #ill predict higher -lo# rates -or the sa,e
pressures than others/ "i,ilarly, i- #e start #ith a -i>ed upstrea, pressure in a pipe
seg,ent at a gi0en -lo# rate, these e9uations #ill predict di--erent do#nstrea,
pressures/ This indicates that so,e e9uations calculate higher pressure drops -or the
sa,e -lo# rate than others/
Figure 2/5 and Figure 2/6 sho# so,e o- these co,parisons #hen using the 1G1,
Colebroo!*%hite, Panhandle, and %ey,outh e9uations/
4n Figure 2/5, #e consider a pipeline 200 ,i long, $P" 26 #ith 0/250 in/ #all
thic!ness, operating at a -lo# rate o- 200 =="CF</ The gas -lo#ing te,perature is
(0KF/ %ith the upstrea, pressure -i>ed at 2'00 psig, the do#nstrea, pressure #as
calculated using the di--erent -lo# e9uations/ y e>a,ining Figure 2/5, it is clear that
the highest pressure drop is predicted by the %ey,outh e9uation and the lo#est
pressure drop is predicted by the Panhandle e9uation/ 4t ,ust be noted that #e
Panhan%le 8 Panhan%le A Cole#rooJ6=hite AGA
=ey"o$th
(11'11
Di!tane, "i
'i4ure 2.) Co"pari!on of flo? eK$ation!'
PRESSURE DR*P DUE T* FRICTI*N 4(
=ey"o$th
A G A Cole#rooJ6=hite
Panhan%le 8 Panhan%le A
'i4ure 2.. Up!trea" pre!!$re! for &ario$! flo? eK$ation!'
used a pipe roughness o- )00 din/ -or both the 1G1 and Colebroo! e9uations, #hereas a
pipeline e--iciency o- 0/35 #as used in the Panhandle and %ey,outh e9uations/
Figure 2/6 sho#s a co,parison o- the -lo# e9uations -ro, a di--erent perspecti0e/
4n this case, #e calculated the upstrea, pressure re9uired -or an $P" &0 pipeline, 200
,iles long, holding the deli0ery pressure constant at (00 psig/ The upstrea, pressure
re9uired -or 0arious -lo# rates, ranging -ro, 200 to 600 =="CF<, #as calculated
using the -i0e -lo# e9uations/ 1gain it can be seen that the %ey,outh e9uation
predicts the highest upstrea, pressure at any -lo# rate, #hereas the Panhandle 1
e9uation calculates the least pressure/ %e there-ore conclude that the ,ost conser*
0ati0e -lo# e9uation that predicts the highest pressure drop is the %ey,outh e9uation
and the least conser0ati0e -lo# e9uation is Panhandle 1/
2.2$ S#MMAR%
4n this chapter #e introduced the 0arious ,ethods o- calculating the pressure drop in a
pipeline transporting gas and gas ,i>tures/ The ,ore co,,only used e9uations -or
pressure drop 0s/ -lo# rate and pipe si:e #ere discussed and illustrated using e>a,ple
proble,s/ The e--ect o- ele0ation changes #as e>plained, and the concepts o- the
Reynolds nu,ber, -riction -actor, and trans,ission -actor #ere introduced/ The
i,portance o- the =oody diagra, and ho# to calculate the -riction -actor -or la,inar
and turbulent -lo# #ere e>plained/ %e co,pared the ,ore co,,only used pressure
drop e9uations, such as 1G1, Colebroo!*%hite, %ey,outh, and Panhandle
e9uations/ The use o- a pipeline e--iciency in co,paring 0arious e9uations #as
illustrated using an e>a,ple/ The a0erage 0elocity o- gas -lo# #as introduced, and the
li,iting 0alue o- erosional 0elocity #as discussed/
PR!1"EMS
2/ 1 gas pipeline, $P" 2( #ith 0/&)5 in/ #all thic!ness, transports natural gas
6speci-ic gra0ity M 0/68 at a -lo# rate o- 260 =="CF< at an inlet te,perature o-
60KF/ 1ssu,ing isother,al -lo#, calculate the 0elocity o- gas at the inlet and outlet o-
the pipe i- the inlet pressure is 2200 psig and the outlet pressure is )00 psig/ The
base pressure and base te,perature are 2'/) psia and 60KF, respecti0ely/ 1ssu,e
the co,pressibility -actor & M 0/35/ %hat is the pipe length -or these pressures, i-
ele0ations are neglectedT
2/ 1 natural gas pipeline, <$ '00 #ith 20 ,, #all thic!ness, transports &/2 =,&;
day/ The speci-ic gra0ity o- gas is 0/6 and 0iscosity is 0/00022 Poise/ Calculate the
0alue o- the Reynolds nu,ber/ 1ssu,e the base te,perature and base pressure are
25 C and 202 !Pa, respecti0ely/
&/ 1 natural gas pipeline, $P" 20 #ith 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, 50 ,iles long,
transports 220 =="CF</ The speci-ic gra0ity o- gas is 0/6 and 0iscosity is
0/00000( lb;-t*s/ Calculate the -riction -actor using the Colebroo! e9uation/ 1ssu,e
absolute pipe roughness M )50 din/ The base te,perature and base pressure are
60KF and 2'/) psia, respecti0ely/ %hat is the upstrea, pressure -or an outlet
pressure o- (00 psigT
'/ For a gas pipeline -lo#ing &/5 =,
&
;day gas o- speci-ic gra0ity 0/6 and 0iscosity o-
0/000223 Poise, calculate the -riction -actor and trans,ission -actor, assu,ing a
<$ '00 pipeline, 20 ,, #all thic!ness, and internal roughness o- 0/025 ,,/ The
base te,perature and base pressure are 25KC and 202 !Pa, respecti0ely/ 4- the
-lo# rate is increased by 50L, #hat is the i,pact on the -riction -actor and
trans,ission -actorT 4- the pipe length is '( !,, #hat is the outlet pressure -or
an inlet pressure o- 3000 !PaT
5/ 1 gas pipeline -lo#s 220 =="CF< gas o- speci-ic gra0ity 0/65 and 0iscosity o-
0/00000( lb;-t*s/ Calculate, using the ,odi-ied Colebroo!*%hite e9uation, the
-riction -actor and trans,ission -actor, assu,ing an $P" 20 pipeline, 0/&)5 in/
#all thic!ness, and internal roughness o- )00 din/ The base te,perature and base
pressure are 60KF and 2'/) psia, respecti0ely/
6/ .sing the 1G1 ,ethod, calculate the trans,ission -actor and -riction -actor -or
gas -lo# in an $P" 20 pipeline #ith 0/&)5 in/ #all thic!ness/ The -lo# rate is
250 =="CF<, gas gra0ity M 0/6, and 0iscosity M 0/00000( lb;-t*sec/ The absolute
pipe roughness is 600 din/ 1ssu,e a bend inde> o- 60K, base pressure M
2'/)& psia, and base te,perature M 60KF/ 4- the -lo# rate is doubled, #hat pipe
si:e is needed to !eep both inlet and outlet pressures the sa,e as that at the
original -lo# rateT
)/ 1 natural gas trans,ission line transports ' ,illion ,
&
;day o- gas -ro, a processing
plant to a co,pressor station site 200 !, a#ay/ The pipeline can be assu,ed to be
along a -lat terrain/ Calculate the ,ini,u, pipe dia,eter re9uired such that the
,a>i,u, pipe operating pressure is li,ited to (500 !Pa/ The deli0ery pressure
desired at the end o- the pipeline is a ,ini,u, o- 5500 !Pa/ 1ssu,e a pipeline
e--iciency o- 0/32/ The gas gra0ity is 0/60, and the gas te,perature is 2(KC/ .se
the %ey,outh e9uation, considering a base te,perature M 25KC and base pressure M
202 !Pa/ The gas co,pressibility -actor & M 0/30/
4+
(/ .sing the Panhandle e9uation, calculate the outlet pressure in a natural gas
pipeline, $P" 26 #ith 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness, 25 ,iles long/ The gas -lo# rate is
220 =="CF< at 2200 psia inlet pressure/ The gas gra0ity M 0/6 and 0iscosity M
0/00000( lb;-t*sec/ The a0erage gas te,perature is (0KF/ 1ssu,e the base pressure M
2'/)& psia and base te,perature M 60KF/ The co,pressibility -actor & M 0/30 and
pipeline e--iciency is 0/35/
RE'ERENCES
2/ $ayyar, =/L/, Piping Hand8''5, )th ed/, =cGra#*7ill, $e# Hor!, 2000/
2/ au,eister, T/, ?d/, 6tandard Hand8''5 f'r echanical 3ngineers, )th ed/, =cGra#*
7ill, $e# Hor!, 236)/
&/ Liu, 7/, Pipeline 3ngineering, CRC Press, oca Raton, FL, 200&/
'/ %esta#ay, C/R/ and Loo,is, 1/%/, 7amer'n Hydraulic 4ata, 26th ed/, 4ngersoll*
Rand, =ont0ale, $D, 23(2/
2/ .l'w 'f .luids thr'ugh Valves, .ittings and Pipe, Crane Co,pany, $e# Hor!, 23)6/
5/ =cCain, %/</ Dr/, %he Pr'perties 'f Petr'leum .luids, Petroleu, Publishing Co,*
pany, Tulsa, BF, 23)&/
)/ =ohitpour, =/, Golshan, 7/, and =urray, 1/, Pipeline 4esign and 7'nstructi'n, 2nd
ed/, 1"=? Press, $e# Hor!, 200&/
2/ 3ngineering 4ata *''5, 20th ed/, Gas Processors "uppliers 1ssociation, Tulsa, BF,
233'/
&/ Pipeline 4esign f'r Hydr'car8'n Gases and ;i?uids, 1,erican "ociety o- Ci0il
?ngineers, $e# Hor!, 23)5/
'/ 6teady .l'w in Gas Pipelines, Contract Report $o/ 20, Duly 2365, Pipeline Research
Council 4nternational, 7ouston, Tg, 2365/
(/ Fat:, </L/ et al/, Hand8''5 'f Iatural Gas 3ngineering, =cGra#*7ill, $e# Hor!,
2353/
CHAPTER $
Pressure ReEuire- to Transport
4n this chapter #e #ill e>tend the use o- the concepts o- pressure drop calculations
de0eloped in Chapter 2 to deter,ine the total pressure re9uired -or transporting gas in
a pipeline under 0arious con-igurations, such as series and parallel pipelines/ %e #ill
identi-y the 0arious co,ponents that ,a!e up this total pressure and analy:e their
i,pact on gas pipeline pressures/ The e--ect o- inter,ediate deli0ery 0olu,es and
inCection rates along a gas pipeline, the i,pact o- contract deli0ery pressures, and the
necessity o- regulating pressures using a control 0al0e or pressure regulators #ill also be
analy:ed/ Ther,al e--ects due to heat trans-er bet#een the gas and the surrounding soil
in a buried pipeline, soil te,peratures and ther,al conducti0ities, and the Doule*
Tho,pson e--ect #ill be introduced #ith re-erence to co,,ercial hydraulic si,ulation
,odels/ ?9ui0alent lengths in series piping and e9ui0alent dia,eters in parallel piping
#ill be e>plained/ %e #ill co,pare di--erent pipe looping scenarios to i,pro0e pipeline
throughput and re0ie# the concept o- the hydraulic pressure gradient/ Calculation
,ethodology -or line pac! in a gas pipeline #ill also be discussed/
$.1 T!TA" PRESS#RE DR!P REA#IRED
4n the -lo# o- inco,pressible -luids such as #ater, the pressure re9uired to transport a
speci-ied 0olu,e o- -luid -ro, point 1 to point #ill consist o- the -ollo#ing
co,ponents5
2/ Frictional co,ponent
2/ ?le0ation co,ponent
&/ Pipe deli0ery pressure
4n addition, in so,e cases #here the pipeline ele0ation di--erences are drastic, #e
,ust also ta!e into account the ,ini,u, pressure in a pipeline such that 0apori:ation
o- li9uid does not occur/ The latter results in t#o*phase -lo# in the pipeline, #hich
causes higher pressure drop and, there-ore, ,ore pu,ping po#er re9uire,ent in
addition to possible da,age to pu,ping e9uip,ent/ Thus, single*phase
inco,pressible
4-
40 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
-luids ,ust be pu,ped such that the pressure at any point in the pipeline does not
drop belo# the 0apor pressure o- the li9uid/
%hen pu,ping gases, #hich are co,pressible -luids, the three co,ponents listed in
the preceding section also contribute to the total pressure re9uired/ ?0en though the
relationship bet#een the total pressure re9uired and the pipeline ele0ation is not
straight-or#ard 6as in li9uid -lo#8, the dependency still e>ists and #ill be de,on*
strated using an e>a,ple proble,/
Going bac! to the case o- a li9uid pipeline, suppose the total pressure re9uired to
pu,p a gi0en 0olu,e is 2000 psig and it is co,posed o- the -ollo#ing co,ponents5
2/ Frictional co,ponent M 600 psig
2/ ?le0ation co,ponent M &00 psig
&/ <eli0ery pressure M 200 psig
%e #ill no# discuss each o- these co,ponents that ,a!e up the total pressure
re9uired by co,paring the situation bet#een a li9uid pipeline and a gas pipeline/
$.2 'RICTI!NA" E''ECT
The -rictional e--ect results -ro, the -luid 0iscosity and pipe roughness/ 4t is si,ilar
in li9uid and gas -lo#/ The e--ect o- -riction #as discussed in Chapter 2, #here #e
introduced the internal roughness o- pipe and ho# the -riction -actor and trans,ission
-actor #ere calculated using the Colebroo!*%hite and 1G1 e9uations/ %e also dis*
cussed ho# the %ey,outh and Panhandle e9uations too! into account the internal
conditions and age o- the pipe by utili:ing a pipeline e--iciency -actor rather than a
-riction -actor/ The ,agnitude o- the pressure drop due to -riction in a gas pipeline is
generally held to s,aller 0alues in co,parison #ith li9uid pipelines/ This is because
e--icient gas pipeline transportation re9uires !eeping the a0erage gas pressure as high
as possible/ 1s pressure drops due to e>pansion o- gas, there is loss in e--iciency/ The
lo#er the pressure at the do#nstrea, end, the higher #ill be the co,pression ratio
re9uired 6hence, the higher the 7P8 to boost the pressure -or ship,ent do#nstrea, to
the ne>t co,pressor station in a long*distance gas pipeline/ 4n this chapter #e #ill
continue to calculate the pressure drop due to -riction in 0arious pipe con-igurations
that include -lo# inCection, deli0eries, and series and parallel piping/
$.$ E''ECT !' PIPE"INE E"EATI!N
The ele0ation co,ponent re-erred to in "ection &/2 is due to the di--erence in
ele0ation along the pipeline that necessitates additional pressure -or raising the -luid
in the pipeline -ro, one point to another/ B- course, a drop in ele0ation #ill ha0e the
opposite e--ect o- a rise in ele0ation/
The ele0ation co,ponent o- &00 psig in the preceding e>a,ple depends upon the
static ele0ation di--erence bet#een the beginning o- the pipeline, 1, and the deli0ery
point, , and the li9uid speci-ic gra0ity/ 4n the case o- a gas pipeline, the
PRESSURE RECUI RED T* TRANSP*RT
45
ele0ation co,ponent #ill depend upon the static ele0ation di--erences bet#een 1 and
, as #ell as the gas gra0ity/ 7o#e0er, the relationship bet#een these para,eters is
,ore co,ple> in a gas pipeline co,pared to a li9uid pipeline/ The rise and -all in
ele0ations bet#een the origin 1 and the ter,inus ha0e to be accounted -or
separately and su,,ed up according to "ection 2/' in Chapter 2/ Further, co,pared to
a li9uid, the gas gra0ity is se0eral orders o- ,agnitude lo#er and, hence, the
in-luence o- ele0ation is s,aller in a pipeline that transports gas/ Generally, i- #e
#ere to brea! do#n the total pressure re9uired in a gas pipeline into the three
co,ponents discussed earlier, #e #ould -ind that the ele0ation co,ponent is 0ery
s,all/ Let us illustrate this using an e>a,ple/
&4am!le )
1 gas pipeline, $P" 26 #ith 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness, 50 ,i long, transports natural
gas 6speci-ic gra0ity M 0/6 and 0iscosity M 0/00000( lb;-t*s8 at a -lo# rate o-
200 =="CF< at an inlet te,perature o- 60KF/ 1ssu,ing isother,al -lo#, calculate
the inlet pressure re9uired i- the re9uired deli0ery pressure at the pipeline
ter,inus is ()0 psig/ The base pressure and base te,perature are 2'/) psig
and 60KF, respecti0ely/ .se the Colebroo! e9uation #ith pipe roughness o- 0/000)
in/
Case 1JConsider no ele0ation changes along the pipeline length/
Case JConsider ele0ation changes as -ollo#s5 inlet ele0ation o- 200 -t and ele0ation at
deli0ery point o- '50 -t, #ith ele0ation at the ,idpoint o- 250 -t/
"olution
4nside dia,eter o- pipe < M 26 U 2 O 0/250 M 25/5 in/
First, #e calculate the Reynolds nu,ber -ro, ?9uation 2/&'5
2'/ ) ZZ 0/ 6 O 200 O SSSSS20 6 C
$ M 0/000'))( M 6,5&5,66'
X60P'60 0/00000( O 25/5
$e>t, using Colebroo! ?9uation 2/&3, #e calculate the -riction -actor as
2 Z 0/ 000) 2/ 52 Z
M R2Log
20
ZZ &/) O 25/5 P 65&566'f Z
"ol0ing by trial and error, #e get
f M 0/0203
There-ore, the trans,ission -actor is, using ?9uation 2/'2,
.M 2 M 23/235'
0/0203
44 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
To calculate the co,pressibility -actor &, the a0erage pressure is re9uired/ "ince the
inlet pressure is un!no#n, #e #ill calculate an appro>i,ate 0alue o- & using a
0alue o- 220L o- the deli0ery pressure -or the a0erage pressure/
The a0erage pressure is
Pa0g M 2/2 O 6()0 P 2'/)8 M 3)&/2) psia
.sing C$G1 ?9uation 2/&', #e calculate the 0alue o- the co,pressibility -actor as
& M 2Z M 0/(623
r
63)&/2) R2'/)8 O&'''006208 2/)(5O0/6
2Z L l 520&/(25 2Z Case
1
"ince there is no ele0ation di--erence bet#een the beginning o- the pipeline
and the end o- the pipeline, the ele0ation co,ponent in ?9uation 2/) can be
neglected, and e
s
M 2/
The outlet pressure is
P2 M ()0 P2'/) M (('/) psia/
Fro, General Flo# ?9uation 2/', substituting the gi0en 0alues, #e get
< :
200O206M&(/))O23/235'r 520 X P 22 J(('/) D 0/5 625/582/5
Z2'/) 0/6 O 520 O 50 O 0/(623 D
There-ore, the upstrea, pressure is
P2 M 333/30 psia M 3(5/20 psig
.sing this 0alue o- P2, #e calculate the ne# a0erage pressure using ?9uation 2/2'5
Pa0g M 2Z333/3P(('/)R333/3 O
(('/)

Z
3'&/') psia
&Z333/3P(('/) ZZ
co,pared to 3)&/2) #e used -or calculating &. Recalculating & using the ne#
0alue o- Pa0g, #e get
& M 2Z M 0/(666
r
63'&/') R2'/)8 O&'''006208 2/)(5O0/62Z L
l 520&/(25
2Z
Ll
Ll
43
This co,pares #ith 0/(623 #e calculated earlier -or &. %e #ill no# recalculate the
inlet pressure using this 0alue o- &. Fro, General Flo# ?9uation 2/', #e get
< :
200O206M&(/))O23/235'r520 X P 22 J(('/) D 0/5 625/582/5
Z2'/) 0/6 O 520 O 50 O 0/(666 D
"ol0ing -or the upstrea, pressure, #e get
P2 M 2000/&6 psia M 3(5/66 psig
This is close enough to the pre0iously calculated 0alue 3(5/20 psig, and no -urther
iteration is needed/ There-ore, the pressure re9uired at the beginning o- the
pipeline in case 1 is 3(5/66 psig #hen the ele0ation di--erence is :ero/
%e #ill no# calculate the pressure re9uired, ta!ing into account the gi0en
ele0ations at the beginning, ,idpoint, and end o- the pipeline/
Case
%e #ill use & M 0/(666 throughout, as in case 1/
.sing ?9uation 2/20, the ele0ation adCust,ent -actor is -irst calculated -or each o-
the t#o seg,ents/
For the -irst seg,ent, -ro, ,ilepost 0/0 to ,ilepost 25/0, #e get
s2 M 0/0&)5 O 0/6
25 R20
Z0/00)
5
52
0 O
0/(
666
ZZ
"i,ilarly, -or the second seg,ent, -ro, ,ilepost 25/0 to ,ilepost 50/0, #e get
s 2 M 5 0/0&) O
0/6Z'50 R 200 Z0/02)5
520 O 0/(666 ZZ
There-ore, the adCust,ent -or ele0ation is, using ?9uation 2/22,
e0/00)5 R2
< M M 2/00&( -or the -irst seg,ent
0/00)5
and
e0/02)5R2
< M M 2/00(( -or the second seg,ent 0/02)5
31 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
For the entire length,
s 2 M 0/0&)5 O 0/6Z
'50R200
0/02)5
520 O 0/(666 C M
The e9ui0alent length -ro, ?9uation 2/2& is then
;e M 2/00&( O 25 P 2/00(( O 25 O e0/00)5 M 50/50'3 ,i/
There-ore, #e see that the e--ect o- the ele0ation is ta!en into account partly
by increasing the pipe length -ro, 50 ,i to 50/50 ,i, appro>i,ately/
"ubstituting in ?9uation 2/), #e get
05
200O206M&(/))O23/235'62'/)520ZZ
P22Re0/02)5((')2 Z 25/5 2/5 Z
4l 0/6 O 520 O 50/50 O 0/(666 Z
"ol0ing -or the inlet pressure P,
2
P2 M 200(/&' psia M 33&/6' psig
Thus, the pressure re9uired at the beginning o- the pipeline in case is 33&/6'
psig, ta!ing into account ele0ation di--erence along the pipeline/ Co,pare this
#ith 3(5/66 calculated ignoring the ele0ation di--erences/
For si,plicity, #e assu,e the sa,e 0alue o- & in the preceding calculations as
in the pre0ious case/ To be correct, #e should recalculate & based on the
a0erage pressure and repeat calculations until the results are #ithin 0/2 psi/
This is le-t as an e>ercise -or the reader/
4t can be seen -ro, the preceding calculations that, due to an ele0ation
di--erence o- &50 -t 6'50 -t R 200 -t8 bet#een the deli0ery point and the
beginning o- the pipeline, the re9uired pressure is appro>i,ately ( psig
633&/6' psig R 3(5/66 psig8 ,ore/ 4n a li9uid line, the e--ect o- ele0ation #ould
ha0e been ,ore/ The ele0ation di--erence o- &50 -t in a #ater line #ould result
in an increased pressure o-
&50 O 0/'&& M 252 psi, appro>i,ately, at the upstrea, end/
$.( E''ECT !' CHANGING PIPE DE"IER% PRESS#RE
The deli0ery pressure co,ponent discussed in "ection &/2 is also si,ilar to that
bet#een li9uid and gas pipelines/ The higher the pressure desired at the deli0ery end
or ter,inus o- the pipeline, the higher #ill be the total pressure re9uired at the
upstrea, end o- the pipeline/
3(
The i,pact o- changing the deli0ery pressure is not linear in the case o- a
co,pressible -luid such as natural gas/ For e>a,ple, in a li9uid pipeline, changing the
deli0ery pressure -ro, 200 to 200 psig #ill si,ply increase the re9uired pressure at
the pipe inlet by the sa,e a,ount/ Thus, suppose 2000 psig #as the re9uired inlet
pressure in a li9uid pipeline, at a certain -lo# rate and at a deli0ery pressure o- 200
psig/ %hen the deli0ery pressure re9uired is increased to 200 psig, the inlet pressure
#ill increase to e>actly 2200 psig/ %e #ill no# e>plore the e--ect o- changing
the contract deli0ery pressure at the end o- a gas pipeline/
4n li9uid pipelines, an increase or decrease in the deli0ery pressure #ill propor*
tionately increase or decrease the upstrea, pressure/ 4n a gas pipeline, the increase
and decrease in the upstrea, pressure #ill not be proportionate due to the nonlinear
nature o- the gas pressure drop/ This #ill be e>plained in ,ore detail in "ection &/3 in
this chapter/
"uppose that in the preceding ?>a,ple 2 6neglecting ele0ation change8, the
deli0ery pressure re9uired increases -ro, ()0 to 350 psig/ 4- pressure 0ariations
#ere linear, as in a li9uid pipeline, #e #ould e>pect the re9uired inlet pressure to
increase -ro, 3(5/66 to 3(5/66 P 6350 R ()08 M 2066 psig, appro>i,ately/ 7o#e0er,
this is incorrect because the pressure 0ariation is not linear in gas pipelines/ %e #ill
no# calculate the re9uired inlet pressure #hen the deli0ery pressure is increased -ro,
()0 to 350 psig/
1ll para,eters in case 1 are the sa,e e>cept -or the deli0ery pressure/ The
increased deli0ery pressure #ill cause the co,pressibility -actor to change slightly due to
the change in a0erage pressure/ 7o#e0er, -or si,plicity, #e #ill assu,e &M 0/(666, as
be-ore/
The ne# deli0ery pressure is
P2 M 350 P 2'/) M 36'/) psia
"ubstituting in General Flo# ?9uation 2/', #e get
62'/)200 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 23/235' Z6 0/6 O P
2
2
R36'/) 520 O 50 O 2 0/(666 C 0/5 25/52/5
There-ore,
P2 M 20)2/)) psia M 205)/0) psig
Thus, the pressure re9uired at the beginning o- the pipeline is appro>i,ately
205) psig/ This co,pares #ith a 0alue o- 2066 psig #e calculated i- the pressure
0ariation #ere linear/ 4n general, -or a gas pipeline, i- the deli0ery pressure is
increased by iP, the inlet pressure #ill increase by less than iP/ "i,ilarly, i- the
deli0ery pressure is decreased by iP, the inlet pressure #ill decrease by less than iP/
%e #ill illustrate this using the preceding e>a,ple/
"uppose in case 1, the deli0ery pressure #as decreased -ro, ()0 to (00 psig/ 4-
pressure 0ariation #ere linear, #e #ould e>pect the pipe inlet pressure to decrease
3) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
by )0 psig to 63(5/66 U )08 M 326 psig, appro>i,ately/ 7o#e0er, as indicated earlier,
this is incorrect/ %e #ill no# calculate the actual inlet pressure using the General
Flo# e9uation considering the reduced outlet pressure o- (00 psig/
1ll para,eters in case 1 are the sa,e e>cept -or the deli0ery pressure/ The
decreased deli0ery pressure #ill cause the co,pressibility -actor to change slightly
due to the change in a0erage pressure/ 7o#e0er, -or si,plicity, #e #ill assu,e & M
0/(666, as be-ore/
$e# deli0ery pressure P
2
M (00 P 2'/) M (2'/) psia
"ubstituting in General Flo# ?9uation 2/', #e get
62'/) 2 RSSSSS2SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS0/5200 O 206 M &(/)) O 23/235'
8Z60 /6 O 520O 50 O 0/(6668 25/52&
There-ore,
P
2
M 3&3/0& psia M 32'/&& psig
Thus, the pressure re9uired at the beginning o- the pipeline is 32'/&& psig/ This
co,pares #ith a 0alue o- 326 psig i- the pressure 0ariation #ere linear/ There-ore, by
decreasing the deli0ery pressure by )0 psig, the inlet pressure decreases by less than
)0 psig/
%e can per-or, a si,ilar analysis by changing the inlet pressure by a -i>ed
a,ount and calculating the e--ect on the pipe deli0ery pressure/ 1s be-ore, consid*
ering no ele0ation changes, an inlet pressure o- 3(5/66 psig results in a deli0ery
pressure o- ()0 psig/ "uppose #e decrease the inlet pressure to 300 psig 6a reduction
o- (5/66 psig8E i- pressures #ere linear, #e #ould e>pect the deli0ery pressure to drop
to 6()0 U (5/668 M )('/&' psig/ 1ctually, #e #ill see that the deli0ery pressure #ould
drop to a nu,ber lo#er than this/ 4n other #ords, decreasing the inlet pressure by iP
reduces the outlet pressure by ,ore than iP/
Follo#ing the pre0ious ,ethodology, #e calculate the re0ised deli0ery pressure
by assu,ing the sa,e & M 0/(666 -or si,plicity/
$e# inlet pressure M 300 P 2'/) M 32'/) psia
"ubstituting in General Flo# ?9uation 2/', #e calculate the outlet pressure as
S @
200 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 23/235'
SSSSSSS 0/6 O 520 O 50 > 2 0/(6668 0/5 25/52/5
62'/)
There-ore,
P
2
M )(6/5' psia M ))2/(' psig
PRESSURE RECUIRED T* TRANSP*RT
3+
Thus, the deli0ery pressure is reduced by 6()0 U ))2/('8 M 3(/26 psig, #hereas the
inlet pressure #as reduced by only (5/66 psig/
4n general, i- the inlet pressure is decreased by iP, the deli0ery pressure #ill
decrease by m're than iP/ Bn the other hand, i- the inlet pressure is increased by
iP, the deli0ery pressure #ill increase by m're than iP/
There-ore, i- the inlet pressure is increased -ro, 3(5/66 to 20(5/66 psig 6an
increase o- 200 psig8, the deli0ery pressure #ill increase -ro, ()0 psig to a nu,ber
larger than 3)0 psig/
$.) PIPE"INE WITH INTERMEDIATE INFECTI!NS
AND DE"IERIES
1 pipeline in #hich gas enters at the beginning o- the pipeline and the sa,e 0olu,e
e>its at the end o- the pipeline is a pipeline #ith no inter,ediate inCection or
deli0eries/ %hen portions o- the inlet 0olu,e are deli0ered at 0arious points along the
pipeline and the re,aining 0olu,e is deli0ered at the end o- the pipeline, #e call this
syste, a pipeline #ith inter,ediate deli0ery points/ 1 ,ore co,ple> case #ith gas
-lo# into the pipeline 6inCection8 at 0arious points along its length co,bined #ith
deli0eries at other points is sho#n in Figure &/2/ 4n such a pipeline syste,, the
pressure re9uired at the beginning point 1 #ill be calculated by considering the
pipeline bro!en into seg,ents 1, C, etc/
1nother piping syste, can consist o- gas -lo# at the inlet o- the pipeline along
#ith ,ultiple pipe branches ,a!ing deli0eries o- gas, as sho#n in Figure &/2/
4n this syste,, pipe 1 has a certain 0olu,e, :
2
, -lo#ing through it/ 1t point ,
another pipeline, C, brings in additional 0olu,es resulting in a 0olu,e o- (:
2
P :2)
-lo#ing through section </ 1t <, a branch pipe, <?, deli0ers a 0olu,e o- :
&
to a
custo,er location, ?/ The re,aining 0olu,e (:
2
P :
2
+ :
&
) -lo#s -ro, < to F through
pipe seg,ent <F to a custo,er location at F/
4n the subse9uent sections, #e #ill analy:e pipelines #ith inter,ediate -lo#
deli0eries, inCections, as #ell as branch pipes, as sho#n in Figure &/2 and Figure &/2/
The obCecti0es in all cases #ill be to calculate the pressures and -lo# rates through
the 0arious pipe sections and to deter,ine pipe si:es re9uired to li,it pressure drop
in certain pipe seg,ents/
'i4ure $.1 Pipeline ?ith inHetion an% %eli&erie!'
3, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
'i4ure $.2 Pipeline ?ith #ranhe!'
&4am!le *
1 250 ,i long natural gas pipeline consists o- se0eral inCections and deli0eries as
sho#n in Figure &/&/ The pipeline is $P" 20, has 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, and
has an inlet 0olu,e o- 250 =="CF</ 1t points 6,ilepost 208 and C
6,ilepost (08, 50 =="CF< and )0 =="CF<, respecti0ely, are deli0ered/ 1t
< 6,ilepost 2008, gas enters the pipeline at 60 =="CF</ 1ll strea,s o- gas
,ay be assu,ed to ha0e a speci-ic gra0ity o- 0/65 and a 0iscosity o- (/0 O 20
R6
lb;-t*s/ The pipe is internally coated 6to reduce -riction8, resulting in an absolute
roughness o- 250 d in/ 1ssu,e a constant gas -lo# te,perature o- 60KF and
base pressure and base te,perature o- 2'/) psia and 60KF, respecti0ely/ .se a
constant co,pressibility -actor o- 0/(5 throughout/ $eglect ele0ation
di--erences along the pipeline/
a8 .sing the 1G1 e9uation, calculate the pressures along the pipeline at points
1, , C, and < -or a ,ini,u, deli0ery pressure o- &00 psig at the ter,inus ?/
1ssu,e a drag -actor M 0/36/
b8 %hat dia,eter pipe #ill be re9uired -or section <? i- the re9uired deli0ery
pressure at ? is increased to 500 psigT The inlet pressure at 1 re,ains the
sa,e as calculated abo0e/
E
'i4ure $.$ E7a"ple pipeline ?ith inHetion an% %eli&erie!'
3-
"olution
%e #ill start calculations beginning #ith the last seg,ent <?/
Pipe inside dia,eter 4 M 20 U 2 O 0/500 M 23/00 in/ The -lo#
rate in pipe <? is 230 =="CF</
.sing ?9uation 2/&', the Reynolds nu,ber is
$ M 0/000'))(2'/) 2 0/65 O 230 O 20 6 Z M 20,3)','63
Z 520 ( O 20
R6
O 23 Z
$e>t, calculate the t#o trans,ission -actors re9uired per 1G1/
28 The -ully turbulent trans,ission -actor, using ?9uation 2/'(, is
. M 'Log206250O &/) O 23 6Z M 22/6(
20
R
Z
28 The s,ooth pipe :one Ion Far,an trans,ission -actor, using ?9uation
2/50, is
. M 'Lo 20,3)','63 Z 0 /6
t g2 0 . D
t
"ol0ing -or .t by iteration, #e get
.t M 22/2(
There-ore, -or a partly turbulent -lo# :one, the trans,ission -actor, using
?9uation 2/'3, is
22/23
'63,
3)'
,
20 M
. M ' O 0/36Log20Z Z 2/'225 O 22/2( ZZ
.sing the s,aller o- the t#o 0alues, the 1G1 trans,ission -actor is
. M 22/23
$e>t, #e use General Flo# ?9uation 2/' to calculate the upstrea, pressure P
2
at
<, based on a gi0en do#nstrea, pressure o- &00 psig at ?/
Z 5202 r P2: R
:
&2'/)
0
5
222
23
:

s
232/2
/Z Z2'/) Z4\0/6 O520O50O0/(
5 Z
30 GAS
PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
"ol0ing -or P2, #e get the pressure at < as
P2 M 5()/22 psia M 5)2/'2 psig
$e>t, #e consider the pipe seg,ent C<, #hich has a -lo# rate o- 2&0 =="CF</
%e calculate the pressure at C using the do#nstrea, pressure at < calculated
abo0e/
To si,pli-y calculation, #e #ill use the sa,e 1G1 trans,ission -actor #e
calculated -or seg,ent <?/ 1 ,ore nearly correct solution #ill be to calculate
the Reynolds nu,ber and the t#o trans,ission -actors as #e did -or the
seg,ent <?/ 7o#e0er, -or si,plicity, #e #ill use . M 22/23 -or all pipe
seg,ents/
1pplying General Flo# ?9uation 2/', #e calculate the pressure P2 at C as
-ollo#s5
/
ZZ623/0825/
62'/) 05
2&0 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 22/23520CZ P 22 *5()/21@ 0/65 O 520 O 20 O 0/(5
"ol0ing -or P2, #e get the pressure at C as
P2 M 625/06 psia M 620/&6 psig
"i,ilarly, #e calculate the pressure at , considering the pipe seg,ent C that
-lo#s 200 =="CF</
Z : /
200 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 22/23 Z 520C r P2
:
R o 5 62 # /06 2
623/0825/ Z2'/) 4\0/65O520O60O0/(5 Z
"ol0ing -or P2, #e get the pressure at as
P2 M ('6/35 psia M (&2/25 psig
Finally, -or pipe seg,ent 1 that -lo#s 250 =="CF<, #e calculate the pressure
P2 at 1 as -ollo#s5
: : /
250 O 206 M &(/)) O 22/23 Z Z 520C Z P2 R o5
('6/35 2 623/0825/ Z2'/)
4\0/65O520O20O0/(5 Z
"ol0ing -or P2, #e get the pressure at 1 as
P2 M 3'2/0' psia M 32)/&' psig
4- #e ,aintain the sa,e inlet pressure, 32)/&' psig, at 1 and increase the deli0ery
pressure at ? to 500 psig, #e can deter,ine the pipe dia,eter re9uired -or
section <? by considering the sa,e upstrea, pressure o- 5)2/'2 psig at <, as
#e calculated be-ore/
35
There-ore, -or seg,ent <?,
.pstrea, pressure P2 M 5)2/'2 P 2'/) M 5()/22 psia
<o#nstrea, pressure P2 M 500 P 2'/) M 52'/) psia
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/', #ith the sa,e 1G1 trans,ission -actor as
be-ore, #e get
230O206M&(/))O22/23r520ZX 5()/222R52'/)2 05 2 (4) 2/5
Z2'/)Z 0/65O520O50O0/(5 Z
"ol0ing -or the inside dia,eter 4 o- pipe <?, #e
get 4 M 2&/)3 in/
The nearest standard pipe si:e is $P" 26 #ith 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness/ This
#ill gi0e an inside dia,eter o- 25 in/, #hich is slightly ,ore than the re9uired
,ini,u, o- 2&/)3 in/ calculated abo0e/
The #all thic!ness re9uired -or this pipe dia,eter and pressure #ill be dictated
by the pipe ,aterial and is the subCect o- Chapter 6/
&4am!le +
1 pipeline 200 ,i long transports natural gas -ro, Corona to eau,ont/ The gas
has a speci-ic gra0ity o- 0/60 and a 0iscosity o- ( O 20
R6
lb;-t*s/ %hat is the
,ini,u, pipe dia,eter re9uired to -lo# 200 =="CF< -ro, Corona to
eau,ont -or a deli0ery pressure o- (00 psig at eau,ont and inlet pressure o-
2'00 psig at CoronaT The gas can be assu,ed constant at 60KF, and the base
pressure and base te,perature are 2'/) psia and 60KF, respecti0ely/ .se a
constant 0alue o- 0/30 -or the co,pressibility -actor and a pipe roughness o-
)00 d in/ Co,pare results using the 1G1, Colebroo!%hite, Panhandle , and
%ey,outh e9uations/ .se 35L pipeline e--iciency/ $eglect ele0ation
7o# #ill the result change i- the ele0ation at Corona is 200 -t and at eau,ont
is 500 -tT
"olution
%e #ill -irst use the 1G1 e9uation to deter,ine the pipe dia,eter/ "ince the trans*
,ission -actor F depends on the Reynolds nu,ber, #hich depends on the un!no#n
pipe dia,eter, #e #ill -irst assu,e a 0alue o- . M 20/
Fro, General Flo# ?9uation 2/', #e get
0/5
200O20
6
M &(/)) O 20/0 62'/)520 Z Z 2'2'/)2 R(2'/)2_O6482/5
ZL0/6O520O200O0/3 a `
34 GAS
PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
"ol0ing -or dia,eter 4,
4 M 22/2( in/
or $P" 22 #ith a 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness, appro>i,ately/
$e>t, #e #ill recalculate the trans,ission -actor using this pipe si:e/ .sing $P"
22 #ith a 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness,
4nside pipe dia,eter 4 M 22/)5 U 2 O 0/250 M 22/25 in/
Calculating the Reynolds nu,ber -ro, ?9uation 2/&', #e get
$ M 0/000'))(2'/) ZZ 0/6 O 200 O 20 6 Z M (,263,625
6520 ZZ( O 20
R6
O 22/25 Z
. M Z'Lo & /) O 22/25Z23/25
g20Z0/000) ZZ
. M 'Lo
(,263,625Z
0/6
t g20 . D
t
"ol0ing -or .t by iteration, #e get
.t M 22/)2
.sing a drag -actor o- 0/36, -or partly turbulent -lo#, the trans,ission -actor is,
-ro, ?9uation 2/'3,
. M ' O 0/36 O Log20Z (, 263, 625 Z M 20/(5
Z2/'225O22/)2 ZZ
.sing the lo#er o- the t#o 0alues, the 1G1 trans,ission -actor is
. M 23/25
.sing this 0alue o- ., #e recalculate the ,ini,u, pipe dia,eter -ro, General
Flo# ?9uation 2/' as -ollo#s5
200O20
6
M & (/)) O 23/25 C 520Z Z 2'2'/)
2
R 0/5 (2'/)2 2 O 6482/5
22'/)ZZ Z 0/6O520O200O0/3 Z Z Z
33
4 M 22/') in/
%e #ill not continue iteration any -urther, since the ne# dia,eter #ill not
change the 0alue o- . appreciably/
There-ore, based on the 1G1 e9uation, the pipe inside dia,eter re9uired
is 22/') in/
$e>t, #e calculate the trans,ission -actor based on the Colebroo!*%hite
e9uation, assu,ing an inside dia,eter o- 22/25 in/ and the Reynolds
nu,ber M (,263,625, calculated earlier/
.sing Colebroo!*%hite ?9uation 2/'5, #e get
. M R'Log
2 0
0 / 0 0 0 )
P 2/ 255 . Z&/)
O 22/25 (,263,625 a`
"ol0ing -or . by successi0e iteration, #e get the Colebroo!*%hite trans,ission
-actor as
. M 2(/35
.sing the General Flo# e9uation #ith this Colebroo!*%hite trans,ission
-actor, #e calculate the dia,eter as -ollo#s5
200 O 20
6
M & (/)) O 2(/35 C 520Z Z 2'2'/)
2
R(2'/) 2 _ 0/5 O 6482/5
2'/)ZL0/6O520O200O0/3 a `
4 M 22/55 in/
Recalculating the Reynolds nu,ber and trans,ission -actor using the pipe
inside dia,eter o- 22/55 in/, #e get
$ M (,0)2,3&5 and . M 2(/3'
There-ore, the ne# dia,eter re9uired is by proportions, using the General
Flo# e9uation,
622/55 Z2/5 M 62(/3'8
or 4 M 22/55, appro>i,ately/ There is no appreciable change in the
dia,eter re9uired/
There-ore, based on the Colebroo!*%hite e9uation, the pipe inside dia,eter re9uired is
4 M 22/55 in/
(11 GAS
PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
$e>t, #e deter,ine the dia,eter re9uired using Panhandle ?9uation 2/53 and
a pipeline e--iciency o- 0/355
052Z520 2'2'/)2 R(2'/) 2200 O 20
6
M )&) O
0/35ZZ 2'/) C2/02 Z0/6
0/362
O 520 O 200
O 0/3Z42s&
"ol0ing -or dia,eter 4, #e get
4 M 22/3& in/
There-ore, based on the Panhandle e9uation, the pipe inside dia,eter re9uired
is 22/3& in/
$e>t, #e calculate the dia,eter re9uired, using %ey,outh ?9uation 2/52
and a pipeline e--iciency o- 0/355
200O20
6
M '&&/5 O 0/35Z520 Z Z 2'2'/)
2
R(2'/) 2 0/5 2 42/66)
Z2'/) Z
4
l0/6O520O200O0/3 Z
"ol0ing -or dia,eter 4, #e get
4 M 2&/&0 in/
There-ore, based on the %ey,outh e9uation, the pipe inside dia,eter re9uired
is 2&/&0 in/
4n su,,ary, the ,ini,u, pipe inside dia,eter re9uired based on the
0arious -lo# e9uations is as -ollo#s5
1G1 J < M 22/') in/
Colebroo!*%hite J < M 22/55 in/
Panhandle J < M 22/3& in/
%ey,outh e9uation J < M 2&/&0 in/
4t can be seen that the %ey,outh e9uation is the ,ost conser0ati0e e9uation/ The
1G1 and Colebroo!*%hite e9uations predict al,ost the sa,e pipe si:e, #hile
Panhandle predicts the s,allest pipe si:e/ To -urther illustrate the co,parison o-
0arious pressure drop e9uations, re-er to the discussion in Chapter 2 and Figure
2/5, #hich sho#s ho# the deli0ery pressure 0aries -or a -i>ed -lo# rate and
inlet pressure/ Table &/2 also su,,ari:es the 0arious pressure drop e9uations
used in the gas pipeline industry/
Considering ele0ation e--ects, #ith a single slope -ro, Corona 6200 -t8 to
eau,ont 6500 -t8, the ele0ation adCust,ent para,eter is, -ro, ?9uation 2/
20,
s M 0/0&)5 O 0/D 500 R 200 Z 0 /0232
520O 0/3
PRESSURE RECUIRED T* TRANSP*RT (1(
Ta*+e $.1 Su33ar, of Pressure Drop EEuations
EEuation App+ication
General Flo? F$n%a"ental flo? eK$ation $!in; frition or tran!"i!!ion fatorL
$!e% ?ith Cole#rooJ6=hite frition fator or AGA tran!"i!!ion fator
Cole#rooJ6=hite Frition fator al$late% for pipe ro$;hne!! an% Reynol%! n$"#erL
"o!t pop$lar eK$ation for ;eneral ;a! tran!"i!!ion pipeline!
/o%ifie% /o%ifie% eK$ation #a!e% on U'S' 8$rea$ of /ine! e7peri"ent!L ;i&e!
Cole#rooJ6=hite hi;her pre!!$re %rop o"pare% to ori;inal Cole#rooJ eK$ation
AGA Tran!"i!!ion fator al$late% for partially t$r#$lent an% f$lly t$r#$lent
flo? on!i%erin; ro$;hne!!, #en% in%e7, an% Reynol%! n$"#er
Panhan%le A Panhan%le eK$ation! %o not on!i%er pipe ro$;hne!!L in!tea%, an
Panhan%le 8 effiieny fator i! $!e%L le!! on!er&ati&e than Cole#rooJ or AGA
=ey"o$th Doe! not on!i%er pipe ro$;hne!!L $!e! an effiieny fator
$!e% for hi;h6pre!!$re ;a! ;atherin; !y!te"!L "o!t on!er&ati&e
eK$ation that ;i&e! hi;he!t pre!!$re %rop for ;i&en flo? rate
IGT Doe! not on!i%er pipe ro$;hne!!L $!e! an effiieny fator $!e% on
;a! %i!tri#$tion pipin;
There-ore, the e9ui0alent length -ro, ?9uation 2/3 is
j /0232 R 2
;e M200 OSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSM 200/3) ,i
0/0232
%e #ill apply the ele0ation correction -actor -or the e>tre,e cases 6%ey,outh
and Panhandle e9uations8 that produce the largest and the s,allest dia,eter,
respecti0ely/ Fro, %ey,outh ?9uation 2/52, #e see that, !eeping all other
ite,s the sa,e, the dia,eter and pipe length are related by the -ollo#ing
e9uation5
42/66)
M Constant
4 2/66) 0/5
2&/&8 MN 200/3) O 200
OO
"ol0ing -or the pipe inside dia,eter 4, #e get
4 M 2&/&2 in/
This is not an appreciable change -ro, the pre0ious 0alue o- 2&/&0 in/
"i,ilarly, -ro, Panhandle ?9uation 2/53, #e see that the pipe dia,eter and
length are related by
42/5&
;hsl M Constant
4 2/5& S 200/3) C0/52 22/3&8
J6 200 (
(1) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
"ol0ing -or pipe inside dia,eter 4, #e get
4 M 22/35
This is not an appreciable change -ro, the pre0ious 0alue o- 22/3& in/
There-ore, considering ele0ation di--erence bet#een Corona and eau,ont, the ,in*
i,u, pipe si:es re9uired are as -ollo#s5
Panhandle J < M 22/35 in/
%ey,outh e9uation J < M 2&/&2
in/
%e thus see that e0en #ith a '00 -t ele0ation di--erence, the pipe dia,eter
does not change appreciably/
&4am!le ,
1 natural gas distribution piping syste, consists o- $P" 22 #ith 0/250 in/
#all thic!ness, 2' ,i long, as sho#n in Figure &/'/ 1t Hale, an inlet -lo# rate o-
65 =="CF< o- natural gas enters the pipeline at 60KF/ 1t the Co,pton
ter,inus, gas ,ust be supplied at a -lo# rate o- &0 =="CF< at a ,ini,u,
pressure o- 600 psig/ There are inter,ediate deli0eries o- 25 =="CF< at
,ilepost 20 and 20 =="CF< at ,ilepost 2(/ %hat is the re9uired inlet
pressure at HaleT .se a constant -riction -actor o- 0/02 throughout/ The
co,pressibility -actor can be assu,ed to be 0/3'/ The gas gra0ity and
0iscosity are 0/6 and ) O 20
R6
lb;-t*s, respecti0ely/ 1ssu,e isother,al -lo# at
60KF/ The base te,perature and base pressure are 60KF and 2'/) psia,
respecti0ely/ 4- the deli0ery 0olu,e at is increased to &0 =="CF< and
other deli0eries re,ain the sa,e, #hat increased pressure is re9uired at Hale
to ,aintain the sa,e -lo# rate and deli0ery pressure at Co,ptonT $eglect
ele0ation di--erences along the pipeline/
"olution
For each section o- piping, such as 1, #e ,ust calculate the pressure drop
due to -riction at the appropriate -lo# rate and then deter,ine the total
pressure drop -or the entire pipeline/
4nside dia,eter o- pipe M 22/)5 U 2 O 0/250 M 22/25
in/ Friction -actor f M 0/02
'i4ure $.( Yale to Co"pton ;a! %i!tri#$tion pipeline'
PRESSURE RECUI RED T* TRANSP*RT (1+
There-ore, the trans,ission -actor, using ?9uation 2/'2, is
.M
2
M20/00
0/02
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/), -or the last pipe seg,ent -ro, ,ilepost 2(
to ,ilepost 2', #e get
X2'/): /&0 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 20/0520 2- P 7 :J o
562') 2O 622/2582/5 ZL0/6O520O6O0/3' a ` "ol0ing -or the pressure at
C,
P7 M 620/(( psia
$e>t #e #ill use this pressure P7 to calculate the pressure P* -or the ( ,i
section o- pipe seg,ent C -lo#ing 50 =="CF</
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/),
Z :
50O 20
6
M &(/))O 20Z 520Z -
P*
:
R 0/5 620/((
2 O 622/2582/5
Z2'/)ZL0/6O520O(O0/3' a `
"ol0ing -or P*, #e get
P* M 6'&/2' psia
Finally, #e calculate the pressure P2 at Hale by considering the 20 ,i pipe
seg,ent -ro, Hale to point that -lo#s 65 =="CF</
Z : : 0/5
65O 20
6
M &(/))O 20Z 520Z f
P2 R 6'&/2' 2 O 622/2582/5
Z2'/)ZL0/6O520O20O0/3' a `
"ol0ing -or the pressure at Hale, #e get
P2 M 6((/03 psia M 6)&/&3 psig
There-ore, the re9uired inlet pressure at Hale is 6)&/&3
psig/
%hen the deli0ery 0olu,e at is increased -ro, 25 to &0 =="CF< and all
other deli0ery 0olu,es re,ain the sa,e, the inlet -lo# rate at Hale #ill
increase to 65 P 25 M (0 =="CF</ 4- the deli0ery pressure at Co,pton is to
re,ain the sa,e as be-ore, the pressures at and C #ill also be the sa,e as
calculated be-ore, since the -lo# rate in C and C< are the sa,e as be-ore/
There-ore, #e can recalculate the
(1, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
inlet pressure -or the pipe section -ro, Hale to point considering a -lo# rate o- (0
=="CF< that causes a pressure o- 6'&/2' psia at /
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/), the pressure P2 at Hale is
0/5
2 O 622/2582/ 5 a `
: :
(0O 20 &(/) 200Z 520Z
P2 6'&2' R
/Z Z2'/)ZL0/ O520O20O0/3'
"ol0ing -or the pressure at Hale,
P2 M )20/0) psia M 635/&) psig
There-ore, increasing the deli0ery 0olu,e at by 25 =="CF< causes the pressure at
Hale to increase by appro>i,ately 22 psig/
$.. SERIES PIPING
4n the preceding discussions #e assu,ed the pipeline to ha0e the sa,e dia,eter
throughout its length/ There are situations #here a gas pipeline can consist o- di--erent
pipe dia,eters connected together in a series/ This is especially true #hen the di--erent
pipe seg,ents are re9uired to transport di--erent 0olu,es o- gas, as sho#n in Figure
&/5/
4n Figure &/5, section 1 #ith a dia,eter o- 26 in/ is used to transport a 0olu,e o-
200 =="CF<, and a-ter ,a!ing a deli0ery o- 20 =="CF< at , the re,ainder o- (0
=="CF< -lo#s through the 2' in/ dia,eter pipe C/ 1t C, a deli0ery o- &0
=="CF< is ,ade, and the balance 0olu,e o- 50 =="CF< is deli0ered to the
ter,inus < through a 22 in/ pipeline C</
4t is clear that the pipe section 1 -lo#s the largest 0olu,e 6200 =="CF<8,
#hereas the pipe seg,ent C< transports the least 0olu,e 650 =="CF<8/ There-ore,
seg,ents 1 and C<, -or reasons o- econo,y, should be o- di--erent pipe dia,eters,
as indicated in Figure &/5/ 4- #e ,aintained the sa,e pipe dia,eter o- 26 in/ -ro, 1 to
<, it #ould be a #aste o- pipe ,aterial and, there-ore, cost/ Constant dia,eter
(11 //SCFD
NPS () D
'i4ure $.) Serie! pipin;'
(1-
is used only #hen the sa,e -lo# that enters the pipeline is also deli0ered at the end o-
the pipeline, #ith no inter,ediate inCections or deli0eries/
7o#e0er, in reality, there is no #ay o- deter,ining ahead #hat the -uture deli0ery
0olu,es #ill be along the pipeline/ 7ence, it is di--icult to deter,ine initially the
di--erent pipe si:es -or each seg,ent/ There-ore, in ,any cases you #ill -ind that the
sa,e*dia,eter pipe is used throughout the entire length o- the pipeline e0en though
there are inter,ediate deli0eries/ ?0en #ith the sa,e no,inal pipe dia,eter, di--erent
pipe sections can ha0e di--erent #all thic!nesses/ There-ore, #e ha0e di--erent pipe
inside dia,eters -or each pipe seg,ent/ "uch #all thic!ness changes are ,ade to
co,pensate -or 0arying pressures along the pipeline/ The subCect o- pipe strength and
its relation to pipe dia,eter and #all thic!ness is discussed in Chapter 6/
The pressure re9uired to transport gas in a series pipeline -ro, point 1 to point <
in Figure &/5 is calculated by considering each pipe seg,ent such as 1 and C and
applying the appropriate -lo# e9uation, such as the General Flo# e9uation, -or each
seg,ent, as illustrated in ?>a,ple 5/
1nother approach to calculating the pressures in series piping syste,s is to use
the e9ui0alent length concept/ This ,ethod can be applied #hen the sa,e uni-or,
-lo# e>ists throughout the pipeline, #ith no inter,ediate deli0eries or inCections/ %e
#ill e>plain this ,ethod o- calculation -or a series piping syste, #ith the sa,e -lo#
rate : through all pipe seg,ents/ "uppose the -irst pipe seg,ent has an inside
dia,eter 4
2
and length ;
2
, -ollo#ed by the second seg,ent o- inside dia,eter 42 and
length ;
2
and so on/ %e calculate the e9ui0alent length o- the second pipe seg,ent
based on the dia,eter 4
2
such that the pressure drop in the e9ui0alent length ,atches
that in the original pipe seg,ent o- dia,eter 4
2
. The pressure drop in dia,eter 4
2
and
length ;
2
e9uals the pressure drop in dia,eter 4
2
and e9ui0alent length ;e2.
Thus, the second seg,ent can be replaced #ith a piece o- pipe o- length ;e
2
and
dia,eter 4
2
. "i,ilarly, the third pipe seg,ent #ith dia,eter 4
&
and length ;
&
#ill be
replaced #ith a piece o- pipe o- ;e
&
and dia,eter 4
2
. Thus, #e ha0e con0erted the
three seg,ents o- pipe in ter,s o- dia,eter 4
2
as -ollo#s5
"eg,ent 2 J dia,eter 4
2
and length ;2
"eg,ent 2 J dia,eter 4
2
and length ;e2
"eg,ent & J dia,eter 4
2
and length ;e&
For con0enience, #e pic!ed the dia,eter 4
2
o- seg,ent 2 as the base dia,eter
to use, to con0ert -ro, the other pipe si:es/ %e no# ha0e the series piping syste,
reduced to one constant*dia,eter (4
2
) pipe o- total e9ui0alent length gi0en by
;e M ;
2
P ;e
2
P ;e
&
(J.1)
The pressure re9uired at the inlet o- this series piping syste, can then be
calculated based on dia,eter 4
2
and length ;e. %e #ill no# e>plain ho# the
e9ui0alent length is calculated/
.pon e>a,ining General Flo# ?9uation 2/), #e see that -or the sa,e -lo# rate
and gas properties, neglecting ele0ation e--ects, the pressure di--erence (P
2
2
+ P
2
2
) is
(10 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
in0ersely proportional to the -i-th po#er o- the pipe dia,eter and directly proportional to
the pipe length/ There-ore, #e can state that, appro>i,ately,
iPs? M <#
7; (J.@)
#here
iPs? M di--erence in the s9uare o- pressures (P
2
2
+ P
2
2
) -or the pipe seg,ent
7 M a constant
; M pipe length
4 M pipe inside dia,eter
1ctually, 7 depends on the -lo# rate, gas properties, gas te,perature, base
pressure, and base te,perature/ There-ore, 7 #ill be the sa,e -or all pipe seg,ents in
a series pipeline #ith constant -lo# rate/ 7ence, #e regard 7 as a constant -or all pipe
seg,ents/
Fro, ?9uation &/2 #e conclude that the e9ui0alent length -or the sa,e pressure
drop is proportional to the -i-th po#er o- the dia,eter/ There-ore, in the series piping
discussed in the -oregoing, the e9ui0alent length o- the second pipe seg,ent o-
dia,eter 4
2
and length ;
2
is
(J.J)
(J.C)
7; 2 7;e 2 45 M 45
2 2
or
;e
2
M ;2 Z 42 Z5 4 ZZ
2
"i,ilarly, -or the third pipe seg,ent o- dia,eter 4
&
and length ;
&
, the e9ui0alent
length is
;e& M ;& 4&Z5 (J.#)
There-ore, the total e9ui0alent length ;e -or all three pipe seg,ents in ter,s o-
dia,eter 4
2
is
6&/68
(4 2 Z ; e M ; 2 P ; 2 ( 42 Z 5 P C Z 5
l 4
2
4& 4t can be seen -ro, ?9uation
&/6 that i- 4
2
M 4
2
M 4
&
, the total e9ui0alent length reduces to (;
2
P ;
2
P ;
&
), as
e>pected/
%e can no# calculate the pressure drop -or the series piping syste,, considering a
single pipe o- length ;e and uni-or, dia,eter 4
2
-lo#ing a constant 0olu,e :. 1n
e>a,ple #ill illustrate the use o- the e9ui0alent length ,ethod/
PRESSURE RECUIRED T* TRANSP*RT (15
(11 //SCFD
IIIIIIIIIIIIII-11
p!i;
4 "i
8
NPS ()
A () "i NPS (0
), "i
NPS
(,
'i4ure $.. E7a"ple pro#le"P!erie! pipin;'
&4am!le -
1 series piping syste,, sho#n in Figure &/6, consists o- 22 ,i o- $P" 26, 0/&)5 in/
#all thic!ness connected to 2' ,i o- $P" 2', 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness and (
,iles o- $P" 22, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness pipes/ Calculate the inlet pressure
re9uired at the origin 1 o- this pipeline syste, -or a gas -lo# rate o- 200
=="CF</ Gas is deli0ered to the ter,inus at a deli0ery pressure o- 500
psig/ The gas gra0ity and 0iscosity are 0/6 and 0/00000( lb;-t*s, respecti0ely/ The
gas te,perature is assu,ed constant at 60KF/ .se a co,pressibility -actor o-
0/30 and the General Flo# e9uation #ith <arcy -riction -actor M 0/02/ The
base te,perature and base pressure are 60KF and 2'/) psia, respecti0ely/
Co,pare results using the e9ui0alent length ,ethod and #ith the ,ore detailed
,ethod o- calculating pressure -or each pipe seg,ent separately/
"olution
4nside dia,eter o- -irst pipe seg,ent M 26 U 2 O 0/&)5 M 25/25 in/
4nside dia,eter o- second pipe seg,ent M 2' U 2 O 0/250 M 2&/50 in/
4nside dia,eter o- third pipe seg,ent M 22/)5 U 2 O 0/250 M 22/25 in/
.sing ?9uation &/6, #e calculate the e9ui0alent length o- the pipeline, considering
$P" 26 as the base dia,eter5
; e M 2 2 P 2 ' > 2 2 & 5
5
8 2 5P(OX5/2585
or
;e M 22 P ''/25 P 2&/32 M (0/0) ,i
There-ore, #e #ill calculate the inlet pressure P2 considering a single pipe -ro, 1
to ha0ing a length o- (0/0) ,i and inside dia,eter o- 25/25 in/
Butlet pressure M 500 P 2'/) M 52'/) psia
(14 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/2, neglecting ele0ation e--ects and substituting gi0en
0alues, #e get
2ZZ520 SSSSSSSSS6P22 R52'/)28
200 O 20 M ))/5' 25/25
6 25
0/02 2'/) 0/6O520O(0/0)O0/320/5
or
P2
2
+ 52'/) 2 M )2',6'2/33
"ol0ing -or the inlet pressure P2, #e get
P2 M 33'/)) psia M 3(0/0) psig
$e>t, #e #ill co,pare the preceding result, using the e9ui0alent length ,ethod, #ith
the ,ore detailed calculation o- treating each pipe seg,ent separately and adding the
pressure drops/
Consider the ( ,i pipe seg,ent & -irst, since #e !no# the outlet pressure at is 500
psig/ There-ore, #e can calculate the pressure at the beginning o- seg,ent & using
General Flo# ?9uation 2/2, as -ollo#s5
Z28Z520 6P22 R 52'/)2 8
6 0/02
2'/
Z
Z22/252/5
Z Z
5
200 O 20
6
M ))/5'
Z0 / 6 O 5 2 0 O ( O
/3
"ol0ing -or the pressure P2, #e get
P2 M 63&/(& psia M 6)3/2& psig
This is the pressure at the beginning o- the pipe seg,ent &, #hich is also the end o-
pipe seg,ent 2/
$e>t, consider pipe seg,ent 2 62' ,i o- $P" 2' pipe8 and calculate the upstrea,
pressure P2 re9uired -or a do#nstrea, pressure o- 6)3/2& psig, calculated in the
preceding section/ .sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/2 -or pipe seg,ent 2, #e get
0/5
Z2 520 6 P 2 2 R 6 3 & / ( & 2 8 _ 2 5
200 O 20
6
M ))/5' 2&/5 0/02Z6
2'
/)8 Z
0/6O520O2'O0/3 `
Z Z
P2 M 3&(/5( psia M 32&/(( psig
This is the pressure at the beginning o- pipe seg,ent 2, #hich is also the end o- pipe
seg,ent 2/
(13
$e>t, #e calculate the inlet pressure P2 o- pipe seg,ent 2 622 ,i o- $P" 26 pipe8
-or an outlet pressure o- 32&/(( psig, Cust calculated/ .sing the General Flo#
e9uation -or pipe seg,ent 2, #e get
6 0/028
Z2520
6P22R3&(/5(28
0
/
5
2'/)
25/252/5
ssure P2, #e get
P2 M 33'/)5 psia M 3(0/05 psig
This co,pares #ell #ith the pressure o- 3(0/0) psig #e calculated earlier
using the e9ui0alent length ,ethod/
"ol0ing -or pr
&4am!le .
pu,ping the
sa,erate=,
&
;dayterrain,-rictionte,peraturessure drops/
nt length ,ethod as #ell as the ,ethod using indi0idual pipe
seg,ent pr
ssure drops/
"olution
4nside dia,eter o- -irst pipe seg,ent M 500 U 2 O 22 M ')6 ,,
4nside dia,eter o- second pipe seg,ent M '00 U 2 O 20 M &(0 ,,
4nside dia,eter o- last pipe seg,ent M &00 U 2 O 6 M 2(( ,,
?9ui0alent length ,ethod5
.sing ?9uation &/6, #e calculate the total e9ui0alent length o- the pipeline
syste, based on the -irst seg,ent dia,eter <$ 500 as -ollo#s5
"olution
4nside dia,eter o- -irst pipe seg,ent M 500 U 2 O 22 M ')6 ,,
4nside dia,eter o- second pipe seg,ent M '00 U 2 O 20 M &(0 ,,
4nside dia,eter o- last pipe seg,ent M &00 U 2 O 6 M 2(( ,,
?9ui0alent length ,ethod5
.sing ?9uation &/6, #e calculate the total e9ui0alent length o- the pipeline
syste, based on the -irst seg,ent dia,eter <$ 500 as -ollo#s5
;eM20P25O'00R2O20Z P20OZZ &00R2O6 85
LeM20P25
'00R2O20Z P20OZZ &00R2O6 85
or or
;e M 20 P ))/20 P 22&/&& M 220/'& !,
Le M 20 P ))/20 P 22&/&& M 220/'& !,
1 natural gas pipeline consists o- three di--erent pipe seg,ents connected in series,
Thus, the gi0en pipeline syste, ca
be considered e9ui0alent to a single pipe
<$ 500, 22 ,, #all thic!ness, 220/'& !, long/
Thus, the gi0en pipeline syste, ca
be considered e9ui0alent to a single pipe
<$ 500, 22 ,, #all thic!ness, 220/'& !, long/
((1 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
The outlet pressure P2 is calculated using General Flo# ?9uation 2/& as -ollo#s5
6(5002 R P2 8_0/5
&O206M2/2'3'O20R&>25
202
)&
8 Z0/65

O 23& O 0/3 O 0/02 O 220/'&`6')6825 Z
a
(5002 U P2
2
M 25,30(,(02
or
P2 M 6(0) !Pa 6absolute8
%e ha0e assu,ed that the gi0en inlet pressure is in absolute 0alue/ There-ore,
the deli0ery pressure is 6(0) !Pa 6absolute8/
$e>t, #e calculate the deli0ery pressure considering the three pipe seg,ents
treated separately/ For the -irst pipe seg,ent 20 !, long, #e calculate the
outlet pressure P2 at the end o- the -irst seg,ent as -ollo#s/ .sing General
Flo# ?9uation 2/&, #e get
6(5002 R P2 8_0/5
&O 20
6
M2/2'3' O 20R& C
25
202
)&
8 Z0/65 O 23& O 0/3 O 0/02 O
20`6')6825 Z a
P2 M (&62 !Pa 6absolute8
Thus, the pressure at the end o- the -irst pipe seg,ent or the beginning o- the
second seg,ent is (&62 !Pa 6absolute8/
$e>t, #e repeat the calculation -or the second pipe seg,ent <$ '00, 25 !,
long, using P2 M (&62 !Pa 6absolute8, to calculate P21
6(&62
2
R P2 8_0/5
& O 20
6
M2/2'3' O 20R& C
25
202
)&
8 Z0/65 O 23& O 0/3 O 0/02 O
25`6&(0825 Z a
P2 M )(00 !Pa 6absolute8
This is the pressure at the end o- the second pipe seg,ent, #hich is also the
inlet pressure -or the third pipe seg,ent/
(((
Finally, #e calculate the outlet pressure o- the last pipe seg,ent 6<$ &00, 20 !,8
using P( M )(00 !Pa 6absolute8 as -ollo#s5
6)(00
2
R P2 8_0/5
&O 20
6
M2/2'3' O
20R
&
25
202
)&
8 Z0/65 O 23& O 0/3 O 0/02 O 20`62((82/5
Z Z
"ol0ing -or P), #e get
P2 M 6(0( !Pa 6absolute8
There-ore, the deli0ery pressure is 6(0( !Pa
6absolute8/
This co,pares -a0orably #ith the 0alue o- 6(0) !Pa #e calculated earlier
using the e9ui0alent length approach/
$.9 PARA""E" PIPING
"o,eti,es t#o or ,ore pipes are connected such that the gas -lo# splits a,ong the
branch pipes and e0entually co,bines do#nstrea, into a single pipe, as illustrated in
Figure &/)/ "uch a piping syste, is re-erred to as parallel pipes. 4t is also called a
looped piping syste,, #here each parallel pipe is !no#n as a loop/ The reason -or
installing parallel pipes or loops is to reduce pressure drop in a certain section o- the
pipeline due to pipe pressure li,itation or -or increasing the -lo# rate in a bottlenec!
section/ y installing a pipe loop -ro, to ?, in Figure &/) #e are e--ecti0ely
reducing the o0erall pressure drop in the pipeline -ro, 1 to F, since bet#een and ?
the -lo# is split through t#o pipes/
4n Figure &/) #e #ill assu,e that the entire pipeline syste, is in the hori:ontal
plane #ith no changes in pipe ele0ations/ Gas enters the pipeline at 1 and -lo#s
through the pipe seg,ent 1 at a -lo# rate o- :. 1t the Cunction , the gas -lo# splits
into the t#o parallel pipe branches C? and <? at the -lo# rates o- :( and :),
respecti0ely/ 1t ?, the gas -lo#s reco,bine to e9ual the initial -lo# rate : and
continue -lo#ing through the single pipe ?F/
4n order to calculate the pressure drop due to -riction in the parallel piping
syste,, #e -ollo# t#o ,ain principles o- parallel pipes/ The -irst principle is that o-
conser0ation o- -lo# at any Cunction point/ The second principle is that there is a
co,,on pressure across each parallel pipe/
C( C P
C
'i4ure $.9 Parallel pipin;'
(() GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
1pplying the principle o- -lo# conser0ation, at Cunction , the inco,ing -lo#
into ,ust e>actly e9ual the total out-lo# at through the parallel pipes/
There-ore, at Cunction ,
: M :
2
P :
2
(J.A)
#here
: M inlet -lo# at 1
:
2
M -lo# through pipe branch C?
:
2
M -lo# through pipe branch <?
1ccording to the second principle o- parallel pipes, the pressure drop in pipe
branch C? ,ust e9ual the pressure drop in pipe branch <?/ This is due to the
-act that both pipe branches ha0e a co,,on starting point 68 and co,,on ending
point 6?8/ There-ore, the pressure drop in the branch pipe C? and branch pipe
<? are each e9ual to (P
*
+ P
3
), #here P
*
and P
3
are the pressures at Cunctions
and ?, respecti0ely/
%heref're, we can write
iP
* 7 3 M
iP
* 4 3 M
P
*

+

P3 (J.E)
iP represents pressure drop, and iP*73 is a -unction o- the dia,eter and length
o- branch C? and the -lo# rate :
2
. "i,ilarly, iP*43 is a -unction o- the dia,eter
and length o- branch <? and the -lo# rate :2.
4n order to calculate the pressure drop in parallel pipes, #e ,ust -irst deter,ine
the -lo# split at Cunction / Fro, ?9uation &/), #e !no# that the su, o- the t#o
-lo# rates :
2
and :
2
,ust e9ual the gi0en inlet -lo# rate :. 4- both pipe loops C?
and <? are e9ual in length and pipe inside dia,eter, #e can in-er that the -lo#
rate #ill be split e9ually bet#een the t#o branches/
%hus, f'r identical pipe l''ps,
6&/38
:2 M :2 M :
2
4n this case, the pressure drop -ro, to ? can be calculated assu,ing a -lo# rate
o- : -lo#ing through one o- the pipe loops/
To illustrate this -urther, suppose #e are interested in deter,ining the pressure at
1 -or the gi0en -lo# rate : and a speci-ied deli0ery pressure (P
.
) at the pipe ter,inus
F/ %e start #ith the last pipe seg,ent ?F and calculate the pressure re9uired at ? -or a
-lo# rate o- : in order to deli0er gas at F at a pressure P
.
. %e could use the General
Flo# e9uation -or this and substitute P
3
-or upstrea, pressure, P
2
, and P
.
-or
do#nstrea, pressure P
2
. 7a0ing calculated P
3
, #e can no# consider one o- the pipe
loops, such as C?, and calculate the upstrea, pressure P
*
re9uired -or a -lo# rate o-
: through C? -or a do#nstrea, pressure o- P
3
. 4n the General Flo# e9uation, the
upstrea, pressure P
2
M P
*
and the do#nstrea, pressure P
2
M P3.
4t ,ust be noted that this is correct only -or identical pipe loops/ Bther#ise, the
-lo# rate :
2
and :
2
through the pipe branches C? and <? #ill be une9ual/ Fro,
the
((+
calculated 0alue o- P
*
, #e can no# deter,ine the pressure re9uired at 1 by applying
the General Flo# e9uation to pipe seg,ent 1 that has a gas -lo# rate o- :. The
upstrea, pressure P
2
#ill be calculated -or a do#nstrea, pressure P
2
M P*.
Consider no# a situation in #hich the pipe loops are not identical/ This ,eans
that the pipe branches C? and <? can ha0e di--erent lengths and di--erent dia*
,eters/ 4n this case, #e ,ust deter,ine the -lo# split bet#een these t#o branches by
e9uating the pressure drops through each o- the branches in accordance #ith ?9uation
&/(/ "ince :
2
and :
2
are t#o un!no#ns, #e #ill use the -lo# conser0ation principle
and the co,,on pressure drop principle to deter,ine the 0alues o- :
2
and :2. Fro,
the General Flo# e9uation #e can state the -ollo#ing5
The pressure drop due to -riction in branch C? can be calculated -ro,
6&/208
2 2l K 2 ; 2 : i
* R P3 l 45 2
#here
K
2
M a para,eter that depends on gas properties, gas te,perature, etc/
;
2
M length o- pipe branch C?
4
2
M inside dia,eter o- pipe branch C?
:
2
M -lo# rate through pipe branch C?
K
2
is a para,eter that depends on the gas properties, gas te,perature, base
pressure, and base te,perature that #ill be the sa,e -or both pipe branches C?
and <? in a parallel pipeline syste,/ 7ence, #e regard this as a constant -ro,
branch to branch/
"i,ilarly, the pressure drop due to -riction in branch <? is calculated -ro,
6&/228
2 2l K 2 ; 2 : 2
(P* R P3 l 5
42
#here
K
2
M a constant li!e K2
;
2
M length o- pipe branch <?
4
2
M inside dia,eter o- pipe branch <?
:
2
M -lo# rate through pipe branch <?
4n ?9uation &/20 and ?9uation &/22, the constants K
2
and K
2
are e9ual, since
they do not depend on the dia,eter or length o- the branch pipes C? and <?/
Co,bining both e9uations, #e can state the -ollo#ing -or co,,on pressure drop
through each branch5
6&/228
6P
; 2 : i ;
2
:
2

2 45 M 4 5
2 2
((, GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
"i,pli-ying -urther, #e get the -ollo#ing relationship bet#een the t#o -lo# rates
:
2
and :21
:2 6;2i;20/5X42Z2/5 6&/2&8
Co,bining ?9uation &/2& #ith ?9uation &/), #e can sol0e -or the -lo# rates :2
and :
2
. To illustrate this, consider the inlet -lo# : M 200 =="CF< and the pipe
branches as -ollo#s5
;
2
M 20 ,i 42 M 25/5 in/ -or branch C?
;
2
M 25 ,i 4
2
M 2&/5 in/ -or branch <?
Fro, ?9uation &/), -or -lo# conser0ation, #e get :
2
P :
2
M 200
Fro, ?9uation &/2&, #e get the ratio o- -lo# rates as
:2 S 25
0/5
25/5 2/5
:
2

J
6208 62&SSSSSS/58 M2/)&
"ol0ing these t#o e9uations in :
2
and :
2
, #e get
:
2
M 6&/&) =="CF<
:
2
M &6/6& =="CF<
Bnce #e !no# the 0alues o- :
2
and :
2
, #e can easily calculate the co,,on
pressure drop in the branch pipes C? and <?/ 1n e>a,ple proble, 6?>a,ple )8
#ill be used to illustrate this ,ethod/
1nother ,ethod o- calculating pressure drops in parallel pipes is using the
e9ui0alent dia,eter/ 4n this ,ethod, #e replace the pipe loops C? and <? #ith a
certain length o- an e9ui0alent dia,eter pipe that has the sa,e pressure drop as one
o- the branch pipes/ The e9ui0alent dia,eter pipe can be calculated using the General
Flo# e9uation, as e>plained ne>t/ The e9ui0alent pipe #ith the sa,e iP that #ill
replace both branches #ill ha0e a dia,eter 4
e
and a length e9ual to one o- the branch
pipes, say ;2.
"ince the pressure drop in the e9ui0alent dia,eter pipe, #hich -lo#s the -ull
0olu,e :, is the sa,e as that in any o- the branch pipes, -ro, ?9uation &/20, #e can
state the -ollo#ing5
6&/2'8
(P RP?8M K e; e: 2
D
45
e
#here : M :
2
P :
2
-ro, ?9uation &/) and K
e
represents the constant -or the e9ui0alent
dia,eter pipe o- length ;
e
-lo#ing the -ull 0olu,e :.
((-
?9uating the 0alue o- (P
*
2
+ P
3
2
) to the corresponding 0alues, considering each
branch separately, #e get, using ?9uation &/ 20, ?9uation &/22, and ?9uation &/2'5
K 2; 2: 22 K 2 ; 2: 22 K e;e: 2 M
SSSSM6&/258
5 5 5
4
2
42 4e
1lso, setting K
2
M K
2
M K
e
and ;
e
M ;
2
, #e si,pli-y ?9uation &/25 as -ollo#s5
; 2: 2 M ; 2: 2 M ;2:2 6&/268
4
2
5
42 4e
5 5
.sing ?9uation &/26 in conCunction #ith ?9uation &/), #e sol0e -or the e9ui0alent
dia,eter 4
e
as
6&/2)8
6&/2(8
6&/238
6&/208
2_2;5
44
2P 7' ns t 2
4
e
M , 7'nst2 ZZ
Z Z
Z Z
#here
7'nst2 M (42 Z (/2
5 Z
ZZ
and the indi0idual -lo# rates :
2
and :
2
are calculated -ro,
M :7'nst2
:2 2 P 7'nst2
and
S :S
:2 2 P 7'nst2
To illustrate the e9ui0alent dia,eter ,ethod, consider the inlet -lo# : M 200
=="CF< and the pipe branches as -ollo#s5
;
2
M 20 ,i
;
2
M 25 ,i Fro,
?9uation &/2(,
4
2
M 25/5 in/ -or branch C?
4
2
M 2&/5 in/ -or branch <?
7'nst2
M
Z

25/5Z
5
Z 25Z M
2/)& 2&/5 ZZ ZZ
20 ZZ
((0 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
.sing ?9uation &/2), the e9ui0alent dia,eter is
2_2;5
4 M25/5ZC 2 P 2/ )& M 2(/60 in/
l 2/)& Z Z Z Z
Thus, the $P" 26 and $P" 2' pipes in parallel can be replaced #ith an e9ui0alent
pipe ha0ing an inside dia,eter o- 2(/6 in/
Fro, ?9uation &/23 and ?9uation &/20, #e get the -lo# rates in the t#o branch
pipes as -ollo#s5
2
M 2P2/)& 200 O 2/)&
:M 6&/&) =="CF<
and
:2 M &6/6& =="CF<
7a0ing calculated an e9ui0alent dia,eter 4
e
, #e can no# calculate the co,,on
pressure drop in the parallel branches by considering the entire -lo# : -lo#ing
through the e9ui0alent dia,eter pipe/ 1n e>a,ple proble, #ill illustrate this ,ethod/
&4am!le /
1 gas pipeline consists o- t#o parallel pipes, as sho#n in Figure &/)/ 4t is
designed to operate at a -lo# rate o- 200 =="CF</ The -irst pipe seg,ent
1 is 22 ,iles long and consists o- $P" 26, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness pipe/ The
loop C? is 2' ,i long and consists o- $P" 2', 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness pipe/
The loop <? is 26 ,iles long and consists o- $P" 22, 0/250 in/ #all
thic!ness pipe/ The last seg,ent ?F is 20 ,iles long and consists o- $P" 26,
0/250 in/ #all thic!ness pipe/ 1ssu,ing a gas gra0ity o- 0/6, calculate the
outlet pressure at F and the pressures at the beginning and the end o- the pipe
loops and the -lo# rates through the,/ The inlet pressure at 1 M 2200 psig/ The
gas -lo#ing te,perature M (0KF, base te,perature M 60KF, and base pressure M
2'/)& psia/ The co,pressibility -actor & M 0/32/ .se the General Flo# e9uation
#ith Colebroo! -riction -actor f M 0/025/
"olution
Fro, ?9uation &/2&, the ratio o- the -lo# rates through the t#o pipe loops is gi0en
by
M626-6 s 2'R2O0/25 25M2/0'2 :2
2'22/)5R2O0/258
and -ro, ?9uation &/)
:2 P :2 M 200
((5
"ol0ing -or :2 and :2, #e get
:2 M 52/0 =="CF< and :2 M '3/0 =="CF<
$e>t, considering the -irst pipe seg,ent 1, #e #ill calculate the pressure at
based upon the inlet pressure o- 2200 psig at 1, using General Flo#
?9uation 2/2, as -ollo#s5
2
RP
2
2
0/5
200 O 20 M ))/5' ;;Z25/5 25
6
0 2/025 520 2'/)& 60/6O5'0222'/)&O22O
2
0/32 `
Z Z
"ol0ing -or the pressure at , #e get
P2 M 22(2/&& psia M 2266/6 psig
This is the pressure at the beginning o- the looped section at / $e>t #e
calculate the outlet pressure at ? o- pipe branch C?, considering a -lo# rate
o- 52 =="CF< through the $P" 2' pipe, starting at a pressure o- 22(2/&&
psia at /
.sing the General Flo# e9uation, #e get
2&/5 2/5
2 520 22(2/&&2RP2 22
0/5
52O 20
6
M ))/5'
;; 0/025Z6
2'
/)&8 Z 0/ 6 O
5'0 O 2' O 0/ 32 `
Z Z
"ol0ing -or the pressure at ?, #e get
P2 M 22'5/6& psia M 22&0/3 psig
$e>t, #e use this pressure as the inlet pressure -or the last pipe seg,ent ?F
and calculate the outlet pressure at F using the General Flo# e9uation, as
-ollo#s5
2ZZSSSS520 SSSSSS622'5/6&
2
RP
2

22
0/5
200 O 20 M ))/5' ;;Z25/5
6 25
0/025 2'/)& 0/ 6 O 5'0 O 20 O 0/ 32 ` Z
a
"ol0ing -or the outlet pressure at F, #e get
P2 M 20(5/(5 psia M 20)2/22 psig
4n su,,ary, the calculated results are as -ollo#s5
Pressure at the beginning o- pipe loops M 2266/6
psig
Pressure at the end o- pipe loops M 22&0/3 psig
Butlet pressure at the end o- pipeline M 20)2/22
psig Flo# rate in $P" 2' loop M 52 =="CF<
Flo# rate in $P" 22 loop M '3 =="CF<
((4 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
%e #ill no# calculate the pressures using the e9ui0alent dia,eter ,ethod/
Fro, ?9uation &/2(,
5
7'nst 2 M 622
&/
25 Z 6 2'26ZM 2/0'2
Fro, ?9uation &/2), the e9ui0alent dia,eter is
2 _05
4 M2&/56
2P2/0'2Z

M2)/6) in/
2/0'2 Z
Z Z Z
Thus, #e can replace the t#o branch pipes bet#een and ? #ith a single piece
o- pipe 2' ,i long, ha0ing an inside dia,eter o- 2)/6) in/, -lo#ing 200
=="CF</
The pressure at #as calculated earlier as
P* M 22(2/&& psia
.sing this pressure, #e can calculate the do#nstrea, pressure at ? -or the
e9ui0alent pipe dia,eter as -ollo#s5
0/5
Z 2 2'/)& 520
ZZ622(2/&&2RP228b
0/
5'
2
0/
ZZ2)/6) 2/5 a
200 O 20
6
M ))/5'
0 / 0 2 5
"ol0ing -or the outlet pressure at ?, #e get
P2 M 22'5/60 psia,
#hich is al,ost the sa,e as #hat #e calculated be-ore/
The pressure at F #ill there-ore be the sa,e as #hat #e calculated be-ore/
There-ore, using the e9ui0alent dia,eter ,ethod, the parallel pipes C?
and <? can be replaced #ith a single pipe 2' ,i long, ha0ing an inside
dia,eter o- 2)/6) in/
&4am!le 0
1 natural gas pipeline <$ 500 #ith 22 ,, #all thic!ness is 60 !, long/
The gas -lo# rate is 5/0 =,
&
;day at 20KC/ Calculate the inlet pressure
re9uired -or a deli0ery pressure o- ' =Pa 6absolute8, using the General
Flo# e9uation #ith the ,odi-ied Colebroo!*%hite -riction -actor/ The pipe
roughness M 0/025 ,,/ 4n order to increase the -lo# rate through the
pipeline, the entire line is looped #ith a <$ 500 pipeline, 22 ,, #all
thic!ness/ 1ssu,ing the sa,e deli0ery pressure, calculate the inlet pressure
at the ne# -lo# rate o- ( =,
&
;day/ The gas gra0ity M 0/65 and 0iscosity M
0/000223 Poise/ The co,pressibility -actor & M 0/((/ The base te,perature M
25KC, and the base pressure M 202 !Pa/ 4- the inlet and outlet pressures are
held the sa,e as be-ore, #hat length o- the pipe should be looped to
achie0e the increased -lo#T
((3
"olution
Pipe inside dia,eter 4 M 500 R 2 O 22 M ')6 ,,
Flo# rate : M 5/0 O 20
6
,&;day
ase te,perature %8 M 25 P 2)& M 2(( F
Gas -lo# te,perature %f M 20 P 2)& M 23& F
<eli0ery pressure P2 M ' =Pa
The Reynolds nu,ber, using ?9uation 2/&5, is
$ M 0/52&' 202 0/65 O 5 O 20 6Z20,&&0,&&0 C
2((8Z
Z
0/000223 O ')6
Fro, the ,odi-ied Colebroo!*%hite ?9uation 2/'), the trans,ission -actor is
0/025 2/'225 .
.MR'Log206&/)O')6P20,&&0,&&0 ZZ
. M 23/(0
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/(, the inlet pressure is calculated ne>t5
5O20
6
M5/)')O20 O23/(02
)& P 25 Z r P22R'000
202 ZZ Z0/65O23&O60
0/(( 05
/
Z O 6')682/5
"ol0ing -or the inlet pressure, #e get
P2 M 50)) !Pa 6absolute8 M 5/0( =Pa 6absolute8
There-ore, the inlet pressure re9uired at 5 =,
&
;day -lo# rate is 5/0( =Pa/
$e>t, at ( =,
&
;day -lo# rate, #e calculate the ne# inlet pressure #ith the entire
60 !, length looped #ith an identical <$ 500 pipe/ "ince the loop is the
sa,e si:e as the ,ain line, each parallel branch #ill carry hal- the total -lo#
rate or ' =,&;day/
%e calculate the Reynolds nu,ber -or -lo# through one o- the loops using
?9uation 2/&55
$ M 0/52&' 202 0/65 O ' O 206Z(,26',26'
C2((8Z
Z
0/000223O')6
()1 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
. M R' Lo 0/025 P 2/'225 . C
g20
Z&/)O')6 (,26',26'
. M 23/)0
Feeping the deli0ery pressure the sa,e as be-ore 6' =Pa8, using General Flo#
?9uation 2/(, #e calculate the inlet pressure re9uired as -ollo#s5
'O20
6
M5/)')O20 O23/)02)&P25
Z Z P22R'000
202
ZZ Z0/65O23&O60
0/(( 05
/
Z O 6')682/5
"ol0ing -or the inlet pressure, #e get
P2 M ')2' !Pa 6absolute8 M '/)2 =Pa 6absolute8
There-ore, -or the -ully looped pipeline at ( =,
&
;day -lo# rate, the inlet
pressure re9uired is '/)2 =Pa/
$e>t, !eeping the inlet and outlet pressures the sa,e at 50)) !Pa and '000
!Pa, respecti0ely, at the ne# -lo# rate o- ( =,
&
;day, #e assu,e ; !, o- the
pipe -ro, the inlet is looped/ %e #ill calculate the 0alue o- ; by -irst
calculating the pressure at the point #here the loop ends/ "ince each parallel
pipe carries ' =,
&
;day, #e use the Reynolds nu,ber and trans,ission -actor
calculated earlier5
$ M (,26',26' and . M 23/)0
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/(, #e calculate the outlet pressure at the end
o- the loop o- length ; !, as -ollo#s5
'O20
6
M5/)')O20 O23/)0r2)&P25
Z
50))
R
Z
202
05
/
Z O 6')682/5
G
ZZ Z 0/65 O 23& O ; O 0/(( Z
6&/228
"ol0ing -or pressure in ter,s o- the loop length ;, #e get P2 M 50))
2
R205,
232/2&;
$e>t, #e apply the General Flo# e9uation -or the pipe seg,ent o- length 660 U ;) !,
that carries the -ull ( =,
&
;day -lo# rate/ The inlet pressure is P2 and the
outlet pressure is '000 !Pa/
The Reynolds nu,ber at ( =,
&
;day is
$ M 0/52&' 202 0/65 O ( O
206Z
26,

52(, 52(
C2((8Z
Z
0/000223 O ')6
()(
0/025 2/'225 .
. M R' Log20 X&/)O')6 P 26, 52(, 52( ZZ
. M 23/36
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/(, #e calculate the inlet pressure -or the pipe
seg,ent o- length 660 R ;) !, as -ollo#s5
Z
P22R'000
0/65O23&O660R
8O0/((
Z
05
/
Z O 6')68 2 / 5
(O20
6
M5/)')O20 O23/362)& P 25
Z
20
"i,pli-ying, #e get
P2 M '000
2
P '20, 26&/)) 660 R ;) 6&/228
Fro, ?9uation &/22 and ?9uation &/22, eli,inating P2, #e sol0e -or ; as
-ollo#s5 50))
2
R205,232/2&; M '000
2
P '20,26&/)) 660 R ;)
There-ore,
; M '(/66 !,
Thus, '(/66 !, out o- the 60 !, pipeline length #ill ha0e to be looped starting
at the pipe inlet so that at ( =,
&
;day both inlet and outlet pressures #ill be the
sa,e as be-ore at 5 =,&;day/
%hat #ill be the e--ect i- the loop #as installed starting at the do#nstrea, end o-
the pipeline and proceeding to#ard the upstrea, endT %ill the results be the
sa,eT 4n the ne>t section #e #ill e>plore the best location to install the pipe
loop/
$.: "!CATING PIPE "!!P
4n the preceding e>a,ple, #e loo!ed at looping an entire pipeline to reduce pressure
drop and increase the -lo# rate/ %e also e>plored looping a portion o- the pipe,
beginning at the upstrea, end/ 7o# do #e deter,ine #here the loop should be placed
-or opti,u, resultsT "hould it be located upstrea,, do#nstrea,, or in a ,idsection o-
the pipeT %e #ill analy:e this in this section/ Three looping scenarios are presented in
Figure &/(/
4n case 6a8, a pipeline o- length ; is sho#n looped #ith g ,iles o- pipe, beginning at
the upstrea, end 1/ 4n case 6b8, the sa,e length g o- pipe is looped, but it is located on
the do#nstrea, end / Case 6c8 sho#s the ,idsection o- the pipeline being looped/ For
,ost practical purposes, #e can say that the cost o- all three loops #ill be the sa,e as
long as the loop length is the sa,e/
()) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 8
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
(18
Flo?
A
C
AaB Up!trea" loop
C
A#B Do?n!trea"
loop
'i4ure $.: Different loopin; !enario!'
4n order to deter,ine #hich o- these cases is opti,u,, #e ,ust analy:e ho# the
pressure drop in the pipeline 0aries #ith distance -ro, the pipe inlet to outlet/ 4t is
-ound that i- the gas te,perature is constant throughout, at locations near the
upstrea, end, the pressure drops at a slo#er rate than at the do#nstrea, end/
There-ore, there is ,ore pressure drop in the do#nstrea, section co,pared to that in
the upstrea, section/ 7ence, to reduce the o0erall pressure drop, the loop ,ust be
installed to#ard the do#nstrea, end o- the pipe/ This argu,ent is 0alid only i- the
gas te,perature is constant throughout the pipeline/ 4n reality, due to heat trans-er
bet#een the -lo#ing gas and the surrounding soil 6buried pipe8 or the outside air
6abo0e*ground pipe8, the gas te,perature #ill change along the length o- the pipeline/
4- the gas te,perature at the pipe inlet is higher than that o- the surrounding soil
6buried pipe8, the gas #ill lose heat to the soil and the te,perature #ill drop -ro, the
pipe inlet to the pipe outlet/ 4- the gas is co,pressed at the inlet using a co,pressor,
then the gas te,perature #ill be ,uch higher than that o- the soil i,,ediately
do#nstrea, o- the co,pressor/ The hotter gas #ill cause higher pressure drops
6e>a,ine the General Flo# e9uation and see ho# the pressure 0aries #ith the gas
-lo# te,perature8/ 7ence, in this case the upstrea, seg,ent #ill ha0e a larger
pressure drop co,pared to the do#nstrea, seg,ent/ There-ore, considering heat
trans-er e--ects, the pipe loop should be installed in the upstrea, portion -or
,a>i,u, bene-it/ The installation o- the pipe loop in the ,idsection o- the pipeline,
as in case 6c8 in Figure &/(, #ill not be the opti,u, location, based on the preceding
discussion/ 4t can there-ore be concluded that i- the gas te,perature is -airly constant
along the pipeline, the loop should be installed to#ard the do#nstrea, end, as in case
6b8/ 4- heat trans-er is ta!en into account and the gas te,perature 0aries along the
pipeline, #ith the hotter gas being upstrea,, the better location -or the pipe loop #ill
be on the upstrea, end, as in case 6a8/
Looping pipes #ill be e>plored ,ore in Chapter 5 and in Chapter 20, #here #e
discuss pipeline econo,ics/
PRESSURE RECUIRED T* TRANSP*RT ()+
'i4ure $./ Hy%ra$li pre!!$re ;ra%ient for $nifor" flo?'
$./ H%DRA#"IC PRESS#RE GRADIENT
The hydraulic pressure gradient is a graphical representation o- the gas pressures along
the pipeline, as sho#n in Figure &/3/ The hori:ontal a>is sho#s the distance along the
pipeline starting at the upstrea, end/ The 0ertical a>is depicts the pipeline pressures/
"ince pressure in a gas pipeline is nonlinear co,pared to li9uid pipelines, the
hydraulic gradient -or a gas pipeline appears to be a slightly cur0ed line instead o- a
straight line/ The slope o- the hydraulic gradient at any point represents the pressure
loss due to -riction per unit length o- pipe/ 1s discussed earlier, this slope is ,ore
pronounced as #e ,o0e to#ard the do#nstrea, end o- the pipeline, since the
pressure drop is larger to#ard the end o- the pipeline/ 4- the -lo# rate through the
pipeline is a constant 0alue 6no inter,ediate inCections or deli0eries8 and pipe si:e is
uni-or, throughout, the hydraulic gradient appears to be a slightly cur0ed line, as
sho#n in Figure &/3, #ith no appreciable brea!s/ 4- there are inter,ediate deli0eries or
inCections along the pipeline, the hydraulic gradient #ill be a series o- bro!en lines, as
indicated in Figure &/20/
'i4ure $.10 Hy%ra$li pre!!$re ;ra%ient for %eli&erie! an% inHetion!'
(), GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
1 si,ilar bro!en hydraulic gradient can also be seen in the case o- a pipeline
#ith 0ariable pipe dia,eters and #all thic!nesses, e0en i- the -lo# rate is constant/
.nli!e li9uid pipelines, the brea!s in hydraulic pressure gradient are not as conspic*
uous in gas pipelines/
4n a long*distance gas pipeline, due to li,itations o- pipe pressure, inter,ediate
co,pressor stations #ill be installed to boost the gas pressure to the re9uired 0alue so
the gas can be deli0ered at the contract deli0ery pressure at the end o- the pipeline/
For e>a,ple, consider a 200 ,i long, $P" 26 pipeline that transports 250 =="CF<
o- gas -ro, Co,pton to a deli0ery point at eau,ont, as sho#n in Figure &/22/
"uppose calculations sho# that 2600 psig pressure is re9uired at Co,pton in order to
deli0er gas to eau,ont at (00 psig/ 4- the ,a>i,u, operating pressure 6=BP8 o-
this pipeline is li,ited to 2&50 psig, ob0iously #e #ill need ,ore than one
co,pressor station/ The -irst co,pressor station #ill be located at Co,pton and #ill
pro0ide a pressure o- 2&50 psig/ 1s gas -lo#s -ro, Co,pton to#ard so,e inter,e*
diate location, such as "heridan, the gas pressure #ill drop to so,e 0alue such as 300
psig/ 1t "heridan, a second co,pressor station #ill boost the gas pressure to 2&50
psig on its #ay to the ter,inus at eau,ont/ y installing the second co,pressor
station at "heridan, pipeline pressures are ,aintained #ithin =BP li,its/ The actual
location o- the inter,ediate co,pressor station at "heridan #ill depend upon ,any
-actors, including pipeline ele0ation pro-ile, the gas pressure at "heridan, and the
deli0ery pressure re9uired at eau,ont/ The hydraulic pressure gradient in this case
is as sho#n in Figure &/22/ 4n the preceding discussion, #e pic!ed an arbitrary
pressure o- 300 psig at "heridan/ This gi0es us an appro>i,ate co,pression ratio o-
2&50P2'/) M2/'32
32'/)
#hich is a reasonable nu,ber -or centri-ugal co,pressors used in gas pipelines/ 4n
re-erence to Figure &/22, #e #ill no# outline the ,ethod o- locating the inter,ediate
(011 p!i;
(+-1 p!i;
NPS (0 pipeline )11 "i lon;
'i4ure $.11 Co"pton to 8ea$"ont pipeline'
()-
co,pressor station at "heridan/ 4n Chapter ', #e #ill -urther analy:e gas pipelines
#ith ,ultiple co,pressor stations/
"tarting at Co,pton, #ith an inlet pressure P
2
M 2&50 psig, #e calculate the
pipe length ; that #ill cause the pressure to drop to 300 psig, using the General Flo#
e9uation/ 1ssu,ing a -lo# rate o- 250 =="CF< and a -riction -actor f M 0/02, #e get
250 O 20
6
M ))/5'Z2ZZ520SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSZ2&6'/)2 R 32'/)2_0/5 O 625/58
2/2
2/5
0/02 2'/) 0/6 O 520 O ; O 0/ 3
Z Z Z
"ol0ing -or ;, #e get
; M 203/2( ,i
Thus, the appro>i,ate location o- the second co,pressor station at "heridan is
203/2( ,i -ro, Co,pton/ 4- #e allo# the co,pressor at "heridan to boost the gas
pressure to 2&50 psig, the co,pression ratio is
r M 2&50P2'/) M2/'32
32'/)
#hich is a reasonable ratio -or a centri-ugal co,pressor/ There-ore, starting at 2&50
psig at "heridan, #e calculate the deli0ery pressure at eau,ont using the General
Flo# e9uation -or 6200 U 203/2(8 M 30/) ,i o- pipe as -ollo#s5
2 2
250 O 20 M ))/5'Z2 520Z2&6'/) R P 0/5 O 625/58
6 2 2/5
0/02 2'/)ZZ Z 0/6 O 520 O 30/) O 0/3
Z Z Z
"ol0ing -or P
2
, #e get
P
2
M 2005/5 psia M 330/(2 psig
This is ,ore than the re9uired deli0ery pressure at eau,ont o- (00 psig/ %e
could go bac! and repeat the abo0e calculations, considering slightly lo#er pressure
at Co,pton, say 2&00 psig, in order to get the correct deli0ery pressure o- (00 psig at
eau,ont/ This is le-t as an e>ercise -or the reader/
1lternati0ely, #e could start #ith the re9uired deli0ery pressure o- (00 psig at
eau,ont and #or! bac!#ard to deter,ine the distance at #hich the upstrea,
pressure reaches 2&50 psig/ That #ould be the location -or the "heridan co,pressor
station/ $e>t, #e #ould deter,ine the pressure at "heridan, beginning #ith the 2&50
psig upstrea, pressure at Co,pton/ This #ould establish the suction pressure o- the
"heridan co,pressor station/ Fno#ing the suction pressure and the discharge
pressure at "heridan, #e could calculate the co,pression ratio re9uired/ 4n Chapter '
#e #ill discuss ,ultiple co,pressor stations in ,ore detail/
()0 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
$.10 PRESS#RE REG#"AT!RS AND RE"IE' A"ES
4n a long*distance gas pipeline #ith inter,ediate deli0ery points, there ,ay be a
need to regulate the gas pressure at certain deli0ery points in order to satis-y the
custo,er re9uire,ents/ "uppose the pressure at the deli0ery point in Figure &/22 is
(00 psig, #hereas the custo,er re9uire,ent is only 500 psig/ Bb0iously, so,e ,eans
o- reducing the gas pressure ,ust be pro0ided so that the custo,er can utili:e the gas
-or his or her re9uire,ents at the correct pressure/ This is achie0ed by ,eans o- a
pressure regulator that #ill ensure a constant pressure do#nstrea, o- the deli0ery
point, regardless o- the pressure on the upstrea, side o- the pressure regulator/ This
concept is -urther illustrated using the e>a,ple pipeline sho#n in Figure &/22/
The ,ain pipeline -ro, 1 to C is sho#n along #ith a branch pipe ?/ The -lo#
rate -ro, 1 to is 200 =="CF<, #ith an inlet pressure o- 2200 psig at 1/ 1t , gas
is deli0ered into a branch line ? at the rate o- &0 =="CF</ The re,aining 0olu,e
o- )0 =="CF< is deli0ered to the pipeline ter,inus C at a deli0ery pressure o- 600
psig/ ased on the deli0ery pressure re9uire,ent o- 600 psig at C and a ta!eo-- o- &0
=="CF< at point , the calculated pressure at is 300 psig/ "tarting #ith 300 psig
on the branch line at , at &0 =="CF<, gas is deli0ered to point ? at 600 psig/ 4- the
actual re9uire,ent at ? is only '00 psig, a pressure regulator #ill be installed at ? to
reduce the deli0ery pressure by 200 psig/
4t can be seen -ro, Figure &/22 that at point < i,,ediately upstrea, o- the
pressure regulator, the gas pressure is appro>i,ately 600 psig and is regulated to '00
psig do#nstrea, at ?/ 4- the ,ainline -lo# rate changes -ro, 200 =="CF< to 30
=="CF< and the deli0ery at is ,aintained at &0 =="CF<, the gas pressure at
#ill reduce to a 0alue belo# 300 psig/ 1ccordingly, the pressure at point < in the
branch pipe ? #ill also reduce to so,e 0alue belo# 600 psig/ Regardless, due to the
pressure regulator, the pressure at ? #ill be ,aintained at the re9uired '00 psig/
7o#e0er, i- -or so,e reason the pressure upstrea, o- the regulator at < -alls belo#
'00 psig, the do#nstrea, pressure at ? cannot be ,aintained at the original 0alue o-
'00 psig/ The pressure regulator can only reduce the pressure do#nstrea, to the
re9uired 0alue/ 4t cannot increase the pressure beyond the pressure on the upstrea,
,11 p!i; E
()11 p!i;
'i4ure $.12 Pre!!$re re;$lation'
()5
side/ 4- the pressure at < drops to &00 psig, the pressure regulator is ine--ecti0e and
#ill re,ain -ully open, and the deli0ery pressure at ? #ill be &00 psig as #ell/
&4am!le 1
1 natural gas pipeline, $P" 26, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness, 50 ,i long, #ith a branch
pipe 6$P" (, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness, 25 ,i long8, as sho#n in Figure &/2&, is used to
transport 200 =="CF< gas 6gra0ity M 0/6 and 0iscosity M 0/00000( lb;-t*s8 -ro, 1 to
/ 1t 6,ilepost 208, a deli0ery o- &0 =="CF< occurs into the branch pipe ?/
The deli0ery pressure at ? ,ust be ,aintained at &00 psig/ The re,aining
0olu,e o- )0 =="CF< is shipped to the ter,inus C at a deli0ery pressure o-
600 psig/ 1ssu,e a constant gas te,perature o- 60KF and a pipeline e--iciency
o- 0/35/ The base te,perature and base pressure are 60KF and 2'/) psia,
respecti0ely/ The co,pressibility -actor & M 0/((/
a8 .sing the Panhandle 1 e9uation, calculate the inlet pressure re9uired at 1/
b8 4s a pressure regulator re9uired at ?T
c8 4- the inlet -lo# at 1 drops to 60 =="CF<, #hat is the i,pact in the branch
pipeline ? i- the -lo# rate o- &0 =="CF< is ,aintainedT
"olution
Pipe inside dia,eter -or pipe seg,ent 1 and C M 26 U 2 O 0/25 M 25/5 in/
First, #e #ill consider the pipe seg,ent C and calculate the pressure P2 at -or a
)0 =="CF< -lo# rate to deli0er gas at 600 psig at C/ .sing Panhandle 1
?9uation 2/55, neglecting ele0ation e--ects,
)0 O 20
6
M '&5/() O 0/35Z60P'60 Z20)(( C P 22 R 0/5&3' 62'/)2 2
625/582/62(2
Z 2'/) Z 0 60/((&3 O 520 O &0 O 0/(( Z
+11 p!i;
'i4ure $.1$ E7a"ple pro#le"Ppre!!$re re;$lation'
()4 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
"ol0ing -or pressure at , #e get
P2 M 660/&3 psia M 6'5/63 psig
$e>t, considering pipe seg,ent 1, -lo#ing 200 =="CF<, #e calculate the inlet
pressure P2 at 1 using the outlet pressure 660/&3 psia #e calculated at /
Fro, Panhandle 1 ?9uation 2/55,
Z Z2/0)(( 2 0/5&3'
200 O 20
6
M '&5/() O 0/35Z 2' ZZ6 0/60/(
P22
R660/&
O 520 20 O 0/((Z 625/5I/62(2
"ol0ing -or the pressure at 1, #e get
P2 M )25/0( psia M )00/&( psig
$e>t, using the pressure 660/&3 psia at , #e calculate the outlet pressure o-
branch ? that -lo#s &0 =="CF< through the 25 ,i $P" ( pipe/
.sing Panhandle 1 ?9uation 2/55,
Z 22/0)(( 2 2 > 0/5&3'
&0O 20
6
M '&5/() O 0/35Z
2
' (5
) Z 0/60
660/&
20O

P5 0/((8 6(/22582/62(2
"ol0ing -or the pressure at ?,
P2 M 5''/30 psia M 5&0/2 psig
"ince the re9uired deli0ery pressure at ? is &00 psig, a pressure regulator #ill
be re9uired at ?/
4- the -lo# rate at 1 drops to 60 =="CF< and the branch ? -lo# rate is
,aintained at &0 =="CF<, #e #ill calculate the Cunction pressure at by
using Panhandle 1 ?9uation 2/55 -or the pipe seg,ent C, considering a -lo#
rate o- &0 =="CF< and a deli0ery pressure o- 600 psig at C/
Z Z2/0)(( 2 S 2
0/5&3'
&0 O 206 M '&5/() O 0/35Z 2') Z 0/60/(5&P22*62'/)
O 520 O &0 O 0/((Z625/X2/62(2
"ol0ing -or the pressure at , #e get
P2 M 62'/') psia M 603/)) psig
.sing the pressure at , #e calculate the outlet pressure at ? on branch ? -or
a &0 =="CF< -lo# rate using Panhandle 1 ?9uation 2/555
& 0
20
'&5/(
0/3
C
520
l
2'/
0/60/(5&
52
2
0/(
2 0)((
C 0/&3'
*
62'/')

6(/225
2/62(2
()3
P2 M 500/)6 psia M '(6/06 psig
This is the ne# pressure at ?/ Co,paring this pressure #ith the pre0iously calculated
pressure o- 5&0/2 psig, #e see that the deli0ery pressure at ? has dropped by
'' psig, appro>i,ately/ To ,aintain the deli0ery pressure o- &00 psig at ?, a
pressure regulator is still re9uired/
There-ore, the ans#ers are
a8 4nlet pressure at 1 M )00/&( psig/
b8 1 pressure regulator is re9uired at ? to reduce the pressure -ro, 5&0/2 psig to
&00 psig/
c8 Finally, a pressure regulator is re9uired at ? to reduce the pressure -ro,
'(6/2 psig to &00 psig/
$.11 TEMPERAT#RE ARIATI!N AND GAS
PIPE"INE M!DE"ING
4n the preceding sections #e assu,ed the gas te,perature to be constant 6isother,al8
along the length o- the pipeline/ y assu,ing isother,al -lo#, #e #ere able to
calculate the pressure drop using constant gas properties such as the co,pressibility
-actor/ 4n reality, the te,perature o- gas in a buried pipeline 0aries along the length o-
the pipeline due to heat trans-er bet#een the gas and the surrounding soil/ 4- the inlet
te,perature o- the gas is (0KF and the surrounding soil is 60KF, the te,perature
di--erence #ill cause heat loss -ro, the gas to the soil/ 1dditionally, in a longdistance
pipeline, the soil te,perature can 0ary along the pipeline/ This #ill cause the gas
te,perature to 0ary, as sho#n in Figure &/2'/
'i4ure $.1( Te"perat$re &ariation in a ;a! pipeline'
(+1 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
Generally, i- the pipeline is -airly long, the gas te,perature #ill ulti,ately e9ual
the soil te,perature as gas approaches the deli0ery point/ <ue to such 0ariation in gas
te,perature, calculation o- pressure drop ,ust be ,ade by considering short lengths
o- pipe that ,a!e up the total pipeline/ For e>a,ple, i- the pipeline is 50 ,i long, #e
#ill subdi0ide the pipeline into short seg,ents o- 2* or 2*,ile lengths and apply the
General Flo# e9uation -or each pipe seg,ent/ "tarting #ith the upstrea, pressure o-
seg,ent 2, the do#nstrea, pressure #ill be calculated, assu,ing an a0erage te,pe*
rature -or seg,ent 2/ $e>t, using the calculated do#nstrea, pressure as the upstrea,
pressure -or seg,ent 2, #e calculate the do#nstrea, pressure -or seg,ent 2/ The
process is continued until all seg,ents o- the pipeline are co0ered/ 4t ,ust be noted
that the 0ariation o- te,perature -ro, seg,ent to seg,ent ,ust be ta!en into account
to calculate the co,pressibility -actor to be used in the General Flo# e9uation/ The
calculation o- gas te,perature at any point along the pipeline by ta!ing into account
the heat trans-er bet#een the gas and surrounding soil is 9uite co,plicated/ 4t does
not lend itsel- easily to ,anual calculations/ The ,ethod o- calculation #ill be
discussed brie-ly in this section -or in-or,ation only/ To accurately ta!e into account
the te,perature 0ariations, a suitable gas pipeline hydraulics si,ulation progra,
,ust be used, since, as indicated earlier, ,anual calculation is 9uite laborious and
ti,e consu,ing/ "e0eral co,,ercial si,ulation progra,s are a0ailable to ,odel
steady*state gas pipeline hydraulics/ These progra,s calculate the gas te,perature
and pressures by ta!ing into consideration 0ariations o- soil te,perature, pipe burial
depth, and ther,al conducti0ities o- pipe, insulation, and soil/ Bne such so-t#are
progra, is G1"=B<, ,ar!eted by "H"T?F Technologies, 4nc/ 6###/syste!/us8/
1ppendi> 1 includes a sa,ple si,ulation o- a gas pipeline using the G1"=B<
so-t#are/
?0en though ,anual calculation o- the te,perature 0ariation and corresponding
pressure drop in a gas pipeline is 9uite tedious, #e #ill present here the basic
e9uations -or re-erence/
Consider a buried pipeline transporting gas -ro, point 1 to point / %e #ill
analy:e a short seg,ent o- length i; o- this pipe as sho#n in Figure &/25 and apply
the principles o- heat trans-er to deter,ine ho# the gas te,perature 0aries along the
pipeline/
The upstrea, end o- the pipe seg,ent o- length i; is at a te,perature %
2
and the
do#nstrea, end at te,perature %
2
. The a0erage gas te,perature in this seg,ent is
'i4ure $.1) Analy!i! of te"perat$re &ariation'
(+(
represented by %. The outside soil te,perature at this location is %
s
. 1ssu,e steady*
state conditions and the ,ass -lo# rate o- gas to be m. The gas -lo# -ro, the
upstrea, end to the do#nstrea, end o- the seg,ent causes a te,perature drop o- i%.
The heat loss -ro, the gas can be represented by
iH M Rm7pi% 6&/2&8
#here
iH M heat trans-er rate, tu;h
m M ,ass -lo# rate o- gas, lb;h
7p M a0erage speci-ic heat o- gas, tu;lb;KF i%
M te,perature di--erence M %
2
+ %
2
KF
The negati0e sign in ?9uation &/2& indicates loss o- heat -ro, upstrea, te,*
perature %
2
to do#nstrea, te,perature %2.
$e>t, #e consider the heat trans-er -ro, the gas to the surrounding soil in ter,s
o- the o0erall heat trans-er coe--icient F and the di--erence in te,perature bet#een
the gas and surrounding soil, represented by (% + %
s
). There-ore, #e can #rite the
-ollo#ing e9uation -or heat trans-er5
iH M Fi) (% + %
s
) 6&/2'8
#here
F M o0erall heat trans-er coe--icient, tu;h;-t
2
; KF i) M
sur-ace area o- pipe -or heat trans-er M p4i; % M
a0erage gas te,perature in pipe seg,ent, KF
%
s
M a0erage soil te,perature surrounding pipe seg,ent, KF 4 M
pipe inside dia,eter, -t
?9uating the t#o 0alues o- heat trans-er rate iH -ro, ?9uation &/2& and ?9uation
&/2', #e get
Rm7pi% M FiA(% + %s)
"i,pli-ying, #e get
6&/258
6&/268
6&/2)8
i % M CLF4Z i; % R % m7p ZZ
s
Re#riting ?9uation &/25 in di--erential -or, and integrating, #e get
2 d% M ,2 (BF4 Z d; 2 %R% 2 m7p Z s
4ntegrating and si,pli-ying, #e get
%2R% s MeR M %
2
R % s
k
(+) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
Di!tane
'i4ure $.1. @o$le6Tho"p!on effet in ;a! pipeline'
#here
N M LF4 i ;
m7p 6&/2(8
"i,pli-ying ?9uation &/2) -urther, #e get the do#nstrea, te,perature o- the pipe
seg,ent o- length iL as
%
2
M% P(%R%)O M s 6&/238
4t can be seen -ro, ?9uation &/23 that as the pipe length increases, the ter, eRN
approaches :ero and the te,perature, %
2
, beco,es e9ual to soil te,perature, %s.
There-ore, in a long gas pipeline, the gas te,perature ulti,ately e9uals the sur*
rounding soil te,perature/ This is illustrated in Figure &/2'/
4n the preceding analysis, #e ,ade se0eral si,pli-ying assu,ptions/ %e assu,ed
that the soil te,perature and the o0erall heat trans-er coe--icient re,ained constant
and ignored the Doule*Tho,pson e--ect as gas e>pands through a pipeline/ 4n a long
pipeline, the soil te,perature can actually 0ary along the pipeline and, there-ore,
,ust be ta!en into account in these calculations/ Bne approach #ould be to subdi0ide
the pipeline into seg,ents that ha0e constant soil te,peratures and per-or,
calculations -or each seg,ent separately/ The Doule*Tho,pson e--ect causes the gas
to cool slightly due to e>pansion/ There-ore, in a long pipeline, the gas te,perature at
the deli0ery point ,ay -all belo# that o- the ground or soil te,perature, as indicated
in Figure &/26/
$.12 "INE PAC<
1s gas -lo#s through a pipeline -ro, point 1 to point , the pressures and te,per*
atures 0ary along the pipeline length/ The 0olu,e o- gas contained in a gi0en length
o- pipeline is si,ply the physical 0olu,e o- the pipe seg,ent/ For e>a,ple, a 2*,ile
(++
section o- $P" 26 pipe can ha0e a physical 0olu,e o- )000 -t
&
/ There-ore, this 0olu,e
represents the 0olu,e o- the gas in this 2*,ile section at the actual gas te,perature
and pressure/ The 9uantity o- gas contained #ithin the pipeline under pressure,
,easured at standard conditions 6generally 2'/) psia and 60KF8, is ter,ed the line pac5
v'lume. Consider a seg,ent o- pipe, o- length ;, #ith upstrea, pressure and
te,perature o- P
2
and %
2
and do#nstrea, 0alues o- P
2
and %
2
, respecti0ely/ %e can
calculate the line pac! using the gas la#s discussed in Chapter 2/ "uppose the inside
dia,eter o- the pipe is 4P then the physical 0olu,e V
p
o- the pipe section is
6&/&08
V M L 4
2
;
p '
This 0olu,e is the gas 0olu,e at pressures and te,peratures ranging -ro, P2, %
2
at the upstrea, end to P
2
, %
2
at the do#nstrea, end o- the pipe length ;. 4n order to
con0ert this 0olu,e to standard conditions o- pressure, P
8
, and te,perature, %8, #e
apply the gas la# ?9uation 2/26 as -ollo#s5
6&/&28
P8V8 M P g P
&
8
%
8 &a0g%0g
#here
Pa0g M a0erage gas pressure in pipe seg,ent
%a0g M a0erage gas te,perature in pipe seg,ent
&a0g M a0erage gas co,pressibility -actor at %
avg
and Pavg
&
8
M co,pressibility -actor at base conditions M 2/00, appro>i,ately
The a0erage pressure,
Pa0g,
is calculated -ro, the upstrea, and do#nstrea, pres*
sures P
2
and P
2
using ?9uation 2/2'/ The a0erage te,perature can be ta!en as the
arith,etic ,ean o- the upstrea, and do#nstrea, te,peratures %
2
and %
2
. This
approach -or a0erage te,perature #ill be accurate only i- #e consider short seg,ents
o- pipe/
Fro, ?9uation &/&2, sol0ing -or line pac! V
8
at standard conditions, #e get
&a0g%a0
6&/&28
6&/&&8
V
8
M 6 %8
C
6 P a0g V p C P
"ubstituting the 0alue o- V
p
-
o, ?9uation &/&0 and si,pli-ying, #e get
Z
V
0/)(5
P
PT 42;8
8 a0g a0g
#here
V
8
M line pac! in pipe seg,ent, standard -t&
4 M pipe inside dia,eter, -t ; M
pipe seg,ent length, -t
Bther sy,bols are as de-ined be-ore/
(+, GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
?9uation &/&& is ,odi-ied in ter,s o- co,,only used pipeline units as -ollo#s5
Z
V
8

M 2(/)3(Z%&PTZ642;8 6."C" units8 6&/&'8
8 a0g a0g
#here
V
8
4 M pipe inside dia,eter, in/ ; M
pipe seg,ent length, ,i
The corresponding e9uation in "4 units is
Z%
V
8
M )/(55 O 20R'
%
& Pa0g Z(4
2
;) 6"4
%
nits8 6&/&58
8 a0g a0g
#here
V
8
M line pac! in pipe seg,ent, standard ,& 4
M pipe inside dia,eter, ,,
"ince the pressure and te,perature in a gas pipeline 0ary along the length, to
i,pro0e the accuracy o- calculations, the line pac! 0olu,e V
8
is calculated -or short
seg,ents o- pipe and su,,ed to obtain the line pac! o- the entire pipeline/
&4am!le )2
1 natural gas pipeline is 20 ,i long and has an inlet pressure o- 2000 psig and
outlet pressure o- 300 psig #hen transporting 200 =="CF</ The base
pressure and base te,perature are 2'/) psia and 60KF, respecti0ely/ 4- the pipe
is $P" 26, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness, calculate the line pac! assu,ing an
a0erage gas te,perature o- )(KF/ .se an a0erage co,pressibility -actor o-
0/30/
"olution
The a0erage pressure is calculated -ro, ?9uation 2/2' as -ollo#s5
P
2
202'/)P32'/) 202'/)O32'/)Z365/56psia
g
&Z202'&P32'/) 32'/)
(+-
.sing ?9uation &/&', #e calculate the line pac! as -ollo#s5
V8
M2(/)3(
>60P
'60
D6)(P'60ZZ

365/56 ZZ25/5
2
O 20Z M ',((0,522 standard -t&
6 2'/) 0/30 ZZ
There-ore, the line pac! is ',((0,522 standard -t&/
&4am!le ))
1 natural gas pipeline is 20 !, long and has an inlet pressure o- (000 !Pa 6gauge8
and outlet pressure o- 5000 !Pa 6gauge8 #hen transporting 5 =,
&
;day/ The
base pressure and base te,perature are 202 !Pa and 25KC, respecti0ely/ 4- the
pipe is <$ 500, 22 ,, #all thic!ness, calculate the line pac! assu,ing an
a0erage gas te,perature o- 20KC/ .se an a0erage co,pressibility -actor o-
0/30/
"olution
The a0erage pressure is calculated -ro, ?9uation 2/2' as -ollo#s5
P0g M &ZZ(202P5202R(202P5202Z2ZM 6)2'/62 !Pa 6absolute8
.sing ?9uation &/&5, #e calculate the line pac! as -ollo#s5
Z 25P2)& 6)2'/62 ')6
2
O20
V8 M )/(55 O 20'RZZ 202 C620P2)&8Z0/3ZM 25(,''( standard ,&
There-ore, the line pac! is 25(,''( standard ,&/
$.1$ S#MMAR%
4n this chapter #e continued to loo! at the application o- the pressure drop
e9uations introduced in Chapter 2/ "e0eral piping con-igurations, such as pipes in
series, pipes in parallel, and gas pipelines #ith inCections and deli0eries, #ere
analy:ed to deter,ine pressures re9uired and pipe si:e needed to satis-y certain
re9uire,ents/ The concepts o- e9ui0alent length in series piping and e9ui0alent
dia,eter in pipe loops #ere e>plained and illustrated using e>a,ple proble,s/ The
hydraulic pressure gradient and the need -or inter,ediate co,pressor stations to
transport gi0en 0olu,es o- gas #ithout e>ceeding allo#able pipeline pressures #ere
also co0ered/ The i,portance o- te,perature 0ariation in gas pipelines and ho# it
is ta!en into account in calculating pipeline pressures #ere introduced #ith re-erence to
co,,ercial hydraulic si,ulation ,odels/ The ,ethod o- calculating the line pac!
0olu,e in a gas pipeline #as also e>plained/ 4n the ne>t chapter, #e #ill discuss
co,pressor stations, co,pressor per-or,ance, and horsepo#er re9uire,ents/
(+0 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
PR!1"EMS
2/ 1 pipeline, $P" 2' #ith 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness, '0 ,i long, transports natural
gas 6speci-ic gra0ity M 0/6 and 0iscosity M 0/00000( lb;-t*s8 at a -lo# rate o- (0
=="CF< at an inlet te,perature o- 60KF/ 1ssu,ing isother,al -lo# and
neglecting ele0ation changes, calculate the inlet pressure re9uired -or a deli0ery
pressure o- (00 psig/ The base pressure and base te,perature are 2'/) psia
and 60KF, respecti0ely/ .se the Colebroo! e9uation #ith pipe roughness o-
0/000) in/
2/ 1 200 ,i long natural gas pipeline consists o- se0eral inCections and deli0eries/
The pipeline is $P" 2(, 0/&)5 in/ #all thic!ness and has an inlet 0olu,e o-
250 =="CF</ 1t points 6,ilepost 258 and C 6,ilepost )08, 60 =="CF< and
50 =="CF<, respecti0ely, are deli0ered/ 1t < 6,ilepost 308, gas enters the
pipeline at '0 =="CF</ 1ll strea,s o- gas can be assu,ed to ha0e a speci-ic
gra0ity o- 0/60 and a 0iscosity o- )/5 O 20
R6
lb;-t*s/ The pipe is inter*nally coated
such that the absolute roughness is 200 d in/ 1ssu,e a constant gas -lo# te,*
perature o- (0KF and base pressure and base te,perature o- 2'/) psia and 60KF,
respecti0ely/ .se a constant co,pressibility -actor o- 0/(( throughout/ $eglect
ele0ation di--erences along the pipeline/
a8 .sing the ,odi-ied Colebroo! e9uation, calculate the pressures along the
pipeline at points 1, , C, and < -or a ,ini,u, deli0ery pressure o- '00 psig at
the ter,inus ?/
b8 %hat dia,eter pipe #ill be re9uired -or section <? i- the re9uired deli0ery
pressure at ? is increased to 600 psigT
&/ 1 natural gas pipeline, 220 !, long, consists o- an inlet strea, at 1 and deli0eries at
and C/ The pipeline is <$ '00, 20 ,, #all thic!ness/ 1t 1, the gas enters at a
-lo# rate o- &/5 =,
&
;day/ 1t points 6!, 208 and C 6!, 2008, gas is deli0ered at
0/5 =,
&
;day and 2/0 =,
&
;day, respecti0ely/ 1t < 6!, 2508, gas enters a branch
pipe <F 6<$ 200, 6 ,, #all thic!ness, 20 !, long8 at a -lo# rate o- 2/0
=,
&
;day/ The re,aining gas 0olu,e o- 2/0 =,
&
;day is deli0ered to the pipe
ter,inus ?/ 1ll strea,s o- gas can be assu,ed to ha0e a speci-ic gra0ity o- 0/5(
and a 0iscosity o- 0/00022 Poise/ The pipeAs absolute roughness is 0/025 ,,
throughout/ 1ssu,e a constant gas -lo# te,perature o- 25KC and base pressure
and base te,perature o- 202 !Pa and 25KC, respecti0ely/ .se a pipeline e--iciency
o- 0/35 and constant co,pressibility -actor o- 0/(( throughout/ $eglect ele0ation
a8 .sing the Panhandle e9uation, calculate the pressures along the pipeline at
1, , C, and < -or a ,ini,u, deli0ery pressure o- &0 ar at ter,inus ?/
b8 %hat is the deli0ery pressure o- gas at the end o- the branch <FT
c8 %hat pipe dia,eter is needed -or the branch <F i- the deli0ery pressure
re9uired at F is '0 arT
'/ 1 series piping syste, consists o- 20 ,i o- $P" 26, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness,
connected to 20 ,i o- $P" 2', 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness and 20 ,iles o- $P" 22,
0/250 in/ #all thic!ness pipes/ Calculate the inlet pressure re9uired at the
beginning 1 -or a gas -lo# rate o- (5 =="CF</ Gas is deli0ered to the ter,inus
at
(+5
a deli0ery pressure o- 600 psig/ The gas gra0ity and 0iscosity are 0/6 and
0/00000( lb;-t*s, respecti0ely/ The gas te,perature is assu,ed constant at 60KF/
.se a co,pressibility -actor o- 0/(5 and the General Flo# e9uation #ith
Colebroo! -riction -actor o- 0/025/ The base te,perature and base pressure are
60KF and 2'/) psia, respecti0ely/
5/ 1 gas pipeline consists o- t#o single pipes #ith a couple o- parallel pipes in the
,iddle/ The inlet -lo# rate is 220 =="CF</ The -irst pipe seg,ent 1 is 20
,iles long and consists o- $P" 26, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness pipe/ The loop C? is
20 ,i long and consists o- $P" 2', 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness pipe/ The loop <?
is 25 ,iles long and consists o- $P" 22, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness pipe/ The last
seg,ent ?F is 2( ,iles long, $P" 26, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness pipe/ 1ssu,ing a
gas gra0ity o- 0/6, calculate the outlet pressure at F and the pressures at the
beginning and the end o- the pipe loops and the -lo# rates through the,/ The inlet
pressure at 1 M 2000 psig/ The gas -lo#ing te,perature M 60KF, base te,perature
M 60KF, and base pressure M 2'/)& psia/ The co,pressibility -actor & M 0/30/ .se
the 1G1 -ully turbulent e9uation throughout/
6/ 1 natural gas pipeline is 60 !, long/ The gas -lo# rate is 5/0 =,
&
;day at 20KC/
Calculate the ,ini,u, dia,eter re9uired -or an inlet and deli0ery pressure o- (/5
=Pa 6absolute8 and 5 =Pa 6absolute8, respecti0ely/ .se the General Flo#
e9uation #ith the ,odi-ied Colebroo!*%hite -riction -actor/ The pipe roughness M
0/020 ,,/ 4n order to increase the -lo# rate through the pipeline, the entire line is
looped #ith an identical*dia,eter pipeline/ 1ssu,ing the sa,e deli0ery pressure,
calculate the inlet pressure at the ne# -lo# rate o- ( =,
&
;day/ The gas gra0ity M
0/60 and 0iscosity M 0/000223 Poise/ The co,pressibility -actor & M 0/30, base
te,perature M 25KC, and base pressure M 202 !Pa/
)/ 1 natural gas pipeline is 50 ,i long and has an inlet pressure o- 2200 psig and
outlet pressure o- (30 psig #hen transporting 220 =="CF</ The base pressure
and base te,perature are 2'/) psia and 60KF, respecti0ely/ 4- the pipe is $P" 26,
0/&)5 in/ #all thic!ness, calculate the line pac! assu,ing an a0erage gas te,*
perature o- )5KF/ .se an a0erage co,pressibility -actor o- 0/(5/
RE'ERENCES
7ill, $e# Hor!, 236)/
'/ %esta#ay, C/R/ and Loo,is, 1/%/, 7amer'n Hydraulic 4ata, 26th ed/,
4ngersollRand, =ont0ale, $D, 23(2/
2/ .l'w 'f .luids thr'ugh Valves, .ittings and Pipe, Crane Co,pany, $e# Hor!,
23)6/
5/ =cCain, %/</ Dr/, %he Pr'perties 'f Petr'leum .luids, Petroleu, Publishing
Co,pany, Tulsa, BF, 23)&/
(+4 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
(/ =ohitpour, =/, Golshan, 7/, and =urray, 1/, Pipeline 4esign and 7'nstructi'n, 2nd
ed/, 1"=? Press, $e# Hor!, 200&/
(/ 3ngineering 4ata *''5, 20th ed/, Gas Processors "uppliers 1ssociation, Tulsa,
BF, 233'/
3/ Pipeline 4esign f'r Hydr'car8'n Gases and ;i?uids, 1,erican "ociety o- Ci0il
20/ 6teady .l'w in Gas Pipelines, Contract Report $o/ 20, Duly 2365, Pipeline Research
Council 4nternational, 7ouston, Tg, 2365/
CHAPTER (
Co3pressor Stations
4n this chapter #e #ill discuss co,pressor stations that are needed to transport gas
in a pipeline/ The opti,u, locations and pressures at #hich co,pressor stations
operate #ill be analy:ed in relation to pipeline throughputs, allo#able pipe pressures,
and pipeline topography/ Centri-ugal and positi0e displace,ent co,pressors used in
natural gas transportation #ill be co,pared #ith re-erence to their per-or,ance
characteristics and cost/ Typical co,pressor station design and e9uip,ent used #ill
be co0ered/ 4sother,al, adiabatic, and polytropic co,pression processes and horse*
po#er re9uired #ill be discussed #ith illustrati0e e>a,ples/ The discharge te,per*
ature o- co,pressed gas, its i,pact on pipeline throughput and gas cooling #ill be
e>plained/
(.1 C!MPRESS!R STATI!N "!CATI!NS
Co,pressor stations are installed on gas pipelines to pro0ide the pressure needed
to transport gas -ro, one location to another/ <ue to li,itations o- pipeline pressures,
,ultiple co,pressor stations ,ay be needed to transport a gi0en 0olu,e through a
long*distance pipeline/ The locations and pressures at #hich these co,pressor sta*
tions operate are deter,ined by allo#able pipe pressures, po#er a0ailable, and
en0iron,ental and geotechnical -actors/
Consider a pipeline that is designed to transport 200 =="CF< o- natural gas
-ro, <o0er to a po#er plant at Leeds, 50 ,iles a#ay/ 1ccording to ,ethods outlined
in Chapter &, #e #ould calculate the pressure re9uired at <o0er to ensure deli0ery o-
the gas at a pressure o- 500 psig at Leeds/ This calculated pressure at <o0er ,ay be
,ore or less than the ,a>i,u, allo#able pipe pressures/ "uppose the ,a>i,u,
allo#able operating pressure 6=1BP8 o- the pipeline is 2200 psig, #hereas the
pressure at <o0er is calculated to be 2050 psig/ 4t is clear that there is no 0iolation o-
pressures and, hence, a single co,pressor station at <o0er #ould su--ice to deli0er
gas to Leeds at the re9uired deli0ery pressure/ 4- the pipeline length #ere 200 ,iles
(+3
(,1 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
instead, calculations #ould sho# that in order to deli0er the sa,e 9uantity o- gas to
Leeds at the sa,e ter,inus pressure, the pressure re9uired at <o0er #ould ha0e to be
25(0 psig/ Bb0iously, since this is greater than the =1BP, #e #ould need ,ore than
one co,pressor station/
1s a -irst step, #e #ill assu,e that an inter,ediate co,pressor station #ill be
needed in addition to the one at <o0er/ The ne>t 9uestion is #here #ould this co,*
pressor station be locatedT 1 logical location #ould be the ,idpoint bet#een <o0er
and Leeds/
For si,plicity, assu,e the pipeline ele0ation pro-ile is -airly -lat and, there-ore,
ele0ation di--erences can be ignored/ 7a0ing selected the location o- the inter,ediate
pu,p station at the ,idpoint, Fent, as sho#n in Figure '/2, #e #ill proceed to
deter,ine the pressures at the co,pressor stations/
"ince the =1BP is li,ited to 2200 psig, assu,e that the co,pressor at <o0er
discharges at this pressure/ <ue to -riction, the gas pressure drops as it tra0els through
the pipeline -ro, <o0er to Fent, as indicated in Figure '/2/ "uppose the gas pressure
reaches 300 psig at Fent and is boosted to 2200 psig by the co,pressor at Fent/
There-ore, the co,pressor station at Fent is said to ha0e a suction pressure o- 300
psig and a discharge pressure o- 2200 psig/ The gas continues to ,o0e -ro, Fent to
Leeds, starting at 2200 psig at Fent/ 1s the gas reaches Leeds, the pressure ,ay or
,ay not be e9ual to the desired pressure o- 500 psig/ There-ore, i- the desired
ter,inus pressure at Leeds is ,aintained, the pressure at the discharge o- the Fent
co,pressor stations ,ay ha0e to be adCusted/ 1lternati0ely, Fent could discharge at
the sa,e 2200 psig, but its location along the pipeline ,ay ha0e to be adCusted/ %e
selected the 300 psig suction pressure at the Fent co,pressor station 9uite arbitrarily/
4t could ha0e been )00 psig or 2000 psig/ The actual nu,ber depends upon the
Vco,pression ratioW desired/ The co,pression ratio is si,ply the
(-41 p!i;
()11 p!i;
NPS (0 pipeline (11 "i lon;
'i4ure (.1 Ga! pipeline ?ith t?o o"pre!!or !tation!'
C*/PRESS*R STATI *NS
(,(
ratio o- the co,pressor discharge pressure to its suction pressure, both pressures being
e>pressed in absolute units/
6'/28
Co,pression ratio r MPd
s
#here the suction and discharge pressures P
s
and P
d
are in absolute units/ 4n
the present case, the co,pression ratio -or Fent is
rM2200P2'/)M2/&&
300P2'/)
4n the abo0e calculation, #e assu,ed the base pressure to be 2'/) psia/ 4- #e had
chosen a suction pressure o- )00 psig, the co,pression ratio #ould be
rM2200P2'/)M 2)
)00P2'/)
1n acceptable co,pression ratio -or centri-ugal co,pressors is about 2/5/ 1 larger
nu,ber re9uires ,ore co,pressor horsepo#er, #hereas a s,aller co,pression ratio
,eans less horsepo#er re9uired/ 4n gas pipelines, it is desirable to !eep the a0erage
pipeline pressure as high as possible to reduce co,pression po#er/ There-ore, i- the
suction pressure at Fent is allo#ed to -all to )00 psig or lo#er, the a0erage pressure in
the pipeline #ould be lo#er than i- #e chose 300 psig -or the suction pressure at Fent/
Bb0iously, there is a tradeo-- bet#een the nu,ber o- co,pressor stations, the suction
pressure, and the co,pression horsepo#er re9uired/ %e #ill discuss this in ,ore
detail later in this chapter/
Going bac! to the e>a,ple proble, abo0e, #e concluded that #e ,ay ha0e to
adCust the location o- the Fent co,pressor station or adCust its discharge pressure to
ensure the 500 psig deli0ery pressure at Leeds/ 1lternati0ely, #e could lea0e the
inter,ediate co,pressor station at the hal-#ay point and discharge at 2200 psig,
e0entually deli0ering gas to Leeds at 600 psig/ 4- calculations sho# that by discharg*
ing out o- Fent results in 600 psig at Leeds, #e ha0e satis-ied the ,ini,u, pressure
re9uire,ent at Leeds/ 7o#e0er, there is e>tra energy associated #ith the e>tra 200
psig deli0ery pressure/ 4- the po#er plant can use this e>tra energy, then there is no
#aste/ Bn the other hand, i- the po#er plant re9uire,ent is 500 psig ,a>i,u,, then
so,e ,eans o- regulating the pressure ,ust be present at the deli0ery point/ This
#ould ,ean that 200 psig #ould be reduced through a pressure regulator or control
0al0e at Leeds and energy #ould be #asted/ 1nother option #ould be to !eep the Fent
co,pressor at the ,idpoint but reduce the discharge pressure to a nu,ber that #ould
result in the re9uisite 500 psig at Leeds/ "ince pressure drop in gas pipelines is
nonlinear, re,e,bering our discussion in Chapter &, Fent discharge pressure ,ay ha0e
to be reduced by less than 200 psig to pro0ide the -i>ed 500 psig deli0ery pressure at
Leeds/ This #ould ,ean that <o0er #ould operate at 2200 psig discharge, #hereas
Fent #ould discharge at 2250 psig/ This 0iolates our pre,ise o- !eeping the a0erage
pressure in a gas pipeline as high as possible/ 7o#e0er, this is
(,) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
still a solution, and in order to pic! the best option, #e ,ust co,pare t#o or ,ore
alternati0e approaches, -actoring in the total horsepo#er re9uired as #ell as the cost
in0ol0ed/ =o0ing the Fent co,pressor station slightly upstrea, or do#nstrea,
#ould change the suction and discharge pressures and, hence, the horsepo#er
re9uired/ Fro, a cost standpoint, the change #ould not be signi-icant/ 7o#e0er, the
horsepo#er 0ariation #ould result in change in energy cost and, there-ore, in annual
operating cost/ %e ,ust there-ore ta!e into account the capital cost and annual
operating cost in order to co,e up #ith the opti,u, solution/ 1n e>a,ple #ill
illustrate this ,ethod/ 4n Chapter 20, #e #ill co0er se0eral di--erent cost scenarios
#hen dealing #ith pipeline econo,ics/
&4am!le )
1 natural gas pipeline, 2'0 ,iles long -ro, <o0er to Leeds, is constructed o- $P"
26, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness pipe, #ith an =BP o- 2200 psig/ The gas speci-ic
gra0ity and 0iscosity are 0/6 and ( O 20
R6
lb;-t*s, respecti0ely/ The pipe
roughness can be assu,ed to be )00 d in/, and the base pressure and base
te,perature are 2'/) psia and 60KF, respecti0ely/ The gas -lo# rate is 2)5
=="CF< at (0KF, and the deli0ery pressure re9uired at Leeds is (00 psig/
<eter,ine the nu,ber and locations o- co,pressor stations re9uired,
neglecting ele0ation di--erence along the pipeline/ 1ssu,e & M 0/(5/
"olution
%e #ill use the Colebroo!*%hite e9uation to calculate the pressure
drop/ The Reynolds nu,ber is calculated -ro, ?9uation 2/&' as
-ollo#s5
$ M 0/000'))( O 2)5 O 20
6
O 0/6 O 2'/) M 22 '&) '22
25/5 O ( O 20
R6
O 520 ,
Relati0e roughness M )00 O 20R6 M '/5262 O 20R5
25/5
.sing Colebroo!*%hite ?9uation 2/&3, #e get the -riction -actor
Z
2'/526 O 20
R5
2 /52
f MR2Log20 &/) P22,'&),'22
Z Z Z
f M 0/020)
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/2, #e calculate the pressure re9uired at <o0er
as, neglecting ele0ation e--ects,
: :
2)5 O 20
6
M ))/5'Z SSSS2 P +05 (2'/) 4O 625/586 2 Z2s
0/020)86
520
86
2'
/)0/6 O 5'0 O 2'0 O 0/(5
C*/PRESS*R STATI*NS (,+
'i4ure (.2 Pipeline ?ith ()11 p!i; /*P'
"ol0ing -or the pressure at <o0er, #e get
P2 M 253' psia M 25)3/& psig
4t can be seen -ro, Figure '/2 that since the =BP is 2200 psig, #e cannot discharge at
25)3/& psig at <o0er/
%e #ill need to reduce the discharge pressure at <o0er to 2200 psig and
install an additional co,pressor station at so,e point bet#een <o0er and
Leeds, as sho#n in Figure '/&/
Di!tane Qent
NPS (0 pipeline (,1 "i lon;
'i4ure (.$ Do&er to Lee%! pipeline ?ith one o"pre!!or !tation'
(,, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
%e #ill initially assu,e that the inter,ediate co,pressor station #ill be located at
Fent, hal-#ay bet#een <o0er and Leeds/ For the pipe seg,ent -ro, <o0er to
Fent, #e #ill calculate the suction pressure at the Fent co,pressor station as
-ollo#s/
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/2,
l0/5
2)5 O 20 M ))/5'Z2 222'/)2 J P24O 625/586
2Z2s0/020)86 520 862'/)0/6O5'0O)0O0/(5
"ol0ing -or the pressure at Fent 6suction pressure8,
P2 M )&& psia M )2( psig
1t Fent, i- #e boost the gas pressure -ro, )2( psig to 2200 psig 6=BP8, the
co,pression ratio at Fent is @ )&
/)
M 2/66/ This is a reasonable co,pression ratio
-or a centri-ugal co,pressor/ $e>t, #e #ill see i- the 2200 psig pressure at
Fent #ill gi0e the desired (00 psig deli0ery pressure at Leeds/
Considering the )0 ,i seg,ent -ro, Fent to Leeds, using the General Flo# e9uation
#e get
l0/5
2)5 O 20 M ))/5'Z2 222'/)2 J P24O 625/586
2Z2s0/020)86 520 862'/)0/6O5'0O)0O0/(5
resulting in a pressure at Leeds o-
P2 M )&& psia M )2( psig
This is less than the (00 psig desired/ 7ence, #e ,ust ,o0e the location o- the Fent
co,pressor station slightly to#ard Leeds so that the (00 psig deli0ery
pressure can be achie0ed/ %e #ill calculate the distance ; re9uired bet#een
Fent and Leeds/ To achie0e this, using General Flo# ?9uation 2/2
2)5 O 20 M ))/5'
2 520 222'/) 2 R(2'/) 2Z05 O 625/58
e 6 0/020) 862'/)8Z0/6O5'0O;O0/(5Z25
"ol0ing -or length ;, #e get
222'/)
2
R(2'/)
2
222'/)
2
R)&& 2
M
; )0
; M 60/5) ,iles
There-ore, Fent ,ust be located appro>i,ately 62 ,iles -ro, Leeds/ %e ,ust no#
recalculate the suction pressure at the Fent co,pressor station based on the
pipe
C*/PRESS*R STATI*NS
(,-
length o- )3/'& 62'0 R 60/5)8 ,iles bet#een <o0er and Fent/ Fro, this suction
pressure, #e ,ust also chec! the co,pression ratio/
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/2 -or the pipe seg,ent bet#een <o0er and
Fent, #e get
2)5 O 20
6
M ))/5'Z
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 520
Z 222
)2 R P2 Z
2'/
4
Z
6O 5'0 O )
'& O 0
2
g 0/020)
0/5
(5 Z O 625/582/5
222'/)
2
R P22 M 222'/)
2
R )&& 2
)3/'& )0
or
P2 M 6'5/'3 psia M 6&0/)3 psig
There-ore, the suction pressure at Fent M 6&0/)3 psig/ The co,pression ratio at
Fent M
222'/) M 2/((/
6'5/'3
The co,pression ratio is slightly ,ore than the 2/5 #e #ould li!e to see/
7o#e0er, -or no#, #e #ill go ahead #ith this co,pression ratio/
Figure '/' sho#s the re0ised con-iguration #ith the ne# location o- the Fent
co,pressor station/
(-53 p!i;
()11 p!i;
'i4ure (.( Do&er to Lee%! pipeline ?ith reloate% Qent o"pre!!or !tation'
(,0 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
(.2 H%DRA#"IC 1A"ANCE
4n the preceding discussions, #e considered each co,pressor station operating at
the sa,e discharge pressure and also considered the sa,e co,pression ratio/ Recall*
ing the de-inition o- co,pression ratio -ro, ?9uation '/2, #e can state that each
co,pressor station operates at the sa,e suction and discharge pressures/ 4- there are
no inter,ediate inCections or deli0eries along the pipeline, as in ?>a,ple 2, each
co,pressor station is re9uired to co,press the sa,e a,ount o- gas/ There-ore, #ith
pressures and -lo# rates being the sa,e, each co,pressor station #ill re9uire the
sa,e a,ount o- horsepo#er/ This is !no#n as hydraulic balance/ 4n a long pipeline
#ith ,ultiple co,pressor stations, in #hich each co,pressor station adds the sa,e
a,ount o- energy to the gas, #e say that this is a hydraulically 8alanced pipeline.
Bne o- the ad0antages o- a hydraulically balanced pipeline is that all co,pression
e9uip,ent can be identical, #hich #ill reduce in0entory o- spare parts and ,ini,i:e
,aintenance/ 4t is ,uch easier and cheaper to ,aintain -i0e identical co,pressor
stations o- 5000 horsepo#er each than to ,aintain t#o 6000 7P and three 5000 7P
co,pressors/ 1lso, in order to pu,p the sa,e 0olu,e through a pipeline, hydrau*
lically balanced co,pressor stations #ill re9uire less total horsepo#er than i- the
stations #ere not located -or hydraulic balance/
%e #ill no# discuss the di--erent processes by #hich gas is co,pressed, such as
isother,al, adiabatic 6isentropic8, and polytropic co,pression/ 1-ter that, #e #ill
outline the ,ethod -or calculating horsepo#er -or a co,pressor station in the sub*
se9uent sections/
(.$ IS!THERMA" C!MPRESSI!N
The isother,al co,pression process is one in #hich the gas pressure and 0olu,e
co,pressed 0ary in a #ay that the te,perature re,ains constant/ 4sother,al co,*
pression re9uires the least a,ount o- #or! co,pared to other -or,s o- co,pression/
This process is o- theoretical interest since, in reality, ,aintaining the te,perature
constant in a gas co,pressor is 0irtually i,possible/
Figure '/5 sho#s the pressure 0olu,e diagra, -or isother,al co,pression/ Point 2
represents the inlet conditions o- pressure (P
2
), 0olu,e (V
2
), and at te,perature
(%2). Point 2 represents the -inal co,pressed conditions o- pressure (P
2
), 0olu,e
(V
2
), and at constant te,perature (%2).
The relationship bet#een pressure, P, and 0olu,e, V, in an isother,al process is
as -ollo#s5
PV M 7 (C.@)
#here 7 is a constant/ There-ore,
#e can state that
P2V2 M
P
2
V
2 6'/&8
C*/PRESS*R STATI*NS
(,5
'i4ure (.) I!other"al o"pre!!ion'
Considering 2 lb o- natural gas co,pressed isother,ally, the #or! done is cal*
culated as -ollo#s5
6 ' / ' 8
6 ' / 5 8
Qi M 5&/ 2( %2 ZP2 Z6 ."C" uni t s8
2
#here
Qi M isother,al #or! done, -t*lb;lb o- gas G M gas gra0ity,
di,ensionless %
2
M suction te,perature o- gas, KR
P
2
M suction pressure o- gas, psia
P
2
M discharge pressure o- gas, psia
Log
e
M natural logarith, to base e (e M 2/)2(8
P 2
The ratio 6is also called the co,pression ratio/ 2 8
P
4n "4 units, the #or! done in isother,al co,pression o- 2 !g o- gas is
Qi M 2 ( ) 6 %
L o g e Z P @
6 " 4 u ni t s 8
2 8
#here
Qi M isother,al #or! done, D;!g o- gas %
2

M suction te,perature o- gas, F
P
2
M suction pressure o- gas, !Pa absolute
P
2
M discharge pressure o- gas, !Pa absolute
(,4 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
&4am!le *
$atural gas is co,pressed isother,ally at 60KF -ro, an initial pressure o- 500 psig
to a pressure o- 2000 psig/ The gas gra0ity is 0/6/ Calculate the #or! done in
co,pressing 5 lb o- gas/ .se 2'/) psia and 60KF -or the base pressure and
te,perature, respecti0ely/
"olution
.sing ?9uation '/', the #or! done per lb o- gas is
QiM
5&/2(
660 P '608 Loge r 2000P2'/) ZM &2,&'& -t*lb;lb 0/6
Z 500P2'/)ZZ
The total #or! done in co,pressing 5 lb o- gas is
Q% M &2,&'& O 5 M 256,)25 -t*lb
&4am!le +
Calculate the #or! done in co,pressing 2 !g o- gas 6gra0ity M 0/658 isother,ally at
20KC -ro, )00 !Pa to 2000 !Pa/ .se 202 !Pa and 25KC -or the base pressure
and te,perature, respecti0ely/
"olution
.sing ?9uation '/5, the #or! done in isother,al co,pression o- 2 !g o- gas is
Qi M 2(6/)6 62)& P 208 Log
2
2000P202 ZM 22',6'3 D;!g
0/65 e l )00P202ZZ
There-ore, the total #or! done in co,pressing 2 !g o- gas is
Q% M 22',6'3 O 2 M 2'3,23( D
(.( ADIA1ATIC C!MPRESSI!N
The adiabatic co,pression process is characteri:ed by :ero heat trans-er bet#een
the gas and the surroundings
/
The ter,s adia8atic and isentr'pic are used synony*
,ously, although isentropic really ,eans Vconstant entropy/W 1n adiabatic process
that is also -rictionless is re-erred to as isentropic/ 4n an adiabatic co,pression
process, the relationship bet#een pressure and 0olu,e is as -ollo#s5
PV r M 7 (C.R)
C*/PRESS*R STATI*NS (,3
#here
g = ratio o- speci-ic heats o- gas, 77p
7
p
M speci-ic heats o- gas at constant pressure
7
v
M speci-ic heats o- gas at constant 0olu,e
7 M a constant, di--erent -ro, the one -or isother,al co,pression in ?9uation '/2
g is also !no#n as the adiabatic or isentropic e>ponent -or the gas/ 4t ranges in
0alue -ro, 2/2 to 2/'/
There-ore, #e can state that
P2V2 9 M P2V29
6'/ )8 ')
Figure '/6 sho#s adiabatic co,pression si,ilar to the P*V diagra, -or isother,al
co,pression/
Considering 2 lb o- natural gas co,pressed adiabatically, the #or! done is
calculated as -ollo#s5
#here
Qa M adiabatic #or! done, -t*lb;lb o- gas G
M gas gra0ity, di,ensionless %
2
M suction
te,perature o- gas, KR
g = ratio o- speci-ic heats o- gas, di,ensionless
P
2
P
2
M discharge pressure o- gas, psia uction pressure o- gas, psia P
2
'i4ure (.. A%ia#ati o"pre!!ion'
(-1 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
4n "4 units, the #or! done in adiabatic
co,pre
ssion
o- 2 !g o- gas is
6'/38
6'/38
#here
Qa M adiabatic #or! done, D;!g o- gas %
2
M
suction te,perature o- gas, F
P
2
M suction pressure o- gas, !Pa absolute
P
2
M discharge pressure o- gas, !Pa absolute
&4am!le ,
$atural gas is co,pressed adiabatically -ro, an initial te,perature and
pressure o- 60KF and 500 psig, respecti0ely, to a -inal pressure o- 2000 psig/
The gas gra0ity is 0/6 and the ratio o- speci-ic heat is 2/&/ Calculate the #or!
done in co,pressing 5 lb o- gas/ .se 2'/) psia and 60KF -or the base pressure
and te,perature, respecti0ely/
"olution
.sing ?9uation '/(, the #or! done in adiabatic co,pression is
Z0& / _
Qa M 50/6( 660P'6086/& l 8 202'/) Z2& R2 M &&,3&2 -t*lb;lb ` 52'
)
Z Z
Z Z
There-ore, the total #or! done in co,pressing 5 lb o- gas
is Q% M &&,3&2 O 5 M 263,655 -t*lb
&4am!le -
Calculate the #or! done in co,pressing 2 !g o- gas 6gra0ity M 0/658
adiabatically -ro, an initial te,perature o- 20KC and pressure o- )00 !Pa to a
-inal pressure o- 2000 !Pa/ The speci-ic heat ratio o- gas is 2/' and the base
pressure and base te,perature are 202 !Pa and 25KC, respecti0ely/
"olution
.sing ?9uation '/3, the #or! done in adiabatic co,pression o- 2 !g o- gas is
Z0/' _
Qa M 20 /)6
620P2)&8
2/'8 6 2 00
0
P 202 82' R2 M 2'&,522 D;!g `
Z Z
Z Z
2)&8 2/'8 6 2 000P 202 82' R2 M 2'&,522 D;!g Z
Z Z
Z Z
C*/PRESS*R STATI *NS (-(
There-ore, the total #or! done in co,pressing 2 !g o- gas is Q%
M 2'&,522 O 2 M 2(),02' D
(.) P!"%TR!PIC C!MPRESSI!N
Polytropic co,pression is si,ilar to adiabatic co,pression, but there is no re9uire*
,ent o- :ero heat trans-er as in adiabatic co,pression/ 4n a polytropic process, the
relationship bet#een pressure and 0olu,e is as -ollo#s5
PV
n
M 7 6'/208
#here
n M polytropic e>ponent
7 M a constant, di--erent -ro, the one -or isother,al or adiabatic co,pression in
?9uation '/2 and ?9uation '/6
There-ore, #e can state that
PF
2
n
M P2V2n 6'/228
"ince polytropic co,pression is si,ilar to adiabatic co,pression, #e can easily
calculate the #or! done in polytropic co,pression by substituting n -or g in
?9uation '/( and ?9uation '/3/
&4am!le .
$atural gas is co,pressed polytropically -ro, an initial te,perature and
pressure o- 60KF and 500 psig, respecti0ely, to a -inal pressure o- 2000 psig/
The gas gra0ity is 0/6 and the base pressure and base te,perature are 2'/) psia
and 60KF, respecti0ely/ Calculate the #or! done in co,pressing 5 lb o- gas
using a polytropic e>ponent o- 2/5/
"olution
Polytropic co,pression is si,ilar to adiabatic co,pression, and, there-ore, the
sa,e e9uation can be used -or #or! done, substituting the polytropic e>ponent
n -or the adiabatic e>ponent g 6the ratio o- speci-ic heat8/
.sing ?9uation '/(, the #or! done in polytropic co,pression o- 2 lb o- gas is
Zl 0/5
QpM50
6(
660P'6086
/
58 r 0 / 225 R2M &5,26( -t*lb;lb `
Z Z
There-ore, the total #or! done in co,pressing 5 lb o- gas
is Q% M &5,26( O 5 M 2)5,('0 -t*lb
(-) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
&4am!le /
Calculate the #or! done in co,pressing 2 !g o- gas 6gra0ity M 0/658 polytropically
-ro, an initial te,perature o- 20KC and pressure o- )00 !Pa to a -inal pressure
o- 2000 !Pa/ .se a polytropic e>ponent o- 2/5/ The base pressure and base
te,perature are 202 !Pa and 25KC, respecti0ely/
"olution
.sing ?9uation '/3, and substituting the polytropic e>ponent 2/5 in place o- g, the
#or! done in polytropic co,pression is
Z0/5 _
Qp M 20 /)6
620P2)&8
2/58 6 20 0
0
P 202825 R2 M 2'6,336 D;!g `
Z Z
Z Z
There-ore, the total #or! done in co,pressing 2 !g o- gas is
Q% M 2'6,336 O 2 M 23&,332 D
(.. DISCHARGE TEMPERAT#RE !' C!MPRESSED GAS
4n adiabatic or polytropic co,pression o- natural gas, #e can deter,ine the -inal
te,perature o- the gas !no#ing the initial te,perature and initial and -inal pressures/
.sing ?9uation '/6 -or adiabatic co,pression and the per-ect gas la#, by eli,*
inating the 0olu,e, V, #e can #rite the -ollo#ing5
6'/228
SR2
X1 2
Z
M
X
*
&
2

8 X P2 ZS
%
2
P2
#here
%
2
M suction te,perature o- gas, KR
%
2
M discharge te,perature o- gas, KR
&
2
M gas co,pressibility -actor at suction, di,ensionless
&
2
M gas co,pressibility -actor at discharge, di,ensionless
"i,ilarly, -or polytropic co,pression, the discharge te,perature can be calculated
-ro, the -ollo#ing e9uation5
6'/2&8
C%2XM442; 442; nR2 C& 2 P 2 ) n #here
all sy,bols are as de-ined earlier/
(-+
&4am!le 0
Gas is co,pressed adiabatically (g M 2/'8 -ro, 60KF suction te,perature and a
co,pression ratio o- 2/0/ Calculate the discharge te,perature, assu,ing &2 M
0/33 and &2 M 0/(5/
"olution
.sing ?9uation '/22,
Z7 0 /33 Z00M'% 2
Z62/08= 2/'23(
60P'60 0/(5
%2 M 2/'23( O 520 M )&(/&KR M 2)(/&KF
(.9 H!RSEP!WER REA#IRED
The a,ount o- energy input to the gas by the co,pressors is dependent upon the
pressure o- the gas and -lo# rate/ The horsepo#er (HP), #hich represents the energy
per unit ti,e, also depends upon the gas pressure and the -lo# rate/ 1s the -lo# rate
increases, the pressure also increases and, hence, the horsepo#er needed #ill also
increase/ "ince energy is de-ined as #or! done by a -orce, #e can state the po#er
re9uired in ter,s o- the gas -lo# rate and the discharge pressure o- the co,pressor
station/
"uppose the gas -lo# rate is : ,easured in standard -t
&
per day 6"CF<8, and the
suction and discharge pressures o- the co,pressor station are P
s
and P
d
, respecti0ely/
The co,pressor station adds the di--erential pressure o- (P
d
+ P
s
) psia to the gas
-lo#ing at : "CF</ There-ore, the rate at #hich energy is supplied to the gas is (P
d
+
P
s
) O : O 7'nst2, #here 7'nst2 is a constant depending upon the units e,ployed/
This is a 0ery si,plistic approach, since the gas properties 0ary #ith te,perature
and pressure/ 1lso, the co,pressibility -actor and the type o- gas co,pression
6adiabatic or polytropic8 ,ust be ta!en into account/ There-ore, the calculation -or HP
#ill be approached -ro, another angle in #hat -ollo#s/
The head de0eloped by the co,pressor is de-ined as the a,ount o- energy
supplied to the gas per unit ,ass o- gas/ There-ore, by ,ultiplying the ,ass -lo# rate
o- gas by the co,pressor head, #e can calculate the total energy supplied to the gas/
<i0iding this by co,pressor e--iciency, #e #ill get the horsepo#er re9uired to
co,press the gas/ The e9uation -or horsepo#er can be e>pressed as -ollo#s5
HPM Oi H 6'/2'8
T
#here
HP M co,pressor horsepo#er
M ,ass -lo# rate o- gas, lb;,in
(-, GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
iH M co,pressor head, -t*lb;lb
h = co,pressor e--iciency, deci,al 0alue
1nother ,ore co,,only used -or,ula -or co,pressor horsepo#er that ta!es
into account the co,pressibility o- gas is as -ollo#s5
6'/258
6'/268
SR2
Z
C:% HPM0/0(5)Z yS46&2@G28 P: 2
Z l D a 2
Z
#here
HP M co,pressor horsepo#er
: M gas -lo# rate, =="CF<
%2 M suction te,perature o- gas, KR
P2 M suction pressure o- gas, psia
P2 M discharge pressure o- gas, psia
&2 M co,pressibility o- gas at suction conditions, di,ensionless
&2 M co,pressibility o- gas at discharge conditions, di,ensionless ha M co,pressor
adiabatic 6isentropic8 e--iciency, deci,al 0alue
4n "4 units, the Po#er e9uation is as -ollo#s5
9R2 _
ZS
Po#er M '/06&3Z y S 28:%Z2Z&22
&
2P2 a 2 `
Z Z
#here
Po#er M co,pression Po#er, !%
: M gas -lo# rate, =,&;day
%
2
M suction te,perature o- gas, F
P
2
M suction pressure o- gas, !Pa
P
2
M discharge pressure o- gas, !Pa
&
2
M co,pressibility o- gas at suction conditions, di,ensionless
&
2
M co,pressibility o- gas at discharge conditions, di,ensionless
h
a
= co,pressor adiabatic 6isentropic8 e--iciency, deci,al 0alue
The adiabatic e--iciency h
a
generally ranges -ro, 0/)5 to 0/(5/ y considering a
,echanical e--iciency h
m
o- the co,pressor dri0er, #e can calculate the bra!e
horsepo#er (*HP) re9uired to run the co,pressor as -ollo#s5
*HP M HP 6'/2)8
Um
C*/PRESS*R STATI *NS (--
#here HP is the horsepo#er calculated -ro, the preceding e9uations, ta!ing into
account the adiabatic e--iciency h
a
o- the co,pressor/ The ,echanical e--iciency hm o-
the dri0er can range -ro, 0/35 to 0/3(/ The o0erall e--iciency, h
o
, is de-ined as the
product o- the adiabatic e--iciency, h
a
, and the ,echanical e--iciency, hm:
h' = h
a
hm 6'/2(8
Fro, the adiabatic co,pression ?9uation '/6, eli,inating the 0olu,e V, the dis*
charge te,perature o- the gas is related to the suction te,perature and the co,pression
ratio by ,eans o- the -ollo#ing e9uation5
Z%2
2
%P
MZP
2
ZZ
ZZ
2
S
R
2
S
6'/238
The adiabatic e--iciency, h
a
, can also be de-ined as the ratio o- the adiabatic
te,perature rise to the actual te,perature rise/ Thus, i- the gas te,perature due to
co,pression increases -ro, %
2
to %
2
, the actual te,perature rise is (%
2
+ %2).
The theoretical adiabatic te,perature rise is obtained -ro, the adiabatic pressureU
te,perature relationship as -ollo#s, considering the gas co,pressibility -actors
si,ilar to ?9uation '/225
SR2
Z
%
Z&2
P
2
S
6'/208
%
2
P
2
or
SR2
Z
%
2
M % &
2
P
2
S
6'/228
ZZ &
2
P
2
There-ore, the theoretical adiabatic te,perature rise is
SR2
Z
S
% &
2
P
2
G%
2
&
2
P
2 2
There-ore, the adiabatic e--iciency is
6'/228
SR2
J%2 6 & 2 8 6 P @ 8 9 R % 2
a %2 %2
#here %
2
is the actual discharge te,perature o- the gas/
(-0 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
"i,pli-ying, #e get
Z % 2
& 2 Z Z
P 2 X
UaM
Z % 2
R % 2
& 2
6'/2&8
6'/2&8
For e>a,ple, i- the inlet gas te,perature is (0KF and the suction and discharge
pressures are (00 psia and 2'00 psia, respecti0ely, #e can calculate the adiabatic e--i*
ciency i- the outlet te,perature is gi0en as 200KF/ .sing g M2/', and -ro, ?9uation
'/2&, the adiabatic e--iciency is, assu,ing co,pressibility -actors to be e9ual to 2/0,
6'/2'8 6'/2'8
2/'R2
U
a
M 6 200
'60
(0Z6(00 8Z2J' R2 M 0/)(02
Thus, the adiabatic co,pression e--iciency is 0/)(02/
&4am!le 1
Calculate the co,pressor horsepo#er re9uired -or an adiabatic co,pression o-
206 =="CF< gas #ith inlet te,perature o- 6(KF and )25 psia pressure/ The
discharge pressure is 2&05 psia/ 1ssu,e the co,pressibility -actors at suction
and discharge conditions to be &
2
M2/0 and &
2
M 0/(5, respecti0ely, and the
adiabatic e>ponent g M2/', #ith the adiabatic e--iciency h
a
M 0/(/ 4- the
,echanical e--iciency o- the co,pressor dri0er is 0/35, #hat *HP is re9uiredT
Calculate the outlet te,perature o- the gas/
"olution
Fro, ?9uation '/25, the horsepo#er re9uired is
Z0/'0 Z
HPM0/0(5)O20
ZZ
0/'0866
P'6
2P0/(58Z2
0
/
(
Z
)25 8@l
R2 M&550
Z
Z Z Z
Z
.sing ?9uation '/2), #e calculate the dri0er horsepo#er re9uired based on a
,echanical e--iciency o- 0/355
*HP re9uired M &550 M &)&)
0/35
The outlet te,perature o- the gas is -ound -ro, ?9uation '/2& a-ter
transposing as -ollo#s5
2 862&05 8S2
%
2
M 66( P '608 O 6 0/(5 l )25 P 66( P '608 M )(6/'6KR M &26/'6KF
0/( `
Z Z
The discharge te,perature o- the gas is &26/ '6KF/ KF/
(-5
&4am!le )2
$atural gas at & =,
&
;day and 20KC is co,pressed isentropically (g M 2/'8 -ro, a
suction pressure o- 5 =Pa absolute to a discharge pressure o- 3 =Pa absolute
in a centri-ugal co,pressor #ith an isentropic e--iciency o- 0/(0/ Calculate the
co,pressor po#er re9uired, assu,ing the co,pressibility -actors at suction
and discharge conditions to be &2 M 0/35 and &2 M 0/(5, respecti0ely/ 4- the
,echanical e--iciency o- the co,pressor dri0er is 0/35, #hat is the dri0er
po#er re9uiredT Calculate the outlet te,perature o- the gas/
"olution
Fro, ?9uation '/26, the po#er re9uired is
ZPo#er M '/06&3 O &Z 0/'08 620P2)&8 0/35P0/(5 ZZ02(ZZZ 5220'0 R 2 M 25)2 !% /
`
Z Z
Z Z
Po#er M 25)2 !%
.sing ?9uation '/2), #e calculate the dri0er po#er re9uired as -ollo#s5
<ri0er po#er re9uired M 25)2 M 2)0( !%
0/35
The outlet te,perature o- the gas is -ound -ro, ?9uation '/2& as -ollo#s5
Z0/' _
%2M200/()&O 60/35863ZR2 P620P2)&8M'20/3'FM2&)/3'KC 5 `
Z Z
Z Z
(.: !PTIM#M C!MPRESS!R "!CATI!NS
4n the -oregoing discussion, #e loo!ed at a t#o*co,pressor station con-iguration -or
gas deli0eries -ro, <o0er to the Leeds po#er plant/ 4n this section, #e #ill consider
0arious locations o- the inter,ediate co,pressor stations on a long*distance gas
trans,ission pipeline to arri0e at the opti,u, locations, ta!ing into account the
o0erall horsepo#er re9uired/ 4n "ection '/2, #e discussed hydraulic balance/ The
ad0antage o- locating the inter,ediate co,pressor station, such that the sa,e a,ount
o- energy is added to the gas at each co,pressor station, #as pointed out/
4n the ne>t e>a,ple, #e #ill analy:e opti,u, co,pressor locations by consid*
ering both hydraulically balanced and unbalanced co,pressor station locations/
&4am!le ))
1 gas trans,ission pipeline is 2'0 ,i long, $P" &0, 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, #ith
an origin co,pressor station at Payson and t#o inter,ediate co,pressor
stations
(-4 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
=illia"! Sno?flaJe
"'p' 41 "'p' (01
NPS +1 pipeline ),1 "i lon;
'i4ure (.9 Ga! pipeline ?ith three o"pre!!or !tation!'
tentati0ely located at %illia,s 6,ilepost (08 and "no#-la!e 6,ilepost 2608, as
sho#n in Figure '/)/ There are no inter,ediate -lo# deli0eries or inCections,
and the inlet -lo# rate o- 300 =="CF< at Payson e9uals the deli0ery -lo#
rate at <ouglas/ The deli0ery pressure re9uired at <ouglas is 600 psig and
the =BP o- the pipeline is 2'00 psig throughout/ $eglect the e--ects o-
ele0ation and assu,e constant gas -lo# te,perature o- (0KF and constant
0alues o- trans,ission -actor . M 20 and co,pressibility -actor & M 0/(5
throughout the pipeline/ The gas gra0ity M 0/6, base pressure M 2'/) psia,
and base te,perature M 60KF/ .se a polytropic co,pression coe--icient o-
2/&( and a co,pression e--iciency o- 0/3/
"olution
$eglecting the e--ects o- ele0ation, #e could calculate -or each o- the three
seg,entsJ Payson to %illia,s, %illia,s to "no#-la!e, and "no#-la!e to
<ouglasJthe do#nstrea, pressure starting #ith an upstrea, pressure o-
2'00 psig/ Thus, using the General Flo# e9uation -or the Payson to
%illia,s seg,ent, #e #ould calculate the do#nstrea, pressure at
%illia,s starting #ith a pressure o- 2'00 psig at Payson/ This do#nstrea,
pressure is actually the suction pressure at the %illia,s co,pressor station/
$e>t, in a si,ilar -ashion, #e #ould calculate the do#nstrea, pressure at
"no#-la!e, -or the second seg,ent -ro, %illia,s to "no#-la!e, based on
an upstrea, pressure o- 2'00 psig at %illia,s/ This do#nstrea, pressure
is actually the suction pressure at the "no#-la!e co,pressor station/
Finally, #e #ould calculate the do#nstrea, pressure at <ouglas, -or the
third seg,ent -ro, "no#-la!e to <ouglas, based on an upstrea, pressure
o- 2'00 psig at "no#-la!e/ This -inal pressure is the deli0ery pressure at the
<ouglas ter,inus/ %e ha0e thus calculated the suction pressures at each o-
the t#o inter,ediate co,pressor stations at %illia,s and "no#-la!e and
also calculated the -inal deli0ery pressure at <ouglas/ This pressure
calculated at <ouglas ,ay or ,ay not be e9ual to the desired deli0ery
pressure o- 600 psig, since #e per-or,ed a f'rward calculati'n going -ro,
Payson to <ouglas/ There-ore, since the deli0ery pressure is usually a
desired or contracted 0alue, #e #ill ha0e to adCust the location o- the last
co,pressor station at "no#-la!e to achie0e the desired deli0ery pressure at
<ouglas/
(-3
1nother approach #ould be to per-or, a bac!#ard calculation starting at <ouglas and
proceeding to#ard Payson/ 4n this case, #e #ill start #ith seg,ent & and
calculate the location o- the "no#-la!e co,pressor station that #ill result in
an upstrea, pressure o- 2'00 psig at "no#-la!e/ Thus, #e locate the "no#-la!e
co,pressor station that #ill cause a discharge pressure o- 2'00 psig at "no#-la!e
and a deli0ery pressure o- 600 psig at <ouglas/ 7a0ing located the "no#-la!e
co,pressor station, #e can no# recalculate the suction pressure at "no#-la!e by
considering the pipe seg,ent 2 and using an upstrea, pressure o- 2'00 psig at
%illia,s/ %e #ill not ha0e to repeat calculations -or seg,ent 2, since the
location o- %illia,s has not changed and, there-ore, the suction pressure at
%illia,s #ill re,ain the sa,e as the pre0iously calculated 0alue/ %e ha0e thus been
able to deter,ine the pressures along the pipeline #ith the gi0en three*
co,pressor*station con-iguration such that the desired deli0ery pressure at
<ouglas has been achie0ed and each co,pressor station discharges at an =BP
0alue o- 2'00 psig/ ut are these the opti,u, locations o- the inter,ediate
co,pressor stations %illia,s and "no#-la!eT 1nd are all co,pressor stations
in hydraulic balanceT %e can state that these co,pressor stations are
opti,i:ed and are in hydraulic balance only i- each co,pressor station
operates at the sa,e co,pression ratio and, there-ore, adds the sa,e a,ount
o- horsepo#er to the gas at each co,pressor station/ The locations o- %illia,s
and "no#-la!e ,ay not result in the sa,e suction pressures e0en though the discharge
pressures are the sa,e/ There-ore, chances are that %illia,s ,ight be oper*
ating at a lo#er co,pression ratio than "no#-la!e or Payson, or 0ice 0ersa, #hich #ill
not result in hydraulic balance/ 7o#e0er, i- the co,pression ratios are close
enough that the re9uired co,pressor si:es are the sa,e, #e could still be in
hydraulic balance and the stations could be at opti,u, locations/
$e>t, per-or, the actual calculations and deter,ine ho# ,uch t#ea!ing o- the
co,pressor station locations is re9uired to opti,i:e these stations/
First, #e #ill per-or, the bac!#ard calculations -or seg,ent &, starting #ith a
do#nstrea, pressure o- 600 psig at <ouglas and an upstrea, pressure o-
2'00 psig at "no#-la!e/ %ith these constraints, #e #ill calculate the pipe length,
;, ,iles bet#een "no#-la!e and <ouglas/
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/', neglecting ele0ations,
0/5
520 2'2'/ ) 2 R 62'/) 2
300 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 20/0Z 2'/)8Z0/6 O 5'0 O ; O 0/(5Z6238 2/5
"ol0ing -or pipe length, #e get
; M 222/&2 ,i
There-ore, in order to discharge at 2'00 psig at "no#-la!e and deli0er gas at 600 psig at
<ouglas, the "no#-la!e co,pressor station #ill be located at a distance o-
222/&2 ,i upstrea, o- <ouglasJor at ,ilepost 62'0 U 222/&28 M 22)/63
,easured -ro, Payson/
$e>t, !eeping the location o- the %illia,s co,pressor at ,ilepost (0, #e #ill
calculate the do#nstrea, pressure at "no#-la!e -or pipe seg,ent 2 starting at
2'00 psig at %illia,s/ This calculated pressure #ill be the suction pressure o-
the "no#-la!e co,pressor station/
(01 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
0 5
2
RP
2
300 O 20
6
M &(/))O 20/0 62'/)520 Z Z 2'2' /2 ; /62382/5 Z
2
Z
0/6O5'0O')/63O0/(5 D
#here the pipeline seg,ent length bet#een %illia,s and "no#-la!e #as calculated as
22)/63 U (0 M ')/63 ,i
"ol0ing -or suction pressure at "no#-la!e, #e get
P2 M 22'5/'2 psia M 22&0/)2 psig
There-ore, the co,pression ratio at "no#-la!e is
2'2'/)
M2/2'/
22'5/'2
$e>t, -or pipe seg,ent 2 bet#een Payson and %illia,s, #e #ill calculate the
do#nstrea, pressure at %illia,s, starting at 2'00 psig at Payson/ This
calculated pressure #ill be the suction pressure o- the %illia,s co,pressor
station/
2 2 0/5
300 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 20/06520 Z Z
2'2'/) R P 2 Z 62382/5
2'/) Z4l0/6O5'0O(0O0/(5 Z
"ol0ing -or suction pressure at %illia,s, #e get
P2 M 323/20 psia M 30'/5 psig
2'2' ) /
There-ore, the co,pression ratio at %illia,s M 323/2
M2/5' 323/2
There-ore, -ro, the -oregoing calculations, the co,pressor station at %illia,s
re9uires a co,pression ratio r M 2/5', #hereas the co,pressor station at
"no#-la!e re9uires a co,pression ratio r M 2/2'/ Bb0iously, this is not a
hydraulically balanced co,pressor station syste,/ Further, #e do not !no#
#hat the suction pressure is at the Payson co,pressor station/ 4- #e assu,e
that Payson recei0es gas at appro>i,ately the sa,e suction pressure as
%illia,s 6305 psig8, both the Payson and %illia,s co,pressor stations #ill
ha0e the sa,e co,pression ratio o- 2/5'/ 4n this case, the "no#-la!e
co,pressor station #ill be the odd one, operating at a co,pression ratio o-
2/2'/ 7o# do #e balance these co,pressor stationsT Bne #ay #ould be to
obtain the sa,e co,pression ratios -or all three co,pressor stations by si,ply
relocating the "no#-la!e co,pressor station to#ard <ouglas such that its
suction pressure #ill drop -ro, 22&2 psig to 305 psig #hile !eeping the
discharge at "no#-la!e at 2'00 psig/ This #ill then ensure that all three
co,pressor stations #ill be operating at the -ollo#ing suction and discharge
pressures and co,pression ratios5
"uction pressure Ps M 30'/5 psig
<ischarge pressure Pd M 2'00 psig
2'00
Co,pression ratio r M 0'/5P2'/)
M2/5' 30'/5 P 2'/)
C*/PRESS*R STATI*NS (0(
=illia"! Sno?flaJe
"'p' 41 "'p' (01
NPS +1 pipeline ),1 "i lon;
'i4ure (.: Pre!!$re re;$lation at Do$;la!'
7o#e0er, because the "no#-la!e co,pressor station is no# located closer to
<ouglas than be-ore 622)/638, the discharge pressure o- 2'00 psig at
"no#-la!e #ill result in a higher deli0ery pressure at <ouglas than
the re9uired 600 psig, as sho#n in Figure '/(/
4- the additional pressure at <ouglas can be tolerated by the
custo,er, then there #ill be no proble,/ ut i- the custo,er re9uires
no ,ore than 600 psig, #e ha0e to reduce the deli0ery pressure to
600 psig by installing a pressure regulator at <ouglas, as sho#n in
Figure '/(/ There-ore, by balancing the co,pressor station locations,
#e ha0e also created a proble, o- getting rid o- the e>tra pressure at
the deli0ery point/ Pressure regulation ,eans #asted horsepo#er/
The ad0antage o- the balanced co,pressor stations 0s/ the negati0e
aspect o- the pressure regulation ,ust be -actored into the decision
process/
To illustrate this pressure regulation scenario, #e #ill no# deter,ine
the re0ised location o- the "no#-la!e co,pressor station -or
hydraulic balance/ %e #ill calculate the length o- pipe seg,ent 2 by
assu,ing 2'00 psig discharge pressure at %illia,s and a suction
pressure o- 30'/5 psig at "no#-la!e/
0/5
520 2'2'/ ) 2 R 323/2 2
300 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 20/0Z 2'/)8Z0/6 O 5'0 O ; O
0/(5Z6238 2/5 "ol0ing -or pipe length -or seg,ent 2, #e get
; M (0 ,i
There-ore, the "no#-la!e co,pressor station should be located at a distance
o- (0 ,i -ro, %illia,s or at ,ilepost 260/ %e could ha0e arri0ed at
this #ithout the abo0e calculations, since ele0ations are neglected
and the Payson to %illia,s pressure
(0) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
pro-ile #ill be the sa,e as the pressure pro-ile -ro, %illia,s to "no#-la!e/ %ith the
"no#-la!e co,pressor station located at ,ilepost 260, and discharging at 2'00 psig, #e
conclude that the deli0ery pressure at <ouglas #ill also be 30'/5 psig, since all
three pipe seg,ents are hydraulically the sa,e/ %e see that the deli0ery
pressure at <ouglas is appro>i,ately &05 psig ,ore than the desired pressure/
1s indicated earlier, a pressure regulator #ill be re9uired at <ouglas to reduce
the deli0ery pressure to 600 psig/ %e can co,pare the hydraulically balanced
scenario #ith the pre0iously calculated case #here Payson and %illia,s operate
at a co,pression ratio o- 2/5' and "no#-la!e operates at lo#er co,pression
ratio o- 2/2'/ y applying appro>i,ate cost per installed horsepo#er, #e can
co,pare these t#o cases/ First, using ?9uation '/25, calculate the horsepo#er
re9uired at each co,pressor station, assu,ing polytropic co,pression and a
co,pression ratio o- 2/5' -or a balanced co,pressor station5
Z2/&( Z2 P0/(5 2 0/&(
HPM0/0(5)O300 OZ 0&(8
6(0P'608Z
2 86038Z62/5'82/&(R2ZM23,62) Z a `
There-ore, the total horsepo#er re9uired in the hydraulically balanced
case is Total HP M & O 23,62) M 5(,((2
1t a cost o- m2000 per installed HP,
Total HP cost M m2000 O 5(,((2 M m22)/)6 ,illion
4n the hydraulically unbalanced case, the Payson and %illia,s co,pressor stations
#ill operate at a co,pression ratio o- 2/5' each, #hereas the "no#-la!e
co,pressor station #ill re9uire a co,pression ratio o- 2/2'/
.sing ?9uation '/25, the horsepo#er re9uired at the "no#-la!e co,pressor station
is
2 /&( 2 P0/(5 2 0/&(
HPM0/0(5)O300O60/&(86(0P'6086 2 86028Z62/2'82/&(R2`M3'() Z
a `
There-ore, the total horsepo#er re9uired in the hydraulically unbalanced
case is Total HP M 62 O 23,62)8 P 3'() M '(,)'2
1t a cost o- m2000 per installed HP,
Total HP cost M m2000 O '(,)'2 M m3)/'( ,illion
The hydraulically balanced case re9uires 20,2'0 65(,((2 R '(,)'28 HP ,ore
and #ill cost appro>i,ately m20/2( 6m22)/)6 R m3)/'(8 ,illion ,ore/ 4n
addition to the e>tra HP cost, the hydraulically balanced case #ill re9uire a
pressure regulator that #ill #aste energy and result in e>tra e9uip,ent cost/
There-ore, the ad0antages o- using identical co,ponents, by reducing spare
parts and in0entory in the hydraulically balanced case, ,ust be #eighed
against the additional cost/ 4t ,ay not be #orth spending the e>tra m20 ,illion
to obtain this bene-it/ The pre-erred solution in this case is -or the Payson and
%illia,s co,pressor stations to be identical 6co,pression ratio M 2/5'8 and the
"no#-la!e co,pressor station to be a s,aller one 6co,pression ratio M 2/2'8,
re9uiring the lo#er co,pression ratio and horsepo#er, to pro0ide the re9uired
600 psig deli0ery pressure at <ouglas/
C*/PRESS*R STATI*NS (0+
Co"pre!!ion ratio M (') Co"pre!!ion ratio M (')
*&erall o"pre!!ion ratio M (',,
'i4ure (./ Co"pre!!or! in !erie!'
(./ C!MPRESS!RS IN SERIES AND PARA""E"
%hen co,pressors operate in series, each unit co,presses the sa,e a,ount o- gas
but at di--erent co,pression ratios, such that the o0erall pressure increase o- the gas is
achie0ed in stages, as sho#n in Figure '/3/
4t can be seen -ro, Figure '/3 that the -irst co,pressor co,presses gas -ro, a
suction pressure o- 300 psia to 20(0 psia at a co,pression ratio o- 2/2/ The second
co,pressor ta!es the sa,e 0olu,e and co,presses it -ro, 20(0 psia to a discharge
pressure o- 20(0 O 2/2 M 2236 psia/ Thus, the o0erall co,pression ratio o- the t#o
identical co,pressors in series is 2236;300 M 2/''/ %e ha0e thus achie0ed the increase in
pressure in t#o stages/ 1t the end o- each co,pression cycle, the gas te,perature rises
to so,e 0alue calculated in accordance #ith ?9uation '/23/ There-ore, #ith ,ultiple
stages o- co,pression, unless the gas is cooled bet#een stages, the -inal gas
te,perature ,ay be too high/ 7igh gas te,peratures are not desirable, since the
throughput capability o- a gas pipeline decreases #ith gas -lo# te,perature/ There*
-ore, #ith co,pressors in series, the gas is cooled to the original suction te,perature
bet#een each stage o- co,pression, such that the -inal te,perature at the end o- all
co,pressors in series is not e>ceedingly high/ "uppose the calculated discharge
te,perature o- a co,pressor is 2&2KF, starting at a )0KF suction te,perature and
#ith a co,pression ratio o- 2/'/ 4- t#o o- these co,pressors #ere in series and
there #ere no cooling bet#een co,pressions, the -inal gas te,perature #ould reach
appro>i,ately
62&2 P '60862&2 P '608 o
M 30&/5@R M ''&/5KF
)0P'60
This is too high a te,perature -or pipeline transportation/ Bn the other hand, i- #e
cool the gas bac! to )0KF be-ore co,pressing it through the second co,pressor, the
-inal te,perature o- the gas co,ing out o- the second co,pressor #ill be 2&2KF,
appro>i,ately/ %e #ill discuss co,pressors in series in ,ore detail in the subse9uent
section/
(0,
GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
()01 p!ia
311 p!ia
311 //SCFD
'i4ure (.10 Co"pre!!or! in parallel'
Co,pressors are installed in parallel so that large
0olu,es necessary can be pro0ided by ,ultiple co,pressors,
each producing the sa,e co,pression ratio/ Three identical
co,pressors #ith co,pression ratio o- 2/' can be used to
pro0ide a 300 =="CF< gas -lo# -ro, a suction pressure o-
300 psia
/
4n this e>a,ple, each co,pressor #ill co,press
&00 =="CF< -ro, 300 psia to a discharge pressure o-
P
2
M 300 O 2/' M 2260 psia
This is illustrated sche,atically in Figure '/20/
.nli!e co,pressors in series, the discharge
te,perature o- the gas co,ing out o- the parallel ban! o-
co,pressors #ill not be high, since the gas does not undergo
,ultiple co,pression ratios/ The gas te,perature on the
discharge side o- each parallel co,pressor #ill be the sa,e
as that o- a single co,pressor #ith the sa,e co,pression
ratio/ There-ore, three parallel co,pressors, each
co,pressing the sa,e 0olu,e o- gas at a co,pression ratio
o- 2/', #ill ha0e a -inal discharge te,perature o- 2&2KF,
starting -ro, a suction te,perature o- )0KF/ Gas cooling is
re9uired at these te,peratures in order to achie0e e--icient
gas transportation and also operate at te,peratures not
e>ceeding the li,its o- the pipe coating ,aterial/ Generally,
pipe coating re9uires the gas te,perature not to e>ceed 2'0
to 250KF/
The co,pression ratio #as de-ined earlier as the ratio o-
the discharge pressure to the suction pressure/ The higher the
co,pression ratio, the higher #ill be the gas discharge
te,perature, in accordance #ith ?9uation '/23/
Consider a suction te,perature o- (0KF and the suction
and discharge pressures o- 300 psia and 2'00 psia,
respecti0ely/ The co,pression ratio is 2'00;300 M 2/56/
.sing ?9uation '/23, the discharge te,perature #ill be
2/&R2
%
2
2 ' 0 0
6 3 0 0 8 Z 2 &
%
2
M 53(/&6KR or 2&(/&6KF
4- the co,pression ratio is increased to 2/0, the
discharge te,perature #ill beco,e 2)&/6)KF/ 4t can be
seen that the discharge te,perature o- the gas increases
C*/PRESS*R STATI *NS (0-
considerably #ith the co,pression ratio/ "ince the throughput capacity o- a gas
pipeline decreases #ith gas te,perature, #e ,ust -ind a #ay to reduce the high gas
te,perature resulting -ro, gas co,pression/ 4n pre0ious chapters, #e sol0ed ,any
proble,s #ith a constant gas inlet te,perature o- (0KF/ 4n order to ,aintain through*
put, cooling should be pro0ided on the discharge o- the co,pressor/
%e pre-er centri-ugal co,pressors used in gas pipeline applications to ha0e a
co,pression ratio o- 2/5 to 2/0E there ,ay be instances in #hich higher co,pression
ratios are re9uired due to lo#er gas receipt pressures and higher pipeline discharge
pressures to enable a gi0en 0olu,e o- gas to be transported through a pipeline/
Reciprocating co,pressors are designed to pro0ide higher co,pression ratios/
7o#e0er, ,anu-acturers li,it ,a>i,u, co,pression ratios to a range o- ' to 6/
This is due to high -orces that are e>erted on the co,pressor co,ponents, #hich
cause e>pensi0e ,aterial re9uire,ents as #ell as co,plicated sa-ety needs/
"uppose a co,pressor is re9uired to pro0ide gas at 2500 psia -ro, gas that is
recei0ed at 200 psia
/
This re9uires an o0erall co,pression ratio o- )/5/ "ince this is
beyond the acceptable range o- co,pression ratios, #e #ill ha0e to pro0ide this
co,pression in stages/ 4- #e pro0ide the necessary pressure by using t#o co,*
pressors in series, each co,pressor #ill re9uire to be at a co,pression ratio o-
)/5 , or appro>i,ately 2/)'/ The -irst co,pressor raises the pressure -ro, 200
psia to 200 O 2/)' M 5'( psia/ The second co,pressor #ill then boost the gas pressure
-ro, 5'( psia to 5'( O 2/)' M 2500 psia, appro>i,ately/ 4n general, i- n co,pressors
are installed in series to achie0e the re9uired co,pression ratio r, #e can state that
each co,pressor #ill operate at a co,pression ratio o-
2
r M (rt)n 6'/258
#here
r M co,pression ratio, di,ensionless
r
t
M o0erall co,pression ratio, di,ensionless n
M nu,ber o- co,pressors in series
4t has been -ound that by pro0iding the o0erall co,pression ratio by ,eans o-
identical co,pressors in series, po#er re9uire,ents #ill be ,ini,i:ed/ Thus, in the
preceding e>a,ple, #e assu,ed that t#o identical co,pressors in series, each pro*
0iding a co,pression ratio o- 2/)' resulting in an o0erall co,pression ratio o- )/5,
#ill be a better option than i- #e had a co,pressor #ith a co,pression ratio o- &/0 in
series #ith another co,pressor #ith a co,pression ratio o- 2/5/ To illustrate this
-urther, i- an o0erall co,pression ratio o- 20 #ere re9uired and #e #ere to use three
co,pressors in series, the ,ost econo,ical pption #ould be to use identical co,pres*
sors, each #ith a co,pression ratio o- 6208
&
M 2/)2/
&4am!le )*
1 co,pressor station #ith ,ultiple co,pressors in series is to pro0ide a gas discharge
pressure o- 2500 psia/ The gas inlet pressure and te,perature are 200 psia and
(0KF, respecti0ely/ 7o# ,any co,pressors in series #ill be re9uired i- the
discharge te,perature is li,ited to 250KFT The ratio o- speci-ic heats g M 2/'/
(00 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
"olution
The o0erall co,pression ratio is
rM2500 M25/ 0
200
"ince this is ,ore than the ,a>i,u, reco,,ended co,pression ratio o- ' to 6, #e
need t#o or ,ore co,pressors in series/ 4nitially, consider t#o co,pressors in
series/ The co,pression ratio -or each co,pressor is
2
r M 6258
2
M &/()&
This is acceptable, but the discharge te,perature needs to be chec!ed/ Fro,
?9uation '/23, the discharge te,perature -or the -irst co,pressor is
0/'
%2 M 6(0 P '608 6&/(8
2/'
M )30/)6KR
or &&0/)6KF/ This te,perature is higher than the 250KF allo#able/ There-ore,
#e #ill need to consider three stages o- co,pression/ .sing three co,pressors
in series, the co,pression ratio is
2
r M 6258
&
M 2/'66
There-ore, the discharge te,perature -or each
co,pressor is
0/'
%2 M 6(0 P '60862/'668
2/'
M 63(/(6KR
or 2&3KF/ "ince this is less than 250KF allo#ed, the three co,pressors in series
are the choice/ 7o#e0er, the gas ,ust be cooled to the initial inlet te,perature
o- (0KF bet#een each co,pressor to li,it discharge te,peratures to 2&3KF/
(.10 T%PES !' C!MPRESS!RSGCENTRI'#GA"
AND P!SITIE DISP"ACEMENT
Co,pressors used in natural gas transportation syste,s are either positi0e
displace,ent 6P<8 type or centri-ugal 6CF8 type/ Positi0e displace,ent co,pressors
generate the pressure re9uired by trapping a certain 0olu,e o- gas #ithin the
co,pressor and increasing the pressure by reduction o- 0olu,e/ The high*pressure gas
is then released through the discharge 0al0e into the pipeline/ Piston*operated
reciprocating co,pressors -all #ithin the category o- positi0e displace,ent
co,pressors/ These co,pressors
(05
ha0e a -i>ed 0olu,e and are able to produce high co,pression ratios/ Centri-ugal
co,pressors, on the other hand, de0elop the pressure re9uired by the centri-ugal -orce
due to rotation o- the co,pressor #heel that translates the !inetic energy into pressure
energy o- the gas/ Centri-ugal co,pressors are ,ore co,,only used in gas trans,is*
sion syste,s due to their -le>ibility/ Centri-ugal co,pressors ha0e lo#er installed cost
and lo#er ,aintenance e>penses/ They can handle larger 0olu,es #ithin a s,all area
co,pared to positi0e displace,ent co,pressors/ They also operate at high speeds and
are o- balanced construction/ 7o#e0er, centri-ugal co,pressors ha0e less e--iciency
than positi0e displace,ent co,pressors/
Positi0e displace,ent co,pressors ha0e -le>ibility in pressure range, ha0e higher
e--iciency, and can deli0er co,pressed gas at a #ide range o- pressures/ They are also
not 0ery sensiti0e to the co,position o- the gas/ Positi0e displace,ent co,pressors
ha0e pressure ranges up to &0,000 psi and range -ro, 0ery lo# HP to ,ore than
20,000 HP per unit/ Positi0e displace,ent co,pressors can be single stage or
,ultistage, depending upon the co,pression ratio re9uired/ The co,pression ratio per
stage -or positi0e displace,ent co,pressors is li,ited to '/0, because higher ratios
cause higher discharge pressures, #hich a--ect the 0al0e li-e o- positi0e displace,ent
co,pressors/ 7eat e>changers are used bet#een stages o- co,pression so that the
co,pressed heated gas is cooled to the original suction te,perature be-ore being
co,pressed in the ne>t stage/ The HP re9uired in a positi0e displace,ent co,pressor
is usually esti,ated -ro, charts pro0ided by the co,pressor ,anu-acturer/ The
-ollo#ing e9uation can be used -or large slo#*speed co,pressors #ith co,pression
ratios greater than 2/5 and -or gas speci-ic gra0ity o- 0/65/
*HP M 22rI:. 6'/268
#here
*HP M bra!e horsepo#er
r M co,pression ratio per stage I
M nu,ber o- stages
: M gas -lo# rate, =="CF< at suction te,perature and 2'/' psia
. M -actor that depends on the nu,ber o- co,pression stages
M 2/0 -or single*stage co,pression M
2/0( -or t#o*stage co,pression M
2/20 -or three*stage co,pression
4n ?9uation '/26, the constant 22 is changed to 20 #hen gas gra0ity is bet#een
0/( and 2/0/ 1lso, -or co,pression ratios bet#een 2/5 and 2/0, the constant 22 is
replaced #ith a nu,ber bet#een 26 and 2(/
&4am!le )+
Calculate the *HP re9uired to co,press 5 =="CF< gas at 2'/' psia and )0KF, #ith an
o0erall co,pression ratio o- ), considering t#o*stage co,pression/
(04 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
"olution
M
2/65
Considering t#o identical stages, the co,pression ratio per stage M .sing ?9uation '/26,
#e get
*HP M 22 O 2/65 O 2 O 5 O 2/0( M 623/6'
Centri-ugal co,pressors can be a single*#heel or single*stage co,pressor or
,ulti#heel or ,ultistage co,pressor/ "ingle*stage centri-ugal co,pressors
ha0e a 0olu,e range o- 200 to 250,000 -t
&
;,in at actual conditions 61CF=8/
=ultistage centri-ugal co,pressors handle a 0olu,e range o- 500 to 200,000
1CF=/ The operational speeds o- centri-ugal co,pressors range -ro, &000 to
20,000 r;,in/ The upper li,it o- speed #ill be li,ited by the #heel tip speed
and stresses induced in the i,peller/ 1d0ances in technology ha0e produced
co,pressor #heels operating at speeds in e>cess o- &0,000 r;,in/ Centri-ugal
co,pressors are dri0en by electric ,otors, stea, turbines, or gas turbines/
"o,eti,es speed increasers are used to increase the speeds necessary to
generate the pressure/
(.11 C!MPRESS!R PER'!RMANCE C#RES
The per-or,ance cur0e o- a centri-ugal co,pressor that can be dri0en at 0arying
speeds typically sho#s a graphic plot o- the inlet -lo# rate in actual cubic -eet per
,inute 61CF=8 against the head or pressure generated at 0arious percentages o- the
design speed/ Figure '/22 sho#s a typical centri-ugal co,pressor per-or,ance cur0e
or per-or,ance ,ap/
Flo? rate, ACF/
'i4ure (.11 Typial entrif$;al o"pre!!or perfor"ane $r&e'
C*/PRESS*R STATI*NS
(03
The li,iting cur0e on the le-t*hand side is !no#n as the surge line, and the corre*
sponding cur0e on the right side is !no#n as the st'ne wall limit.
Generally, the per-or,ance o- a centri-ugal co,pressor -ollo#s the Va--inity la#s/W
1ccording to the a--inity la#s, as the rotational speed o- the centri-ugal co,pressor is
changed, the inlet -lo# and head 0ary as the speed and the s9uare o- the speed,
respecti0ely, as indicated in the -ollo#ing e9uations/
For co,pressor speed change,
6'/2)8
6'/2(8
:
2

I2
M
:
2
I2
2
HH2 M 6 I2
#here
:
2
, :
2
M initial and -inal -lo# rates
H
2
, H
2
M initial and -inal heads
I
2
, I
2
M initial and -inal co,pressor speeds
4n addition, the horsepo#er -or co,pression 0aries as the cube o- the speed
change as -ollo#s5
6'/238
&
I
HP 2MCI2Z HP
1n e>a,ple proble, o- using the a--inity la#s to predict the per-or,ance o- a
centri-ugal co,pressor is illustrated ne>t/
&4am!le ),
The co,pressor head and 0olu,e -lo# rate -or a centri-ugal co,pressor at 2(,000
rp, are as -ollo#s5
'+ oC Rate& Q Hea-& H
ACF/ ft6l#Fl#
+01 (1,411
,-1 (1,)11
-11 3511
011 4)11
511 -511
5+1 ,311
.sing the a--inity la#s, deter,ine the per-or,ance o- this co,pressor at a speed o-
20,000 rp,/
(51 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
"olution
The ratio o- speed is
20000 M2/22
2(000
The ,ultiplier -or the -lo# rate is 2/22 and the ,ultiplier -or the head is 62/228
2
or 2/2&2/
.sing the a--inity la#s, the per-or,ance o- the centri-ugal co,pressor at
20,000 rp, is as -ollo#s5
'+ oC Rate& Q
Hea-&
H
ACF/ ft6l#Fl#
+33'0 (+,+10
,33'- (),-00
---'1 ((,3-1
000'1 (1,(1)
555'1 5,1))
4(1'1 0,1+5
$e>t, #e #ill e>plore ho# the head de0eloped by a centri-ugal co,pressor is calcu*
lated -ro, the suction and discharge pressures, the co,pressibility -actor, and
the polytropic or adiabatic e>ponent/ The calculation -or the actual or inlet
-lo# rate 61CF=8 -ro, the standard -lo# rate #ill also be illustrated/ Finally,
!no#ing the ,a>i,u, head that can be generated per stage, the nu,ber o-
stages needed #ill be calculated/
"uppose a centri-ugal co,pressor is used to raise the gas pressure -ro, (00 psia to
2''0 psia starting at a suction te,perature o- )0KF and gas -lo# rate o- (0
=="CF</ The a0erage co,pressibility -actor -ro, the suction to the
discharge side is 0/35/ The co,pressibility -actor at the inlet is assu,ed to be 2/0,
and the polytropic e>ponent is 2/&/ Gas gra0ity is 0/6/ The head generated by the
co,pressor is calculated as
Z0/& _
H
M50/6( O 0/35 O 6)0 P '608 Z 0Z2/& 2''0 &/8 6(00 82& R2 M 2(,2'6 -t*lb;lb
Z Z
Z Z
The actual -lo# rate at inlet conditions is calculated using the gas la# as
: M (0 O 2'/) O 2/0 O )0P'60 O 20 6 M 20'0/5 -t
&
;,in 61CF=8 :act (00
60P'60 2' O 60
4- this particular co,pressor, according to 0endor data, can produce a
,a>i,u, head per stage o- 20,000 -t*lb;lb, the nu,ber o- stages re9uired to
produce the re9uired head is
S S 2(2'6
n &, appro>i,ately/ 20000
J
C*/PRESS*R STATI*NS
(5(
8 P
)
$e>t, suppose that this co,pressor has a ,a>i,u, design speed o- 26,000 rp,/ The
actual operating speed necessary -or the three*stage co,pressor is, according
to the a--inity la#s,
Iact M26,000
2(,2'6 M25,
'3( & O 20, 000
There-ore, in order to generate 2(,2'6 -t*lb;lb o- head at a gas -lo# rate o- 20'0/5
1CF=, this three*stage co,pressor ,ust run at a speed o- 25,'3( rp,/
(.12 C!MPRESS!R STATI!N PIPING "!SSES
1s the gas enters the suction side o- the co,pressor, it -lo#s through a co,ple>
piping syste, #ithin the co,pressor station/ "i,ilarly, the co,pressed gas lea0ing
the co,pressor tra0erses the co,pressor station discharge piping syste, that consists
o- 0al0es and -ittings be-ore entering the ,ain pipeline on its #ay to the ne>t
co,pressor station or deli0ery ter,inus/ This is illustrated in Figure '/22/
4t can be seen -ro, Figure '/22 that at the co,pressor station boundary 1 on the
suction side, the gas pressure is P
2
. This pressure drops to a 0alue P
s
at the co,pressor
suction, as the gas -lo#s through the suction piping -ro, 1 to / This suction piping,
consisting o- 0al0es, -ittings, -ilters, and ,eters, causes a pressure drop o- iP
s
to
occur/ There-ore, the actual suction pressure at the co,pressor is
Ps M P
2
+ iPs
#here
P
s
M co,pressor suction pressure, psia
P
2
M co,pressor station suction pressure, psia
iP
s
M pressure loss in co,pressor station suction piping, psi
6'/&08
1t the co,pressor, the gas pressure is raised -ro, P
s
to P
d
through a co,pression
ratio r as -ollo#s5
Pd
rM P
s
6'/&28
P
2
A
P!
VP %
Flo?
'i4ure (.12 Co"pre!!or !tation !$tion an% %i!har;e pipin;'
(5) GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
#here
r M co,pression ratio, di,ensionless Pd
M co,pressor discharge pressure, psia
The co,pressed gas then -lo#s through the station discharge piping and loses
pressure until it reaches the station discharge 0al0e at the boundary < o- the co,*
pressor station/ 4- the station discharge pressure is P
2
, #e can #rite
P2 M Pd + iPd
#here
P
2
M co,pressor station discharge pressure, psia
iPd M pressure loss in co,pressor station discharge piping, psi
Generally, the 0alues o- iPs and iPd range -ro, 5 to 25 psi/
6'/&28
&4am!le )-
1 co,pressor station on a gas trans,ission pipeline has the -ollo#ing pressures at the
station boundaries/ The station suction pressure M (50 psia, and the station
discharge pressure M 2'&0 psia/ The pressure losses in the suction piping and
discharge piping are 5 psi and 20 psi, respecti0ely/ Calculate the co,pression
ratio o- this co,pressor station/
"olution
Fro, ?9uation '/&0, the co,pressor suction pressure is
Ps M (50 U 5 M ('5 psia
"i,ilarly, the co,pressor discharge pressure is
Pd M 2'&0 P 20 M 2''0 psia
There-ore, the co,pression ratio is
r M 2''0 M2/)0
('5
(.1$ C!MPRESS!R STATI!N SCHEMATIC
1 typical co,pressor station sche,atic sho#ing the arrange,ent o- the 0al0es,
piping, and the co,pressor itsel- is sho#n in Figure '/2&/
C*/PRESS*R STATI*NS (5+
Fro" pre&io$! o"pre!!or !tation
'i4ure (.1$ Co"pre!!or !tation !he"ati'
(.1( S#MMAR%
%e discussed co,pressing a gas to generate the pressure needed to transport
the gas -ro, one point to another along a pipeline/ 1n i,portant para,eter
!no#n as the co,pression ratio deter,ines the horsepo#er re9uired to co,press
a certain 0olu,e o- gas and also in-luences the discharge te,perature o- the gas
e>iting the co,pressor/ 4n a long*distance gas trans,ission pipeline, the ,ethod
o- locating inter,ediate co,pressor stations and ,ini,i:ing energy lost #as
discussed/ 7ydraulically balanced and opti,i:ed co,pressor station locations
#ere also discussed/ Calculation o- isother,al, adiabatic, and polytropic
co,pression processes #as e>plained and illustrated #ith sa,ple proble,s/ The
HP re9uired -or a gi0en co,pression ratio and calculation o- the gas discharge
te,perature #ere e>plained/ The di--erent types o- co,pressors, such as positi0e
displace,ent and centri-ugal, #ere e>plained, along #ith their ad0antages and
disad0antages/ The need -or con-iguring co,pressors in series and parallel #as
e>plored/ The centri-ugal co,pressor per-or,ance cur0e #as discussed, and the
e--ect o- rotational speed on the -lo# rate and head using the a--inity la#s #as
illustrated #ith e>a,ples/ Finally, the i,pact o- the co,pressor station yard
piping pressure drops and ho# they a--ect the co,pression ratio and horsepo#er
#ere discussed/
(5, GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
PR!1"EMS
2/ 1 natural gas pipeline 220 ,i long -ro, <o0er to Leeds is constructed o- $P" 2'
and /250 in/ #all thic!ness pipe, #ith an =BP o- 2'00 psig/ The gas speci-ic
gra0ity and 0iscosity are 0/6 and ( O 20
R6
lb;-t*s, respecti0ely/ The pipe roughness
can be assu,ed to be 600 din/, and the base pressure and base te,perature are
2'/) psia and 60KF, respecti0ely/ The gas -lo# rate is 220 =="CF< at )0KF, and
the deli0ery pressure re9uired at Leeds is )00 psig/ <eter,ine the nu,ber and
locations o- co,pressor stations re9uired, neglecting ele0ation di--erence along
the pipeline/ 1ssu,e & M 0/30/
2/ Calculate the co,pressor horsepo#er re9uired -or an adiabatic co,pression o- (0
=="CF< gas #ith inlet te,perature o- )0KF and (00 psia pressure/ The
discharge pressure is 2'00 psia/ 1ssu,e the co,pressibility -actors at suction and
discharge conditions to be &
2
M 0/35 and &
2
M 0/((, respecti0ely, and the adiabatic
e>ponent g M 2/&, #ith the adiabatic e--iciency h
a
M 0/(2/ 4- the ,echanical
e--iciency o- the co,pressor dri0er is 0/3', #hat *HP is re9uiredT 1lso, calculate
the outlet te,perature o- the gas/
&/ $atural gas at ' =,
&
;day and 2'KC is co,pressed isentropically (g M 2/&8 -ro, a
suction pressure o- 6/2 =Pa to a discharge pressure o- 3/' =Pa in a centri-ugal
co,pressor #ith an isentropic e--iciency o- 0/(2/ Calculate the co,pressor po#er
re9uired, assu,ing the co,pressibility -actors at suction and discharge conditions
to be &
2
M 0/36 and &
2
M 0/(), respecti0ely/ 4- the ,echanical e--iciency o- the
co,pressor dri0er is 0/3', #hat is the dri0er po#er re9uiredT 1lso, calculate the
outlet te,perature o- the gas/
'/ <eter,ine the horsepo#er re9uired to co,press natural gas in a pipeline at a -lo#
rate o- &50 =="CF< and at a co,pression ratio o- 2/6, discharging at 2'00 psig
pressure/ The suction te,perature is (0KF/ The base te,perature and base
pressure are 60KF and 2'/) psia, respecti0ely/ The gas speci-ic gra0ity is 0/65, and
the co,pression e--iciency is 0/(5/ %hat is the discharge te,perature o- the gas,
assu,ing a polytropic co,pression e>ponent o- 2/&3T The co,pressibility -actor
& M 2/0 at suction conditions and & M 0/(6 at discharge conditions/
5/ <eter,ine the horsepo#er re9uired to co,press natural gas in a pipeline at a -lo#
rate o- 500 =="CF< and at a co,pression ratio o- 2/', discharging at 2200 psia
pressure/ The suction te,perature is )0KF/ The base te,perature and base
pressure are 60KF and 2'/) psia, respecti0ely/ The gas speci-ic gra0ity is 0/6, and
assu,e a co,pression e--iciency o- 0/3/ %hat is the discharge te,perature o- the
gas, assu,ing the polytropic co,pression coe--icient o- 2/&(T & M 2/0 at suction
conditions and & M 0/(6 at discharge conditions/
6/ 1 gas trans,ission pipeline is 220 ,i long, $P" 2', 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, and
runs -ro, Taylor to Den!s/ There is an origin co,pressor station at Taylor and t#o
inter,ediate co,pressor stations at Trent 6,ilepost )08 and ea0er 6,ilepost
2&08/ There are no inter,ediate -lo# deli0eries or inCections, and the inlet -lo#
rate o- 500 =="CF< at Taylor e9uals the deli0ery -lo# rate at Den!s/ The
deli0ery pressure re9uired at Den!s is )00 psig, and the =BP o- the pipeline is
2''0 psig throughout/ $eglect the e--ects o- ele0ation, and assu,e a constant gas
-lo# te,perature o- )0KF and constant 0alues o- trans,ission -actor . M 20 and
C*/PRESS*R STATI*NS
(5-
co,pressibility -actor & M 0/() throughout the pipeline/ The gas gra0ity M 0/6,
base pressure M 2'/) psia, and base te,perature M 60KF/ .se a polytropic co,*
pression coe--icient o- 2/' and a co,pression e--iciency o- 0/(5/ <eter,ine the
best locations -or the inter,ediate co,pressor stations at Trent and ea0er/ 4- the
-lo# rate drops to &50 =="CF<, #ill a single inter,ediate co,pressor station
be su--icient at the reduced -lo# rateT
)/ 1 co,pressor station #ith ,ultiple co,pressors in series is to pro0ide a gas
discharge pressure o- 2'00 psia/ The gas inlet pressure and te,perature are
200 psia and )0KF, respecti0ely/ 7o# ,any co,pressors in series #ill be
re9uired i- the discharge te,perature is li,ited to 200KFT The ratio o- speci-ic
heats g M 2/&/
(/ Calculate the *HP re9uired to co,press ( =="CF< gas at 2'/' psia and (0KF,
#ith an o0erall co,pression ratio o- (, considering t#o*stage co,pression/
3/ The co,pressor head and 0olu,e -lo# rates -or a centri-ugal co,pressor at
25,000 rp, are as -ollo#s5
CGACF/ 5)1 3 1 1 ( 1 1 1 ( ) 1 1 ( , 1 1
HG f t 6 l # F l # - , 1 1 - ( 1 1 , 3 1 1 , ( 1 1 ) 4 1 1
.sing the a--inity la#s, deter,ine the per-or,ance o- this co,pressor at a speed
o- 22,000 rp,/
20/ 1 co,pressor station on a gas trans,ission pipeline has the -ollo#ing pressures
at the station boundaries5 station suction pressure M ('0 psig and station dis*
charge pressure M 2'20 psig/ The pressure losses in the suction piping and
discharge piping are 6 psi and 22 psi, respecti0ely/ Calculate the co,pression
ratio o- this co,pressor station/
RE'ERENCES
2/ Liu, 7/, Pipeline 3ngineering, CRC Press, oca Raton, FL, 200&/
2/ %esta#ay, C/R/ and Loo,is, 1/%/, 7amer'n Hydraulic 4ata, 26th ed/, 4ngersoll*Rand,
=ont0ale, $D, 23(2/
23)6/
&/ =cCain, %/</ Dr/, %he Pr'perties 'f Petr'leum .luids, Petroleu, Publishing
Co,pany, Tulsa, BF, 23)&/
'/ =ohitpour, =/, Golshan, 7/, and =urray, 1/, Pipeline 4esign and 7'nstructi'n,
2nd ed/, 1"=? Press, $e# Hor!, 200&/
2/ 3ngineering 4ata *''5, 20th ed/, Gas Processors "uppliers 1ssociation, Tulsa, BF,
233'/
CHAPTER )
Pipe "oops ?ersus Co3pression
4n this chapter #e #ill e>plore the need -or installing pipe loops in order to increase
the throughput in a gas pipeline/ Looping #ill be co,pared to another ,eans o-
increasing pipeline capacity, such as installing co,pressor stations/ The ad0an*
tages and disad0antages o- looping pipes 0s/ adding co,pressor stations #ill be
discussed/
).1 P#RP!SE !' A PIPE "!!P
The purpose o- a pipe loop that is installed in a seg,ent o- a pipeline is to essentially
reduce the a,ount o- pressure drop in that section o- pipe/ y doing so, the o0erall
pressure drop in the pipeline #ill be reduced/ This, in turn, #ill result in an increased
pipeline -lo# rate at the sa,e inlet pressure/ 1lternati0ely, i- the -lo# rate is !ept
constant, reduction in total pressure re9uired #ill cause a reduction in pu,ping
horsepo#er/ This is illustrated in Figure 5/2/
The pipe loop can be constructed o- the sa,e*dia,eter pipe as the ,ain pipeline,
or in so,e cases it can be o- a di--erent si:e/ 1s #e ha0e seen in the analysis o-
parallel pipes in Chapter &, the sa,e dia,eter o- pipe loop #ill result in e9ual 0olu,es
o- gas -lo# in the ,ain pipe as #ell as the loop/ Thus, an $P" 20 pipe looped #ith an
identical $P" 20 pipe seg,ent #ill reduce the -lo# to one*hal- its original 0alue in
each pipe/ 4- the loop is larger or s,aller in dia,eter co,pared to the ,ain pipeline,
the 0olu,e distribution #ill not be e9ual/ 1n $P" 20 pipe looped #ith an $P" 26 pipe
#ill result in appro>i,ately 6'L o- the -lo# rate going through the larger*dia,eter
pipe and &6L through the s,aller*dia,eter pipe/
(55
loop
A C 8
'i4ure ).1 Effet of pipe loop'
).2 P#RP!SE !' C!MPRESSI!N
%e ha0e seen in Chapter & and Chapter ' that installing inter,ediate co,pressor
stations along a pipeline #ill increase the -lo# rate and also reduce the operating
pressure in a long gas trans,ission pipeline/ The installation o- the inter,ediate
co,pressor station #ill result in additional operational and ,aintenance issues in
co,parison #ith pipe loops/ "o,eti,es, additional co,pression is installed to
increase -lo# rate in pre-erence to looping the pipeline, since looping #ill in0ol0e
additional per,itting and right*o-*#ay issues and could cost considerably ,ore than
adding the ne# co,pressor station/ 4nstallation o- an inter,ediate co,pressor to
increase -lo# rate is illustrated in Figure 5/2/
?itho$t !eon% o"pre!!or !tation
'i4ure ).2 A%%in; a o"pre!!or !tation'
PIPE L**PS >ERSUS C*/PRESSI*N (53
).$ INCREASING PIPE"INE CAPACIT%
Consider an e>isting pipeline that is currently li,ited by the operating pressure that is
close to the =1BP o- the pipeline/ "uppose the capacity o- an $P" 26 pipeline is
200 =="CF< and the discharge pressure at the originating co,pressor station is
2''0 psig, as sho#n in Figure 5/2/ 4t can be seen that, at the gi0en -lo# rate and
discharge pressure, the deli0ery pressure is (00 psig/ 4- the pipeline -lo# rate is
increased to 220 =="CF< #ithout changing the originating pressure o- 2''0 psig,
the increased -lo# #ill cause greater pressure drop and, hence, the deli0ery pressure at
the pipeline ter,inus #ill drop to so,e 0alue such as 600 psig/ The reduced
deli0ery pressure ,ay or ,ay not be acceptable to the custo,er recei0ing the gas/
7o#e0er, #e cannot increase the discharge pressure at the beginning o- the pipeline
to co,pensate -or the drop in deli0ery pressure because the pressure is already at
the =1BP le0el/ 7o# can #e increase the -lo# rate and still pro0ide the sa,e
deli0ery pressure as be-oreT y installing an inter,ediate co,pressor station as
sho#n in Figure 5/2, #e can pu,p the increased 0olu,e appro>i,ately hal-#ay and
then boost the pressure at the ne# co,pressor station to the sa,e =1BP le0el -or
ulti,ate deli0ery to the pipeline ter,inus at (00 psig, as be-ore/ This is illustrated
in Figure 5/2/
Thus, #e ha0e been able to achie0e the increased pipeline capacity o- 220
=="CF< by installing an additional co,pressor station at appro>i,ately the hal-*
#ay point along the pipeline/ "uppose #e #ant to increase the -lo# rate -urther
#ithout changing the discharge pressure or the deli0ery pressure/ 4t is clear that #e
could install additional inter,ediate co,pressor stations as needed to achie0e the
increased throughput, #hile ,aintaining the sa,e deli0ery pressure/ This is illus*
trated in Figure 5/&, #here t#o additional co,pressor stations ha0e been installed
to increase the pipeline throughput #hile ,aintaining the desired deli0ery pressure at
the pipeline ter,inus/
'i4ure ).$ /$ltiple o"pre!!or !tation!'
A&on Hart
"'p' +5'-- "'p' -5'++
'i4ure ).( =in%!or to Car%iff pipeline'
7o#e0er, there is a li,it to the nu,ber o- co,pressor stations that can
be installed in a gi0en pipeline syste,, since the HP re9uired continues to
increase #ith -lo# rate and, hence, the capital cost and operating costs increase
as #ell/ 1t so,e point, the cost increases at a 0ery high rate co,pared to the
increase in -lo# rate/ ?ach pipe si:e has a particular 0olu,e that can be
econo,ically transported based upon cost/ 1n additional -actor that ,ust be
ta!en into consideration as the -lo# rate is increased is the resulting higher
0elocity/ 1s indicated in Chapter 2, the gas 0elocity ,ust be #ell belo# the
erosional 0elocity -or the pipe/
&4am!le )
1 natural gas pipeline is 200 ,i long and is constructed o- $P" 26 and
0/250 in/ #all thic!ness and runs -ro, %indsor to Cardi--, as sho#n in
Figure 5/'/
2/ $eglecting ele0ation e--ects, calculate the ,a>i,u, throughput
capability o- this pipeline, based upon an =1BP o- 2''0 psig and a
deli0ery pressure o- (00 psig at Cardi--/ The suction pressure at %indsor
is (00 psig/
2/ <eter,ine the re9uire,ent -or t#o e>pansion scenarios/ The phase 2
e>pansion #ill increase pipeline throughput by 50 =="CF< and phase 2
#ill increase throughput by another 50 =="CF</ 4n each case, calculate
the nu,ber o- co,pressor stations and HP re9uired/ The gas -lo#
0elocities ,ust be chec!ed to ensure that they are #ithin erosional li,its/
&/ 1lso esti,ate the appro>i,ate cost -or each o- these cases, using an
o0erall installed cost o- m2000 per HP -or the co,pressor stations/
'/ Co,pare these e>pansion cases using pipe loop instead o-
co,pression/ Thus, -or phase 2, instead o- building inter,ediate
co,pressor stations, calculate the a,ount
PI PE L**PS >ERSUS C*/PRESSI *N (4(
o- pipe loop needed to reduce the pressure drop at the higher -lo# rate/ "i,ilarly,
-or the phase 2 -lo# rate, calculate the looping necessary to ,aintain pressures
#ithout adding co,pressor stations/ ?sti,ate the cost o- the e>pansion
scenarios using pipe loops instead o- co,pressor stations, based upon an
o0erall installed cost o- m500,000 per ,ile o- loop/
1ssu,e a trans,ission -actor o- 20, gas -lo# te,perature o- (0KF, and
co,pressibility -actor o- 0/(5 throughout/ 1dditional data are as -ollo#s5 gas
gra0ity M 0/6, ratio o- speci-ic heats M 2/', base te,perature M 60KF, and base
pressure M 2'/) psia/ The co,pressor isentropic e--iciency M 0/(, and the
,echanical e--iciency o- the co,pressor dri0er is 0/35/
"olution
2/ First, deter,ine the initial capacity, considering one co,pressor station at %indsor
pro0iding the pressure o- 2''0 psig needed -or deli0ery pressure o- (00 psig
at Cardi--/
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/', #e calculate the initial capacity, :, o- the
pipeline as -ollo#s5
: M &(/))O 20Z520Z C 2'5'/)
2
R(2'/) 2 0/5 2 625/58
25/
M 2((,'20,2(0
"CF< Z2'/)Z 0/6O5'0O200O0/(5 ZZ
The HP re9uired is calculated -ro, ?9uation '/255
HP M 0/0(5) O 2((/'2Z
Z
2P0/(5
0/'0
/
R
Z
ZM
6&5)
Z
0/'08
65'08 C
(Z
20Z Z
g X
*HP re9uired M 6&5) M )06'
0/35
Chec!ing gas 0elocities using ?9uation 2/26, the gas 0elocity at %indsor is
u2 M0/002222Z2((/'2O20 6 g 2'/)C Z
5'0
ZM2)/'6-t;s
25/5
2
520 4lll 2'5'/)ZZ
The 0elocity at Cardi-- is
u2 M 0/002222 r 2((/'2 O 20
6
2'/)C Z 5'0 D M &2/2( -t;s
Z 25/5
2
Z
44
l\

520
44
l\

(2'/) D
The erosion 0elocity -ro, ?9uation 2/&2 is
u,a> M200
0/(5 O 20/)& O 5'0 M 5(/3'
-t;s 23 O 0/6 O (2'/)
(4) GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
2/ $e>t, #e #ill calculate the co,pressor station re9uire,ent -or the phase 2 -lo#
rate o-
: M 2((/'2 P 50 M 2&(/'2 =="CF<
1ssu,e that an additional co,pressor station is needed -or this -lo# rate/ This
#ill be located at 10on at a distance o-; ,iles -ro, Cardi--, such that a
discharge pressure o- 2''0 psig at 10on #ill produce a deli0ery pressure o- (00
psig at Cardi--/ %e #ill calculate the 0alue o- the pipe length, ;, using General
Flo# ?9uation 2/' as -ollo#s5
05
520SS ZZ2'5'/)
2
R(2'/) 2
2&(/'2O20
6
M&(/))O20 D625/58 2/5 2'/) 0/6O5'0O;O0/(5 ZZ
; M 62/'5 ,i
$e>t, calculate the suction pressure at 10on using 2''0 psig at %indsor and
considering a pipe length o- &)/55 6200 R 62/'58 ,i bet#een %indsor and
10on/ .sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/', #e get
0 / 5
Z 520SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS ZZ2'5'/)
2
R P2
2&(/'2O206M&(/))O20Z D 2
Z2'/) 0/6>5'0>&)/55O0/(5
625/
582/5
"ol0ing -or the suction pressure at 10on, #e get
P2 M 222'/(5 psia M 2200/25 psig
There-ore, the co,pression ratio at 10on is
r M 2'5'/) M 2/&0
222'/(5
This is a satis-actory co,pression ratio -or a centri-ugal co,pressor/
The HP re9uired at %indsor and 10on -or phase 2 #ill be calculated using
?9uation '/25/
For %indsor, assu,ing the co,pressibility -actor at suction is 2/0,
ZZ 0/'0
HP M 0/0(5) O 2&(/'2ZZ 0/'08 65'08 62 2P0/(5 2 g 02( X / 22/'0 R 2 M
(0''
Z Z
Z Z
There-ore, the *HP re9uired at %indsor -or phase 2 M (0''M ('6(/
0/35
Z2/'0 Z
2P0/(5 2 0/'0
HP M 0(5) O 2&
'
65'08
8
D]6
&08
2/'0
R2`M &')6
Z 0/'08
Z
60/
Z Z
"i,ilarly, the HP re9uired at 10on is
PI PE L**PS >ERSUS C*/PRESSI *N
(4+
There-ore, the *HP re9uired at 10on M &')6 M &653/
0/35
The total co,pressor HP re9uired at both co,pressor stations -or the phase 2
-lo# rate o- 2&( =="CF< is
('6( P &653 M 22,22) HP
There-ore, the incre,ental HP -or phase 2 is
iHP M 22,22) U )06' M 506& HP
&/ This represents the additional co,pressor HP re9uired -or phase 2 -or the
e>tra 50 =="CF< -lo# rate/ The cost o- this incre,ental HP, based on m2000
per installed HP, is
iCost M 506& O 2000 M m20/2& ,illion
$e>t, chec! the gas 0elocity at the increased -lo# rate in phase 2 -ro,
?9uation 2/26/ The 0elocity at Cardi-- is
00222
2&(/'2O206ZZ2'/)
C
Z
5'0ZM&3/'
25/5
2
Z
4
\

520
4
\

(2'/) ZZ
u
2
This 0elocity is acceptable, since it is less than the erosion 0elocity o- 5(/3' -t;s
calculated earlier/ The 0elocity at %indsor at the higher pressure o- 2''0
psig #ill be lo#er and, hence, less than the erosion 0elocity/
$e>t, consider the phase 2 -lo# rate o-
: M 2&(/'2 P 50 M 2((/'2 =="CF<
"ince phase 2 occurs a-ter phase 2, #here the 10on co,pressor station is
already built, #e ,ight ha0e to install one co,pressor station bet#een
%indsor and 10on and another bet#een 10on and Cardi--/ 4- #e consider
this phase independent o- phase 2, #e could probably install t#o additional
co,pressor stations bet#een %indsor and Cardi-- to handle the phase 2
-lo# o- 2((/'2 =="CF</ For no#, #e #ill consider a co,pressor station
at Den!s bet#een %indsor and 10on and another one at 7art located
bet#een 10on and Cardi--/ %e #ill calculate the distance o- ; ,iles -ro,
7art to Cardi--, such that a discharge pressure o- 2''0 psig at 7art #ill
produce a deli0ery pressure o- (00 psig at Cardi--/ The 0alue o- ; is
calculated, using General Flo# ?9uation 2/', as #e did be-ore -or locating
the 10on co,pressor station, as -ollo#s5
05
520 ZZ2'5'/)
2
R(2'/) 2
2((/'2O 20
6
M &(/)) O 20 D625/582/5
2'/) ZZ 0/6O5'0O;O0/(5
; M '2/6) ,i
There-ore, the 7art co,pressor station #ill be located at a distance o- 23/)(
662/'5 R '2/6)8 ,i -ro, 10on/ The suction pressure at 7art is calculated
ne>t/
(4, GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/', #e get
Z
2((/'2O 20
6
M &(/))O 20Z
52
2'5'/)
G
2'/
0/6O5'0O23/)(
0 5
CZ625/582/5
0/(5 "ol0ing -or the suction
pressure at 7art, #e get
P2 M 2202/2' psia M 22(6/5' psig There-ore, the co,pression
ratio at 7art is
r M 2'5'/) M 2/22
2202/2'
This is a satis-actory co,pression ratio/
e-ore deter,ining the location o- the Den!s co,pressor station bet#een
%indsor and 10on, calculate the suction pressure at 10on, assu,ing Den!s
doesnAt e>ist and that the %indsor co,pressor station pu,ps directly into 10on,
as in phase 2/
The suction pressure at 10on, considering 2''0 psig at %indsor, is calculated
using General Flo# ?9uation 2/'5
2 X
2W
0/6O5'0O&)/55
0/(5
0 5
CZ625/582/5
2((/'2O 20
6
M &(/))520 2'5'/) 2 > 202
2'/
"ol0ing -or the suction pressure at 10on, #e get
P2 M 325/5' psia M 300/(' psig
There-ore, the co,pression ratio at 10on is
r M 2'5'/) M 2/53
325/5'
This is a satis-actory co,pression ratio/
There-ore, -or phase 2, #e #ill need only t#o co,pressor stations besides
%indsor, 10on at ,ilepost &)/55 and 7art at ,ilepost 5)/&&/
$e>t, calculate the total HP re9uired at %indsor, 10on, and 7art at phase 2 -lo#
rates/
The HP re9uired at %indsor is, using ?9uation '/25,
ZZ 0/'0
HP M 0/0(5) O 2((/'2Z 0/'08 65'08 C 2 P 0/( 5 2 0
2
(
2
g X / 22/'0 R 2 M 3)&2
Z Z
Z Z
(4-
There-ore, the *HP re9uired at %indsor -or phase 2 M 3)&2 M 20,2'&/
0/35
"i,ilarly, the HP re9uired at 10on is
HP M 0/0(5) O
2((
/'
2/'
0
8
Z2P0/(5g02
8
62/538
2
/'0
Z
R2`
M
)6
52
65'08 Z 0/'
Z 2
/
There-ore, the *HP re9uired at 10on M )652 M (055/
0/35
The HP re9uired at 7art is
HPM0/0(5)O2((/'
2/
'0
Z
Z2P0/(5 2 0/'0 2
222'0/
8Z2 C
65'08Z /80R2
&
0
2
&
Z
0/'
0Z6Z
Z
There-ore, the *HP re9uired at 7art M &02& M &2(2/
0/35
The total co,pressor HP re9uired at all three co,pressor stations -or phase 2 is
20,2'& P (055 P &2(2 M 22,'(0 HP
The incre,ental HP -or phase 2 co,pared to
phase 2 is iHP M 22,'(0 U 22,22) M 3&5& HP
This represents the additional co,pression HP re9uired -or phase 2 co,pared
to phase 2, -or the additional 50 =="CF< -lo# rate/ The cost o- this
incre,ental HP, based on m2000 per installed HP, is
iCost M 3&5& O 2000 M m2(/)2 ,illion
$e>t, chec! the 0elocity at increased -lo# rates in phase 2 -ro, ?9uation
2/26/ The 0elocity at Cardi-- is
u2 M 0/002222Z2((/'2 O 20 6Z Z2'/)Z C 5'0 Z M ')/)2 -t;s
25/5
2
ZZ520 Z (2'/) ZZ
This 0elocity is acceptable, since it is less than the erosion 0elocity/ The
0elocity at higher pressures #ill be #ell #ithin the li,its/
'/ 4n the preceding analysis, #e acco,plished the increase in -lo# rates -or
phase 2 and phase 2 by adding inter,ediate co,pressor stations/ The capital
cost -or phase 2 e>pansion #as m20/2& ,illion and -or the phase 2 e>pansion
#as an additional m2(/)2 ,illion/
$e>t, #e #ill e>plore the t#o e>pansions by installing pipe loops #ithout
additional inter,ediate co,pressor stations/
For phase 2, assu,e that ; ,iles o- the pipe near Cardi-- #ill be looped/ The
reason #e pic!ed this section is because in Chapter &, #e -ound that looping
close to the
(40 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
do#nstrea, end is ,ore bene-icial than looping near the upstrea, end, as long as
the -lo#ing te,perature #as constant/ Follo#ing the ,ethodology o- Chapter
&, #e #ill deter,ine the e9ui0alent dia,eter o- the pipe loop as -ollo#s5
1ssu,ing the loop to be o- the sa,e dia,eter as the ,ain piping and ;2 M ;2, using
?9uation &/2(, #e get
7'nst2 M 2/0 There-ore,
the e9ui0alent dia,eter, using ?9uation &/2), is
Z Z2_05
4eM
4
2
Z
Z lit Z M 2/&2 42 M 2/&2 O 25/5 M 20/'6 in/
Considering ; ,iles o- pipe o- inside dia,eter 20/'6 in/, calculate the upstrea,
pressure at the beginning o- the loop as sho#n in Figure 5/5/ The do#nstrea,
pressure at Cardi-- is (00 psig, and the upstrea, pressure P is un!no#n/ .sing
General Flo# ?9uation 2/',
: : o/s
2&(/'2O206M&(/))O200 520 ZC P R (2'/) Z 620/'68
2/5
65/28
22'/) Z 0/6O5'0O;O0/(5 ZZ
There are t#o un!no#ns, P and ;, in ?9uation 5/2/ %e need another e9uation to
sol0e -or both 0ariables/ For this, the pipe seg,ent -ro, %indsor to the start o-
the loop #ill be e>a,ined/
Considering 2''0 psig at %indsor, calculate the do#nstrea, pressure P at the
beginning o- the loop -or a pipe length o- 6200 U ;). .sing General Flo#
?9uation 2/',
: :
2&(/'2O206M&(/))O20r520 ZX 2'5'/) RP 0/5 625/58
2/5
65/28
Z2'/)Z 0/6O5'0O6200R;8O0/(5Z
'i4ure ).) Pipe loop for pha!e ('
(45
?li,inating P -ro, ?9uation 5/2 and ?9uation 5/2, #e sol0e -or ; as -ollo#s5 ;
M 50/0& ,i
"ubstituting this 0alue o- ; in ?9uation 5/2 and sol0ing -or P,
P M 3)6/)6 psia M 362/06 psig
There-ore, -or phase 2, #ithout an inter,ediate co,pressor station, -lo#
increase can be achie0ed by looping 50/0& ,i o- pipe upstrea, o- Cardi--/
The installed cost o- this pipe loop is
50/0& O m500,000 M m25/02 ,illion
4n addition to this cost o- pipe loop, #e ,ust also include the increased
horsepo#er re9uire,ent at %indsor -or the phase 2 -lo# rate/ "ince the
discharge pressure at %indsor is still 2''0 psig as be-ore, the HP is the sa,e
as that calculated earlier/ The incre,ental HP is 6('6( U )06'8 M 2'0' HP.
1t m2000 per installed HP, the e>tra cost -or incre,ental HP
is 2000 O 2'0' M m2/(2 ,illion
Thus, -or phase 2, the cost o- looping pipe upstrea, o- Cardi-- and increased
HP cost at %indsor co,pressor station is
m25/02 P m2/(2 M m2)/(& ,illion
This co,pares #ith m20/2& ,illion calculated earlier -or phase 2 using a
co,pressor station at 10on/ ?0en though at -irst sight the looping appears to
be a ,ore e>pensi0e option, #e ,ust also consider the increased operating
cost #hen adding a co,pressor station/ The annual operating cost -or the
co,pressor station can be esti,ated considering the -uel consu,ption,
operating and ,aintenance costs, and other costs/ 4n Chapter 20, #e #ill discuss
,ore details o- capital cost, operating cost, and cost o- ser0ice/ For no#, #e
#ill only loo! at capital costs/
For phase 2, at a -lo# rate o- 2((/'2 =="CF<, si,ilarly calculate the
a,ount o- pipe loop needed, #ithout adding any inter,ediate co,pression/
The length o- loop ; re9uired is calculated as
-ollo#s5 .sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/',
:
2((/'2O 20
6
M &(/)) O 20 C 520 Z ZP
2
R 0/5 (2'/) D 620/'68
2/5
65/&8
22'/) ZZ0/6 O 5'0 O ; O 0/(5 D
Considering 2''0 psig at %indsor, calculate the do#nstrea, pressure P at the
beginning o- the loop -or a pipe length o- 6200 U ;).
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/',
: :
2((/'2O206M&(/))O20r520ZX 2'5'/) RP 0/5 625/58
2&
65/'8 Z2'/)Z 0/6O5'0O6200R;8O0/(5Z
?li,inating P -ro, ?9uation 5/& and ?9uation 5/', #e sol0e -or the loop length ; as
; M )6/26 ,i
(44 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
'i4ure ).. Pipe loop for pha!e )'
This is sho#n in Figure 5/6/
"ubstituting this 0alue o- ; in ?9uation 5/' and sol0ing -or P, P
M 22''/5' psia M 2223/(' psig There-ore, the
installed cost o- this pipe loop is
)6/26 O m500,000 M m&(/2& ,illion
4n addition to the cost o- pipe loop, #e ,ust include the increased horsepo#er
re9uire,ent at %indsor -or phase 2/ "ince the discharge pressure at %indsor is
still 2''0 psig as be-ore, the HP is the sa,e as that calculated earlier/ The
incre,ental HP is 620,2'& U ('6(8 M 2))5 HP ,ore than that re9uired -or phase
2/ 1t m2000 per installed HP, the incre,ental cost is
2))5 O m2000 M m&/55 ,illion
co,pared to phase 2/
Thus, -or phase 2 the total incre,ental cost o- additional looping o0er phase 2
and increased HP at the %indsor co,pressor station is
6m&(/2& U m25/028 P m&/55 M m26/66 ,illion
The costs o- the initial case and the t#o e>pansion scenarios -or the
co,pressor station option and the pipe loop option are su,,ari:ed in Table
5/2 and Table 5/2/
Ta*+e ).1 Win-sor to Car-iff Pipe+ine EBpansionGCo3pressor Station !ption
'+oC& Co3pressor 1HP ReEuire- Co3pression Incre3enta+
Phase MMSC'D Win-sor A?on Hart Cost& H 3i++ion Cost& H 3i++ion
Initial
(
)
P
(1'(+ (4'5(
(44',( 5,10, P P (,'(+
)+4',( 4,,04 +,0-3 P ),')-
)44',( (1,),+ 4,1-- +,(4) ,)'30
PIPE L**PS >ERSUS C*/PRESSI*N
(43
Ta*+e ).2 Win-sor to Car-iff Pipe+ine EBpansionGPipe "oop !ption
Pipe
Co3pressor Pipe Co3pression "oop Tota+ Incre3enta+
'+oC& 1HP "oop& Cost& Cost& Cost& Cost&
Phase MMSC'D Win-sor 3i H 3i++ion H 3i++ion H 3i++ion H 3i++ion
Initial
(44',
(
5,10, P (,'(+ P (,'(+ P
( )+4',
(
4,,04 -1'1+ (0'3, )-'1) ,('30 )5'4+
)
)44',
(
(1,),+ 50')0 )1',3 +4'(+ -4'0) (0'00
).( RED#CING P!WER REA#IREMENTS
4n an e>isting pipeline -or a gi0en -lo# rate, #e can calculate the HP re9uired based
upon the nu,ber o- co,pressor stations, their suction and discharge pressures, and
-lo# rate/ "uppose #e are interested in reducing the HP re9uired and, hence, the annual
operating cost o- the pipeline/ 4- the -lo# rate is not reduced, the only #ay po#er
consu,ption can be reduced is to reduce the o0erall pressure drop bet#een co,pressor
stations/ 4- the pipeline is 200 ,iles long and at a -lo# rate o- 200 =="CF<, an origin
co,pressor station and an inter,ediate co,pressor station are re9uired, each station
operating at 300 psia suction and 2'00 psia discharge pressures/ The HP re9uired #ill
depend upon the co,pression ratio o- 62'00;3008 or 2/56/ "ince the -lo# rate is constant,
HP can be reduced by increasing the suction pressure or decreasing the discharge
pressure, both o- #hich reduce the co,pression ratio/ "ince the obCecti0e is to operate a
gas pipeline at the highest possible pressure -or e--iciency, #e #ill not reduce the
discharge pressure/ That lea0es us the option o- only increasing the suction pressure/
"uction pressure can be increased by reducing the pressure drop in the pipeline
seg,ent upstrea, o- the co,pressor station/ "ince the -lo# rate and pipe dia,eter are
-i>ed, the pressure drop in a pipe seg,ent can be decreased by installing a pipe loop/
There-ore, looping a seg,ent o- pipeline, thereby reducing the pressure drop, #ill
result in a decrease in HP and annual operating cost/ %e #ill illustrate this using an
e>a,ple/
&4am!le *
1 natural gas 6speci-ic gra0ity M 0/608 pipeline is 2&0 ,i long and is constructed o-
$P" 20, 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness pipeline 6=1BP M 2''0 psig8 that runs -ro,
1nahei, to Ientura/ 1t a -lo# rate o- &00 =="CF<, an inter,ediate
co,pressor at rent#ood 6,ilepost )08 is needed/ Calculate the total HP
re9uired -or both co,pressor stations/ 4n order to reduce the po#er
consu,ption by &0L at the present -lo# rate, it is proposed to loop the
pipeline/ Calculate the e>tent o- looping re9uired/ For si,plicity, use the
General Flo# e9uation #ith a trans,ission -actor . M 20 and co,pressibility
-actor o- 0/30/ The gas -lo# te,perature is 60KF and base pressure is 2'/) psia/ The
base te,perature is 60KF/ The deli0ery pressure re9uired at Ientura is (00 psig/
The discharge pressure at 1nahei, is 2''0 psig, and the suction pressure is
300 psig/ .se (0L isentropic e--iciency and 35L ,echanical e--iciency -or
co,pressors/ The gas speci-ic heat ratio gM 2/'/
"olution
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/', calculate the discharge pressure re9uired at the
rent#ood co,pressor station -or (00 psig deli0ery pressure at Ientura/
P
2
R(2'/) 2 0/5
623/08
&00O206M&(/))O202'SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS) 860/6O2520O60O0/38
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS2/5
"ol0ing -or the discharge pressure at rent#ood,
P2 M 2226 psia
$e>t, calculate the suction pressure at rent#ood, applying the General Flo# e9uation
to the pipeline seg,ent )0 ,i long bet#een 1nahei, and rent#ood/
0 / 5
Z 520SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS ZZ2'5'/)
2
R P2
&00O206M&(/))O20Z D 2 Z2'/) 0/6>520>)0O0/3
623/
082/5
"ol0ing -or the suction pressure at rent#ood,
P2 M 20)3/25 psia
The co,pression ratio at 1nahei, is
r M 2'5'/) M2/53
32'/)
The HP re9uired at 1nahei, is calculated using ?9uation '/255
Z
Z2'0Z Z 0/'0
HP M 0/0(5)O &00Z L/'0 Z 65208 Z 2SSS2
3
8
Z
602(8 632'SSSS/) 82/X0 R2`M )()6
Z Z
Z Z
#here the co,pressibility -actor -or suction conditions is assu,ed to be
2/0/ Considering a ,echanical e--iciency o- 35L, the *HP re9uired at
1nahei, is
*HP M )()6 M (232
0/35
"i,ilarly, calculate the co,pression ratio and *HP -or the rent#ood co,pressor
station/
The co,pression ratio at rent#ood is
2226
r M M2/22)
20)3/25
The HP re9uired at rent#ood is
ZHP M 0/0(5) O
&00Z
0/'0Z
65208Z2
2

02( 62/22)8o/
0/'0'0
R2`M 23&2
Z Z Z Z
(3(
and the *HP is
*HP M 23&2 M 20&&
0/35
y looping the pipe seg,ent bet#een 1nahei, and rent#ood using $P" 20 pipe, the
-lo# rate through each pipe #ill be one*hal- the inlet -lo# o- &00 =="CF< at
1nahei,/
The suction pressure at rent#ood is calculated using the General Flo# e9uation
as
250 O 20
6
M &(/)) O
2
0)8 6 0/6
2
> 520 2 > R )0 >
2
0/380/5 623623/082/52'/
P2 M 2&)2 psia
"ince this pressure is ,ore than the discharge pressure o- 2226 psia calculated
earlier -or rent#ood, #e conclude that the rent#ood station #ill not be
needed i- #e loop the entire )0 ,i pipe seg,ent -ro, 1nahei, to rent#ood/
This #ould reduce the total *HP re9uired to (232 -ro, 6(232 P 20&&8
calculated earlier -or the 1nahei, and rent#ood co,pressor stations/
The reduction in *HP is
i*HP M 20&& M 0/23), or 23/)L
(232P20&&
"ince the obCecti0e is to reduce the po#er consu,ption by &0L, #e ,ust do
,ore than Cust loop the pipe seg,ent bet#een 1nahei, and rent#ood/ %e
#ill recalculate the discharge pressure at 1nahei, #ithout the rent#ood
co,pressor station, such that the deli0ery pressure at Ientura is (00 psig/ The
reduced discharge pressure at 1nahei, due to the )0 ,i pipe loop #ill reduce
the co,pression ratio and, hence, the HP at 1nahei,/
.sing the General Flo# e9uation -or the pipe seg,ent bet#een 1nahei, and
rent#ood, the do#nstrea, pressure at rent#ood ,ust e9ual the 2226 psia
calculated earlier to ensure (00 psig deli0ery at Ientura/
There-ore, considering hal- the total -lo# rate through each $P" 20 pipe
section o- the loop,
ZZ2 R 2 0/5
250 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 20Z 520 C8Z0/6 O 520 O
2
)0 O 0/38 623/0825/
"ol0ing -or the discharge pressure at 1nahei,, #e
get P2 M 2&20 psia
(3) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
This reduced discharge pressure at 1nahei, causes the co,pression ratio to be
r M 2&20 M2/'&2
32'/)
The re0ised HP at 1nahei, is calculated as
2 / ' 0 0 / ' 0
HP M 0/0(5) O
&00Z
0/'0Z
65208Z2
2

02( 62/'&28
2/'0
R2`M 600& Z Z a
*HP M 600& M 6&23
0/35
There-ore, the total reduction in HP is
6(232 P 20&&8 U 6&23 M '005
Br the percentage reduction in HP is
'005 M 0/&3 or &3L
(232P20&&
This is #ell abo0e the &0L reduction in po#er re9uired/ 4- #e reduce the loop
pipe length slightly -ro, )0 ,i, #e #ill reali:e the re9uired &0L reduction/
This is le-t as an e>ercise -or the reader/
).) "!!PING IN DISTRI1#TI!N PIPING
1nother e>a,ple o- pipe loops is as -ollo#s/ Consider a distribution piping syste, as
sho#n in Figure 5/)/ Gas enters the pipeline at 1 at a -lo# rate o- 60 =="CF<, and
a-ter ,a!ing gas deli0eries at o- 20 =="CF< and at C o- &0 =="CF<, the
re,aining 20 =="CF< o- gas proceeds to <, #here an additional 20 =="CF<
enters the pipeline, #hich is deli0ered to the ter,inus at ?/ The last seg,ent o- pipe
has a -lo# rate o- 660 R 20 R &0 P 208 or 20 =="CF</ "uppose it is desired to bring in
an e>tra 20 =="CF< gas at < so that the deli0ery at ? is increased to &0 =="CF</
4- the deli0ery pressure at ? is to re,ain the sa,e at 600 psig, it is clear that the
pressure at < #ill need to be increased to handle the e>tra -lo# rate in pipe seg,ent
<?/ This, in turn, #ill raise all pressures upstrea, o- </ Thus, the pressures
,1 //SCFD
(1 //SCFD
)1 //SCFD
'i4ure ).9 Di!tri#$tion pipin;'
+1 //SCFD (1 //SCFD
(3+
at 1, , and C #ill all increase, resulting in an increased HP re9uire,ent at 1/
7o#e0er, by looping the section <?, #e can ,aintain all pressures the sa,e as
be-ore/
1ssu,e that -or the initial case, #here the inCection at < is 20 =="CF<, the
pressure at < is 300 psig/ The deli0ery pressure at ? is to be ,aintained constant at
600 psig/ 4- the entire length o- pipe <? is looped #ith an identical pipe si:e, the
e9ui0alent dia,eter 4
e?
is such that at &0 =="CF<, the pressure drop in the
dia,eter 4
e?
is the sa,e as the pressure drop in the original pipe dia,eter 4 at 20
=="CF</
Fro, General Flo# ?9uation 2/', the -lo# rate is directly proportional to the
s9uare root o- (P
2
2
+ P
2
2
) and also to the pipe dia,eter raised to the po#er o- 2/5,
!eeping e0erything else the sa,e/ P
2
and P
2
are the upstrea, and do#nstrea,
pressures in a pipe seg,ent/
"ince #e #ant the upstrea, and do#nstrea, pressures -or the pipe seg,ent <? to
be the sa,e at both -lo# rates, at 20 =="CF<,
20M76P2RP:80/5 42s 618
and at &0 =="CF<,
&0 M 7 6
P
2
2
R P2280/58 4e? 2/5 68
#here 7 is a constant -or the pipe seg,ent/
y di0iding one e9uation by the other, #e get
Z ZZ
2/5
4 e ?
Z M
& 0

M 2 / 5 4Z20
The e9ui0alent dia,eter is
2
4
e?
M 462/582/5
4- the initial pipe si:e o- <? #as 22/00 in/ inside dia,eter, #e need an e9ui0alent
dia,eter o-
2
4
e?
M22 O 62/58
2/5
M 2'/22 in/
$e>t, #e need to deter,ine the loop dia,eter re9uired that #ill produce the
e9ui0alent dia,eter Cust calculated/ "ince the pressure drop in each pipe loop is the
sa,e, i- :
2
and :
2
represent the -lo# rates in the ,ain pipe and loop respecti0ely,
:
2
P :
2
M &0 65/58
(3, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
and
65/68
&0 : 2WWWWWWW : 2
M M
4
e?
2/5
6228
2/5
6 48 2/ 5
C
5
#here 4 is the loop dia,eter to be calculated and the ,ain pipe is 22/00 in/ dia,eter/
"ol0ing -or :
2
, #e get
:
2
M &0Z
22
ZM 20/02 =="CF< Z2'/22
and the -lo# rate through the loop is
:
2
M &0 R 20/02M 3/33 =="CF<
There-ore, -ro, ?9uation 5/6,
3/ 33 S &0
4
2/5 J 62'/2 n2/5
"ol0ing -or 4, #e get
Z Z2
4MZ &0
3

Z2
5 /

O2'/ 22M3/ 03 i n/
There-ore, by looping the entire length <? o- the e>isting 22 in/ dia,eter pipe
#ith a pipe ha0ing an inside dia,eter o- 3/03 in/, #e #ill ,aintain the sa,e pressure at
all points as be-ore/
1 slightly di--erent case o- looping is one in #hich the inlet -lo# at 1 needs to be
increased so that the increased 0olu,e can be deli0ered at , #hile !eeping all
pressures the sa,e as be-ore/ "uppose the deli0ery 0olu,e at needs to be increased to
&0 =="CF<, #ithout changing other deli0eries or receipt/ The inlet 0olu,e at 1
#ill increase -ro, 60 =="CF< to )0 =="CF<, and the deli0ery 0olu,e at #ill
increase -ro, 20 =="CF< to &0 =="CF</ %e #ill loop the section 1 such
that the pressure at 1 and re,ain the sa,e as be-ore, so that the 0olu,es and
pressures at all points do#nstrea, o- re,ain the sa,e/ This #ill be illustrated by
calculating the pressures and the si:e o- the pipe loop re9uired in the ne>t
e>a,ple/
&4am!le +
4n a gas distribution pipeline, 60 =="CF< enters the pipeline at 1, as sho#n in
Figure 5/(/ 4- the deli0ery at is increased -ro, 20 =="CF< to &0
=="CF< by increasing the inlet -lo# at 1, !eeping all do#nstrea, -lo#
rates the sa,e, calculate the looping necessary -or section 1 to ensure
pressures are not changed throughout the pipeline/ Pipe 1 is $P" 2', 0/250
in/ #all thic!nessE C is $P" 22, 0/250 in/
PIPE L**PS >ERSUS C*/PRESSI*N
(3-
)1 //SCFD
0
______C 011 p!i; E
,1 //SCFD
(1 //SCFD
+1 //SCFD +1 //SCFD (1 //SCFD
'i4ure ).: Loopin; a %i!tri#$tion pipin;'
#all thic!nessE C< is $P" 20, 0/250 in/ #all thic!nessE and <? is $P" 22, 0/250 in/
#all thic!ness/ The deli0ery pressure at ? is -i>ed at 600 psig/ The pipe
lengths are as -ollo#5
1 M 22 ,i
C M 2( ,i
C< M 20 ,i
<? M ( ,i
The gas gra0ity is 0/60, and the -lo# te,perature is 60KF/ The co,pressibility
-actor and trans,ission -actor can be assu,ed to be 0/(5 and 20, respecti0ely,
throughout the pipeline/ The base pressure and base te,perature are 2'/) psia
and 60KF, respecti0ely/
"olution
First, the pressures at 1 and ,ust be calculated -or the initial -lo# rates/
"tarting at ?, -or a deli0ery pressure o- 600 psig at ?, the pressures at <, C,
and #ill be calculated se9uentially/ 1pplying the General Flo# e9uation -or
the ( ,i section <? o- inside dia,eter 22/25 in/ and at a -lo# rate o- 20
=="CF<,
2 SSSSSSSSSSSS 2 R62'/) 2 0/5
20O206M&(/))O
02')860
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
/6 O520 O ( O 0/(58 622/25825
P4 M 62(/02 psia M 60& psig
$e>t, calculate the pressure at C, considering 20 =="CF< -lo# through the
20 ,i section o- pipe C<, o- inside dia,eter 20/25 in/5
20O206M&(/))O20X2'SSS/)86SSSSS20/6>R520O20O
2
0/(58Z0/5 620/2582/5
P7 M 62&/0' psia M 60(/&' psig
"i,ilarly, the pressure at is calculated considering '0 =="CF< -lo# through the
2( ,i section o- pipe C, #ith an inside dia,eter 22/25 in/5
'0O206M&(/))O202'SSSSS/) 86SSSSSSS2 0/6> R 520O2(O 20/(58 0/5 622/25825
"ol0ing -or P*, #e get
P* M 652/30 psia M 6&)/20 psig
$e>t, calculate the pressure at 1 considering 60 =="CF< -lo# through the
22 ,i section o- pipe 1, #ith an inside dia,eter 2&/5 in/5
2 R65 2 0/5
60O206M&(/))O202'0) 0/6 O520O22>0SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS/(58 62&/5825/
"ol0ing -or P), #e get
P) M 6))/'5 psia M 662/)5 psig
There-ore, the pipe section 1, #hen -lo#ing 60 =="CF< o- gas, has the
-ollo#ing pressures5
P) M 6))/'5 psia
P* M 652/30 psia
%hen the deli0ery rate at is increased -ro, 20 =="CF< to &0 =="CF<,
the -lo# rate in pipe seg,ent 1 increases -ro, 60 =="CF< to )0
=="CF</ "ince the pressures at 1 and are to re,ain the sa,e as be-ore,
the pipe seg,ent 1 ,ust be looped to reduce the pressure drop at the higher
-lo# rate/ %e #ill assu,e the entire 22 ,i length #ill be looped/ $e>t, #e
calculate the e9ui0alent dia,eter re9uired -or seg,ent 1, using the General
Flo# e9uation, so the pressures at 1 and are the sa,e as be-ore/
0/5
Z 520 6)) /'5
2
R65 2/302
)0 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 20Z SS2 SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 6<8 2/5
Z2'/)ZZ0/6 O 520 O 22 O 0/ (5
"ol0ing -or the dia,eter,
4 M 2'/&6 in/
The e9ui0alent dia,eter o- the looped line 1 ,ust be 2'/&6 in/ to !eep
pressures the sa,e as calculated/ Fro, ?9uation &/2) and ?9uation &/2(, the
dia,eter o- the loop can be calculated, !no#ing the e9ui0alent dia,eter Cust
calculated/ Fro, ?9uation &/2),
2
2'/&6 2&50 Z
Z 2
Z2
Constl
P
5
Z
Z M
ZZ Z
Const
Z Z
(35
"ol0ing -or 7'nst2
7'nst 2 M 5/33
Fro, ?9uation &/2(, and since ;2 M ;2 M 22 ,i,
"ol0ing -or the pipe loop dia,eter 42,
42 M 6/6 in/
There-ore, the pipe section 1 ,ust be looped #ith a pipe o- inside dia,eter
6/6 in/ -or the entire length o- 22 ,i/ %e could also increase the loop dia,eter
and reduce the pipe length that is looped to get the sa,e e--ect/ For e>a,ple,
increasing the loop dia,eter to 20 in/ #ill reduce the length o- looping needed/
"uppose #e decide on an $P" 20, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness pipe -or the loop
length o- ; ,i/ upstrea, o- /
The e9ui0alent dia,eter #ill be calculated using ?9uation &/2) and ?9uation
&/2(/ Fro, ?9uation &/2(,
5
7'nst2 M XXJ 2&/5ZM 2/330(
20/25 ZZ
and -ro, ?9uation &/2), the e9ui0alent dia,eter is
2
Z
4e M2&/506 2 P D2/330( Z 2 5 M 25/(3
in/ l 2/330(
Z Z
Z
The pressure at the start o- the loop #ill be calculated -ro, General Flo# ?9uation 2/'5
2 R65 2 0/5520 CX )0O 206 M &(/)) O
202' )/ 0/6 O 520 O ; >0/(58 625/(382/5
"i,pli-ying,
P2 + 65 2/30
2
M 2)05; 65/)8
$e>t, consider the unlooped portion o- pipe 1 -ro, 1 to the starting point o- the
loop/
.sing General Flo# ?9uation 2/', #e get
: :
)0 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 20 520 6))/'5 R P 05 62&/582/5
62'/)8Z0/6 O 520 O 622 R ;) O 0/(5 C
"i,pli-ying,
6))/'52 U P
2
M &(52/32 622 U ;) 5).:7
?li,inating P -ro, ?9uation 5/) and ?9uation 5/( and sol0ing -or
;, #e get ; M 5/)2 ,i
There-ore, by looping the e>isting $P" 2' pipe -ro, 1 to #ith an identical
$P" 2' pipe, 5/)2 ,i long 6,easured upstrea, -ro, 8, the pressures #ill be
the sa,e as be-ore the increased deli0ery 0olu,e at /
).. S#MMAR%
%e discussed t#o #ays to increase the throughput o- a gas pipeline5 using inter,e*
diate co,pressor stations and installing pipe loops/ %ith inter,ediate co,pressor
stations, the -lo# rate can be increased to -ully utili:e pipe =1BP/ 7o#e0er, adding
co,pressor stations causes increased capital cost as #ell as annual operating and
,aintenance costs/ Bn the other hand, by installing a pipe loop, the e--ecti0e dia,eter
o- the pipe is increased, resulting in a lo#er pressure drop/ There-ore, additional -lo#
rate can be reali:ed #ithout installing an inter,ediate co,pressor station/ Looping an
e>isting pipeline causes increase in capital but 0ery little increase in operating and
,aintenance costs co,pared to installing inter,ediate co,pressor stations/ %e also
discussed ho# the HP re9uired can be reduced by installing a pipe loop/ Bn
distribution piping, an e>a,ple o- increasing deli0ery rate to certain locations using
pipe loops, #ithout changing pipe pressures in the rest o- the pipeline, #as also
illustrated/
PR!1"EMS
2/ 1 natural gas pipeline -ro, Co,pton to =erced is 200 ,i long and is constructed
o- $P" 2', 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness/ The pipeline ele0ation pro-ile is essentially
-lat/ The =1BP o- the pipeline is 22(0 psig/ The gas deli0ery pressure at =erced
is 600 psig/ %hat is the ,a>i,u, pipeline throughput #ith an origin co,pressor
station at Co,ptonT The gas gra0ity is 0/6 and gas -lo#ing te,perature is (0KF/
.se the Colebroo! e9uation -or pressure drop #ith a -riction -actor o- 0/02/ The
co,pressibility -actor can be assu,ed to be constant at 0/((/ 4- the -lo# rate
increases by 50 =="CF<, calculate the increased HP re9uired at Co,pton and
the HP re9uired at an inter,ediate co,pressor station at Iale/ 4nstead o- the
inter,ediate co,pressor station at Iale, a portion o- the pipe is looped/ %hat
length o- $P" 2' loop #ill be neededT The base pressure and base te,perature are
2'/) psia and 60KF, respecti0ely/ The co,pressor isentropic e--iciency M 0/(, and
the ,echanical e--iciency o- the co,pressor dri0er is 0/35/
2/ 1 natural gas 6speci-ic gra0ity M 0/608 pipeline is 220 ,i long and is constructed
o- $P" 20, 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness 6=1BP M 2000 psig8, and runs -ro, 1!ers to
Coburn/ 1t a -lo# rate o- 250 =="CF<, an inter,ediate co,pressor at
(33
radley 6,ilepost 658 is re9uired/ Calculate the total HP re9uired/ 4n order to
reduce the po#er consu,ption by 20L at the present -lo# rate, it is proposed to
loop the pipeline/ Calculate the length o- looping re9uired/ .se the Panhandle 1
e9uation #ith 35L e--iciency/ The co,pressibility -actor can be assu,ed constant at
0/30/ The gas -lo# te,perature is )0KF, and the base pressure and base te,pe*
rature are 2'/) psia and 60KF, respecti0ely/ The deli0ery pressure re9uired at
Coburn is )50 psig/ The discharge pressure at 1!ers is 2000 psig, and the suction
pressure is (50 psig/ .se (0L isentropic e--iciency and 35L ,echanical e--i*
ciency -or the co,pressors/
&/ 4n a gas distribution pipeline, si,ilar to that sho#n in Figure 5/(, gas enters the
pipeline at 1 at a -lo# rate o- 50 =="CF</ 1t and C, deli0eries o- 20 =="CF<
and 20 =="CF< are ,ade/ 1t <, an additional 0olu,e o- gas at 25 =="CF<
enters the pipeline/ Calculate the pressures at the 0arious pipe nodes 1, , C,
and <, considering a deli0ery pressure o- 500 psig at ?/ 4- the inco,ing 0olu,e at
< is increased to 25 =="CF< and all pressures are to re,ain the sa,e, ho#
,uch o- the pipe <? should be loopedT The pipe lengths are as -ollo#s5
15 $P" 22, 0/250 length M 2( ,i
C5 $P" 20, 0/250 length M 2' ,i
C<5 $P" (, 0/250 length M 26 ,i
<?5 $P" 22, 0/250 length M 20 ,i
RE'ERENCES
2/ =ohitpour, =/, Golshan, 7/, and =urray, 1/, Pipeline 4esign and 7'nstructi'n,
2nd ed/, 1"=? Press, $e# Hor!, 200&/
2/ 3ngineering 4ata *''5, 20th ed/, Gas Processors "uppliers 1ssociation, Tulsa,
BF, 233'/
CHAPTER .
Pipe Ana+,sis
4n this chapter #e #ill discuss the ,echanical strength needed -or a pipeline trans*
porting gas/ %e #ill analy:e the i,pact o- pipe dia,eter, #all thic!ness, ,aterial o-
construction, and speci-ic sa-ety re9uire,ents dictated by design codes and state and
-ederal regulations/ 1lso co0ered #ill be testing re9uire,ents and classi-ication o-
pipelines based upon their pro>i,ity to hu,an d#ellings and industrial establish*
,ents and population density/ The i,portance o- ,ainline bloc! 0al0es and calcula*
tion o- blo#do#n ti,e to isolate sections o- a gas pipeline #ill also be discussed/
..1 PIPE WA"" THIC<NESS
4n Chapter & #e calculated the pressure needed to transport a gi0en 0olu,e o- gas
through a pipeline/ The internal pressure in a pipe causes the pipe #all to be stressed,
and i- allo#ed to reach the yield strength o- the pipe ,aterial, it could cause
per,anent de-or,ation o- the pipe and ulti,ate -ailure/ Bb0iously, the pipe should
ha0e su--icient strength to handle the internal pressure sa-ely/ 4n addition to the
internal pressure due to gas -lo#ing through the pipe, the pipe ,ight also be subCected
to e>ternal pressure/
?>ternal pressure can result -ro, the #eight o- the soil abo0e the pipe in a buried
pipeline and also by the loads trans,itted -ro, 0ehicular tra--ic in areas #here the
pipeline is located belo# roads, high#ays, and railroads/ The deeper the pipe is
buried, the higher #ill be the soil load on the pipe/ 7o#e0er, the pressure trans,itted to
the pipe due to 0ehicles abo0e ground #ill di,inish #ith the depth o- the pipe belo#
the ground sur-ace/ Thus, the e>ternal pressure due to 0ehicular loads on a buried
pipeline that is 6 -t belo# ground #ill be less than that on a pipeline that is at a depth
o- ' -t/ 4n ,ost cases in0ol0ing buried pipelines transporting gas and other
co,pressible -luids, the e--ect o- the internal pressure is ,ore than that o- e>ternal
loads/ There-ore, the necessary ,ini,u, #all thic!ness #ill be dictated by the
internal pressure in a gas pipeline/
The ,ini,u, #all thic!ness re9uired to #ithstand the internal pressure in a gas
pipeline #ill depend upon the pressure, pipe dia,eter, and pipe ,aterial/ The larger
)1(
)1) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
the pressure or dia,eter, the larger #ould be the #all thic!ness re9uired/ 7igher*
strength steel pipes #ill re9uire less #all thic!ness to #ithstand the gi0en pressure
co,pared to lo#*strength ,aterials/ The co,,only used -or,ula to deter,ine the
#all thic!ness -or internal pressure is !no#n as arlo#As e9uation/ This e9uation has
been ,odi-ied to ta!e into account design -actors and type o- pipe Coints 6sea,less,
#elded, etc/8 and is incorporated into design codes such as <BT Code o- Federal
Regulations Part 232 and 1"=? &2/( "tandards/ "ee Chapter 3 -or a -ull list o-
design codes and standards used in the design, construction, and operation o- gas
pipelines/
..2 1AR"!W@S EA#ATI!N
%hen a circular pipe is subCect to internal pressure, the pipe ,aterial at any point #ill
ha0e t#o stress co,ponents at right angles to each other/ The larger o- the t#o
stresses is !no#n as the h''p stress and acts along the circu,-erential direction/
7ence, it is also called the circumferential stress. The other stress is the longitudinal
stress, also !no#n as the a>ial stress, #hich acts in a direction parallel to the pipe
a>is/ Figure 6/2 sho#s a cross section o- a pipe subCect to internal pressure/ 1n
ele,ent o- the pipe #all ,aterial is sho#n #ith the t#o stresses 6
h
and 6
a
in
perpendicular directions/ oth stresses #ill increase as the internal pressure is
increased/ 1s #ill be sho#n shortly, the hoop stress 6
h
is the larger o- the t#o stresses
and, hence, #ill go0ern the ,ini,u, #all thic!ness re9uired -or a gi0en internal
pressure/
4n its basic -or,, arlo#As e9uation relates the hoop stress in the pipe #all to
the internal pressure, pipe dia,eter, and #all thic!ness as -ollo#s5
6
h
M @4 t A0'(B
'i4ure ..1 Stre!!e! in pipe !$#Het to internal pre!!$re'
PI PE ANALYSI S
)1+
#here
6
h
M hoop or circu,-erential stress in pipe ,aterial,
psi P M internal pressure, psi
4 M pipe outside dia,eter, in/
t M pipe #all thic!ness, in/
"i,ilar to ?9uation 6/2, the a>ial 6or longitudinal8 stress, 6
a
, is gi0en by the
-ollo#ing e9uation5
66/28
6 M P4 't
$ote that in these e9uations the pipe dia,eter used is the outside dia,eter,
not the inside dia,eter as #e used in Chapter 2 and Chapter &/
For e>a,ple, consider an $P" 20 pipe, 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, that is
subCect to an internal gas pressure o- 2200 psig/ The pipe #all ,aterial #ill be
stressed in the circu,-erential direction by the hoop stress gi0en by ?9uation
6/2 as -ollo#s5
6 S 2200 O 20 M 2',000 psig
h 2 O 0/500 @
and in accordance #ith ?9uation 6/2, the a>ial stress in the pipe #all is
6 M 2200 O 20 M 22,000
psig 'O0/500 @
arlo#As e9uation is 0alid only -or thin*#alled cylindrical pipes/ =ost
pipelines transporting gases and li9uids generally -all in this category/ There are
instances in #hich pipes carrying gases and petroleu, li9uids, subCect to high
e>ternal loads, such as deep sub,arine pipelines, ,ay be classi-ied as thic!*
#alled pipes/ The go0erning e9uations -or such thic!*#alled pipes are di--erent
and ,ore co,ple>/ %e #ill introduce these -or,ulas -or in-or,ation only/
..$ THIC<8WA""ED PIPES
Consider a thic!*#alled pipe #ith an outside dia,eter 4
H
and inside dia,eter o-
4
i
, subCect to an internal pressure o- P/ The greatest stress in the pipe #all #ill
be -ound to occur in the circu,-erential direction near the inner sur-ace o- the
pipe/ This stress can be calculated -ro, the -ollo#ing e9uation5
66/&8
66/'8
2 2 SS P (
4
'

P 4 i
6 ) (4K R4X )
The pipe #all thic!ness is
4
o
R 4i
t 2
)1, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
Re#riting ?9uation 6/& in ter,s o- outside dia,eter and #all thic!ness, #e get
6 M PD 4 o P ( 4 ' R 2 t ) 2
,a> Z Z
42 R (4
'
R 2t82 a
"i,pli-ying -urther,
P4
'
6 MSSSSSSSS
,a >
2t
Z2R6 t)P2(t)2
2P64'8
Z
66/58
4n the li,iting case, a thin*#alled pipe is one in #hich the #all thic!ness is
0ery s,all co,pared to the dia,eter 4
'
. 4n this case (t;4) is s,all co,pared to 2
and, there-ore, can be neglected in ?9uation 6/5/ There-ore, the appro>i,ation
-or thin#alled pipes -ro, ?9uation 6/5 beco,es
6 M P4'
2t
#hich is the sa,e as arlo#As ?9uation 6/2 -or hoop stress/
&4am!le )
1 gas pipeline is subCect to an internal pressure o- 2'00 psig/ 4t is
constructed o- steel pipe #ith 2' in/ outside dia,eter and 0/)5 in/ #all
thic!ness/ Calculate the ,a>i,u, hoop stress in the pipeline,
considering both the thin*#alled approach and the thic!*#alled e9uation/
%hat is the er
r
or in assu,ing that the pipe is thin #alledT
"olution
Pipe inside dia,eter M 2' U 2 O 0/)5 M 22/5 in/
Fro, ?9uation 6/2 -or thin*#alled pipe, arlo#As e9uation gi0es the
,a>i,u, hoop stress as
6 S 2'00 O 2' M 22 '00
psig h 2 O
0/)5,
Considering the thic!*#alled pipe -or,ula ?9uation 6/&,
6 S 2'0062'
2
P22/528 M 22,)2& si
,a> 62'2R22/528
psig
There-ore, by assu,ing thin*#alled pipe, the hoop stress is
o0eresti,ated by appro>i,ately
22,'00R22,)2&
M 0/0&22 or
&/22L 22,)2&
PI PE ANALYSI S )1-
..( DERIATI!N !' 1AR"!W@S EA#ATI!N
"ince arlo#As e9uation is the basic e9uation -or pipes under internal pressure, it is
appropriate to understand ho# the -or,ula is deri0ed, #hich is the subCect o- this
section/
Consider a circular pipe o- length ;, outside dia,eter 4, and #all thic!ness t as
sho#n in Figure 6/2/ %e consider the cross section o- one*hal- portion o- this pipe/ The
pipe is subCect to an internal pressure o- P psig/ %ithin the pipe ,aterial, the hoop
stress 6
h
and the a>ial stress 6
a
act at right angles to each other as sho#n/
Considering the one*hal- section o- the pipe, -or balancing the -orces in the
direction o- the hoop stress 6
h
, #e can say that 6
h
, acting on the t#o rectangular areas ;
O t, balances the internal pressure on the proCected area 4 O ;.
There-ore,
PO4O;M6hO;OtO2 (R.R)
"ol0ing -or 6
h
, #e get the deri0ation o- ?9uation 6/2 as
S P4 6h
2t
$o# #e #ill loo! at the balancing o- longitudinal -orces/ The internal pressure BP
acting on the cross*sectional area o- pipe ' 42 produces the bursting -orce/ This is
balanced by the a>ial resisting -orce 6
a
acting on the area B4t. There-ore,
L
'
42 M 6
a
O L4t 66/)8
"ol0ing -or 6
a
, #e get the deri0ation o- ?9uation 6/2 as
6 M P4
't
4t can be seen -ro, the preceding e9uations that the hoop stress is t#ice the a>ial
stress and, there-ore, is the go0erning stress/ Consider a pipe #ith 20 in/ outside
dia,eter and 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness subCect to an internal pressure o- 2000 psig/
Fro, arlo#As ?9uation 6/2 and ?9uation 6/2, #e calculate the hoop stress and a>ial
stress as -ollo#s5
6 S 2000 O 20 M 20,000 si 6h 2 O
0/500 psig
6
a
M 2000 O 20 M 20,000 psig
' O 0/500
There-ore, #e are able to deter,ine the stress le0els in the pipe ,aterial -or a
gi0en internal pressure, pipe dia,eter, and #all thic!ness/ 4- the abo0e*calculated
)10 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
0alues are #ithin the stress li,its o- the pipe ,aterial, #e can conclude that the $P"
20 pipe #ith 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness is ade9uate -or the internal pressure o- 2000
psig/ The yield stress o- the pipe ,aterial represents the stress at #hich the pipe
,aterial yields and undergoes per,anent de-or,ation/ There-ore, #e ,ust ensure that
the stress calculations abo0e do not co,e dangerously close to the yield stress/
Fre9uently, #e ha0e to sol0e the re0erse proble, o- deter,ining the #all
thic!ness o- a pipeline -or a gi0en pressure/ For e>a,ple, suppose the pipe is
constructed o- steel #ith a yield strength o- 52,000 psi and #e are re9uired to
deter,ine #hat #all thic!ness is needed -or $P" 20 pipe to #ithstand 2'00 psig
internal pressure/ 4- #e are allo#ed to stress the pipe ,aterial to no ,ore than 60L o-
the yield stress, #e can easily calculate the ,ini,u, #all thic!ness re9uired using
?9uation 6/2, as -ollo#s5
0/6 O 52, 000 M 2'00 O 20
2t
7ere, #e ha0e e9uated the hoop stress per arlo#As e9uation to 60L yield
strength o- the pipe ,aterial/
"ol0ing -or pipe #all thic!ness, #e get
t M 0/''() in/
"uppose #e used the nearest standard #all thic!ness o- 0/500 in/ The actual hoop
stress can then be calculated -ro, arlo#As e9uation as
6 S 2'00 O 20 M 2(,000 si
h 2 O 0/5 p
There-ore, the pipe #ill be stressed to 2(,000 M 0/5' or 5'L o- yield stress, #hich
52 000 ,
is less than the 60L #e started #ith/
4ncidentally, the actual a>ial or longitudinal stress in the preceding e>a,ple #ill
be one*hal- the hoop stress or 2',000 psi/
There-ore, in this basic e>a,ple, #e used arlo#As e9uation to calculate the pipe
#all thic!ness re9uired -or a $P" 20 pipe to #ithstand an internal pressure o- 2'00
psig #ithout stressing the pipe ,aterial beyond 60L o- its yield strength/
4n the -oregoing, #e arbitrarily pic!ed 60L o- the yield stress o- pipe ,aterial to
calculate the pipe #all thic!ness/ %e did not use 200L o- the yield stress because, in
this case, the pipe ,aterial #ould yield at the gi0en pressure, #hich ob0iously cannot
be allo#ed/ 4n design, #e generally use a design -actor that is a nu,ber less than 2/00
that represents the -raction o- the yield stress o- the pipe ,aterial that the pipe can be
stressed to/ Gas pipelines are designed #ith 0arious design -actors ranging -ro, 0/' to
0/)2/ This ,eans that the pipe hoop stress is allo#ed to be bet#een '0 and )2L o- the
yield strength o- pipe ,aterial/ The actual percentage #ill depend on 0arious -actors
and #ill be discussed shortly/ The yield stress used in the calculation o- pipe #all
thic!ness is called the speci-ied ,ini,u, yield strength 6"=H"8 o- pipe ,aterial/
Thus, in the preceding e>a,ple, #e calculated the pipe #all thic!ness based on a
design -actor o- 0/6 or allo#ed the pipe stress to go up to 60L o- the "=H"/
PIPE ANALYSIS
)15
Ta*+e ..1 Pipe Materia+ an- %ie+- Stren4th
Pipe Materia+ Specifie- Mini3u3 %ie+- Stren4th
API )"; Gra-e 5SM%S7& psi
:,) ,),111
:,0 ,0,111
:-) -),111
:-0 -0,111
:01 01,111
:0- 0-,111
:51 51,111
:41 41,111
:31 31,111
..) PIPE MATERIA" AND GRADE
"teel pipes used in gas pipeline syste,s generally con-or, to 1P4 5L and 5Lg
speci-ications/ These are ,anu-actured in grades ranging -ro, g'2 to g30 #ith
"=H", as sho#n in Table 6/2/
"o,eti,es 1P4 5L grade pipe #ith &5,000 psi "=H" is also used in certain
installations/
... INTERNA" DESIGN PRESS#RE EA#ATI!N
%e indicated earlier in this chapter that arlo#As e9uation, in a ,odi-ied -or,, is used
in designing gas pipelines/ The -ollo#ing -or, o- arlo#As e9uation is used in
design codes -or petroleu, transportation syste,s to calculate the allo#able internal
pressure in a pipeline based upon gi0en dia,eter, #all thic!ness, and pipe ,aterial/
5..:7
P M 2 t63.% 4
#here
P M internal pipe design pressure, psig
6 M speci-ied ,ini,u, yield strength 6"=H"8 o- pipe ,aterial, psig
3 M sea, Coint -actor, 2/0 -or sea,less and sub,erged arc #elded 6"1%8 pipes/
. M design -actor, usually 0/)2 -or cross*country gas pipelines, but can be as lo# as
0/', depending on class location and type o- construction
% M te,perature deration -actor M 2/00 -or te,peratures belo# 250KF
4t ,ust be noted that in the -oregoing, #e used the outside dia,eter o- the pipe
and not the inside dia,eter as used in Chapter 2 and Chapter & -or pressure drop
calculations/
)14 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
Ta*+e ..2 Pipe Sea3 Foint 'actors
Sea3 Foint 'actor
Specification Pipe C+ass 5E7
AST/ A-+ Sea"le!! (
Eletri Re!i!tane =el%e% (
F$rnae Lap =el%e% 1'4
F$rnae 8$tt =el%e% 1'0
AST/ A(10 Sea"le!! (
AST/ A(+, Eletri F$!ion Ar =el%e% 1'4
AST/ A(+- Eletri Re!i!tane =el%e% (
AST/ A(+3 Eletri F$!ion =el%e% 1'4
AST/ A)(( Spiral =el%e% Pipe 1'4
AST/ A+++ Sea"le!! (
AST/ A+++ =el%e% (
AST/ A+4( Do$#le S$#"er;e%
Ar =el%e% (
AST/ A05( Eletri6F$!ion6=el%e% (
AST/ A05) Eletri6F$!ion6=el%e% (
AST/ A03( Eletri6F$!ion6=el%e% (
API -L Sea"le!! (
Eletri Fla!h =el%e% (
S$#"er;e% Ar =el%e% (
F$rnae Lap =el%e% 1'4
F$rnae 8$tt =el%e% 1'0
API -L: Sea"le!! (
Eletri Fla!h =el%e% (
API -LS Eletri Re!i!tane =el%e% (
The sea, Coint -actor ? used in ?9uation 66/(8 0aries #ith the type o- pipe ,aterial
and #elding e,ployed/ "ea, Coint -actors are gi0en in Table 6/2 -or the ,ost co,*
,only used pipe and Coint types/
The internal design pressure calculated -ro, ?9uation 66/(8 is !no#n as the
,a>i,u, allo#able operating pressure 6=1BP8 o- the pipeline/ This ter, has been
shortened to ,a>i,u, operating pressure 6=BP8 in recent years/ Throughout this
boo! #e #ill use =BP and =1BP interchangeably/ The design -actor . has 0alues
ranging -ro, 0/' to 0/)2, as ,entioned earlier/ Table 6/& lists the 0alues o- the design
-actor based upon class locations/ The class locations, in turn, depend on the popu*
lation density in the 0icinity o- the pipeline/
Ta*+e ..$ Desi4n 'actors for Stee+ Pipe
C+ass "ocation
Desi4n
'actor& F
( 1'5)
) 1'01
+ 1'-1
, 1',1
PIPE ANALYSIS )13
))1 yar%!
))1 yar%!
pipe enterline
'i4ure ..2 Cla!! loation $nit'
..9 C"ASS "!CATI!N
The -ollo#ing de-initions o- class 2 through class ' are ta!en -ro, <BT '3 CFR, Part
232 6see Re-erence section -or details8/ The class location unit 6CL.8 is de-ined as an
area that e>tends 220 yards on either side o- the center line o- a 2*,i section o- pipe,
as indicated in Figure 6/2/
Class )
B--shore gas pipelines are Class 2 locations/ For onshore pipelines, any class
location unit that has 20 or -e#er buildings intended -or hu,an occupancy is
ter,ed Class 2/ Class *
This is any class location unit that has ,ore than 20 but -e#er than '6
buildings intended -or hu,an occupancy/
Class +
This is any class location unit that has '6 or ,ore buildings intended -or hu,an
occupancy or an area #here the pipeline is #ithin 200 yards o- a building or
a playground, recreation area, outdoor theatre, or other place o- public
asse,bly that is occupied by 20 or ,ore people at least 5 days a #ee! -or
20 #ee!s in any 22*,onth period/ The days and #ee!s need not be
consecuti0e/
Class ,
This is any class location unit #here buildings #ith -our or ,ore stories abo0e
ground e>ist/
The te,perature deration -actor % is e9ual to 2/00 up to gas te,perature 250KF, as
indicated in Table 6/'/
Ta*+e ..( Te3perature Deration 'actors
Te3perature
.' .C Deration 'actor T
)-1 or le!! ()( or le!! ('111
+11 (,3 1'305
+-1 (55 1'1++
,11 )1, 1'311
,-1 )+) 1'405
)(1 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
&4am!le *
1 gas pipeline is constructed o- 1P4 5L g65 steel, $P" 26, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness/
Calculate the =1BP o- this pipeline -or class 2 through class ' locations/ .se a
te,perature deration -actor o- 2/00/
"olution
.sing ?9uation 6/(, the =1BP is gi0en by
P M 2 O 0/250 O 65, 000> 2/0 > 0/)2 > 2/0 M 2'62/5 psig -or class 2 6
"i,ilarly,
=1BP M2'62/5O 0/6 M 222(/( psig -or class 2
0/)2
=1BP M2'62/5 O 0/5
M
2025/62 psig -or class &
0/)2
=1BP M2'62/5 O 0/' M (22/5 psig -or class '
0/)2
..: MAIN"INE A"ES
=ainline 0al0es are installed in gas pipelines so that portions o- the pipeline can be
isolated -or hydrostatic testing and ,aintenance/ Ial0es are also necessary to separate
sections o- pipe and ,ini,i:e gas loss that can occur due to pipe rupture -ro,
construction da,age/ <esign codes speci-y the spacing o- these 0al0es based upon
class location, #hich in turn depends on the population density around the pipeline/
The -ollo#ing lists the ,a>i,u, spacing bet#een ,ainline 0al0es in gas trans,ission
piping/ These are ta!en -ro, 1"=? &2/( code/
C+ass "ocation a+?e Spacin4
( )1 "ile!
) (- "ile!
+ (1 "ile!
, - "ile!
4t can be seen -ro, the preceding that the 0al0e spacing is shorter as the pipeline
tra0erses high*population areas/ This is necessary as a sa-ety -eature to protect the
inhabitants in the 0icinity o- the pipeline by restricting the a,ount o- gas that ,ight
escape due to rupture o- the pipeline/ These ,ainline 0al0es ,ust be -ull*opening,
through*conduit type 0al0es such that scraper pigs and inspection tools can pass
through these 0al0es #ithout any obstruction/ There-ore, ball 0al0es and gate 0al0es are
used o- the #elded construction rather than -langed type/ uried 0al0es ha0e
PI PE ANALYSI S
)((
e>tended ste,s #ith ele0ated 0al0e operators located abo0e ground, #ith lubrication
and bleed lines brought abo0e ground -or easy access and ,aintenance/
../ H%DR!STATIC TEST PRESS#RE
%hen a pipeline is designed to operate at a certain =BP, it ,ust be tested to ensure
that it is structurally sound and can #ithstand sa-ely the internal pressure be-ore being
put into ser0ice/ Generally, gas pipelines are hydrotested #ith #ater by -illing the
test section o- the pipe #ith #ater and pu,ping the pressure up to a 0alue higher
than the =1BP and holding it at this test pressure -or a period o- ' to ( hours/ The
,agnitude o- the test pressure is speci-ied by design code, and it is usually 225L o-
the operating pressure/ Thus, a pipeline designed to operate continuously at 2000 psig
#ill be hydrotested to a ,ini,u, pressure o- 2250 psig/
Consider a pipeline $P" 2', #ith 0/&)5 in/ #all thic!ness, constructed o- 1P4
5L g65 pipe/ .sing a te,perature deration -actor o- 2/00, #e calculate the =BP o-
this pipeline -ro, ?9uation 6/( -or class 2 location as -ollo#s5
PM 2O0/ &)5O65, 000O2/ 0O0 / )2 O2/ 0 M 2'62/ 5 psi g
"ince the pipe -ittings and 0al0es #ill be 1$"4 600, #e #ill establish an =BP o-
2''0 psig -or this pipeline/
There-ore, the hydrotest pressure #ill be
2/25 O 2''0 M 2(00 psig
4- the pipeline is designed to be belo# ground, the test pressure is held constant
-or a period o- ( hours, and it is thoroughly chec!ed -or lea!s/ 1bo0e*ground pipelines
are tested -or a period o- ' hours/ 4- the design -actor used in the =BP calculation
is 0/)2 6class 28, the hoop stress is allo#ed to reach )2L o- the "=H" o- pipe
,aterial/ Testing this pipe at 225L o- =BP #ill result in the hoop stress reaching a
0alue o- 2/25 O 0/)2 M 0/30 or 30L o- "=H"/ Thus, by hydrotesting the pipe at
2/25 ti,es the operating pressure, #e are stressing the pipe ,aterial to 30L o- the
yield strength/
Generally, the hydrotest pressure is gi0en such that the hoop stress has a range o-
0alues, such as 30 to 35L o- "=H"/ There-ore, in the preceding e>a,ple, the
,ini,u, and ,a>i,u, hydrotest pressures #ill be as -ollo#s5
=ini,u, hydrotest pressure M 2/25 O 2''0 M 2(00 psig
=a>i,u, hydrotest pressure M 2(00 O 635;308 M 2300 psig
4t can be seen -ro, ?9uation 6/2 that the 2(00 psig internal pressure #ill cause a
hoop stress o-
6
h
M 2(00 O 2' M 5),600 psi 2 O
0/&)5
)() GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
<i0iding this hoop stress by the "=H", #e get the lo#er li,it o- the hydrotest
pressure as
5),600 M 0/(3 M (3L o- "=H"
65,000
"i,ilarly, by proportion, the ,a>i,u, hydrotest pressure o- 2300 psig #ill
cause a hoop stress o-
6
h
M 2300 O 5),600 M 60,(00 M 3'L o- "=H" 2(00
There-ore, in this e>a,ple, the hydrotest en0elope o- 2(00 to 2300 psig is e9ui0*
alent to stressing the pipe in the range o- (3 to 3'L o- "=H"/
4n the preceding analysis #e ha0e not ta!en into consideration the pipeline
ele0ation pro-ile in calculating the hydrotest pressures/ Generally, a long pipeline is
di0ided into test sections and the hydrotest pressures are established -or each section,
ta!ing into account the ele0ations along the pipeline pro-ile/ The reason -or subdi*
0iding the pipeline into sections -or hydrotesting #ill be e0ident -ro, the -ollo#ing
e>a,ple/
Consider, -or e>a,ple, a pipeline 50 ,i long #ith an ele0ation pro-ile as sho#n in
Figure 6/&/ The ele0ation o- the starting point, $or#al!, is &00 -t, #hereas the pipeline
ter,inus, La!e#ood, is at an ele0ation o- 2200 -t/ 4- the entire 50 ,i length o- the
pipeline #ere -illed #ith #ater -or hydrotesting, the static pressure di--erence bet#een
the t#o ends due to ele0ation #ill be as -ollo#s5
Pressure di--erence M 62200 U &008 O 0/'&& M &(3/) psig
The -actor 0/'&& is the con0ersion -actor -ro, -eet o- #ater to pressure in psig/
4t can be seen that the pipe section at the lo# ele0ation point at $or#al! #ill be at
a higher pressure than the pipeline at the high ele0ation end at La!e#ood by al,ost
&30 psig/ There-ore, i- #e pu,p the #ater in the line to the re9uired hydrotest
'i4ure ..$ Pipeline ?ith ele&ation profilePi"pat on hy%rote!t'
PI PE ANALYSI S
)(+
pressure o- 2(00 psig at $or#al!, the corresponding #ater pressure at La!e#ood
#ill be
2(00 U &30 M 2'20 psig
Con0ersely, i- #e pu,p the #ater in the line to the re9uired hydrotest pressure o-
2(00 psig at La!e#ood, the corresponding #ater pressure at $or#al!
#ill be 2(00 P &30 M 2230 psig
This is sho#n in Figure 6/&/
The pressure o- 2230 psig at $or#al! #ill result in a hoop stress o-
6
h
M 2230 O 2' M )0,0(0 psi 2 O
0/&)5
This is e9ui0alent to
)0,0(0 M 2/0( M 20(L o- "=H"
65,000
Bb0iously, #e ha0e e>ceeded the yield strength o- the pipe ,aterial, and this is not
acceptable/
Bn the other hand, #ith 2(00 psig test pressure at $or#al!, the corresponding test
pressure at La!e#ood is calculated to be 2'20 psig/ ?0en though the pipe section at
the lo# end at $or#al! has the re9uisite test pressure 6225L =BP8, the pipe section
at the higher ele0ation at La!e#ood #ill see only
2'20 O 225 M 3(L =BP
2(00
This #ill not be an acceptable hydrotest, because #e ha0e not been able to test the
entire pipeline at the correct hydrotest pressure, #hich ,ust be at least 225L o- the
=1BP/ The solution to this dile,,a is to brea! the length o- 50 ,i into se0eral
sections such that each section can be tested separately at the re9uired test pressure/
These test sections #ill ha0e s,aller ele0ation di--erences bet#een the ends o- the
test sections/ There-ore, each section #ill be hydrotested to pressures close to the
re9uired ,ini,u, pressure/ Figure 6/' sho#s such a pipeline subdi0ided into sections
suitable -or hydrotesting/ .sing the hydrotest en0elope o- 30 to 35L o- "=H", #e
#ill be able to adCust the test pressures -or each section such that e0en #ith so,e
ele0ation di--erence bet#een the ends o- each test section, the hydrotest pressures
,ay be close to the re9uired pressures/ This #ill not be possible i- #e ha0e one single
test section #ith signi-icant ele0ation di--erence bet#een the t#o ends, as illustrated
in Figure 6/'/
Table 6/5 through Table 6/2& list the internal design pressure and hydrostatic test
pressure -or 0arious pipe dia,eters and pipe ,aterials ranging -ro, g'2 to g30/
)(, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
'i4ure ..( Hy%rote!tin; #y !$#%i&i%in; pipeline'
&4am!le +
1 gas pipeline, $P" 20, 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, is constructed o- 1P4 5L g52 pipe/
6a8 Calculate the design pressures -or class 2 through class ' locations/
6b8 %hat is the range o- hydrotest pressures -or each o- these class locationsT
1ssu,e Coint -actor M 2/00 and te,perature deration -actor M 2/00/
"olution
.sing ?9uation 6/(, the internal design pressure is
PM 2 O 0/500 O 52, 000 O 2/00 O 2/0 O . M 2600 F
20
#here
. M design -actor M 0/)2 -or class 2
There-ore, the design pressures -or class 2 through class ' are as -ollo#s5
Class 2 M
260
0 O
0/)
2 M
2()2
psig
Class 2 M 260 0/6 2560
Class & M 260 0/5 2&00
Class ' M 260
0 O
0/'
0 M
20'0
psig
The range o- hydrotest pressures is such that the hoop stress #ill be bet#een 30 and
35L o- "=H"/
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(continued)
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1',+5 (4'30 3543 4(-5 0534 -,+4 ())+0 ()3(0 (+-30
1'-+( ))'-( ((43, 33() 4)01 0014 (,404 (-03, (0-)1
0'0)- 1')-1 (5'1) +41, +(51 )0,) )((+ ,5-- -1(3 -)4+
1',+) )4'-5 0-5+ -,55 ,-0- +0-) 4)(0 405+ 3()3
1'-0) +0'+3 4--( 5()0 -3+4 ,5-1 (1043 (()4) ((450
4'0)- 1')-1 ))'+0 )3)) ),+- )1)3 (0)+ +0-) +4-- ,1-4
1'+)) )4'-- +50+ +(+0 )0(+ )13( ,51, ,30- -))5
1',10 +-'0, ,5,- +3-, +)3- )0+0 -3+( 0)0( 0-31
(1'5- 1')-1 )4'1, )+,, (3-+ (0)4 (+1) )3+1 +13+ +)-0
1'+15 +,'), )453 )+33 (333 (-33 +-34 +534 +334
1'+0- ,1',4 +,)+ )4-) )+55 (31( ,)54 ,-(0 ,5-+
1')-1 ++'+4 (350 (0,5 (+5+ (134 ),5( )014 )5,-
1'++1 ,+'55 )013 )(5, (4() (,,3 +)0( +,,) +0),
1'+5- ,3'-0 )30- ),5( )1-3 (0,5 +510 +3() ,((4
1',10 -+'-) +)(1 )05- )))3 (54+ ,1() ,)+- ,,-4
1'-11 0-',) +3-+ +)3, )5,- )(30 ,3,( -)(0 -,31
1'+() ,-'0( )),0 (45) (-01 (),4 )414 )30, +()1
1'+5- -,'-5 )511 ))-1 (45- (-11 ++5- +-0+ +5-1
1',+5 0+'+1 +(,0 )0)) )(4- (5,4 +3++ ,(-) ,+51
1'-11 5)'13 +011 +111 )-11 )111 ,-11 ,5-1 -111
(continued)
Pipe Materia+ API )" ;90 SM%S 90000 psi4
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(0'11 1')-1 ,)'1- (-5- (+(+ (13, 45- (303 )154 )(44
1'+() -)')5 (300 (0+4 (+0- (13) ),-5 )-3, )5+1
1'+5- 0)'-4 )+0+ (303 (0,( (+(+ )3-+ +((5 +)4(
1',+5 5)'0, )5-+ ))3, (3() (-+1 +,,( +0++ +4),
1')-1 ,5'+3 (,11 ((05 35) 554 (5-1 (4,5 (3,,
1'+() -4'3, (5,5 (,-0 ()(+ 35( )(4, )+1- ),)5
1'+5- 51'-3 )(11 (5-1 (,-4 ((05 )0)- )55( )3(5
1',+5 4('35 ),,5 )1+3 (033 (+01 +1-3 +))3 ++33
1'-11 3+',- )411 )+++ (3,, (--0 +-11 +03, +443
)1'11 1'+() 0-'01 (-5) (+(1 (13) 45, (300 )15- )(4,
1'+5- 54'01 (431 (-5- (+(+ (1-1 )+0+ ),3, )0)-
1'-0) ((0'0
5
)4+) )+01 (305 (-5, +-,( +5+5 +3+,
1'-11 ((,'4
(
))3( (313 (-3( ()5+ )40, +1)+ +(4)
1'0)- (,)'0
4
)40, )+40 (343 (-3( +-41 +554 +355
1'5-1 (51')
(
+,+0 )40, )+40 (313 ,)3- ,-+, ,55+
),'11 1'+5- 3,'0) (-5- (+(+ (13, 45- (303 )154 )(44
1'-11 ()-',
3
)(11 (5-1 (,-4 ((05 )0)- )55( )3(5
1'-0) (,1'0
4
)+01 (305 (0+3 (+(( )3-( +((, +)54
1'0)- (-0'1
+
)0)- )(44 (4)+ (,-4 +)4( +,0, +0,0
1'5-1 (40')
+
+(-1 )0)- )(44 (5-1 +3+4 ,(-0 ,+5-
)0'11 1'+5- (1)'0
+
(,-, ()() (1(1 414 (4(5 (3(4 )1(3
1'0)- (03'+
4
),)+ )1(3 (04+ (+,0 +1)3 +(35 ++0-
1'5-1 )1)')
-
)314 ),)+ )1(3 (0(- +0+- +4+5 ,1+4
)4'11 1'+5- ((1'0, (+-1 (()- 3+4 5-1 (044 (54( (45-
1'-11 (,0'4- (411 (-11 ()-1 (111 ))-1 )+5- )-11
1'5-1 )(4')5 )511 ))-1 (45- (-11 ++5- +-0+ +5-1
+1'11 1'+5- ((4'0- ()01 (1-1 45- 511 (-5- (00+ (5-1
1'0)- (30'14 )(11 (5-1 (,-4 ((05 )0)- )55( )3(5
1'5-1 )+,')3 )-)1 )(11 (5-1 (,11 +(-1 ++)- +-11
+)'11 1'+5- ()0'00 ((4( 34, 4)1 0-0 (,55 (--3 (0,(
1'-11 (04')( (-5- (+(+ (13, 45- (303 )154 )(44
1'0)- )13',+ (303 (0,( (+05 (13, ),0( )-34 )5+,
1'5-1 )-1'+( )+0+ (303 (0,( (+(+ )3-+ +((5 +)4(
+,'11 1'+5- (+,'05 ((() 3)0 55) 0(4 (+31 (,05 (-,,
1'-11 (54'43 (,4) ()+- (1)3 4), (4-+ (3-0 )1-3
1'0)- )))'54 (4-+ (-,, ()45 (1)3 )+(0 ),,- )-5,
1'5-1 )00'++ ))), (4-+ (-,, ()+- )553 )3+, +144
+0'11 1'+5- (,)'04 (1-1 45- 5)3 -4+ (+(+ (+4- (,-4
1'0)- )+0'(+ (5-1 (,-4 ()(- 35) )(44 )+13 ),+(
1'5-1 )4)'+- )(11 (5-1 (,-4 ((05 )0)- )55( )3(5
,)'11 1'+5- (00'5( 311 5-1 0)- -11 (()- ((44 ()-1
1'-11 ))('0( ()11 (111 4++ 005 (-11 (-4+ (005
1'0)- )50'(4 (-11 ()-1 (1,) 4++ (45- (353 )14+
('111 ,+5'44 ),11 )111 (005 (+++ +111 +(05 ++++
Pipe Materia+ API )" ;:0
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,'- 1')+5 (1'53 0105 -1-0 ,)(+ ++5( 5-4, 411- 4,)5
1'++5 (,'34 40)5 5(43 -33( ,53+ (154, ((+4+ ((34)
1'-+( ))'-( (+-3, ((+)4 3,,1 5--) (033) (53+0 (4441
0'0)- 1')-1 (5'1) ,+,5 +0)+ +1(3 ),(- -,+, -5+0 01+4
1',+) )4'-5 5-() 0)01 -)(5 ,(5+ 3+31 33() (1,++
1'-0) +0'+3 355) 4(,, 0540 -,)3 ())(0 ()43, (+-5+
4'0)- 1')-1 ))'+0 +++3 )54+ )+(3 (4-- ,(5, ,,10 ,0+4
1')55 ),'51 +511 +14+ )-03 )1-- ,0)- ,44) -(+3
1'+)) )4'-- ,+1( +-4, )345 )+43 -+50 -05- -35+
1',10 +-'0, -,)+ ,-(3 +500 +1(+ 0554 5(-- 5-+)
(1'5- 1')-1 )4'1, )053 ))++ (401 (,44 ++,3 +-+- +5)(
1'+15 +,'), +)31 )5,) ))4- (4)4 ,(() ,+,( ,-03
1'+0- ,1',4 +3(( +)01 )5(0 )(5+ ,443 -(0( -,++
1'-11 -,'5, -+-4 ,,0- +5)( )355 0034 5151 5,,)
()'5- 1')-1 ++'+4 ))-3 (44) (-03 ()-- )4), )341 +(+5
1'+5- ,3'-0 ++44 )4), )+-+ (44) ,)+- ,,5( ,510
1',10 -+'-) +004 +1-5 )-,5 )1+4 ,-4- ,4,1 -13-
1')-1 +0'5( )1-5 (5(, (,)3 ((,+ )-5( )5(, )4-5
1'+() ,-'0( )-05 )(+3 (54+ (,)0 +)13 ++45 +-00
1'+5- -,'-5 +140 )-5( )(,+ (5(, +4-5 ,15( ,)40
1',+5 0+'+1 +-30 )335 ),35 (334 ,,3- ,5,- ,33,
1'-11 5)'13 ,((, +,)3 )4-5 ))40 -(,+ -,)3 -5(,
1'+() -)')5 )),0 (45) (-01 (),4 )414 )30, +()1
1'+5-
1',+5
1'-11
0)'-4
5)'0,
4)'55
)511
+(,0
+011
))-1
)0))
+111
(45-
)(4-
)-11
(-11
(5,4
)111
++5-
+3++
,-11
+-0+
,(-)
,5-1
+5-1
,+51
-111
(4'11 1')-1 ,5'+3 (011 (+++ (((( 443 )111 )((( ))))
1'+() -4'3, (335 (00, (+45 ((13 ),30 )0+- )55+
1'+5- 51'-3 ),11 )111 (005 (+++ +111 +(05 ++++
1',+5 4('35 )535 )++( (3,) (--, +,30 +031 +44,
1'-11 3+',- +)11 )005 )))) (554 ,111 ,))) ,,,,
)1'11 1'+() 0-'01 (535 (,34 (),4 334 )),0 )+5( ),30
1'+5- 54'01 )(01 (411 (-11 ()11 )511 )4-1 +111
1',+5 3('+1 )-(5 )134 (5,4 (+34 +(,0 ++)( +,30
1'-11 (1,'(+ )441 ),11 )111 (011 +011 +411 ,111
1'-0) ((0'05 +)+5 )034 )),4 (534 ,1,0 ,)5( ,,30
))'11 1'+5- 40'0( (30, (0+0 (+0, (13( ),-- )-3( )5)5
1'-11 ((,'4( )0(4 )(4) (4(4 (,-- +)5+ +,-- +0+0
1'0)- (,)'04 +)5+ )5)5 ))5+ (4(4 ,13( ,+(4 ,-,-
1'5-1 (51')( +3)5 +)5+ )5)5 )(4) ,313 -(4) -,--
),'11 1'+5- 3,'0) (411 (-11 ()-1 (111 ))-1 )+5- )-11
1',+5 (13'35 )134 (5,4 (,-5 ((0- )0)) )504 )3(+
1'-11 ()-',3 ),11 )111 (005 (+++ +111 +(05 ++++
1'0)- (-0'1+ +111 )-11 )14+ (005 +5-1 +3-4 ,(05
1'5-1 (40')+ +011 +111 )-11 )111 ,-11 ,5-1 -111
)0'11 1'+5- (1)'0+ (00) (+4- ((-, 3)+ )155 )(3) )+14
1'-11 (+0'(5 ))(- (4,0 (-+4 ()+( )503 )3)+ +155
1'0)- (03'+4 )503 )+14 (3)+ (-+4 +,0) +0-, +4,0
1'+5- ((1'0, (-,+ ()40 (15( 4-5 (3)3 )1+0 )(,+
1'-11 (,0'4- )1-5 (5(, (,)3 ((,+ )-5( )5(, )4-5
1'0)- (4)'5+ )-5( )(,+ (540 (,)3 +)(, ++3+ +-5(
1'5-1 )(4')5 +140 )-5( )(,+ (5(, +4-5 ,15( ,)40
(continued)
Pipe Materia+ API )" ;:0 SM%S :0000 psi4
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+1'11 1'+5-
((4'0
-
(,,1 ()11 (111 411 (411 (311 )111
1'-11 (-5'-
+
(3)1 (011 (+++ (105 ),11 )-++ )005
1'0)- (30'1
4
),11 )111 (005 (+++ +111 +(05 ++++
1'5-1 )+,')
3
)441 ),11 )111 (011 +011 +411 ,111
+)'11 1'+5- ()0'0
0
(+-1 (()- 3+4 5-1 (044 (54( (45-
1'-11 (04')
(
(411 (-11 ()-1 (111 ))-1 )+5- )-11
1'0)- )13',
+
))-1 (45- (-0+ ()-1 )4(+ )303 +()-
1'5-1 )-1'+
(
)511 ))-1 (45- (-11 ++5- +-0+ +5-1
1'-11 (54'4
3
(03, (,() ((50 3,( )((4 ))+- )+-+
1'0)- )))'5
4
)((4 (50- (,5( ((50 )0,5 )53, )3,(
1'+5- (,)'0
4
()11 (111 4++ 005 (-11 (-4+ (005
1'-11 (43'-
5
(011 (+++ (((( 443 )111 )((( ))))
1'5-1 )4)'+
-
),11 )111 (005 (+++ +111 +(05 ++++
,)'11 1'+5- (00'5
(
(1)3 4-5 5(, -5( ()40 (+-5 (,)3
1'0)- )50'(
4
(5(, (,)3 ((31 3-) )(,+ ))0) )+4(
1'5-1 ++1',
(
)1-5 (5(, (,)3 ((,+ )-5( )5(, )4-5
('111
,+5'4
4
)5,+ ))40 (31- (-), +,)3 +0(3 +4(1
Ta*+e ..1$ Pipe+ine Interna+ Desi4n Pressures an- Test Pressures
Pipe Materia+ API )" ;/0 SM%
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,'- 1')+5 (1'53 04)0 -044 ,5,1 +53) 4-+) 3110 3,41
1'++5 (,'34 3510 4144 05,1 -+3) ()(+) ()410 (+,41
1',+5 (4'30 ()-40 (1,44 45,1 033) (-5+) (0010 (5,41
1'-+( ))'-( (-)3+ ()5,, (10)1 4,30 (3((0 )1(54 )(),1
0'0)- 1')-1 (5'1) ,43( ,15- ++30 )5(5 0((+ 0,-+ 053)
1')41 (4'35 -,55 ,-0- +41, +1,+ 04,5 5))5 5014
1',+) )4'-5 4,-( 51,) -403 ,03- (1-0, (((-1 ((5+5
1'-0) +0'+3 (133, 3(0) 50+- 0(14 (+5,) (,-10 (-)03
4'0)- 1')-1 ))'+0 +5-5 +(+1 )013 )145 ,030 ,3-5 -)(5
1')55 ),'51 ,(0) +,03 )431 )+() -)1+ -,3) -54(
1'+)) )4'-- ,4+4 ,1+) ++01 )044 01,4 0+4, 05)1
1',10 +-'0, 0(1( -14, ,)+5 ++43 50)0 41,3 4,5+
(1'5- 1')-1 )4'1, +1(, )-() )13+ (05, +505 +355 ,(40
1'+15 +,'), +51( +14, )-51 )1-0 ,0)0 ,44+ -(,1
1'+0- ,1',4 ,,11 +005 +1-0 ),,- --11 -410 0(()
1'-11 -,'5, 01)4 -1)+ ,(40 ++,3 5-+- 53-+ 4+5)
()'5- 1')-1 ++'+4 )-,( )((4 (50- (,() +(50 ++-+ +-)3
1'++1 ,+'55 ++-, )53- )+)3 (40, ,(3+ ,,)0 ,0-3
1',10 -+'-) ,()5 +,+3 )400 ))3+ -(-3 -,,- -5+)
1'-11 0-',) -14) ,)+- +-)3 )4), 0+-+ 0510 51-3
(,'11 1')-1 +0'5( )+(, (3)3 (015 ()40 )43+ +1-, +)(,
1'+() ,-'0( )444 ),15 )110 (01- +0(1 +4(( ,1((
1'+5- -,'-5 +,5( )43+ ),(( (3)3 ,++3 ,-41 ,4)(
1',+5 0+'+1 ,1,- ++5( )413 )),5 -1-5 -++4 -0(3
1'-11 5)'13 ,0)3 +4-5 +)(, )-5( -540 0(15 0,)3
(continued)
Ta*+e ..1$ Pipe+ine Interna+ Desi4n Pressures an- Test Pressures 5Continue-7
Pipe Materia+ API )" ;/0 SM%S /0000 psi4
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(0'11 1')-1 ,)'1- )1)- (044 (,10 (()- )-+( )05) )4(+
1'+() -)')5 )-)5 )(10 (5-- (,1, +(-3 +++- +-(1
1'+5- 0)'-4 +1+4 )-+( )(13 (044 +535 ,114 ,)(3
1',+5 5)'0, +-,1 )3-1 ),-4 (305 ,,)- ,051 ,3(0
1')-1 ,5'+3 (411 (-11 ()-1 (111 ))-1 )+5- )-11
1'+() -4'3, )),0 (45) (-01 (),4 )414 )30, +()1
1'+5- 51'-3 )511 ))-1 (45- (-11 ++5- +-0+ +5-1
1',+5 4('35 +(,0 )0)) )(4- (5,4 +3++ ,(-) ,+51
1'-11 3+',- +011 +111 )-11 )111 ,-11 ,5-1 -111
1'+5- 54'01 ),+1 )1)- (044 (+-1 +1+4 +)10 ++5-
1',+5 3('+1 )4+) )+01 (305 (-5+ +-,1 +5+0 +3++
1'-0) ((0'0
5
+0,) +1+- )-)3 )1)+ ,--) ,41- -1-4
))'11 1'+5- 40'0( ))13 (4,( (-+, ())5 )50( )3(- +104
1'-11 ((,'4
(
)3,- ),-- )1,- (0+0 +04) +440 ,13(
1'0)- (,)'0
4
+04) +104 )--5 )1,- ,01) ,4-4 -((,
1'5-1 (51')
(
,,(4 +04) +104 ),-- --)+ -4+1 0(+0
),'11 1'+5- 3,'0) )1)- (044 (,10 (()- )-+( )05) )4(+
1'-11 ()-',
3
)511 ))-1 (45- (-11 ++5- +-0+ +5-1
1'-0) (,1'0
4
+1+- )-)3 )(14 (040 +53, ,11, ,)(-
1'0)- (-0'1
+
++5- )4(+ )+,, (45- ,)(3 ,,-+ ,044
1'5-1 (40')
+
,1-1 ++5- )4(+ ))-1 -10+ -+,, -0)-
)0'11 1'+5- (1)'0
+
(403 (--4 ()34 (1+4 )++5 ),00 )-30
1'-11 (+0'(
5
),3) )155 (5+( (+4- +((- +)44 +,0)
1'0)- (03'+
4
+((- )-30 )(0+ (5+( +43, ,((( ,+)5
1'5-1 )1)')
-
+5+4 +((- )-30 )155 ,05+ ,3++ -(3)
)4'11 1'+5- ((1'0, (5+0 (,,0 ()1- 30, )(51 ))31 ),((
1'-11 (,0'4- )+(, (3)3 (015 ()40 )43+ +1-, +)(,
1'0)- (4)'5+ )43+ ),(( )113 (015 +0(0 +4(5 ,1(4
1'5-1 )(4')5 +,5( )43+ ),(( (3)3 ,++3 ,-41 ,4)(
+1'11 1'+5- ((4'0- (0)1 (+-1 (()- 311 )1)- )(+4 ))-1
1'-11 (-5'-+ )(01 (411 (-11 ()11 )511 )4-1 +111
1'0)- (30'14 )511 ))-1 (45- (-11 ++5- +-0+ +5-1
1'5-1 )+,')3 +),1 )511 ))-1 (411 ,1-1 ,)5- ,-11
+)'11 1'+5- ()0'00 (-(3 ()00 (1-- 4,, (434 )11, )(13
1'-11 (04')( )1)- (044 (,10 (()- )-+( )05) )4(+
1'0)- )13',+ )-+( )(13 (5-4 (,10 +(0, ++,1 +-(0
1'+5- (+,'05 (,)3 ((3( 33+ 53, (545 (440 (34-
1'-11 (54'43 (310 (-44 (+), (1-3 )+4) )-(- )0,5
1'0)- )))'54 )+4) (34- (0-, (+), )354 +(,+ ++13
1'5-1 )00'++ )4-3 )+4) (34- (-44 +-5, +55) +35(
+0'11 1'+5- (,)'04 (+-1 (()- 3+4 5-1 (044 (54( (45-
1'-11 (43'-5 (411 (-11 ()-1 (111 ))-1 )+5- )-11
1'0)- )+0'(+ ))-1 (45- (-0+ ()-1 )4(+ )303 +()-
1'5-1 )4)'+- )511 ))-1 (45- (-11 ++5- +-0+ +5-1
,)'11 1'+5- (00'5( ((-5 30, 41, 0,+ (,,0 (-)5 (015
1'-11 ))('0( (-,+ ()40 (15( 4-5 (3)3 )1+0 )(,+
1'0)- )50'(4 (3)3 (015 (++3 (15( ),(( )-,- )053
('111 ,+5'44 +140 )-5( )(,+ (5(, +4-5 ,15( ,)40
),) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
For class 2, the range o- hydrotest pressures is
62/25 O 2()28 psig to 62/&23' O 2()28 psig M 2&'0 psig to 2')0 psig
#here 2/&23' is e9ual to the -actor 2/25 O 35;30, representing the upper li,it o- the
hydrotest en0elope/
For class 2, the range o- hydrotest pressures is
62/25 O 25608 psig to 62/&23' O 25608 psig M 2350 psig to 205( psig
For class &, the range o- hydrotest pressures is
62/25 O 2&008 psig to 62/&23' O 2&008 psig M 2625 psig to 2)25 psig
For class ', the range o- hydrotest pressures is
62/25 O 20'08 psig to 62/&23' O 20'08 psig M 2&00 psig to 2&)2 psig
..10 1"!WD!WN CA"C#"ATI!NS
lo#do#n 0al0es and piping syste,s are installed around the ,ainline 0al0e in a gas
trans,ission piping syste, in order to e0acuate gas -ro, sections o- pipeline in the
e0ent o- an e,ergency or -or ,aintenance purposes/ The obCecti0e o- the blo#do#n
asse,bly is to re,o0e gas -ro, the pipeline once the pipe section is isolated by
closing the ,ainline bloc! 0al0es in a reasonable period o- ti,e/ The pipe si:e
re9uired to blo# do#n a section o- pipe #ill depend on the gas gra0ity, pipe dia,eter,
length o- pipe section, pressure in the pipeline, and blo#do#n ti,e/ 1G1 reco,*
,ends the -ollo#ing e9uation to esti,ate the blo#do#n ti,e5
66/38
2 2
0/05((P &G242;.
% M d2 c 6."C" units8
#here
% M blo#do#n ti,e, ,in
P
2
M initial pressure, psia
; M length o- pipe section, ,i
d M inside dia,eter o- blo#do#n pipe, in/
.
c
M cho!e -actor 6as -ollo#s8
Cho!e -actor list
4deal no::le M 2/0
Through gate M 2/6
Regular gate M 2/(
Regular lube plug M 2/0
Ienturi lube plug M &/2
PI PE ANALYSI S ),+
4n "4 units,
2 2
% M 0/0232 P 2 G 24 2 ;. c 6"4 units8 66/208
#here
P
2
M initial pressure, !Pa
; M length o- pipe section, !,
d M pipe inside dia,eter o- blo#do#n, ,,
&4am!le ,
Calculate the blo#do#n ti,e re9uired -or an $P" 6, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness, blo#*
do#n asse,bly on an $P" 2' pipe, 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, considering a 5 ,i
pipe section starting at a pressure o- 2000 psia/ The gas gra0ity is 0/6 and cho!e
-actor M 2/(/
"olution
Pipe inside dia,eter M 2' U 2 O 0/500 M 2& in/
lo#do#n pipe inside dia,eter M 6/625 U 2 O 0/250 M 6/225 in/
.sing ?9uation 6/3, #e get
2 2
% M 0/05(( O 620008
&
60/68
2
62&8
2
O 5 O 2/( M 5( ,in, appro>i,ately 6/2252
..11 DETERMINING PIPE T!NNAGE
Fre9uently in pipeline design, #e are interested in !no#ing the a,ount o- pipe used
so that #e can deter,ine the total cost o- pipe/ 1 con0enient -or,ula -or calculating
the #eight per unit length o- pipe used by pipe 0endors is gi0en in ?9uation 6/22/
4n ."C" units, pipe #eight in lb;-t is calculated -or a gi0en dia,eter and #all
thic!ness as -ollo#s5
w M 20/6( O t O (4 + t) 6."C" units8 66/228
#here
w M pipe #eight, lb;-t
4 M pipe outside dia,eter, in/ t
M pipe #all thic!ness, in/
),, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
The constant 20/6( in ?9uation 6/22 includes the density o- steel and, there-ore,
the e9uation is only applicable to steel pipe/ For other pipe ,aterial, #e can ratio
the densities to obtain the pipe #eight -or nonsteel pipe/
4n "4 units, the pipe #eight in !g;, is -ound -ro,
w M 0/02'6 O t O (4 + t) 6"4 units8 66/228
#here
w M pipe #eight, !g;,
4 M pipe outside dia,eter, ,, t
M pipe #all thic!ness, ,,
&4am!le -
Calculate the total a,ount o- pipe in a 20 ,i pipeline, $P" 20, 0/500 in #all thic!ness/ 4-
pipe costs m)00 per ton, deter,ine the total pipeline cost/
"olution
.sing ?9uation 6/22, the #eight per -oot o- pipe is
w M 20/6( O 0/500 O 620 U 0/5008 M 202/'6 lb;-t
There-ore, the total pipe tonnage in 20 ,iles o- pipe is
Tonnage M 202/'6 O 52(0 O 20;2000 M 26)3 tons
Total pipeline cost M 26)3 O )00 M m2,()5,&00
&4am!le .
1 60 !, pipeline consists o- 20 !, o- <$ 500, 22 ,, #all thic!ness pipe connected to
a '0 !, length o- <$ '00, 20 ,, #all thic!ness pipe/ %hat are the total
,etric tons o- pipeT
"olution
.sing ?9uation 6/22, the #eight per ,eter o- <$ 500 pipe is
w M 0/02'6 O 22 O 6500 U 228 M 2''/06 !g;,
and the #eight per ,eter o- <$ '00 pipe is
w M 0/02'6 O 20 O 6'00 U 208 M 35/3' !g;,
There-ore, the total pipe #eight -or 20 !, o- <$ 500 pipe and '0 !, o- <$
'00 pipe is
%eight M 620 O 2''/068 P 6'0 O 35/3'8 M 6)23 tons
Total ,etric tons M 6)23
PI PE ANALYSI S
),-
&4am!le /
Calculate the =BP -or $P" 26 pipeline, 0/250 in #all thic!ness, constructed o- 1P4
5Lg*52 steel/ %hat ,ini,u, #all thic!ness is re9uired -or an internal
#or!ing pressure o- 2''0 psiT .se class 2 construction #ith design -actor F M
0/60 and -or an operating te,perature belo# 250KF/
"olution
.sing ?9uation 6/(, the internal design pressure is
P M 2 O 0/250 O 52, 000 O 0/60 O 2/0 O 2/0 M 3)5 si
26 p g
For an internal #or!ing pressure o- 2''0 psi, the #all thic!ness re9uired is
2''0M 2 O t O52 , 0 00 O 0/ 6 O2 / 0
26
"ol0ing -or t, #e get
%all thic!ness t M 0/&63 in/
The nearest standard pipe #all thic!ness is 0/&)5 in/
&4am!le 0
1 natural gas pipeline, 600 !, long, is constructed o- <$ (00 pipe and has a re9uired
operating pressure o- 3 =Pa/ Co,pare the cost o- using g*60 and g*)0 steel
pipe/ The ,aterial costs o- the t#o grades o- pipe are as -ollo#s5
Pipe Gra-e Materia+ CostGH2tonne
:601 411
:651 311
.se a class 2 design -actor and te,perature deration -actor o- 2/00/
"olution
%e #ill -irst deter,ine the #all thic!ness o- pipe re9uired to #ithstand the operating
pressure o- 3 =Pa/
.sing ?9uation 6/(, the pipe #all thic!ness re9uired -or g*60 pipe 660,000 psi
M '2' =Pa8 is
t M 3 O (00 M 22/0( ,,/ .se 2& ,, #all thic!ness/
2O'2'O2/0O0/)2O2/0
),0 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
"i,ilarly, the pipe #all thic!ness re9uired -or g*)0 pipe 6)0,000 psi M '(& =Pa8 is
t M 3 O (00 M 20/&5 ,,/ .se 22 ,, #all thic!ness/ 2O '(& O 2/0 O
0/)2 O 2/0
The pipe #eight in !g;, #ill be calculated using ?9uation 6/22/ For g*60
pipe, %eight per ,eter M 0/02'6 O 2& O 6(00 U2&8 M 252/6( !g;,
There-ore, the total cost o- 600 !, pipeline at m(00 per ton o- g*60
pipe is Total cost M 600 O 252/6( O (00 M m220/(2 ,illion
"i,ilarly, the pipe #eight in !g;, -or g*)0 pipe is
%eight per ,eter M 0/02'6 O 22 O 6(00 U 228 M 22&/50 !g;,
There-ore, the total cost o- 600 !, pipeline at m300 per ton o- g*)0
pipe is Total cost M 600 O 22&/50 O 300 M m225/23 ,illion
There-ore, the g*)0 pipe #ill cost less than the g*60 pipe/ The di--erence in cost is
m220/(2 U m225/23 M m5/52 ,illion/
..12 S#MMAR%
4n this chapter #e discussed ho# to calculate the pipe #all thic!ness re9uired to
#ithstand an internal pressure in a gas pipeline using arlo#As e9uation/ The
in-luence o- the population density in the 0icinity o- the pipeline on the re9uired pipe
#all thic!ness by reducing the allo#able hoop stress in the high population areas #as
e>plained by #ay o- class locations/ %e e>plored the range o- pressures re9uired to
hydrotest pipeline sections to ensure sa-e operation o- the pipeline/ The e--ect o-
pipeline ele0ations on deter,ining a testing plan by sectioning the pipeline #as co0*
ered/ The need -or isolating portions o- the pipeline by properly spaced ,ainline
0al0es and the ,ethod o- calculating the ti,e re9uired -or e0acuating gas -ro, the
pipeline sections #ere also discussed/ Finally, a si,ple ,ethod o- calculating the pipe
tonnage #as e>plained/
PR!1"EMS
2/ 1 gas pipeline is constructed o- 1P4 5L g)0 steel, $P" 2', 0/&)5 in/ #all
thic!ness/ Calculate the =1BP o- this pipeline -or a class 2 design -actor and a
te,perature deration -actor o- 2/00/
2/ 1 gas pipeline, <$ 500, 22 ,, #all thic!ness, is constructed o- 1P4 5L g65
pipe/
6a8 Calculate the design pressures -or class 2 and class 2 locations/
6b8 %hat is the range o- hydrotest pressures -or each o- these class locationsT
1ssu,e the Coint -actor M 2/00 and te,perature deration -actor M 2/00/
PIPE ANALYSIS
),5
&/ Calculate the total tonnage o- pipe ,aterial -or a 2' ,i pipeline, $P" 26, 0/&)5 in/
#all thic!ness/ 4- pipe costs m)00 per ton, deter,ine the total pipeline cost/
'/ 1 50 !, pipeline consists o- 25 !, o- <$ '00, 20 ,, #all thic!ness pipe
connected to a &5 !, length o- <$ &00, ( ,, #all thic!ness pipe/
6a8 Calculate the total ,etric tons o- pipe/
6b8 4- this pipeline #ere replaced #ith a single 50 !, long pipeline, <$ '00,
1P4 5Lg*65 ,aterial, #hat ,ini,u, #all thic!ness #ould be re9uired -or a
class 2 design at an =BP o- 3 =PaT
5/ Calculate the ,ini,u, #all thic!ness -or $P" 26 pipeline constructed o- 1P4
5Lg*60 steel to #ithstand an internal pressure o- 2''0 psi/ .se a class 2 design
and te,perature deration -actor o- 2/00/
6/ 1 natural gas pipeline, 2'0 ,i long, is constructed o- $P" 2' pipe and has a
re9uired operating pressure o- 2200 psig/ Co,pare the cost o- using g*)0 or g*
(0 steel pipe/ The ,aterial cost o- g*)0 pipe is m(50;ton, and -or g*(0 pipe it is
m2000;ton/ .se a class 2 design -actor and te,perature deration -actor o-
2/00/
)/ 1 natural gas pipeline, $P" 2', tra0erses a hilly terrain #ith ele0ations ranging
-ro, &00 -t at $or#al! to '500 -t at the Fulton su,,it 6,ilepost 508, -ollo#ed
by an ele0ation o- 500 -t at the pipeline ter,inus at <anby/ The pipeline is 200 ,i
long and is constructed o- 1P4 5L g*65 pipe as -ollo#s5
Section Wa++ Thic>ness 5in.7 C+ass
Nor?alJ to "p +1 1'-11 )
"p +1 to F$lton 1'-11 (
F$lton to "p 51 1'+5- )
"p 51 to Dan#y 1'+5- +
<eter,ine a hydrostatic test plan -or this pipeline, considering a test pressure
en0elope o- 30 to 35L yield/ %hat is the ,ini,u, nu,ber o- test sections
re9uiredT
RE'ERENCES
7ill, $e# Hor!, 236)/
'/ =ohitpour, =/, Golshan, 7/, and =urray, 1/, Pipeline 4esign and 7'nstructi'n,
2nd ed/, 1"=? Press, $e# Hor!, 200&/
5/ <epart,ent o- TransportationJ<BT Code o- Federal Regulation '3CFR Part
232, Bct/ 2000/
6/ 1"=? &2/(5 Gas Trans,ission and <istribution Piping "yste,s, 200&U2005/
CHAPTER 9
Ther3a+ H,-rau+ics
4n this chapter #e #ill -urther discuss ther,al hydraulics, #hich #as brie-ly re0ie#ed
in Chapter &/ The i,portance o- ta!ing into account the gas te,perature 0ariation
along a gas trans,ission pipeline and its i,pact on pressure drop and -lo# rate #ill
be e>plained/ 4sother,al hydraulics, #hich -or,ed the ,aCority o- calculations in
Chapter 2 and Chapter &, #ill be co,pared #ith ther,al hydraulics/ "ince ,anual
calculation o- gas pipeline hydraulics, considering ther,al e--ects, is 9uite laborious
and ti,e consu,ing, #e #ill use e>a,ples o- pipeline si,ulation cases using a
popular gas pipeline hydraulics so-t#are application/
9.1 IS!THERMA" ERS#S THERMA" H%DRA#"ICS
4n the pre0ious chapters the hydraulic analysis o- gas -lo# through pipelines #as
,ainly done based upon isother,al or constant te,perature -lo#/ This assu,ption is
-airly good in long*distance pipelines #here the gas te,perature reaches a constant
0alue e9ual to or close to the surrounding soil 6or a,bient8 te,perature at large
distances -ro, the co,pressor stations/ 7o#e0er, upon co,pressing the gas, depend*
ing on the co,pression ratio, the outlet te,perature o- the gas -ro, the co,pressor
station can be considerably higher than that o- the a,bient air or surrounding soil/ 4n
Chapter ', ?>a,ple (, #e -ound that #hen gas is co,pressed adiabatically -ro, a
60KF suction te,perature and a co,pression ratio o- 2/0, the discharge te,perature is
2)(/&KF/ "ince pipe coating li,itations restrict te,peratures to about 2'0 to 250KF,
cooling o- the co,pressed gas is necessary at the do#nstrea, side o- the co,pressor
station/ 4n this e>a,ple, assu,ing gas cooling results in a discharge te,perature o-
2'0KF as gas enters the pipeline, #e -ind that the te,perature di--erence bet#een
the gas at 2'0KF and the surrounding soil at )0KF #ill cause heat trans-er to ta!e place
bet#een the pipeline gas and the surrounding soil/ 4t is -ound that the gas te,perature
drops o-- rapidly -or the -irst -e# ,iles and e0entually reaches a te,perature close to
the soil te,perature/ 1dditionally, in a long trans,ission pipeline, the soil te,perature
can 0ary along the pipeline as #ell, causing di--erent heat trans-er rates at locations
along the pipeline/ This is illustrated in Figure )/2/
),3
)-1 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
'i4ure 9.1 Te"perat$re &ariation in a ;a! pipeline'
4n so,e instances, the e>pansion o- gas as it -lo#s along a pipeline can result in
gas te,perature reaching a slightly lo#er te,perature than the surrounding soil/ This
is called the Doule*Tho,pson cooling e--ect/ Thus, i- the soil te,perature is -airly
constant at )0KF, due to the Doule*Tho,pson e--ect, the -inal te,perature o- the gas at
the ter,inus o- the pipeline can drop to 60 or 65KF/ This is illustrated in Figure )/2/
This cooling o- gas belo# the surrounding soil te,perature depends on the
pressure di--erential and the Doule*Tho,pson coe--icient/ 4gnoring this cooling e--ect
#ill result in a ,ore conser0ati0e 6lo#er -lo# rate -or a gi0en pressure drop8 -lo# rate
calculation, since cooler te,perature ,eans less pressure drop in a gas pipeline and,
hence, higher -lo# rate/
Ther,al hydraulics is the study o- gas pipeline pressures, te,peratures, and -lo#
rates, ta!ing into account the ther,al properties o- the soil, pipe, and pipe insulation,
i- any/ <ue to such 0ariation in gas te,perature, calculation o- pressure drop ,ust be
,ade by considering short lengths o- pipe that ,a!e up the total pipeline/ For
e>a,ple, i- the pipeline is 50 ,i long, #e subdi0ide it into short seg,ents o- 2 or 2 ,i
lengths and apply the General Flo# e9uation -or each pipe seg,ent, considering
Gro$n% te"perat$re M 51.F
Ga! o$tlet
te"perat$re M 01G0-.F
Di!tane
'i4ure 9.2 @o$le6Tho"p!on oolin; effet in a ;a! pipeline'
THER/AL HYDRAULI CS
)-(
an a0erage gas te,perature and an a0erage a,bient soil te,perature/ "tarting #ith the
upstrea, pressure o- seg,ent 2, the do#nstrea, pressure #ill be calculated assu,ing
an a0erage te,perature -or seg,ent 2/ $e>t, using the calculated do#nstrea, pressure
as the upstrea, pressure -or seg,ent 2, #e calculate the do#nstrea, pressure -or
seg,ent 2/ The process is continued until all seg,ents o- the pipeline are co0ered/ 4t
,ust be noted that the 0ariation o- te,perature -ro, seg,ent to seg,ent ,ust be ta!en
into account to calculate the co,pressibility -actor used in the General Flo# e9uation/
The -ollo#ing e9uation is the General Flo# e9uation that #e used -re9uently in
Chapter 2 and Chapter &5
: M &(/))
2 s
2 Z
%8 CXP
2
R e P2
/
42/5
6)/28
;
P
8
G%
f
&
e
1 - t e r s e e t e , p e r a t u r e %
f
i s ;
e
, t h e c o , p r e s s *
uation)/2#illyielddi--erentte,peratu reintointote,peratureco,,ercial,o delte,peraturesintote,perature,alysi s/
?9uatio
)/
#il
yiel
di--erentre
sults i- isother,al conditions do not e>ist/
The calculation o- gas
te,peratur
at any point along the pipeline, ta!ing
int
account the heat trans-er bet#een the gas and surrounding soil, is 9uite co,plicated/ 4t
does not lend itsel- easily to ,anual calculations/ %e #ill discuss the ,ethod o-
calculation -or ther,al hydraulics in this section/ To accurately ta!e
int
account the
te,peratur
0ariations, a suitable gas pipeline hydraulics si,ulation progra, ,ust be
used since, as indicated earlier, ,anual calculation is 9uite laborious and ti,e con*
su,ing/ "e0eral
co,,ercia
si,ulation progra,s are a0ailable to
,ode
steady*state
gas pipeline hydraulics/ These progra,s calculate the gas
te,perature
and pressures
by ta!ing
int
consideration 0ariations o- soil te,perature
pipe burial depth, and
ther,al conducti0ities o- pipe, insulation, and soil/ Bne such so-t#are progra, is
G1"=B<, ,ar!eted by "H"T?F Technologies, 4nc/ 6###/syste!/us8/ 1ppendi> <
includes a sa,ple si,ulation o- a gas pipeline using the G1"=B< so-t#are/ 4n this
chapter #e #ill use G1"=B< to illustrate ther,al hydraulics a
alysis/
9.2 TEMPERAT#RE ARIATI!N AND GAS PIPE"INE M!DE"ING
9.2 TEMPERAT#RE ARIATI!N AND GAS PIPE"INE M!DE"ING
Consider a buried pipeline transporting gas -ro, point 1 to point / %e #ill analy:e a
short seg,ent o- length
RLte,perature0ariesendiLte,peratureT2andtheendte,peratureT2/Thea0eragegaste,p
eratureinthisseg,entisrepresented te,perature%
s
/1ssu,esteady*
point / %e #ill analy:e a short seg,ent o- length
i
o- this pipe, as sho#n in Figure )/&, and apply the prin*
ciples o- heat trans-er to deter,ine ho# the gas
te,peratur
0arie
along the pipeline/
The upstrea,
en
o- the pipe seg,ent o- length
i
is atte,peratur
T
an
thedo
#nstrea,
en
at
te,peratur
T2
Th a0erag
ga
te,peratur
i
thi seg,en
isre
presente
by T/
The outside soil
te,peratur
at this location is
Ts
1ssu,
steady*
statecondition
and the ,ass -lo#
rat
upstr ea,
)-) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
'i4ure 9.$ Analy!i! of te"perat$re &ariation'
end to the do#nstrea, end o- the seg,ent causes a te,perature drop o- i%/ The
heat loss -ro, the gas can be represented by
iH M Rm7pi% (A.@)
#here
iH M heat trans-er rate, tu;h
m M ,ass -lo# rate o- gas, lb;h
7p M a0erage speci-ic heat o- gas, tu;lb;KF
i% M te,perature di--erence M %
2
+ %
2
, KF
The negati0e sign in ?9uation )/2 indicates loss o- heat -ro, upstrea, te,perature %2
to do#nstrea, te,perature %2.
$e>t, #e consider the heat trans-er -ro, the gas to the surrounding soil in ter,s o-
the o0erall heat trans-er coe--icient F and the di--erence in te,perature bet#een the
gas and surrounding soil represented by (% + %
s
). There-ore, #e can #rite the -ollo#ing
e9uation -or heat trans-er5
iH M Fi)(% + %
s
) (A.J)
#here
F M o0erall heat trans-er coe--icient, tu;h;-t2;KF
iA M sur-ace area o- pipe -or heat trans-er M p4i; % M
a0erage gas te,perature in pipe seg,ent, KF
%
s
M a0erage soil te,perature surrounding pipe seg,ent, KF 4 M
pipe inside dia,eter, -t
?9uating the t#o 0alues o- the heat trans-er rate iH -ro, ?9uation )/2 and
?9uation )/&, #e get
Rm7pi% M FiA (% + %s)
"i,pli-ying, #e get
o i % M (m7pi
LF4i;
6)/'8
THER/AL HYDRAULI CS
)-+
Re#riting ?9uation )/' in di--erential -or, and integrating, #e get
(A.#)
(A.R)
(A.A)
2 d% M k2 (BF4 Z d; 2 % R % , 2 m 7 p Z 4ntegrating and
si,pli-ying, #e get
%2 R%, MeR N %
2
R %s
#here e M base o- natural logarith,s (e M 2/)2(///8 and
N M LF4 i ; m7p
"i,pli-ying ?9uation )/6 -urther, #e get the do#nstrea, te,perature o- the pipe
seg,ent o- length i; as
%2M%sP (%
2
R%,)eR
M
(A.E)
4t can be seen -ro, ?9uation )/( that as the pipe length
increases, the ter, eRN approaches :ero and the
te,perature %
2
beco,es e9ual to soil te,perature %.
There-ore, in a long gas pipeline, the gas te,perature
ulti,ately e9uals the surrounding soil te,perature/ This
is illustrated in Figure )/2/
4n the preceding analysis, #e ,ade se0eral si,pli-ying assu,ptions/ %e assu,ed
that the soil te,perature and the o0erall heat trans-er coe--icient re,ained constant
and ignored the Doule*Tho,pson e--ect as gas e>pands through a pipeline/ 4n a long
pipeline, the soil te,perature ,ay actually 0ary along the pipeline and, there-ore,
,ust be ta!en into account in these calculations/ Bne approach #ould be to subdi0ide
the pipeline into seg,ents that ha0e constant soil te,peratures and per-or, calcula*
tions -or each seg,ent separately/ The Doule*Tho,pson e--ect causes the gas to cool
slightly due to e>pansion/ There-ore, in a long pipeline, the gas te,perature at the
k
deli0ery point can -all belo# that o- the ground or soil te,perature, as indicated in
Figure )/2/
9.$ REIEW !' SIM#"ATI!N M!DE" REP!RTS
To illustrate ther,al e--ects in a gas pipeline, #e #ill analy:e a gas trans,ission
pipeline, -irst using the ,ethod outlined in Chapter &/ $e>t, #e #ill analy:e the sa,e
pipeline, ta!ing into account the ther,al conducti0ity and soil te,peratures/ The latter
,ethod re9uires so,e -or, o- co,puter si,ulation ,odels/ To do this, #e ha0e
chosen the co,,ercially a0ailable so-t#are !no#n as G1"=B</ %e #ill co,pare
the results o- the isother,al hydraulics o- Chapter & #ith the ther,al hydraulics using
G1"=B</ ?>a,ples #ill be used to illustrate the co,parison/
)-, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
&4am!le )
1 natural gas pipeline syste, is being built -ro, Roc!port to Concord, a distance
o- 2'0 ,iles/ The pipeline is constructed o- $P" &0, 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness,
1P4 5L*g60 pipe/ The =BP is 2'00 psig/ Gas enters the Roc!port
co,pressor station at )0KF and (00 psig pressure/ The soil te,perature can be
assu,ed to be 60KF throughout/ The gas -lo# rate is '20 =="CF<, and the
gas speci-ic gra0ity and 0iscosity are 0/6 and 0/00000( lb;-t*s, respecti0ely/
The contract deli0ery pressure re9uired at Concord is 500 psig/ 1ssu,e an
isother,al -lo# at )0KF and a gas speci-ic heat ratio o- 2/23/ .se a co,pressor
adiabatic e--iciency o- (0L and ,echanical e--iciency o- 3(L/ .se the General
Flo# e9uation #ith a Colebroo! -riction -actor, assu,ing a pipe internal
roughness o- )00 d in/ Calculate the pressure pro-ile and the co,pres*sor
horsepo#er re9uired at Roc!port/ Co,pare these results #ith ther,al
hydraulic analysis using G1"=B</ 1ssu,e a base pressure o- 2'/) psia and
base te,perature o- 60KF/ The pipeline ele0ation pro-ile is essentially -lat/
"olution
4nside dia,eter o- pipe 4 M &0 U 2 O 0/500 M 23 in/
$ M 0/000'))( 2 ' / ) 0/ 6 O ' 2 0 O 2 0 6 2',6)2,'&(
6 60 P '608Z0/00000( O 23 C
Z 2 0 / 0 0 0 ) 2 / 5 2 Z
f
M R 2 L o g 2 0
Z&/ )
O 2
3
P
2', 6)2, '&( Z
f M 0/003)
M20/&
&
To calculate the co,pressibility -actor &, the a0erage pressure is re9uired/
"ince the inlet pressure is un!no#n, #e #ill calculate an
appro>i,ate 0alue o- & using a 0alue o- 220L o- the deli0ery
pressure -or the a0erage pressure/
Pa0g M 2/2 O 6500 P 2'/)8 M 566/2) psia M 552/') psig
THER/AL HYDRAULICS )--
.sing C$G1 ?9uation 2/&', #e calculate the 0alue o- co,pressibility -actor as
&MZZ 2 M 0/322)
Z 2 P Z 6566/2)* 2 '/)8 O &'','006208 2/)(5O0/6 ZZ
5&0
&/(25
ZZ
"ince there is no ele0ation di--erence bet#een the beginning o- the pipeline
and the end o- the pipeline, the ele0ation co,ponent in ?9uation 2/) can be
neglected and e
s
M 2/
The outlet pressure is
P2 M 500 P 2'/) M 52'/) psia/
Fro, General Flo# ?9uation 2/', substituting gi0en 0alues, #e get
'20O206M&(/))O20/&&X2'SSSS/)86 20/6>5&0RO2'0O
2
0/322)2Z0/5 623/0825
P2 M 2022/&' psia M 2006/6' psig
.sing this 0alue o- P2, #e calculate the ne# a0erage pressure using ?9uation 2/2'5
2 ZPa0g M T 2022/&'P52'/)R2022/&' O
52'/)

Z
)35/() psia
& 2022/&'P52'/) ZZ
This co,pares #ith the 0alue o- 566/2) psia #e assu,ed initially -or
calculating &. Bb0iously, #e #ere #ay o--/ Recalculating & using the recently
calculated 0alue o-
P
a0g, #e get
& MSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS2 M 0/(326
Z 2 P Z 6)35/()* 2 '/)8 O &'','006208 2/)(5O0/6ZZ
ZZ 5&0&/(25 ZD
%e #ill no# recalculate the inlet pressure using this 0alue o- &. Fro, General
Flo# ?9uation 2/', #e get
'20O206M&(/))O20/&&X2'/)86 20/6>5&0RO2'0O
2
0/(3262Z0/5 623/0825
P2 M 2003/2' psia M 33'/5' psig
This co,pares #ith 2022/&' psia calculated earlier/ This is al,ost 2L di--erent/ %e
could repeat the process and get a better appro>i,ation/
)-0 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
.sing this recently calculated 0alue o- P2, #e calculate the ne# a0erage pressure
using ?9uation 2/2' as
Pa0g M 262003/2'P52'/)R2003/2' O
52'/)

Z
)((/)2 psia
& 2003/2'P52'/) ZZ
This co,pares #ith the pre0ious appro>i,ation o- )35/() psia/ The error is
less than 2L/ Recalculating & using this 0alue o- Pa0g, #e get
& MSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS2 M 0/(3&5
Z 2 P Z 6)((/)2 * 2'/)8O&'','006208 2/)(5O0/6ZZ ZZ5&0&/(25
ZD
%e #ill no# recalculate the inlet pressure using this 0alue o- &. Fro, General
Flo# ?9uation 2/', #e get
2 R 2 0/5
'20 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 20/&&Z520 Z 60/6 O 5&0 O 2'0 O 0/(3&58 623/082/5
P2 M 2003/62 psia M 33'/32 psig
This co,pares #ith 2003/2' psia calculated earlier/ The di--erence is less than
0/0'LE there-ore, #e can stop iterating any -urther/
The 7P re9uired at the Roc!port co,pressor station #ill be calculated using
?9uation '/25 as -ollo#s5
ZZ 0/23
HP M 0/0(5) O '2062/23 Z 6)0 P '8 C 2 P 0/ 3&52 r 02(2 r 20(056222/23 R 2 M
'362 ZZ Z
Z Z
Z Z
.sing ?9uation '/2), #e calculate the dri0er horsepo#er re9uired, based on a
,echanical e--iciency o- 0/3(/
7P re9uired M '362 M 506&
0/3(
The -inal results are5
4nlet pressure at Roc!port M 33'/32 psig
<eli0ery pressure at Concord M 500 psig at a -lo# rate o- '20
=="CF< 7P re9uired at Roc!port co,pressor station M 506& 7P
THER/AL HYDRAULICS )-5
4t ,ust be noted that the preceding calculations ignored any ele0ation changes along
the pipeline/ 4- #e had considered the pipe ele0ations at Roc!port and
Concord, the result #ould ha0e been di--erent/
This pressure o- 33'/32 psig re9uired at the Roc!port co,pressor station #as
calculated assu,ing a constant gas -lo#ing te,perature o- )0KF and
considering the pipeline as one single seg,ent 2'0 ,i long/ 1s e>plained in
earlier chapters, the calculation accuracy is i,pro0ed i- #e subdi0ide the
pipeline into short seg,ents/ y doing so, #e calculate the upstrea, pressure
o- each seg,ent starting #ith the last seg,ent near Concord/ 4- the pipeline is
di0ided into 200 e9ual pipe seg,ents o- 2/' ,i each, the pressure P200 at the
upstrea, end o- the last seg,ent is calculated using the General Flo#
e9uation, considering a 500 psig do#nstrea, pressure/ $e>t, using this
calculated pressure,
P200, #e calculate the upstrea, pressure
P
33 o- the 33th
seg,ent/ The process is repeated until all seg,ents are co0ered and the 0alue
o- the pressure P2 at Roc!port is calculated/ This is illustrated
in Figure )/'/
y subdi0iding the pipeline in this -ashion, #e are i,pro0ing the accuracy o-
calculations/ B- course, ,anual calculation in this ,anner is going to be 9uite
laborious and ti,e consu,ing, and #e should use so,e -or, o- a co,puter
progra, to per-or, this tas!/
$e>t, #e #ill co,pare the isother,al calculation results #ith ther,al hydraulics
using the G1"=B< progra,/ Gi0en ne>t is the output report -ro, the
G1"=B< progra,/
RoJport Conor% Di!tane M ),1 "i
'i4ure 9.( S$#%i&i%in; pipe into !e;"ent!'
)-4 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
******** GASMOD GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULIC SIMULATION *******
************ 32-b! "#$%&' ()00)*00 ************
DATE+
PRO,ECT DESCRIPTION+
P-#.'# /$&0 R&12-&$! !& C&'1&$3
C4%# N50b#$+
P-#.'# 34!4 /.#+
P$ #% %5 $# 3 $& - /& $0 5. 4+
P-#.'# #//1#'16+
C&0-$#%%b.!6 /41!&$ 0#!7&3+
I'.#! 84% 8$49!6:4$=*)0;+
I'.#! 84% 9%1&%!6+
CALCULATION OPTIONS+
<$4'17 --# 14.15.4!&'%+
L&&- --# 14.15.4!&'%+ C&0-$#%%&$
/5#. 14.15.4!#3+ ,&5.#-T7&0-%&'
#//#1! '1.53#3+ C5%!&0=#3 &5!-5!+
H&.3'8 3#.9#$6 -$#%%5$#
4! !#$0'5%
*>-S#-!#0b#$-200? TIME+ 2*+30+3@
**3A
C+BGASMOD32BR&12-&$!P-#.'#)TOT
C&.#b$&&2-C7!#
*)00
CNGA
0)>0000
0)00000D0:.bE/!-%#1;
NO NO NO
NO NO
******** C4.15.4!&'% <4%#3 &' S-#1/#3 T7#$04.
C&'351!9!#% &/ P-#F S&.F 4'3 I'%5.4!&'
********
O$8' %51!&' !#0-#$4!5$#+ @0)00:3#8G;
<4%# !#0-#$4!5$#+ >0)00:3#8G;
<4%# -$#%%5$#+ *?)@00:-%8;
O$8' %51!&' -$#%%5$#+ D00)00:-%8;
D#.9#$6 -$#%%5$#+ (00)3(:-%8;
M'050 -$#%%5$#+ *00)00:-%8;
G4% %-#1/1 7#4! $4!&+ *)2A
M4H050 84% 9#.&1!6+ (0)00:/!E%#1;
I'.#! /.&I $4!#+ ?20)0000:MMSCGD;
O5!.#! /.&I $4!#+ ?20)0000:MMSCGD;
**************** PIPELINE PROGILE DATA ***********
D%!4'1# E.#94!&' D40#!#$ T712'#%% R&587'#%%
:0; :/!; :'); :'); :');
0)00 2(0)00 30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
*0)00 2(0)00 30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
20)00 2(0)00 30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
30)00 2(0)00 30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
THER/AL HYDRAULI CS )-3
?0)00
2(0)
00 30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
(0)00 2(0)
00
30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
>0)00 2(0)
00
30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
@0)00 2(0)
00
30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
*00)00 2(0)
00
30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
*20)00 2(0)
00
30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
*?0)00 2(0)
00
30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
*(0)00 2(0)
00
30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
*@0)00 2(0)
00
30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
*A0)00 2(0)
00
30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
200)00 2(0)
00
30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
220)00 2(0)
00
30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
2?0)00 2(0)
00
30)000 0)(00 0)000@00
******** THERMAL CONDUCTI"ITY AND INSULATION DATA *********
T7#$04. C&'351!9!6
D%!4'1# C&9#$ :<!5E7$E/!E3#8G; I'%5.)T72 S&. T#0-
:0; :'; P-# S&. I'%5.4!&' :'; :3#8G;
0)000
3>)00
0
2A)000 0)D00 0)020
0)0
00
>0)0
0
*0)000 3>)00
0
2A)000 0)D00 0)020 0)0
00
>0)0
0
20)000 3>)00
0
2A)000 0)D00 0)020 0)0
00
>0)0
0
30)000 3>)00
0
2A)000 0)D00 0)020 0)0
00
>0)0
0
?0)000 3>)00
0
2A)000 0)D00 0)020 0)0
00
>0)0
0
3>)00
0
2A)000 0)D00 0)020 0)0
00
>0)0
0 3>)00
0
2A)000 0)D00 0)020 0)0
00
>0)0
0
*(0)000 3>)00
0
2A)000 0)D00 0)020 0)0
00
>0)0
0
3>)00
0
2A)000 0)D00 0)020 0)0
00
>0)0
0
2?0)000
3>)00
0
2A)000 0)D00 0)020 0)0
00
>0)0
0
*******
*****
***
COMPRESSOR STATION
DATA *
***
**
* *
*
*
GLOC RATESF PRESSURESF AND TEMPERATURES+
G.&I S51!) D%17) C&0-$) S51!) D%17) S51!) D%17)
R4!# P$#%%) P$#%%) R4!& L&%%) L&%%) T#0-) T#0- M4HP-#
N40# :MMSCGD; :-%8; :-%8; :-%8; :-%8; :3#8G; :3#8G; :3#8G; T#0-
R&12-&$! ?20)00 D00)00 AA>)*@ *)2?0D 0)00 0)00 @0)00 *02)A2 *?0)00
********* COMPRESSOR EGGICIENCYF HPF AND GUEL USED ********
C&0-$ M#17) O9#$4.. H&$%# G5#. G5#.
D%!4'1# E//6) E//6) E//6) P&I#$ G41!&$ U%#3
N40# :0; :J; :J; :J; :MCGE346E :MMSCGD;
HP;
R&12-&$! 0)00 D0)00 AD)00 @D)?0 ?F@D>)A? 0)2000 ------
T&!4. C&0-$#%%&$ S!4!&' H&$%#-&I#$+ ?F@D>)A?
**************** LOCATIONS AND GLOC RATES ****************
L&14!&' D%!4'1# G.&I 'E&5! G$49!6 "%1&%!6 P$#%%5$# G4%T#0-) :0;
:MMSCGD; :.bE/!-%#1; :-%8; :3#8G;
R&12-&$! 0)00 ?20)0000 0)>000 0)00000D00 AA>)*@
*02)A2
C&'1&$3 2?0)00 -?20)0000 0)>000 0)00000D00 (00)3(
>0)00
***** REYNOLDKS NUM<ER AND HEAT TRANSGER COEGGICIENT *****
D%!4'1#
:0;
H#4!T$4'%C&#// C&0-$#%%b.!6
G$1!G41!&$ T$4'%0%%&' :<!5E7$E
G41!&$
R#6'&.3K%N50) :D4$16; G41!&$ /!2E3#8G;
0)000
*?F>@*F?
3D)
0)00
AA
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3
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>*
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(
*0)000 *?F>@*F?
3D)
0)00
AA
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3
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>*
0)D@A
*
20)000 *?F>@*F?
3D)
0)00
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3D)
0)00
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3
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(
?0)000 *?F>@*F?
3D)
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3
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0)D@*
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(0)000 *?F>@*F?
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3D)
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3D)
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*(0)000 *?F>@*F?
3D)
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3
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2
*@0)000 *?F>@*F?
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2
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3D)
0)00
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0)A0>
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200)000 *?F>@*F?
3D)
0)00
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0)A**
?
220)000 *?F>@*F?
3D)
0)00
AA
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3
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*
2?0)000 *?F>@*F?
3D)
0)00
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0)A*@
*
D%!4'1# D40#!#$
G.&I "#.&1!6 P$#%%)
G4%T#0-)
S&.T#0
-) MAOP
L&14!
&'
:0; :'; :MMSCGD; :/!E%#1; :-%8;
:3#8G;
:3#8G; :-%8
;
0)00 30)000
?20)0000 *()?? AA>)*@
*02)A2
>0)00
*?00)
00
R&12-&
$!
*0)00 30)000 ?20)0000 *()?? A@A)(A
D@)3@
>0)00 *?00)
00
20)00 30)000 ?20)0000 *()?? A>3)2(
@@)22
>0)00 *?00)
00
30)00 30)000 ?20)0000 *()?? A?>)A>
@0)@?
>0)00 *?00)
00
?0)00 30)000 ?20)0000 *()?? A30)>0
>>)>>
>0)00 *?00)
00
(0)00 30)000 ?20)0000 *()?? A*?)0@
>?)**
>0)00 *?00)
00
>0)00 30)000 ?20)0000 *()?? DA@)30
>2)(?
>0)00 *?00)
00
@0)00 30)000 ?20)0000 *()?? DD0)23
>*)(>
>0)00 *?00)
00
*00)00 30)000 ?20)0000 *()?? D2>)D>
>0)3>
>0)00 *?00)
00
THER/AL HYDRAULI CS
)0
(
*20)00
30)0
00
?20)00
00
*()?
?
@DA)*
2
>0)*
?
>0)0
0
*?00)0
0
*?0)00 30)0
00
?20)00
00
*()?
?
@?A)3
0
>0)0
(
>0)0
0
*?00)0
0
*(0)00 30)0
00
?20)00
00
*()?
?
@2D)(
*
>0)0
3
>0)0
0
*?00)0
0
*@0)00 30)0
00
?20)00
00
*()?
?
>D?)D
(
>0)0
*
>0)0
0
*?00)0
0
*A0)00 30)0
00
?20)00
00
*()?
?
>3@)A
(
>0)0
0
>0)0
0
*?00)0
0
200)00 30)0
00
?20)00
00
*()?
?
>*3)0
>
>0)0
0
>0)0
0
*?00)0
0
220)00 30)0
00
?20)00
00
*()?
?
((A)@
2
>0)0
0
>0)0
0
*?00)0
0
2?0)00 30)0
00
?20)00
00
*()?
?
(00)3
(
>0)0
0
>0)0
0
*?00)0
0
C&'1&$
3
************* LINE PACL "OLUMES AND PRESSURES *************
D%!4'1#
:0;
P$#%%5$#
:-%8;
L'# P412
:0..&' %!3)15)/!;
0)00 AA>)*@ 0)0000
*0)00 A@A)(A *@)D*3D
20)00 A>3)2( *@)A@*?
A30)>0 *@)D*A3
(0)00 A*?)0@ *@)(AA0
>0)00 DA@)30 *@)323(
@0)00 DD0)23 *@)0**?
*00)00 D2>)D> ?D)A@D@
@?A)30 2A)*?2?
*(0)00 @2D)(* *3)A?3D
*@0)00 >D?)D( 2>)(@>(
*A0)00 >3@)A( 2?)@??2
200)00 >*3)0> **)>?DA
(00)3( *A)((@>
T&!4. .'# -412 ' 04' --#.'# = 3(0)(A(0:0..&' %!3)15)/!;
************** E'3 &/ GASMOD O5!-5! R#-&$! *************
4t can be seen -ro, the G1"=B< ther,al hydraulic analysis report that the inlet
pressure at Roc!port is 336/2) psig, #hereas the ,anual calculation considering
isother,al -lo# yielded an inlet pressure o- 33'/32 psig at the Roc!port
co,pressor station/ Thus, ta!ing into account the te,perature 0ariation o- the gas
along the pipeline, the pressure re9uired at Roc!port is appro>i,ately ' psig
higher/ This does not see, to be 0ery signi-icant/ 7o#e0er, in ,any cases the
te,perature 0ariation along the pipeline #ill cause pressures calculated to be
signi-icantly di--erent/ To recap, the ,anual calculations #ere based on an
isother,al gas -lo# te,perature o- )0KF, #hereas the ther,al hydraulics sho#s
0ariation o- the gas te,perature ranging -ro, 202/32KF at the Roc!port
co,pressor discharge to 60KF at Concord/ The gas te,perature reaches the soil
te,perature o- 60KF at appro>i,ately ,ilepost 230, a-ter #hich it re,ains
constant at 60KF/ Figure )/5 sho#s the te,perature 0ariation in this case/
$e>t, #e #ill illustrate the calculation o- the pressure and te,perature pro-ile
considering the pipeline ele0ation di--erence bet#een Roc!port and Concord and
considering a branch pipeline bringing in an additional 200 =="CF</
)0) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
T
inlet M (1)'3)KF
T
(1 M 45'+5KF
F T
)1 M 55')).
T
+1 M 51'5,.F
'i4ure 9.) Ga! te"perat$re &ariationPRoJport to Conor% pipeline'
&4am!le *
Consider a natural gas pipeline syste, -ro, Roc!port 6ele0ation 250 -t8 to Concord
6ele0ation (00 -t8, a distance o- 2'0 ,i/ The pipeline is constructed o- $P"
&0, 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, 1P4 5L*g60 pipe/ The =BP is 2'00 psig/
The pipeline ele0ation pro-ile is listed belo#5
Mi+epost E+e?ation "ocation
1'11 )-1'11 RoJport
(1'11 +11'11
)1'11 )11'11
+1'11 +)1'11
,1'11 ,11'11
-1'11 +5-'11
01'11 ,(1'11
51'11 ,+1'11
(11'11 ,-1'11 >ale
()1'11 -11'11
(,1'11 ,11'11
(-1'11 011'11
(51'11 511'11
(31'11 5(1'11
)11'11 5)1'11
))1'11 5-1'11
),1'11 411'11 Conor%
Gas enters the Roc!port co,pressor station at )0KF and (00 psig pressure/ The soil
te,perature can be assu,ed to be 60KF throughout/ The gas -lo# rate is '20
=="CF<, and the gas speci-ic gra0ity and 0iscosity are 0/6 and 0/00000(
lb;-t*s, respecti0ely/ 1t Iale 6,ilepost 200, ele0ation '50 -t8, a branch pipeline
(0 ,i long, $P" 2', 0/&)5 in/ #all thic!ness, brings in an additional 200
=="CF< gas -ro, a gathering -acility at <ra!e/ The ele0ation at <ra!e is
&00 -t and that at Iale is '50 -t/
THER/AL HYDRAULICS )0+
The pipeline ele0ation pro-ile -or the branch pipe -ro, <ra!e to Iale is as -ollo#s5
Mi+epost E+e?ation "ocation
1'11 (1'11 )1'11 ,1'11 -1'11 51'11
41'11
+11'
11
(11'
11
()-'
11
)11'
11
DraJe
>ale
The inlet te,perature at the beginning o- the branch is )0KF in Figure )/6/
The contract deli0ery pressure re9uired at Concord is 500 psig/ 1ssu,e an isother,al
-lo# at )0KF and gas speci-ic heat ratio o- 2/23/ .se a co,pressor adiabatic
e--iciency o- (0L and ,echanical e--iciency o- 3(L/ .se the General Flo#
e9uation #ith a Colebroo! -riction -actor, assu,ing a pipe internal roughness
o- )00 d in/ Calculate the pressure pro-ile and the co,pressor horsepo#er
re9uired at Roc!port/ Co,pare these results #ith ther,al hydraulic analysis
using G1"=B</ 1ssu,e a base pressure o- 2'/) psia and base te,perature o-
60KF/
"olution
4nside dia,eter o- pipe 4 M &0 U 2 O 0/500 M 23 in/
The calculation o- the pressure at ,ilepost 200 #ill be done -irst/ This is
because #e !no# the deli0ery pressure at Concord and the 2'0 ,i seg,ent
-ro, Iale 6at ,ilepost 200 to the pipeline ter,inus at Concord8 -lo#s 620
=="CF</ 4n co,parison, the -irst 200 ,i -ro, Roc!port to Iale, carries only
'20 =="CF<, and both upstrea, and do#nstrea, pressures are un!no#n/
1-ter -inding the pressure at Iale, #e can
RoJport >ale Conor%
"'p' 1 "'p' (11 "'p' ),1
ele&ation )-1 ft ele&ation ,-1 ft ele&ation 411 ft
'i4ure 9.. RoJport to Conor% pipeline ?ith #ranh fro" DraJe'
)0, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
calculate the upstrea, pressure at Roc!port, considering the 200 ,i seg,ent at the
lo#er -lo# rate/
First, #e calculate the Reynolds nu,ber -ro, ?9uation 2/&' -or a 620
=="CF< -lo# rate5
$ M 0/000'))( 2'/) 0/6 O 620 O 20 6 22,65),(&)
C 60 P '608Z0/00000( O 23 C
2 Z 0/ 000) 2/ 52 Z
f M R2Log20 ZZ &/) O 23 P 22, 65), (&) f Z
f M 0/0036
M
20/'2
To calculate the co,pressibility -actor &, the a0erage pressure is re9uired/ "ince the
inlet pressure at Iale is un!no#n, #e #ill calculate an appro>i,ate 0alue o-
& using a 0alue o- 220L o- the deli0ery pressure -or the a0erage pressure/
Pa0g M 2/2 O 6500 P 2'/)8 M 566/2) psia M 552/') psig
.sing C$G1 ?9uation 2/&', #e calculate the 0alue o- the co,pressibility
-actor as
& M 2M 0/322)
Z 2 P Z 6566/2) R 2'/)8 O &'','006208
2/)(5O0/6
ZZ
ZZ Z 5&0&/(25
ZZ
"ince there is an ele0ation di--erence o- &50 6(00 R '508 -t bet#een Iale and
Concord, #e ,ust apply the ele0ation correction according to ?9uation 2/)/
.sing ?9uation 2/ 20, the ele0ation adCust,ent para,eter is
s M 0/0&)5 O 0/6Z(00 R '50 Z0/0262 5&0 O
0/322) ZZ
The e9ui0alent length ;e -ro, ?9uation 2/3 is
; M 2'062/026& R 28 M 2'2/)' ,i
0/0262
THER/AL HYDRAULI CS
)0-
$e>t, using ?9uation 2/), #e calculate the pressure at Iale, ,ilepost 200, as -ollo#s5
0/5
520 ZZP
2
R 2/026& O 52' /)2
620 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 20/'62'/) D 2 232/5 0/6>5&0O2'2/)'O0/322) C
"ol0ing -or the upstrea, pressure at Iale, #e get
P2 M 2222/'3 psia M 220)/)3 psig
.sing this calculated 0alue o- P2, #e calculate the ne# a0erage pressure using
?9uation 2/2' as
P
a0g M 2Z2222/'3P52'/)R2222/'3 O 52'/)ZM (56/2 psia M ('2/5 psig &Z
Z
2222/'3P52'/) ZZ
This co,pares #ith the pre0ious appro>i,ation o- 552/') psig/ Bb0iously, the
assu,ed 0alue #as #ay o--/ Recalculating the co,pressibility -actor, using the
recently calculated a0erage pressure,
& MSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS2 M 0/((52
Z 2 P Z 6(56/2*2'/)8O&'','0062082/)(5O0/6 ZZ
ZZ 5&0&/(25 ZZ
Recalculating the pressure at Iale, #e get
0/5
620 O 20
6
M & (/)) O 20/'2Z 520Z Z P2 R2/026& O 52'/)2 Z 232/5 Z2'/)
ZZZZ 0/6 O 5&0 O 2'2/)' O 0/((52 Z
P2 M 220'/(( psia M 2030/2( psig
Co,pared to the last calculated 0alue, the di--erence is5 2030/2( U 220)/)3 M
R2)/62 psig or 2/6L/ Bne ,ore iteration #ould get us closer to the correct
0alue/ %e recalculate the ne# a0erage pressure using ?9uation 2/2' as
P
a0g M 2Z220'/((P52'/)R220'/(( O 52'/)ZM ('5/6& psia M (&0/3& psig
&Z
Z
220'/((P52'/) ZZ
%e recalculate the co,pressibility -actor, using the recently calculated
a0erage pressure, as
& MSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS2 M 0/((65
Z 2 P Z 6('5/6&*2'/)8O&'','0062082/)(5O0/6 ZZ
ZZ 5&0&/(25 ZD
Recalculating the pressure at Iale, #e get
20/'2 520 P2 R2/026& O 52'/)2Z0/5 2/5
23
620O206M&(/))O62'/)8ZZ 0/6O5&0O2'2/)'O0/((65ZZ
)00 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
P2 M 2206/25 psia M 2032/'5 psig
Co,pared to the last calculated 0alue, the di--erence is5 2030/2( U 2032/'5 M R2/2)
psig or 0/22L/ This is close enough, and no -urther iteration is needed/
There-ore, the pressure at Iale M 2206/25 psia M 2032/'5 psig/
$e>t, using this as the do#nstrea, pressure -or the pipe seg,ent -ro,
Roc!port to Iale, #e calculate the upstrea, pressure at Roc!port as -ollo#s,
-or a -lo# rate o- '20 =="CF</
Fro, pre0ious calculations at '20 =="CF< 6?>a,ple 28, the Reynolds nu,ber is
$ M 2',6)2,'&(
The -riction -actor #as calculated as
f M 0/003)
and the trans,ission -actor #as
M
20/&
&
To calculate the co,pressibility -actor &, the a0erage pressure is re9uired/ "ince
the inlet pressure at Roc!port is un!no#n, #e #ill calculate an appro>i,ate
0alue o- & using a 0alue o- 220L o- the do#nstrea, pressure at Iale -or the
a0erage pressure/
Pa0g M 2/2 O 2206/25 M 2226/)) psia M 2202/0)
psig .sing this, #e calculate the co,pressibility -actor as
& MZ 2 M 0/('&)
ZZ
2P
ZZ 62226/)) R 2'/)8 O &'','006208 2/)(5O0/6 ZZ
5&0&/(25
ZD
"ince there is an ele0ation di--erence o- 200 6'50 R 2508 -t bet#een
Roc!port and Iale, the ele0ation correction according to ?9uation 2/)
,ust be applied/ .sing ?9uation 2/ 20, the ele0ation adCust,ent
para,eter is
s M 0/0&)5 O 0/6Z'50 R 250 Z0/0202 5&0
O 0/('&) ZZ
; M 20062/0202 R 28 M 200 ,i
0/0202
THER/AL HYDRAULI CS
)05
Calculating the pressure at Roc!port, #e get
'20 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 20/&&X520DX P 22 R 2/0202O2206/25 2Z05 D 232/5
2'/) 0/6 O 5&0 O 200 O 0/('&) D
"ol0ing -or the upstrea, pressure at Roc!port, #e get
P2 M 22&(/0' psia M 222&/&' psig
$e>t, #e #ill co,pare the isother,al calculation results #ith ther,al hydraulics using
the G1"=B< progra,/ Gi0en belo# is the output report -ro, the G1"=B<
progra,/
***
*
** GASMOD GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULIC
SIMULATION *
***
**
***
*
****** 32-b! "#$%&' ()00)*00
************
DATE+ *@-S#-!#0b#$-200? TIME+
0@+*>+*
A
P-#.'# /$&0 R&12-&$! !& C&'1&$3
C4%# '50b#$+ **?3
P-#.'# 34!4 /.#+ C+BGASMOD32BR&12-&$!P-#.'#)TOT
P$#%%5$# 3$&- /&$05.4+ C&.#b$&&2-C7!#
P-#.'# #//1#'16+ *)00
C&0-$#%%b.!6 /41!&$ 0#!7&3+ CNGA
I'.#! 84% 8$49!6 :4$
M
*)0;+ 0)>0000
I'.#! 84% 9%1&%!6+ 0)00000D0:.bE/!-%#1;
<$4'17 --# 14.15.4!&'%+ YES
L&&- --# 14.15.4!&'%+ NO
C&0-$#%%&$ /5#. 14.15.4!#3+ NO
,&5.#-T7&0-%&' #//#1! '1.53#3+ NO
C5%!&0=#3 &5!-5!+ NO
H&.3'8 3#.9#$6 -$#%%5$#
4! !#$0'5%
**** C4.15.4!&'% <4%#3 &' S-#1/#3 T7#$04.
C&'351!9!#% &/ P-#F S&.F 4'3 I'%5.4!&'
****
O$8' %51!&' !#0-#$4!5$#+ <4%#
!#0-#$4!5$#+
<4%# -$#%%5$#+
O$8' %51!&' -$#%%5$#+
D#.9#$6 -$#%%5$#+
M'050 -$#%%5$#+
G4% %-#1/1 7#4! $4!&+ M4H050
84% 9#.&1!6+
@0)00:3#8G;
>0)00:3#8G;
*?)@00:-%8;
D00)00:-%8;
?AA)>>:-%8;
*00)00:-%8; *)2A
(0)00:/!E%#1;
I'.#! /.&I $4!#+ ?20)0000:MMSCGD;
O5!.#! /.&I $4!#+ >20)0000:MMSCGD;
)04 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
****************
*********** PIPELINE PROGILE DATA
D%!4'1# E.#94!&' D40#!#$ T712'#%%
R&587'#%%
:0; :/!; :'; :';
0)00
2(0
)00
30)000
0)(
00
0)000@0
0
*0)00 300)
00
30)000 0)(
00
0)000@0
0
20)00 200)
00
30)000 0)(
00
0)000@0
0
30)00 320)
00
30)000 0)(
00
0)000@0
0
?0)00 ?00)
00
30)000 0)(
00
0)000@0
0
(0)00 3@()
00
30)000 0)(
00
0)000@0
0
>0)00 ?*0)
00
30)000 0)(
00
0)000@0
0
@0)00 ?30)
00
30)000 0)(
00
0)000@0
0
*00)00 ?(0)
00
30)000 0)(
00
0)000@0
0 ?00)
00
30)000 0)(
00
0)000@0
0
*(0)00 >00)
00
30)000 0)(
00
0)000@0
0
@20)
00
30)000 0)(
00
0)000@0
0
2?0)00
D00)
00
30)000 0)(
00
0)000@0
0
********* THERMAL CONDUCTI"ITY AND INSULATION DATA ********
T7#$04. C&'351!9!6
D%!4'1# C&9#$ :<!5E7$E/!E3#8G; I'%5.)T72 S&. T#0-
:0; :'; P-# S&. I'%5.4!&' :'; :3#8G;
0)000
3>)00
0
2A)0
00
0)D
00
0)020 0)000 >0)00
*0)000 3>)00
0
2A)0
00
0)D
00
0)020 0)000 >0)00
20)000 3>)00
0
2A)0
00
0)D
00
0)020 0)000 >0)00
30)000 3>)00
0
2A)0
00
0)D
00
0)020 0)000 >0)00
?0)000 3>)00
0
2A)0
00
0)D
00
0)020 0)000 >0)00
(0)000 3>)00
0
2A)0
00
0)D
00
0)020 0)000 >0)00
3>)00
0
2A)0
00
0)D
00
0)020 0)000 >0)00
*20)000 3>)00
0
2A)0
00
0)D
00
0)020 0)000 >0)00
*?0)000 3>)00
0
2A)0
00
0)D
00
0)020 0)000 >0)00
3>)00
0
2A)0
00
0)D
00
0)020 0)000 >0)00
220)000 3>)00
0
2A)0
00
0)D
00
0)020 0)000 >0)00
2?0)000 3>)00
0
2A)0
00
0)D
00
0)020 0)000 >0)00
THER/AL HYDRAULI CS )03
**************** COMPRESSOR STATION DATA **************
GLOC RATESF PRESSURESF AND TEMPERATURES+
G.&I S51!) D%17) S51!) D%17) S51!) D%17) M4HP-#
R4!# P$#%%) P$#%%) C&0-$) L&%%) L&%%) T#0-) T#0- T#0-
N40# :MMSCGD; :-%8; :-%8; R4!& :-%8; :-%8; :3#8G; :3#8G; :3#8G;
R&12-&$! ?20)00 D00)00 *223)A@ *)(20? 0)00 0)00 @0)00 *32)2? *?0)00
****** COMPRESSOR EGGICIENCYF HPF AND GUEL USED *********
C&0-$ M#17) O9#$4.. G5#. G5#.
D%!4'1# E//6) E//6) E//6) H&$%# G41!&$ U%#3
N40# :0; :J; :J; :J; P&I#$ :MCGE346EHP; :MMSCGD;
R&12-&$! 0)00 D0)00 AD)00 @D)?0 AF(*3)?0 0)2000
T&!4. C&0-$#%%&$ S!4!&' H&$%#-&I#$+ AF(*3)?0
L&14!&' D%!4'1# G.&I 'E&5! G$49!6 "%1&%!6 P$#%%5$# G4%T#0-) :0;
:MMSCGD; :.bE/!-%#1; :-%8; :3#8G;
R&12-&$! 0)00 ?20)0000 0)>000 0)00000D00 *223)A@ *32)2?
*00)00 200)0000 0)>000 0)00000D00 *0D()@* >0)>(
C&'1&$3 2?0)00 ->20)0000 0)>000 0)00000D00 ?AA)>> >0)0*
****** REYNOLDKS NUM<ER AND HEAT TRANSGER COEGGICIENT *****
D%!4'1#
:0;
R#6'&.3K%N
50)
H#4!T$4'%C&#// C&0-$#%%b.!6
G$1!G41!&$ T$4'%0%%&' :<!5E7$E
G41!&$
:D4$16; G41!&$ /!2E3#8G;
:CNGA;
0)000
*?F>@*F?3D
)
0)00AA 20)*3 0)33>* 0)DD20
*0)000 *?F>@*F?3D
)
0)00AA 20)*3 0)33>* 0)D>@D
20)000 *?F>@*F?3D
)
0)00AA 20)*3 0)33>* 0)D(@D
30)000 *?F>@*F?3D
)
0)00AA 20)*3 0)33>* 0)D(*>
?0)000 *?F>@*F?3D
)
0)00AA 20)*3 0)33>* 0)D?@A
(0)000 *?F>@*F?3D
)
0)00AA 20)*3 0)33>* 0)D?>0
>0)000 *?F>@*F?3D
)
0)00AA 20)*3 0)33>* 0)D?(?
@0)000 *?F>@*F?3D
)
0)00AA 20)*3 0)33>* 0)D?>(
*00)000 2*F>(@FD3D
)
0)00AD 20)2( 0)33>( 0)D(*>
*20)000 2*F>(@FD3D
)
0)00AD 20)2( 0)33>( 0)D(DA
*?0)000 2*F>(@FD3D
)
0)00AD 20)2( 0)33>( 0)D>(0
*(0)000 2*F>(@FD3D
)
0)00AD 20)2( 0)33>( 0)D@2*
*@0)000 2*F>(@FD3D
)
0)00AD 20)2( 0)33>( 0)DD2*
*A0)000 2*F>(@FD3D
)
0)00AD 20)2( 0)33>( 0)DA03
200)000 2*F>(@FD3D
)
0)00AD 20)2( 0)33>( 0)DAAD
220)000 2*F>(@FD3D
)
0)00AD 20)2( 0)33>( 0)A*?D
2?0)000 2*F>(@FD3D
)
0)00AD 20)2( 0)33>( 0)A*?D
********
TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE PROGILE
D%!4'
1#
D40#
!#$ G.&I
"#.&1
!6
P$#%%
)
G4%T#0
-)
S&.T#0
-)
MAO
P L&14!&'
:0; :'
;
:MMSCG
D;
:/!E%#
1;
:-%8
;
:3#8G; :3#8G; :-%
8;
0)00
30)0
00
?20)00
00
*2)>0
*223)
A@
*32)2? >0)00
*?00
)00
R&12-&$!
*0)00 30)0
00
?20)00
00
*2)>0 *20D)
(A
*0@)*? >0)00 *?00
)00
20)00 30)0
00
?20)00
00
*2)>0 **A@)
A@
A0)*> >0)00 *?00
)00
30)00 30)0
00
?20)00
00
*2)>0 **D*)
3D
@A)02 >0)00 *?00
)00
?0)00 30)0
00
?20)00
00
*2)>0 **>>)
0>
@*)DD >0)00 *?00
)00
30)0
00
?20)00
00
*2)>0 **3A)
DD
>?)(> >0)00 *?00
)00
@0)00 30)0
00
?20)00
00
*2)>0 **2>)
2(
>2)D* >0)00 *?00
)00
*00)00 30)0
00
>20)00
00
*D)>0 *0D()
@*
>0)>( >0)00 *?00
)00
*20)00 30)0
00
>20)00
00
*D)>0 *023)
A>
>0)3? >0)00 *?00
)00
*?0)00 30)0
00
>20)00
00
*D)>0 A>*)D
D
>0)*@ >0)00 *?00
)00
*(0)00 30)0
00
>20)00
00
*D)>0 A22)D
?
>0)*3 >0)00 *?00
)00
30)0
00
>20)00
00
*D)>0 @>()(
?
>0)03 >0)00 *?00
)00
200)00 30)0
00
>20)00
00
*D)>0 @20)D
?
>0)02 >0)00 *?00
)00
220)00 30)0
00
>20)00
00
*D)>0 >20)A
0
>0)0* >0)00 *?00
)00
2?0)00 30)0
00
>20)00
00
*D)>0 ?AA)>
>
>0)0* >0)00 *?00
)00
C&'1&$3
************ LINE PACL "OLUMES AND PRESSURES ************
D%!4'1#
:0;
P$#%%5$#
:-%8;
L'# P412
:0..&' %!3)15)/!;
0)00 *223)A@ 0)0000
*0)00 *20D)(A 2*)2A@2
**D*)3D 22)??(0
?0)00 **>>)0> 22)(@0>
(0)00 **(3)D@ 22)(@*?
**2>)2( 22)2D*0
*00)00 *0D()@* >()?(D*
*20)00 *023)A> ?*)3A@3
*?0)00 A>*)DD 3D)>D*3
*(0)00 A22)D? *D)23@0
>20)A0 2()*>3@
2?0)00 ?AA)>> 20)@AA@
T&!4. .'# -412 ' 04' --#.'# = ???)*@D(:0..&' %!3)15)/!;
THER/AL HYDRAULI CS
)5(
NUM<ER OG PIPE <RANCHES = *
D%!4'1# E.#94!&' D40#!#$ G.&I "#.&1!6 P$#%%) G4% T#0-) A0b T#0-) L&14!&'
:/!E%#1;
:0;
:/!;
:';
:MMSCGD;
:-%8;
:3#8G;
:3#8G;
<RANCH TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE PROGILE+
I'1&0'8 <$4'17 G.#+ "ALE<RANCH)TOT <$4'17
L&14!&'+ 4! *00 :0;
0)00
*(0)0
0
2?)0
00
200)00
0
A)D*
**>3)
@A
@0)0
0
>0)00
D$42
#
*0)0
0
*00)0
0
2?)0
00
200)00
0
A)D* **(>)
0>
>3)A
@
>0)00
20)0
0
*2()0
0
2?)0
00
200)00
0
A)A> **?>)
*3
>*)(
>
>0)00
?0)0
0
200)0
0
2?)0
00
200)00
0
*0)*
?
**2()
3@
>0)2
?
>0)00
(0)0
0
200)0
0
2?)0
00
200)00
0
*0)2
3
***()
A@
>0)0
A
>0)00
@0)0
0
200)0
0
2?)0
00
200)00
0
*0)?
0
*0A>)
DA
>0)0
*
>0)00
D0)0
0
2(0)0
0
2?)0
00
200)00
0
*0)(
*
*0D()
@A
>0)0
*
>0)00 "4.#
*************** E'3 &/ GASMOD O5!-5! R#-&$! *************
4t can be seen -ro, the G1"=B< ther,al hydraulic analysis report that the inlet
pressure at Roc!port is appro>i,ately 222' psig, #hereas the ,anual calculation
considering isother,al -lo# yielded an inlet pressure o- appro>i,ately 222& psig
at the Roc!port co,pressor station/ This di--erence is not 0ery signi-icant/
7o#e0er, in ,any cases the te,perature 0ariation along the pipeline #ill cause
pressures calculated to be signi-icantly di--erent, especially in short pipelines/ 1s
an e>a,ple, i- #e had a pipeline 200 ,i long si,ilar to the pipe section bet#een
Roc!port and Iale, the ther,al hydraulics #ill sho# a drastic te,perature
0ariation, -ro, 2&2/2' to 60/65KF/ There-ore, an isother,al analysis at )0KF -or
the entire 200 ,i length #ill sho# considerable discrepancy in pressures/ This is
le-t as an e>ercise -or the reader/
To recap, the ,anual calculations #ere based on an isother,al gas -lo# te,perature
o- )0KF, #hereas the ther,al hydraulics sho#s 0ariation o- the gas te,perature ranging
-ro, 2&2/2'KF at the Roc!port co,pressor discharge to 60/02KF at Concord, #hich is
0ery close to the surrounding soil te,perature o- 60KF/
The co,pression ratio is 2/52 at the Roc!port co,pressor station, #here the (00
psig inlet pressure o- the gas is increased to the discharge pressure o- 222' psig/ This, in
accordance #ith our pre0ious analysis in Chapter ' under co,pressors, causes the
discharge te,perature o- the gas to increase to 2&2/2'KF/ 4- the co,pression ratio #ere
higher, the discharge te,perature o- the gas due to co,pression #ould ha0e been still
higher/ The pipeline coating te,perature li,itation is 2'0KF and #ould then re9uire gas
cooling in order to a0oid da,age to the pipe coating/ 4t can be seen -ro, the G1"=B<
report that the gas -lo# te,perature starts o-- at 2&2/2'KF at ,ilepost 0 6Roc!port8 and
9uic!ly drops to 6)/&(KF at ,ilepost 50/ This is the e>ponential te,perature decay #e
discussed in an earlier section/ eginning at ,ilepost 50, the gas te,perature starts
dropping o-- ,ore gradually until it al,ost attains the soil te,perature at ,ilepost 2'0
6Concord8/ 1lso, the section o- pipe bet#een ,ilepost 2)0 and Concord is at a -airly
constant te,perature, close to the soil te,perature o- 60KF/ There-ore, the )0 ,i pipeline
section bet#een ,ilepost 2)0 and Concord can be considered to be in isother,al -lo#,
-or all practical purposes/ 1 ,anual calculation o- this last )0 ,i pipe seg,ent -lo#ing
)5) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
at 620 =="CF< #ill yield a pressure pro-ile 0ery close to the pressures sho#n in the
G1"=B< report/ This #ill be de,onstrated ne>t/
2'/)
$0000'))
Z

Z
0/6 O 620 O
206ZM
22,65),(
&)
M
l 60 P '60
C
0/00000( O 23
ZZ
Z 2 0 / 0 0 0 ) 2/52
f M R2Log20Z&/) O 23 P 22, 65), (&) f Z
f M 0/0036
. M 2 M 20/'2
,0/0036
To calculate the co,pressibility -actor &, the a0erage pressure is re9uired/ "ince
the pressure at ,ilepost 2)0 is un!no#n, #e #ill calculate an appro>i,ate 0alue o- &
using a 0alue o- (50 psig -or the a0erage pressure/
.sing C$G1 ?9uation 2/&', #e calculate the 0alue o- the co,pressibility -actor as
& M 2SSSSSSSSSS_ M 0/()65
(50O&'','0062082/)(5O0/6 C520&/(25
22Z
"ince there is an ele0ation di--erence o- 200 6(00 R )008 -t bet#een ,ilepost
2)0 and Concord, #e ,ust apply the ele0ation correction according to ?9uation 2/)/
.sing ?9uation 2/20, the ele0ation adCust,ent para,eter is
s M 0/0&)5 O 0/6Z(00 R )00 Z0/00'3
520 O 0/()65 ZZ
;eM )062/00'3 R 28 M )0/2) ,i
0/00'3
$e>t, using ?9uation 2/), #e calculate the pressure at ,ilepost )0 as -ollo#s5
6 Z 520Z Z P
2
2
R2/00'3 O 52'/) 2 Z0/5 2/5 620O20
M&(/))O 20/'22\ 2'/) Z
4
20/6O520O)0/2)O0/()65Z 23
P2 M (52/53 psia M (&6/(3 psig
THER/AL HYDRAULI CS
)5+
This co,pares #ith (50 psig #e assu,ed earlier/ Recalculating the a0erage
pressure based on P
2
M (52/53 psia and P
2
M 52'/) psia, #e get, using ?9uation 2/2',
Pa0gM 2 Z(52/53P 52'/)R(52/53 O 52'/) ZM 636/33 psia
&Z ( 5 2 / 5 3 P 5 2 ' / ) Z Z
$e>t, using C$G1 ?9uation 2/&', #e recalculate the co,pressibility -actor as
& MZ 2 M 0/(3('
P 2 6(2/ 23O&'', '006208 2a(5O0/ 6ZZ l 520&/(25 ZD $e>t,
using ?9uation 2/), #e calculate the pressure at
,ilepost )0 as -ollo#s5
20 >
6
&(/)) > 20/'2
2\
MZ 520 2'/) ZZ P
2
2
R2/00'3 O 52' /)2 0/5 2 23
2/5
620 Zll 0/6 O 520 O )0/2) O 0/(3(' ZZ
P
2
M (5(/&0 psia M ('&/6 psig
This 0alue is less than 2L di--erent -ro, the pre0iously calculated 0alue o- (&6/&3
psig/ There-ore, #e do not ha0e to iterate any -urther/ Co,paring the 0alue o- ('&/6
psig #ith the pressure o- appro>i,ately (') psig -ro, the G1"=B< report, #e see
that #e are less than 0/5L apart/ Thus, the assu,ption o- isother,al -lo# in the last
)0 ,i section o- the pipeline is a 0alid one/ %e #ould ha0e been closer still i- the )0
,i section had been subdi0ided into t#o or ,ore seg,ents and the upstrea,
pressures calculated as discussed in an earlier section/
4n conclusion, #e can state that calculating the pressures and 7P in a gas pipeline
based on the assu,ption o- constant te,perature throughout the pipeline #ill yield
satis-actory ans#ers i- the pipeline is long/ For shorter pipelines, calculations ,ust be
per-or,ed by subdi0iding the pipeline into short seg,ents and ta!ing into account
heat trans-er bet#een the pipeline gas and the surrounding soil/
9.( S#MMAR%
4n this chapter #e re0ie#ed the ther,al e--ects o- pressure drop and horsepo#er
re9uired in a natural gas pipeline syste,/ %e pointed out the di--erences bet#een the
results obtained -ro, isother,al and ther,al hydraulic analysis/ This #as illustrated
#ith e>a,ple proble,s using an isother,al analysis co,pared to a ,ore rigorous
approach considering heat trans-er bet#een the pipeline gas and the surrounding soil/
1 popular gas pipeline hydraulic si,ulation so-t#are application #as used to
illustrate the calculation ,ethodology/
ZZ2
)5,
GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
PR!1"EMS
2/ 1pply the techni9ue
discussed in the
te,perature 0ariation
calculation section to
calculate the te,perature
pro-ile o- a gas pipeline '
,i long, $P" 20, #ith
0/&)5 in #all thic!ness, at
a -lo# rate o- 200
=="CF</
2/ 1 200 ,ile, $P" 2', 0/500
inch #all thic!ness pipeline
-ro, =obile to "a0annah is
used -or transporting &00
=="CF< o- natural gas
6gra0ity M 0/65 and
0iscosity M 0/00000( lb;-t*
s8/ The =BP is 2'00 psig/
The gas inlet te,perature
and pressure at =obile are
(0KF and 2200 psig,
respecti0ely/ The soil
te,perature can be assu,ed
to be 60KF throughout/ The
deli0ery pressure re9uired
at "a0annah is 300 psig/
1ssu,e isother,al -lo# at
)0KF/ .sing the Panhandle
e9uation #ith an
e--iciency o- 0/35, calculate
the -ree -lo# 0olu,e #ith
no co,pressor stations/
Co,pare these results #ith
ther,al hydraulic analysis
using subdi0ided pipe
seg,ents and heat trans-er
calculations/ The base
pressure is 2'/) psia and
base te,perature is 60KF/
RE'ERENCES
2/ $ayyar, =/L/, Piping
Hand8''5, )th ed/,
=cGra#*7ill, $e# Hor!,
2000/
2/ Liu, 7/, Pipeline
3ngineering, CRC Press, oca
Raton, FL, 200&/
&/ =cCain, %/</ Dr/, %he
Pr'perties 'f Petr'leum
.luids, Petroleu,
Publishing Co,pany,
Tulsa, BF, 23)&/
'/ 7ol,an, D/P/,
%herm'dynamics, 2nd ed/,
=cGra#*7ill, $e# Hor!,
23)'/
5/ =ohitpour, =/,
Golshan, 7/, and
=urray, 1/, Pipeline
4esign and 7'nstructi'n,
2nd ed/, 1"=? Press,
$e# Hor!, 200&/
2/ 3ngineering 4ata *''5,
20th ed/, Gas Processors
"uppliers 1ssociation,
Tulsa, BF, 233'/
2/ Pipeline 4esign f'r
Hydr'car8'n Gases and
;i?uids, 1,erican
"ociety o- Ci0il
?ngineers, $e# Hor!,
23)5/
&/ 6teady .l'w in Gas
Pipelines, Contract
Report $o/ 20, Duly
2365, Pipeline Research
Council 4nternational,
7ouston, Tg, 2365/
6/ =c1da,s, %/7/, Heat
%ransmissi'n, =cGra#*
7ill, $e# Hor!, 235'/
)/ Fat:, </L/ et al/,
Hand8''5 'f Iatural Gas
3ngineering, =cGra#*
7ill, $e# Hor!, 2353/
CHAPTER :
Transient Ana+,sis an- Case Stu-ies
This chapter is de0oted to transient pressure analysis and case studies o- typical long*
distance gas trans,ission pipelines/ The subCect o- transient pressure analysis is 9uite
co,ple>, and understanding the theory behind it re9uires del0ing into di--erential
e9uations and solution by the ,ethod o- characteristics/ Further, these calculations
re9uire so,e -or, o- co,puter si,ulation to arri0e at ,eaning-ul results/ $e0erthe*
less, #e #ill discuss se0eral scenarios that are typical o- unsteady -lo# in gas
pipelines that cause transient conditions/ The obCecti0e is to deter,ine ho# the
pressure 0aries along the pipeline due to disturbances caused by transient conditions,
such as a ,ainline 0al0e closure and co,pressor station shutdo#n/ 4- these transient
conditions cause the pipeline pressures at so,e points to e>ceed the =BP, ,easures
,ust be pro0ided to ensure that the pressures do not 0iolate the li,its allo#ed by
design codes/ For detailed analysis o- transient pressures in gas pipelines, the reader
should re-er to the te>ts listed in the Re-erence section o- this chapter/ %e #ill also be
re0ie#ing se0eral real*#orld pipeline transportation scenarios that enco,pass the
concepts co0ered in the preceding chapters/
:.1 #NSTEAD% '"!W
4n the preceding chapters, #e analy:ed pipelines that #ere in steady*state -lo#/ This
,eans that, at any point in ti,e, the pipelines #ere operating at constant -lo# rates
#ith a constant pressure and te,perature pro-ile/ 4n other #ords, i- the pressures,
te,peratures, and -lo# rates #ere ,easured at so,e point in ti,e, say at 20 a/,/ on a
certain day, these para,eters persisted in 0alues throughout the period under in0es*
tigation/ There-ore, at so,e other ti,e, such as 22 noon or 5 p/,/, the pressure
pro-ile, the te,perature pro-ile, and the gas -lo# rates #ere all the sa,e as that at 20
a/,/ 4n reality, this does not happen/ <ue to one reason or another, the -lo# rates and
pressures tend to change/ This ,ight be due to changes in deli0ery conditions, such
as 0ariation in the a,ount o- gas being recei0ed at deli0ery stations due to changes in
operation o- -acilities that re9uire the gas/ Further en0iron,ental conditions, such as
)5-
)50 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
at,ospheric te,peratures, can cause 0ariation in co,pressor per-or,ance, resulting in
-lo# and pressure changes at the co,pressor discharge/ The latter #ill, in turn, cause
changes in pressure and te,perature o- the pipeline gas/ 1nother reason -or unsteady
-lo# condition can be a result o- s#itching or closing 0al0es to di0ert -lo# to di--erent
custo,ers or shutdo#n or startup o- co,pressor stations/ "uch unsteady operation
causes transient pressures in the pipeline/ .nder unsteady or transient -lo#, the
pressures, te,peratures, and -lo# rates beco,e ti,e dependent/ This ,eans that it
#ill no longer be correct to use results based upon steady*state -lo# calculations/
:.1.1 Transient Due to Main+ine a+?e C+osure
To illustrate a transient condition, let us re0ie# a si,ple pipeline syste, #ith a head
co,pressor station and a ,ainline 0al0e at the end o- the pipeline, as sho#n in Figure
(/2/
The pipeline has been operating in steady*state condition -or a long ti,e/ The
0al0e at the end o- the pipeline is suddenly closed due to ,al-unction or hu,an error/
4,,ediately, the pressure at the 0al0e and at points upstrea, o- it starts to rise, as
sho#n by the dashed lines in Figure (/2/ "ince gas is co,pressible, the co,pressor at
the upstrea, end continues to pu,p gas #ithout sensing the pressure rise do#n*
strea,/ This #ill result in an increase in line pac! in the do#nstrea, section o- the
pipe, #hich #ill progress to#ard the upstrea, end/ The transient pressure #a0es
,o0ing upstrea, #ill e0entually reach the discharge o- the co,pressor, causing the
discharge pressure to rise/ 4- the increased pressure attains the discharge shutdo#n
setting, the co,pressor #ill trip and shut do#n, producing no -urther pu,ping
pressure/ The bloc!ed*in gas in the pipeline #ill continue to undergo pressure 0ari *
ation -ro, upstrea, to do#nstrea, as the pressure #a0es go bac! and -orth at the
speed o- sound in gas/ ?0entually, the pressure surge dies out because o- -riction and
loss o- inertia resulting -ro, reduction in gas 0elocity/ This is illustrated in another
*
pre!!$re ri!e ?ith ti"e after &al&e lo!$re6I
'i4ure :.1 Tran!ient %$e to &al&e lo!$re'
TRANSIENT ANALYSIS AND CASE STUDIES
)55
'i4ure :.2 Co"pre!!or perfor"ane $r&e &!' pipeline !y!te" hea% $r&e'
#ay in Figure (/2, using the co,pressor per-or,ance cur0e and the pipeline syste,
cur0e/
The steady*state syste, head cur0e is represented by 1 and the co,pressor
per-or,ance cur0e by C</ The steady*state operating point is there-ore at ?, #here
the co,pressor head 7 ,atches the pipeline syste, head re9uired at the -lo# rate :.
1s the 0al0e at the end o- the pipeline is closed, the syste, head cur0e shi-ts to the
le-t, indicating reduction in gas -lo# due to increased pipeline resistance caused by the
constriction in the 0al0e/
:.1.2 Transient Due to Co3pressor Shut-oCn
1nother transient condition that can occur in a si,ple pipeline described in Figure (/2 is
that o- a co,pressor station shutdo#n -ro, a steady*state operating condition/
"uppose the co,pressor shuts do#n in &0 seconds a-ter a long period o- steady*state
-lo#/ "ince there is no pressure being generated at the upstrea, end o- the pipeline,
but gas continues to be deli0ered at the do#nstrea, end, the line pac! in the pipeline
starts reducing starting at the do#nstrea, end/ The pressures continue to -all along the
pipeline and e0entually stabili:e at so,e bloc!ed*in pressure/
1nother slightly co,plicated co,pressor station shutdo#n scenario that causes
transient pressures is illustrated in Figure (/&/ 4n this case, a pipeline #ith t#o
co,pressor stations is sho#n #ith a hydraulic pressure gradient under steady*state
conditions/ 4- the inter,ediate co,pressor station shuts do#n and the gas continues to
be pu,ped -ro, the -irst co,pressor station bypassing the second co,pressor station,
the hydraulic pressure gradient #ill e0entually be as indicated in Figure (/&/ 7o#e0er,
be-ore steady*state conditions are achie0ed #ith only one co,pressor operating,
transient pressures are de0eloped -ro, the point o- shutdo#n o- the inter,ediate
co,pressor station/ "uppose the initial -lo# rate #ith both co,pressors operating
under steady*state conditions is indicated by a -lo# rate o- :. The co,pressor
Hy%ra$li pre!!$re ;ra%ient ?ith one o"pre!!or !tation
'i4ure :.$ Tran!ient %$e to o"pre!!or !tation !h$t%o?n'
per-or,ance cur0e superi,posed on the pipeline syste, head cur0e -or the
pipe seg,ent bet#een the t#o co,pressor stations is sho#n in Figure (/'/
4nitially, the syste, head cur0e 1 -or the pipe seg,ent 2 bet#een the
t#o co,pressor stations results in a -lo# rate o- : #ith the operating point
at ?/ 1t this point, the co,pressor head 7 o- the -irst co,pressor station
,atches the pipeline syste, head re9uired at the -lo# rate :. %hen the
second co,pressor station shuts do#n, it no longer pro0ides the discharge
pressure to boost the gas in pipe seg,ent 2/ There-ore, the -irst co,pressor
station has to push the gas all the #ay to the end o- the pipeline/ 4t there-ore
has to contend #ith a longer pipe seg,ent, #hich has a syste, head cur0e
FG as sho#n in Figure (/'/ 4t can be seen that the ne# operating point F is
at
'i4ure :.( Tran!ient %$e to inter"e%iate o"pre!!or !h$t%o?n'
TRANSIENT ANALYSIS AND CASE STUDIES
)53
a reduced -lo# rate :
2
. 4- the point F on the co,pressor head cur0e is at too high a
discharge pressure, the control ,echanis, #ill signal the co,pressor to slo# do#n in
speed/ Thus, i- the original co,pressor cur0e #as based on 25,000 rp,, the co,*
pressor #ould slo# do#n to a speed such as 22,000 rp,/ This results in a ne# operating
point, L, corresponding to a -lo# rate :
2
, as sho#n in Figure (/'/ 4n su,,ary, shutting
do#n the second co,pressor station causes the operating point to ,o0e -ro, point ? on
the co,pressor head cur0e at 25,000 rp, do#n to point L on the co,pressor head cur0e
at 22,000 rp,/ Correspondingly, the -lo# rate #ill decrease -ro, : at point ? to :
2
at
point L/
:.2 CASE ST#DIES
4n the ne>t -e# pages o- this chapter, #e are going to loo! at so,e real*li-e gas trans*
,ission pipeline syste,s/ %e #ill be applying the concepts learned in the pre0ious
chapters to deter,ine the pressures and -lo# rates re9uired in 0arious scenarios/
:.2.1 !ffshore Pipe+ine Case
Consider a gas production -acility located o--shore/ The gas is co,pressed -ro, the
o--shore plat-or, through sub,arine pipelines that go ashore and subse9uently
connect to onshore pipelines -or transportation o- gas to industrial consu,ers/ %e #ill
loo! at si:ing such an o--shore and onshore piping syste, -or transporting a gi0en
9uantity o- gas/ Calculations #ill be per-or,ed considering di--erent options such as
the 1G1 e9uation and Panhandle e9uations/ %e #ill illustrate this using an e>a,ple/
Case 'tudy )67ffshore"7nshore Pi!eline
1 natural gas pipeline syste, originates at an o--shore -acility that co,presses
the gas through 200 ,i o- $P" &0, 0/625 in/ #all thic!ness sub,arine
pipelines to an onshore location, as depicted in Figure (/5/
1 co,pressor station located onshore is used to co,press the gas through a 220
,i, $P" 2', 0/500 inch #all thic!ness onshore buried pipeline -or e0entual
deli0ery to a po#er plant/ <eter,ine the ,a>i,u, -lo# rate possible under the
-ollo#ing conditions/ $eglect ele0ation e--ects/ The co,pression ratio is 2/5/
.se the %ey,outh e9uation #ith 35L e--iciency/ 1ssu,e a base pressure o-
2'/) psia and base te,perature o- 60KF/ The gas -lo#ing te,perature is 60KF
and the co,pressibility -actor is 0/((/ The gas gra0ity is 0/65/
Co"pre!!or Station
)11 "NPS +1
'i4ure :.) *ff!horeFon!hore pipeline'
6a8 Gas pressure at the plat-or, e9uals 2'(0 psig and -ree -lo# occurs #ithout use o-
any co,pression o--shore or onshore/ The deli0ery pressure at the po#er plant is 500
psig/
6b8 Considering the =BP at the plat-or, and onshore e9ual to 2'(0 psig,
deter,ine the ,a>i,u, throughput possible #ith co,pression o--shore and
onshore/
"olution
6a8 Free -lo# #ith 2'(0 psig at the o--shore plat-or,/
.sing %ey,outh ?9uation 2/52, neglecting ele0ation e--ects, calculate the pressure at
the beginning o- the $P" 2' onshore pipeline/ The pipe inside dia,eter M 2' U
2 O 0/500 M 2& in/
: M '&
5 O
3
60 P '60Z C P22 R 52'/)2 05 2 2&2/66)
//ZZ 2'/) Z
0/65>52
O220O0/(( Z
6(/28
"i,ilarly, considering the $P" &0 pipeline 200 ,i long,
Pipe inside dia,eter M &0 R 2 O 0/625 M 2(/)5 in/
0/5
2
60P'60 2'3'/)2 J P
'&&5 035
2(/)5
2/66)
6( 28
l
'6
>
2
: M /O
l 2'/) /65O520O200O0/((
?li,inating : -ro, both ?9uation (/2 and ?9uation (/2 by di0ision, #e get
S P2
2
R52'/) 2 0/5 200
0/5
2&/0 2/66)
6(/&8
J
62'3'/)
2
RP2
2
8 62208 62(/)58
"ol0ing -or the pressure P2 at the Cunction o- the t#o pipes
onshore, P2 M 225&/) psia M 22&3
psig
$e>t, substituting this 0alue o- P2 in ?9uation (/ 2, #e calculate the -ree
-lo# 0olu,e -lo# rate as
0/5
: M '&&/5 O 0/35 520 225&/) 2 R52'/) 2 2&2/66)
62'/)8Z0/65O520O220O0/(( C
or
: M &))/5& =="CF<
There-ore, #ithout any co,pression, the -ree -lo# possible is &))/5&
=="CF</
TRANSI ENT ANALYSI S AND CASE STUDI ES
)4(
6b8 %ith co,pressors installed at onshore and o--shore locations, each location #ill be
deli0ering at an =BP o- 2'(0 psig/ %ith a co,pression ratio o- 2/5, the suction
pressure at the onshore co,pressor is
Ps M 2'(0/P2'/) M 336/') psia M 3(2/)) psig
2/5
First, calculate the capacity o- the $P" 2' onshore pipeline, considering 2'(0
psig at the upstrea, end and 500 psig at the do#nstrea, end 220 ,i a#ay/
.sing %ey,outh ?9uation 2/52,
2
0/
5
: M '&&/5 O 0/35O 52 2'3'/)R52'/) Z2&2/66)
2'/
)Z
Z
0/65O520O220O0/(
(
ZZ
: M '6&/'& =="CF<
$e>t, #e ,ust deter,ine i- the o--shore $P" &0 pipeline can trans,it this -lo#
starting at 2'(0 psig at the o--shore plat-or, and #ith a do#nstrea, pressure
o- 3(2/)) psig calculated earlier/
0/5
: M '&&/5 O 0/35 O 520Z2'3'/)
2
R336/') 2 62(/)582/66)
2'/)Z0/65 O 520 O 200 O 0/(( C
"ol0ing -or :, #e get
: M 526/)6 =="CF<
Thus, the $P" &0 sub,arine pipeline has a capacity o- 526/)6 =="CF<,
#hereas the onshore $P" 2' pipeline has a capacity o- only '6&/'& =="CF</
Pic!ing the lo#er o- the t#o -lo# rates, the ,a>i,u, throughput possible #ith
the onshore co,pressor is '6&/'& =="CF</
Case 'tudy *68as 8athering 'ystem and Trunk Line to Po#er Plant
$atural gas gathered -ro, the "an Duan gas -ields is collected at Chico and
transported through a <$ (00, 25 ,, #all thic!ness pipeline syste,, '20 !,
long, that ties into another <$ (00, 25 ,, #all thic!ness gas trans,ission
pipeline at Rio -or e0entual deli0ery to a po#er plant at =adera, as sho#n in
Figure (/6/
Chico is at an ele0ation o- 2200 ,, #hereas Rio and =adera are at 2650 , and
&200 ,, respecti0ely/ The length o- the pipeline -ro, Rio to =adera is 2(0 !,/
The re9uired deli0ery pressure at =adera is &5 ar gauge/ The gas gra0ity and
0iscosity are 0/65 and 0/022 cP, respecti0ely/ The gas inlet te,perature at
Chico is 20KC, and the pressure is '0 ar gauge/ 1ssu,e a constant gas -lo#
te,perature o- 20KC/ The pipeline =BP is 200 ar gauge/ The base
te,perature and base pressure are 25KC and 2 ar absolute, respecti0ely/ .se
the Panhandle e9uation #ith a pipeline e--iciency o- 35L/ 1ssu,e a gas
co,pressibility -actor o- 0/(5 throughout/
)4) GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
'i4ure :.. ChioGRio pipeline to /a%era po?er plant'
6a8 <eter,ine the co,pressor station po#er re9uired to deli0er 6 =,
&
;day at =adera/
.se (0L isentropic e--iciency and a speci-ic heat ratio o- 2/'/
6b8 %hat ,odi-ications are re9uired to pro0ide gas 0olu,es o- 2/5 =,
&
;day
-or an industrial consu,er at Rio in addition to that re9uired at =aderaT
6c8 %hat pipeline capacity can be e>pected i- all co,pressor stations are shut do#n
and -ree -lo# occurs -ro, Chico to Rio and =aderaT 4gnore deli0eries at Rio
and assu,e all gas -lo#s to =adera/
"olution
1ssu,e initially that one co,pressor station at Chico #ill be able to transport 6
=,
&
;day to =adera/
2 ar M 200 !Pa
Pipe inside dia,eter M (00 U 2 O 25 M ))0 ,,
The ele0ation adCust,ent para,eter -ro, ?9uation 2/22 -or Rio to =adera is
s M 0/06(' O0/65Z&200 R 2650 Z0/25(3
620 P2)&80/(5Z
es M e0/25(3 M2/235'
The e9ui0alent length -ro, ?9uation 2/3 is
;e M 2(0 O 62/0/25'3 M &23/52 !,
0/25(3
)4+
.sing Panhandle ?9uation 2/60, considering ele0ation di--erence, -irst -or the Rio to
=adera pipe seg,ent, #e get
6O20
6
M2/002O20R2O0/35Or 25 P 2)& Z 202/
200 Z
P 2
R2/235'6&6008
0/52Z))02/5&
ZZ 0/65
0/362
O 23& O &23/52 O 0/(5 Z
"ol0ing -or the pressure at Rio,
P2 M '(2( !Pa
$e>t, using this pressure as the do#nstrea, pressure -or the '20 !, pipe
seg,ent -ro, Chico to Rio, #e get
?le0ation adCust,ent para,eter s M 0/06(' O 0/65Z2650 R 2200 Z0/0(0& 620
P 2)&80/(5 ZZ
e
eR0/0(0& M 0/322(
The e9ui0alent length is
;
'2
60/322( R 28 M '0&/)' !,
R0/0(0&
6O20
6
M2/002O20
R2
O0/35O D
r25 P 2)& 202/
Z 200
P 2
0/322
'(2(
0/52Z))02/5&
4
\ 0/65
0/362
O 23& O '0&/)' O 0/(5 Z
P
5'&
!P
5'/&
a
absolut
"ince the inlet pressure at Chico is '0 ar gauge, the co,pression ratio re9uir
d at
Chico is
Co,pression ratio M 5'/&5 M 2/&&
'0P2
co,presso
station po#er re9uired is calculated -
o, ?9uation '/26 as -ollo#s5
Po#e
'/06&
6

'
6
r
2P0/(
62/&&
/
R
2
Z
or
"ol0ing -or the upstrea, pressure at Chico, #e get
The
Po#er M 2'55 F%
)4, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
%hen the Rio deli0ery o- 2/5 =,
&
;day is included, #e calculate the upstrea, pressure at
Chico -or the '20 !, seg,ent as -ollo#s5
C 2(( Z2/02Z
)/5 O 20
6
M 2/002O 20
R2
O 0/35 O
200
P 2
0/322
'(2(
Z0/52 ))02/5&
4
\
0/650@36@ > 23& > '0&/)' > 0/(5 D y proportion, #e get
M P2
2
J 0/ 322( > '(2(
2

)/5
6/0 5'&5
2
R 0/322( O '(2(2
P2 M 5(&2 !Pa M 5(/&2 ar
absolute The ne# co,pression ratio beco,es
Co,pression ratio M 5(/&2 M 2/'2
'0P2
co,pressor station is
/
Po#er M '/06&3 O )/5Z g'' Z 623&8 r 2 P >/(5 Z X 02(Z Z 62/'28@
/'
R2
Z
`M
&(0( F% Z Z a `
6c8 %hen the
co,presso
station at Chico is shut do#n, the pressure a0ailable
is only '0 ar or '000 !Pa/ .sing this upstrea, pressure and considering
the entire 6'20 P 2(08 !, M )00 !, pipeline -ro, Chico to =adera, the -ree
-lo# capability is calculated using the Panhandle e9uation by considering
the ele0ation cha
ges in
t#o steps/
-ro, 2200 , to 2650 , a
d
R0/0(0
a
d e
s
M 0/322( 6as calculated earlier8
Fro, ?9uation 2/22,
/322(R
0/362
<2 M R0/0(0&
;2 M '20 !,
2200 , to &200 ,, ,easured -
o, Chico/
The ne# po#er re9uired at the Chico
Fro, ?9uation 2/22 and ?9uation 2/2&, -or the '20 !, seg,ent the
ele0ation -alls
s M
"i,ilarly, -or the 2(0 !, second seg,ent o- the pipeline, the ele0ation rises
-ro,
s M 0/2)(5
)4-
and
es M 2/235'
/ 2 /235' R 2
MM2/035 <2
0/2)(5
;2 M 2(0 !,
Fro, ?9uation 2/2&, the e9ui0alent length is
;e M 0/362' O '20 P2/035 O 2(0 O 0/322( M 6(6/)2 !,
For the entire line,
s M 0/06(' O 0/65&200 R 2200 Z0/2)(5 23&
O 0/(5 ZZ
es Me
/2)(5
M2/235'
1pplying the Panhandle e9uation -or the entire pipeline, #e get
))02/5&
: M 2/002 O 20
R2
O 0/35O62002((D2/02X '2002R 2/235' O &600 2 Z0/52
0/65
0/362
O 23& O 6(6/)2 O 0/(5 Z : M 2,326,&2'
,
&
;day M 2/3& =,&;day
Thus, #ith the Chico co,pressor station shut do#n, the -ree -lo#
throughput is : M 2/3& =,&;day
Bb0iously, this is inade9uate to -eed the =adera po#er plant that re9uires 6
=,&;day/
Case 'tudy +6Fairfield to 5eaumont and Tra9is Pi!eline
1 natural gas pipeline, $P" 2', is being built -ro, the gas -ields at Fair-ield
6ele0ation 620 -t8 to transport gas to a '00 =% po#er plant at eau,ont
6ele0ation &50 -t8 2(0 ,i a#ay, as illustrated in Figure (/)/
1long the #ay at =a0is 6,ilepost 50, ele0ation 2200 -t8, an industrial
consu,er re9uires 20 =="CF<, and a s,all co,,unity at =ayberry
6,ilepost 220, ele0ation 2(00 -t8 re9uires natural gas -or a ,unicipal gas
distribution syste, #ith a city gate pressure o- 600 psig and 20 =="CF</
<uring the -irst 2 years o- operation, the gas -lo# re9uire,ents are as -ollo#s5
=a0is5 20 =="CF< at &00 psig
=ayberry5 20 =="CF< at 600 psig
eau,ont5 200 =="CF< at '00 psig
Total5 2&0 =="CF<
,11 p!i;
8ea$"ont Ele&S +-1 ft
01 //SCFD
+-1 p!i;
Tra&i!
Ele&S ,)1 ft
Fai r f i el %
Ele&S 0(1 ft
'i4ure :.9 Fairfiel% to 8ea$"ont an% Tra&i! pipeline'
1t the end o- the second year, a 2'0 =% po#er plant at Tra0is 6ele0ation '20
-t8 #ill co,e on strea, and re9uire a gas deli0ery o- 60 =="CF< at &50
psig/ This re9uires a total pipeline capacity o- 230 =="CF< out o- Fair-ield/
The gas pressure and te,perature at the inlet to the pipeline are 500 psig and
)0KF/ The soil te,peratures can be assu,ed to be as -ollo#s5
Fair-ield to =a0is5 60KF
=a0is to =ayberry5 50KF
=ayberry to eau,ont5 )0KF
The branch pipe to Tra0is starts at the Tra0is Cunction 6,ilepost 200, ele0ation
)50 -t8 and e>tends 20 ,i to the Tra0is po#er plant/ 4t is an $P" 26, 0/250 in/
#all thic!ness pipe/ 4t is anticipated that 1P4 5Lg*)0 ,aterial #ill be used -or
the pipe/ The cost o- pipe ,aterial is m2200 per ton -or pipe coated, #rapped,
and deli0ered to the -ield/ Construction cost o- the pipeline can be esti,ated at
m20,000 per in/*dia,eter ,i/ Co,pressor stations cost is m2000 per installed
HP. =ainline 0al0es are to be installed at 20 ,i inter0als and cost m200,000 per
site/ Receipt and deli0ery ,eters at Fair-ield, =a0is, =ayberry, Tra0is, and
eau,ont are e>pected to cost as -ollo#s5
Fair-ield ,eter5 m500,000
=a0is ,eter5 m200,000
=ayberry ,eter5 m250,000
Tra0is ,eter5 m&00,000
eau,ont ,eter5 m&50,000
Fuel consu,ption can be esti,ated at 0/2 =CF per day per HP. Fuel gas cost is
m' per =CF/
1ssu,e base pressure M 2'/) psia and base te,perature M 60KF/ The =BP o-
the pipeline is 2''0 psig/ .se the General Flo# e9uation #ith a Colebroo!
-riction -actor and the C$G1 e9uation -or the co,pressibility -actor/
)45
6a8 <eter,ine the pipe #all thic!ness re9uired -or the speci-ied =BP/
6b8 <eter,ine the locations and HP o- the co,pressor stations necessary -or the -irst 2
years 6phase 28 and a-ter that 6phase 28/
6c8 ?sti,ate the total capital cost o- pipeline, co,pressor stations, and other
-acilities -or phase 2/
"olution
<uring the phase 2 operation, #e #ill calculate the pressures and HP re9uired,
considering 200 =="CF< deli0ery to the eau,ont po#er plant at '00 psig/
"ince the =BP is 2''0 psig, the ,ini,u, #all thic!ness needed -or the class
2 location is calculated -ro, ?9uation 6/(5
2''0 M 2 t O )0,000 O 0/)2
2'
"ol0ing -or t, #e get
%all thic!ness t M 0/&'& in/
or
.se 0/&)5 in/ standard si:e pipe/
4nside dia,eter 4 M 2' U 2 O 0/&)5 M 2&/25 in/
First, calculate the upstrea, pressure at ,ilepost 220, assu,ing a gas -lo#
te,perature at )0KF and co,pressibility -actor o- 0/(5/
The Reynolds nu,ber -ro, ?9uation 2/&' is
2'SS/)ZZ 0/6 O 200 O 20 6
$e M 0/000'))( 6520 D M ', &5),203 ( > 20
*6
>
2&/25
1ssu,ing an internal roughness e M 0/000) in/ and using ?9uation 2/'5, #e get
the trans,ission -actor . as -ollo#s5
. M R'lo r 0/000) P 2/255 . Z g20 Z &/) O
2&/25 '/&5)2O20
6
Z "ol0ing by successi0e
iteration,
. M 23/'5
The upstrea, pressure at ,ilepost 220 is calculated -ro, General Flo#
?9uation 2/', considering the ele0ation di--erence/
?le0ation adCust,ent para,eter s M 0/0&)5O 0/6Z
&50
R 2(00 Z0/0)2' 5&0
O 0/(5 ZZ
es M eR0/0)2' M 0/3&02
)44 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
and
;e M2)0 O 60/3&02 R 28 M 26'/0& ,i
R0/0)2'
0/5
6 62'/)520ZC P ,
2
R 0/3&02 O '2'/)
2
Z 2 5
200O 20 M & (/)) O 23/'5DZ2&/25 @ 0/6O5&0O26'/0&O0/(5
P2 M 502/) psia M '()/0 psig
The a0erage pressure in the pipe seg,ent is, by ?9uation 2/2',
2Pa0g M T6502&P'2'/)R502/) O
'2'/)Z
'53/6 psia M '''/3 psig &
502&P'2'/) ZZ
%e #ill con-ir, the 0alue o- the co,pressibility -actor & #e used earlier,
using C$G1 ?9uation 2/&'5
&M
or
2
2P '''/3O&'','00O62082/)(5O0/6 65&08&/(25
& M 0/3&53
This 0alue o- & is #ay o-- co,pared to the 0/(5 0alue #e used in our
calculations/ Recalculating P2 using the recent 0alue o- &, #e obtain
0/5
200O20
6

M &(/)) O 23/'5Z520 P2 * 0/3&02 O '2' /)2 2&/25
2 25
2'/) 0/6 O 5&0 O 26'/0& O 0/3&53 C
"ol0ing -or P2 by proportion, #e get
2
R0/3&02O'2'/) 2 P2
2
R 0/3&02O '2'/)
2
502/)
M
0/(5 0/3&53
or
P2 M 520/(6 psia
Recalculating the a0erage pressure and the ne# co,pressibility -actor &, #e -ind
P
a0g M 2520/(6P'2'/)R520/(6 O '2'/)Z M '6'/'5 psia M ''3/)5 psig
&Z
Z
520/(6P'2'/) ZZ
)43
and
2
& M 2P ''3/ )5O&'', '00O6 208 2/ ) (5 O0/ 6
65&08&/(25
or
& M 0/3&52
The percentage di--erence bet#een this 0alue o- & co,pared to the pre0iously
calculated 0alue is
0/3&52 R 0 /3&53 MR0/0)L
0/3&53
This is good enough, and #e #onAt iterate any -urther/
There-ore,
Pressure at =ayberry ta!eo-- 6,ilepost 2208 M 520/(6 psia M '36/26 psig $e>t,
calculate the pressure at ,ilepost 50, considering the pipe seg,ent bet#een
=a0is and =ayberry at 50KF -lo#ing te,perature and a -lo# rate o- 220
=="CF</ The Reynolds nu,ber, by proportion, is
220
$M',&5),203O M5,22(,5&2
200
The trans,ission -actor . is calculated -ro,
. M R' log 0/000) P 2/255.
ZZ &/) O 2&/25 5/22(5O 206Z
"ol0ing by iteration,
. M 23/5)
The upstrea, pressure at ,ilepost 50 is -ound -ro, General Flo# ?9uation
2/', considering the ele0ation di--erence, as -ollo#s5
?le0ation adCust,ent para,eter s M 0/0&)5 O 0/62(00R2200Z0/0&22
520 O 0/(5 ZZ
esMe 0/0&22 M2/0&26
and
;e M 60 O 62/0&26R28 M 60/36 ,i
0/0&22
0/5
e Z 520ZZP,
2
R2/0&26 O 520/(62 Z 2/5
220O20 M&(/))O23/5)Z
D
ZZ2&/25 2'/) 0/6O520O60/36O0/(5
P2 M 562/0& psia M 5')/&& psig
Calculating the a0erage pressure,
P
a0g M 2O562/0&<520/(62562/0& T 520/(6 5&6/(5 psia M 522/25 psig
&O562/0& < 520/(6 H
Recalculating the co,pressibility -actor & using the ne# a0erage pressure, #e get
Z
M 2)(5T0/6 2< 522/25 T &'','00 T 6208
65208&/(25
2
or
& M 0/32')
$e>t, #e recalculate the pressure at ,ilepost
505
s M 0/0&22O 0/(5 M 0/02(3
0/32')
e
s
M2/023&
and
;e M60O 0/023& M 60/(( ,i
0/02(3
0/5
6 62'/)520ZZ P ,2R 2/023& O 520/(6 2 Z
2 5
220 O 20 M & (/)) O 23/5)D4\ Z2&/25 @ 0/6O520O60/((O0/32')
"ol0ing -or P2 by proportion, #e get
2
*2/ 0&26 > 520/(6
2
P 2
2
*1 /0 23& > 520/(6
2

562/0&
M
0/(5 O 60/36 0/32') O 60/((
P2 M 56'/53 psia M 5'3/3 psig
The a0erage pressure and & are calculated ne>t5
P
a0g
M

2Z
56'/53< 520/(6256'/53 T 520/(6 5&(/&& psia M 52&/6& psig
&O56'/53<520/(6(
and
2
& M 2 ) ( 5 O 0 / 6
2P 52&/6&O&'','00O6208
65208&/(25
)3(
or
& M 0/32'5
This is not too -ar -ro, the pre0iously calculated & 0alue o- 0/32'/ There-ore, #e
#ill not iterate any -urther/
The pressure at ,ilepost 50 is
P2 M 56'/53 psia M 5'3/3 psig
$e>t, calculate the upstrea, pressure at Fair-ield, considering the 50 ,i pipe seg,ent
-lo#ing 2&0 =="CF< at 60KF/
The Reynolds nu,ber -ro, ?9uation 2/&' is
Re M 0/000'))(D 2'/)ZC 0/6 O 2&0 O 20 6 D M 5,66',2'2 Z
520 ( O 20
R6
O 2&/25 D
.sing ?9uation 2/'5, #e get the trans,ission -actor . as -ollo#s5
. M2l o r 0/ 000) P 2/ 255 . Z g20
Z &/) O 2&/25 5/66'2O2
6

0 Z
"ol0ing -or ., #e get
. M 23/62
The ele0ation adCust,ent is
s M 0/0&)5 O 0/6 2200 R 620 M 0/02(', #here & M 0/3 is assu,ed/
520 O 0/30
e
s
M2/02((
and
;e M 50 O 0/02(( M 50/65 ,i
0/02('
.sing the General Flo# e9uation, #e calculate the upstrea, pressure P2 as
20O 6 M &(/)) O 23/6222 DZZZ 520 Z X P2
2
R 2/02(( O 56'/53
2

05
2 2&/25
2/5
2&0
2'/) 0/6 O 520 O 50/65 O 0/3
"ol0ing -or the pressure at Fair-ield, #e get
P2 M 62&/(3 psia M 533/2 psig
The a0erage pressure and & are calculated ne>t5
P
a0g
M
2Z62&/(3P56'/53R62&/(3 O 56'/53 5(3/5( psia M 5)'/(( psig
&Z62&/(3P56'/532
)3) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
and
2
& M 2 ) ( 5 O 0 / 6
2P 5)'/((O&'','00O6208
65200/(25
or
& M 0/32&
Recalculating, the ele0ation adCust,ent is
s M 0/02(' O 0/3 M 0/02(
0/32&
e
s
M2/02('
and
;e M50O 2/02(' R 2 M 50/)0 ,i
0/02(
Recalculating the pressure at Fair-ield, using the General Flo# e9uation, #e get
0/5
2&0 O 20
6
M &(/)) O 23/62CD
520 Z Z P2
2
R2/02(' O 56'/53 2 Z 2&/252/5 22'/) 4l0/6O520O50/)O0/32& ZZ
y proportions,
P2
2
R 2/02(' O 56'/53
2
62&/(3
2
R 2/02(( O 56'/53 2 M
50/) O 0/32& 50/65 O 0/30
or
P2 M 62'/'0 psia M 533/) psig
Recalculating, the a0erage pressure and & are
Pa0g M 2Z62'/'P56'/53R62'/' O 56'/53 5(3/(5 psia M 5)5/25
psig &Z62'/'P56'/532
and
2
& M 2 ) ( 5 O 0 / 6
2P 5)5/25O&'','00O6208
65208&/(25
or
& M 0/32&, #hich is the sa,e as
be-ore/ There-ore, the pressure at Fair-ield is
P2 M 62'/'0 psia M 533/) psig
)3+
The HP re9uired is calculated -ro, ?9uation '/255
ZZ
'
0/'
HPM0/0(5)Z 0'O52 2
P032&2
652'8
R
2 Z
/
Z
Z
Z
or
HP M 225( -or phase 2
For phase 2, the inlet 0olu,e at Fair-ield increases to 230 =="CF</
The pressure at ,ilepost 200 #ill be calculated considering the pipe seg,ent
-ro, ,ilepost 200 to eau,ont at 200 =="CF</
Fro, earlier calculations,
. M 23/'5
s M 0/0&)5 O 0/6&50 R )50 ZR0/02(3 5&0
O 0/3
e
s
M 0/3(2&
and
;e M(0O 0/3(2& R 2 M )3/25 ,i
R0/02(3
%e #ill assu,e & M 0/3 throughout -or si,plicity/ The pressure at ,ilepost
200 is -ound -ro, the General Flo# e9uation
0/5
e 6520 DX P 2 2R0/3(2& O '2'/) 2 Z25
200O20 M & (/)) O 23/'5ZZ2&/25 2'/) 0/6O5&0O)3/25O0/3
P2 M '6'/&5 psia
$e>t, calculate the pressure at ,ilepost 220, considering 30 ,i o- pipe at )0KF
#ith a -lo# o- 260 =="CF</ %e #ill assu,e . M 23/'5 and & M 0/3
throughout -or si,plicity/
s M 0/0&)5 O 0/6)50 R 2(00 ZR0/0'35
5&0 O 0/3
e
s
M 0/352)
and
;e M30O 0/352) R2 M ()/(6 ,i
R0/0'35
)3, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
The pressure at ,ilepost 220 is -ound -ro, the General Flo# e9uation
e Z 520 CXP
2

,

R 0/352) O '6'/&5 2 Z 0 / 5 2/5
260 O 20 M & (/)) O 23/'522 ZZ2&/25
2'/) 0/6 O 5&0 O ()/(6 O 0/3
P2 M 5(2/ ) ps i a
$e>t, calculate the pressure at ,ilepost 50, considering 60 ,i o- pipe at 50KF #ith
a -lo# o- 2(0 =="CF</
s M 0/0&)5 O 0/6
2(00
R 2200 Z0/023'
520 O 0/3
e
s
M2/023(
and
;e M 6 0 O
2 / 0 / 0 2 ( ' 2 M
6 0 / 3 2 ,i
0/023'
There-ore, the pressure at ,ilepost 50 is -ound -ro, the General Flo# e9uation
0/5
e X 520 DX SSP ,
2

R 2/023( O 5(2/) 2 Z2/5
2(0 O 20 M & (/)) O 23/'5 SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSZZ2&/25
2'/) 0/6O520O60/32O0/3
P2 M 6)(/0' psia
Finally, calculate the pressure at Fair-ield considering 50 ,i o- pipe at 60KF #ith a
-lo# rate o- 230 =="CF</
s M 0/0&)5 O 0/62200 R 620 Z0/02('
520 O 0/3
e
s
M2/02((
and
;e M 50O 2/ 0
/ 0
(( '2 M 50/ 65 ,i
0/02('
)3-
There-ore, the pressure at Fair-ield is -ound -ro, the General Flo# e9uation
e 6520SSZ X P,
2
R2/02(( O 6)(/0' 2 Z 0 / 5 2/5
230 O 20 M & (/)) O 23/'5D ZZ2&/25 2'/) 0/6 O 520 O 50/65 O
0/3
P2 M )62/0' psia
The HP re9uired at Fair-ield -or phase 2 is calculated -ro, ?9uation '/255
HPM 0/0(5)Z
0
Z
2
3
0
ZO
52
Z
Z
ZZ
Z Z
0
2
(
0/' 0
C22''
R2
2
0/3ZZ
ZZ
Z
Z
Z
or
HP M '262 -or phase 2
The capital cost is calculated ne>t/
The #eight per -oot o- $P" 2' pipe is calculated using ?9uation 6/225 w
M 20/6( O 0/&)5 O 62' U 0/&)58 M 3'/62 lb;-t
"i,ilarly, -or the Tra0is branch, the #eight per -oot o- $P" 26 pipe is
calculated using ?9uation 6/225
w M 20/6( O 0/25 O 626 U 0/258 M '2/05 lb;-t
The tonnage -or 2(0 ,i o- $P" 2' pipe is
Tons M 3'/62 O 52(0 O 2(0 M 63,3'&
2000 @
The tonnage -or 20 ,i o- $P" 26 pipe is
Tons M '2/05 O 52(0 O 20 M 2220
2000
Total pipe cost M m2200 O 663,3'& P 22208 M m(6/62
,illion The installation cost o- the pipe is calculated ne>t5
4nstallation cost M m20,000 O 62' O 2(0 P 26 O 208 M m2'0/( ,illion
The installation cost o- the co,pressor station -or phase 2 is
Co,pressor cost M m2000 O '262 M m(/&& ,illion
)30 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
Considering ,ainline 0al0es at 20 ,i inter0als, the total nu,ber o- 0al0es re9uired
-or both the ,ain line and the Tra0is branch is
$u,ber o- 0al0es M 2(0 P2P
20
P 2M2) 20
20
Total cost o- 0al0es M m200,000 O 2) M m2/) ,illion
Total cost o- all ,eter stations M 6m500 P m200 P m250 P m&00 P m&508
thousand M m2/6 ,illion
There-ore,
Total capital cost o- all -acilities M 6m2'0/( P m(/&& P m2/) P m2/6 P m(6/628 ,illion
M m2&3/0' ,illion
To account -or other ite,s and indirect costs, increase the abo0e by
&0L5 Total capital cost M m2&3/0' O 2/& M m&20/)5
,illion/
:.$ S#MMAR%
This chapter re0ie#ed so,e ele,entary concepts o- transient pressures caused by
0al0e closures and co,pressor station shutdo#n/ "ince the calculation ,ethodology o-
transient pressures and -lo# rates re9uires the solution o- partial di--erential e9uations
and ,anual calculation is 9uite laborious, #e re-er the reader to an ad0anced te>t that
speciali:es in this area o- hydraulics/ %e also co0ered se0eral real*#orld pipeline case
studies/
PR!1"EMS
2/ 1 natural gas pipeline syste, -ro, an o--shore -acility is used to co,press natural
gas through 220 ,i o- $P" 2', 0/&)5 inch #all thic!ness pipe to an onshore
location, si,ilar to Figure (/5/ The co,pressor station located onshore is used to
pu,p the gas through an (0 ,i, $P" 20, 0/&)5 inch #all thic!ness pipe to a
po#er plant/ <eter,ine the ,a>i,u, -lo# rate possible under the -ollo#ing
conditions/ $eglect ele0ation e--ects/ The co,pression ratio is 2/5/ .se the
%ey,outh e9uation #ith 35L e--iciency/ 1ssu,e a base pressure o- 2'/) psia
and base te,perature o- 60KF/ The gas -lo#ing te,perature is 60KF, and the
co,pressibility -actor is 0/3/ The gas gra0ity is 0/6/
a/ The gas pressure at the plat-or, e9uals 2''0 psig and -ree -lo# occurs
#ithout use o- any co,pression o--shore or onshore/ The deli0ery pressure
at the po#er plant is 500 psig/
b/ Considering the =BP at the plat-or, and onshore e9ual to 2''0 psig,
deter,ine the ,a>i,u, throughput possible #ith co,pression o--shore
and onshore/
2/ $atural gas gathered -ro, the lanco -ields is collected at Tapas and transported
through a <$ 600, 20 ,, #all thic!ness pipeline syste,, 2'0 !, long, that ties
)35
into another <$ 600, 20 ,, #all thic!ness gas trans,ission pipeline at RoCas -or
e0entual deli0ery to a po#er plant at =ontecito/ Tapas is at an ele0ation o- 2500
,, #hereas RoCas and =ontecito are at 650 , and &00 ,, respecti0ely/ The
length o- the pipeline -ro, RoCas to =ontecito is 2'0 !,/ The re9uired deli0ery
pressure at =ontecito is '0 ar gauge/ The gas gra0ity and 0iscosity are 0/60
and 0/022 cP, respecti0ely/ The gas inlet te,perature at Tapas is 20KC and the
pressure is '0 ar gauge/ 1ssu,e a constant gas -lo# te,perature o- 20KC/ The
pipeline =BP is 200 ar gauge/ The base te,perature and base pressure are 25KC
and 2 ar absolute, respecti0ely/ .se the Panhandle e9uation #ith a pipeline
e--iciency o- 35L/ 1ssu,e a gas co,pressibility -actor o- 0/30 throughout/
a/ <eter,ine the co,pressor station po#er re9uired to deli0er ' =,
&
;day at =on*
tecito/ .se (0L isentropic e--iciency and a speci-ic heat ratio o- 2/'/
b/ %hat pipeline capacity can be e>pected i- all co,pressor stations are shut do#n
and -ree -lo# occurs -ro, Tapas to RoCas and =ontecitoT
RE'ERENCES
2/ Liu, 7/, Pipeline 3ngineering, CRC Press, oca Raton, FL, 200&/
2nd ed/, 1"=? Press, $e# Hor!, 200&/
BF, 233'/
&/ 6teady .l'w in Gas Pipelines, Contract Report $o/ 20, Duly 2365, Pipeline
Research Council 4nternational, 7ouston, Tg, 2365/
&/ Fat:, </L/ et al/, Hand8''5 'f Iatural Gas 3ngineering, =cGra#*7ill, $e#
Hor!, 2353/
'/ %ylie, ?/ / and "treeter, I/L/, .luid %ransients in 6ystems, Prentice 7all, $e# Hor!,
233&/
CHAPTER /
a+?es an- '+oC Measure3ents
4n this chapter #e #ill discuss the 0arious types o- 0al0es and -lo# ,easure,ents
used on gas pipelines/ The design and construction codes -or 0al0es, ,aterials o-
construction, and application o- the di--erent types o- 0al0es and their per-or,ance
characteristics #ill be e>plained/ The i,portance o- -lo# ,easure,ent in a gas
pipeline and the accuracy o- a0ailable instru,ents, codes, and standards used #ill
be discussed/ Iarious 1,erican $ational "tandards 4nstitute 61$"48, 1,erican
Petroleu, 4nstitute 61P48, and 1,erican Gas 1ssociation 61G18 -or,ulas used in
connection #ith ori-ice ,eters #ill be re0ie#ed/ "ince a s,all error in ,easure,ent
in gas -lo# in a pipeline can translate to se0eral thousand dollars o- loss o- re0enue,
it is i,portant that industry stri0es to i,pro0e upon ,easure,ent ,ethods/
1ccordingly, gas transportation co,panies and related industries ha0e been
researching better #ays to i,pro0e -lo# ,easure,ent accuracy/ For a detailed
discussion o- gas -lo# ,easure,ent, the reader is re-erred to the publications listed in
the Re-erence section/
/.1 P#RP!SE !' A"ES
Ial0es are installed on pipelines and piping syste,s to isolate sections o- piping -or
,aintenance, to direct the -luid -ro, one location to another, to shut do#n -lo#
through pipe sections, and to protect pipe and pre0ent loss o- -luid in the e0ent o- a
rupture/ Bn long*distance pipelines transporting natural gas and other co,pressible
-luids, design codes and regulatory re9uire,ents dictate that sections o- pipeline be
isolated by installing ,ainline bloc! 0al0es at certain -i>ed spacing/ For e>a,ple,
<BT '3 CFR, Part 232 re9uires that in class 2 locations, ,ainline 0al0es be installed
20 ,i apart/ Class locations #ere discussed in Chapter 6/
)33
'i4ure /.1 /ainline &al&e in!tallation' ARepro%$e% fro" Qat9 et al', Handbook of Natural
Gas Engineering, /Gra?6Hill, Ne? YorJ, (3-3' =ith per"i!!ion'B
1 typical ,ainline bloc! 0al0e installation on a gas trans,ission pipeline is
illustrated in Figure 3/2/
/.2 T%PES !' A"ES
The 0arious types o- 0al0es used in the gas pipeline industry include the -ollo#ing5
p Gate 0al0e
p all 0al0e
p Plug 0al0e
p utter-ly 0al0e
p Globe 0al0e
p Chec! 0al0e
p Control 0al0e
p Relie- 0al0e
p Pressure regulating 0al0e
?ach o- these 0al0es listed #ill be discussed in detail in the -ollo#ing sections/
Ial0es can be o- scre#ed design, #elded ends, or -langed ends/ 4n the gas
industry, large 0al0es are generally o- the #elded type, in #hich the 0al0e is attached
to the pipe on either side by a #elded Coint to pre0ent gas lea!age to the at,osphere/
>AL>ES AND FL*= /EASURE/ENTS
+1(
'i4ure /.2 /ainline #loJ &al&e'
4n s,aller si:es, scre#ed 0al0es are used/ 1 typical #elded end ,ainline 0al0e,
along #ith s,aller 0al0es on either side, is sho#n in Figure 3/2/
Ial0es ,ay be operated ,anually using a hand #heel or using an electric,
pneu,atic, or gas operator, as sho#n in Figure 3/&/
'i4ure /.$ >al&e ?ith "otor operator' ARepro%$e% fro" Nayyar, /'L', Piing Handbook,
/Gra?6Hill, Ne? YorJ, )111' =ith per"i!!ion'B
+1) GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
Ta*+e /.1 ANSI Pressure Ratin4s for a+?es
C+ass A++oCa*+e Pressure& psi
(-1 )5-
+11 5)1
,11 301
011 (,,1
311 )(01
(-11 +011
/.$ MATERIA" !' C!NSTR#CTI!N
=ost 0al0es used in gas pipelines are constructed o- steel and con-or, to speci-i*
cations such as 1P4, 1"=?, and 1$"4 standards/ For certain gases that are corrosi0e
and re9uire certain special properties, so,e e>otic ,aterials can be used/ The ne>t
section lists applicable standards and codes used in the design and construction o-
0al0es and -ittings on gas pipelines/
The 0al0e tri, ,aterial, #hich re-ers to the 0arious #or!ing parts o- a 0al0e such as
the ste,, #edge, and disc, are constructed o- ,any di--erent ,aterials depending
upon the pressure rating and ser0ice/ Ial0e ,anu-acturers designate their products
using so,e -or, o- a proprietary nu,bering syste,/ 7o#e0er, the purchaser o- the
0al0e ,ust speci-y the type o- ,aterial and operating conditions re9uired/ 1 typical
gate 0al0e speci-ication ,ight be as -ollo#s5 $P" 22, 1$"4 600 gate 0al0e, cast
steel -langed ends rising ste, 2&L CR, single #edge C", stellite -aced, seat rings ""
&0', 1C co,pany q2&0(/
Ial0e operators ,ay consist o- a hand #heel or le0er that is attached to the ste,
o- the 0al0e/ Gear syste,s are used -or larger 0al0es/ ?lectric ,otor operated 0al0es
are 9uite co,,only used in gas pipeline syste,s, as are gas and pneu,atic
operators/ =any 0al0es can be buried, resulting in a portion o- the 0al0e and the
operator abo0e ground/
The pressure rating o- a 0al0e represents the internal pressure that the 0al0e can
be subCect to under nor,al operating conditions/ For e>a,ple, an 1$"4 600 rating
re-ers to a 0al0e that can be sa-ely operated at pressures up to 2''0 psig/ =ost gas
pipelines are operated around this pressure rating/ Table 3/2 sho#s the 1$"4
pressure ratings -or 0al0es and pipes/
4- a 0al0e is designated as an 1$"4 600 rated 0al0e, the ,anu-acturer o- the
0al0e ,ust hydrostatically test the 0al0e at a higher pressure -or a speci-ied period
o- ti,e, as re9uired by the design code/ Generally, the hydrotest pressure is 250L o-
the 0al0e rating/ This co,pares #ith a hydrotest pressure o- 225L o- =BP -or
pipelines, as discussed in Chapter 6/
/.( C!DES '!R DESIGN AND C!NSTR#CTI!N
The -ollo#ing is a list o- applicable standards and codes used in the design and
construction o- 0al0es and -ittings on gas pipelines/
1"=? &2/(5 Gas Trans,ission and <istribution Piping "yste,s
1"=? 26/&5 =alleable 4ron Threaded Fittings
+1+
1"=? 26/55 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
1"=? 26/35 Factory =ade %rought "teel utt %elding Fittings
1"=? 26/205 Face to Face and ?nd to ?nd <i,ensions o- Ial0es
1"=? 26/225 Forged "teel Fittings, "oc!et %elding and Threaded Fittings
1"=? 26/2'5 Ferrous Pipe Plugs, ushing, etc/
1"=? 26/205 =etallic Gas!ets
1"=? 26/225 $on,etallic
Gas!ets 1"=? 26/255 utt
%elding ?nds
1"=? 26/2(5 %rought "teel, utt %elding, "hort Radius ?lbo#s and Returns
1"=? 26/&65 Bri-ice Flanges
1$"4;1"T= 12(25 Forged or rolled alloy*steel pipe -langes, -orged -ittings, and
0al0es and parts -or high te,perature ser0ice
1P4 53&5 <uctile iron plug 0al0es
1P4 53'5 %a-er type chec! 0al0es
1P4 5355 Cast iron gate 0al0es
1P4 53)5 "teel 0enturi gate 0al0es
1P4 5335 "teel plug 0al0es
1P4 6005 "teel gate 0al0es
1P4 6025 Co,pact cast*steel gate 0al0es
1P4 60&5 Class 250 corrosion*resistant gate 0al0es
1P4 60'5 <uctile iron gate 0al0es
1P4 6065 Co,pact carbon*steel gate 0al0es 6e>tended bodies8
1P4 6035 utter-ly 0al0es to 250 psig and 250KF
1P4 6<5 Pipeline 0al0es
="" <"*2&5 Corrosion resistant cast -langed 0al0es
="" "P*255 "tandard ,ar!ing syste, -or 0al0es, -ittings, and -langes
/.) GATE A"E
1 gate 0al0e is generally used to co,pletely shut o-- -luid -lo# or, in the -ully open
position, pro0ide -ull -lo# in a pipeline/ Thus, it is used either in the -ully closed or
-ully open position/ 1 gate 0al0e consists o- a 0al0e body, seat, and discE a spindleE a
glandE and a #heel -or operating the 0al0e/ The seat and the gate together per-or, the
-unction o- shutting o-- the -lo# o- -luid/ 1 typical gate 0al0e is sho#n in Figure
3/'/
Gate 0al0es are generally not suitable -or regulating -lo# or pressure or operating in
a partially open condition/ For this ser0ice, a plug 0al0e or control 0al0e should be
used/ 4t ,ust be noted that, due to the type o- construction, a gate 0al0e re9uires ,any
turns o- the hand #heel to co,pletely open or close the 0al0e/ %hen -ully opened,
gate 0al0es o--er little resistance to -lo#, and their e9ui0alent length to dia,eter ratio
6L;<8 is appro>i,ately (/ The e9ui0alent L;<s -or co,,only used 0al0es and -ittings
are listed in Table 3/2/ This ratio represents the resistance o- the 0al0e/
The gate 0al0es used in the ,ain lines carrying oil or gas ,ust be o- -ull bore or
through conduit design to enable s,ooth passage o- scrapers or pigs used -or cleaning
or ,onitoring pipelines/ "uch gate 0al0es are re-erred to as -ull bore or through
conduit gate 0al0es/
+1, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
'i4ure /.( Typial ;ate &al&e'
Ta*+e /.2 EEui?a+ent "en4ths of a+?es an- 'ittin4s
Description "2D
Gate &al&e 4
Glo#e &al&e +,1
An;le &al&e --
8all &al&e +
Pl$; &al&e !trai;ht?ay (4
Pl$; &al&e +6?ay thr$6flo +1
Pl$; &al&e #ranh flo 31
S?in; heJ &al&e -1
Lift heJ &al&e 011
Stan%ar% el#o?G31. +1
Stan%ar% el#o?G,-. (0
Stan%ar% el#o? lon; ra%i$! 31. (0
Stan%ar% tee thr$6flo )1
Stan%ar% tee thr$6#ranh 01
/itre #en%!PaM 1 )
/itre #en%!PaM +1 4
/itre #en%!PaM 01 )-
/itre #en%!PaM 31 01
+1-
'i4ure /.) Typial #all &al&e' ARepro%$e% fro" Nayyar, /'L', Piing Handbook, /Gra?Hill,
Ne? YorJ, )111' =ith per"i!!ion'B
/.. 1A"" A"E
1 ball 0al0e consists o- a 0al0e body in #hich a large sphere #ith a central hole
e9ual to the inside dia,eter o- the pipe is ,ounted/ 1s the ball is rotated, in the -ully
open position the 0al0e pro0ides the through conduit or -ull bore re9uired -or unre*
stricted -lo# o- the -luid and scrapers or pigs/ Co,pared to a gate 0al0e, a ball 0al0e
has 0ery little resistance to -lo# in the -ully open position/ %hen -ully open, the L;<
ratio -or a ball 0al0e is appro>i,ately &/0/ The ball 0al0e, li!e the gate 0al0e, is
generally used in the -ully open or -ully closed position/ 1 typical ball 0al0e is sho#n
in Figure 3/5/
.nli!e a gate 0al0e, a ball 0al0e re9uires one*9uarter turn o- the hand #heel to go
-ro, the -ully open to the -ully closed position/ "uch 9uic! opening and closing o- a
ball 0al0e can be i,portant in so,e installations #here isolating pipe sections 9uic!ly
is needed in the e0ent o- e,ergency/
/.9 P"#G A"E
The plug 0al0e traces its origin to the beginnings o- the 0al0e industry/ 4t is a si,ple
de0ice -or shutting o-- or allo#ing the -lo# o- a -luid in a pipe by a si,ple 9uarter
turn o- the handle/ 4n this sense, it is si,ilar to the ball 0al0e/ Plug 0al0es are
generally used in scre#ed piping and in s,all pipe si:es/ Plug 0al0es can be hand
#heel operated or operated using a #rench or gearing ,echanis,/ The L;< ratio -or
this type o- 0al0e ranges -ro, 2( to 30, depending upon the design/ 1 typical plug
0al0e is sho#n in Figure 3/6/
/.: 1#TTER'"% A"E
The butter-ly 0al0e #as originally used #here a tight closure #as not absolutely
necessary/ 7o#e0er, o0er the years, this 0al0e has been ,anu-actured #ith -airly tight
seals ,ade o- rubber or elasto,eric ,aterials that pro0ide good shuto-- si,ilar
+10 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
'i4ure /.. Typial pl$; &al&e'
to other types o- 0al0es/ utter-ly 0al0es are used #here space is li,ited/ .nli!e
gate 0al0es, butter-ly 0al0es can be used -or throttling or regulating -lo#, as #ell as
in the -ull open and -ully closed positions/ The pressure loss through a butter-ly
0al0e is higher in co,parison #ith the gate 0al0e/ The L;< ratio -or this type o-
0al0e is appro>i,ately '5/ utter-ly 0al0es are used in large and s,all si:es/ They
can be hand #heel operated or operated using a #rench or gearing ,echanis,/ 1
typical butter-ly 0al0e is sho#n in Figure 3/)/
/./ G"!1E A"E
Globe 0al0es, so called because o- their outside shape, are #idely used in plant
piping/ They are suitable -or ,anual and auto,atic operation/ .nli!e the gate 0al0e,
globe 0al0es can be used -or regulating -lo# or pressures as #ell as co,plete
'i4ure /.9 Typial #$tterfly &al&e'
+15
'i4ure /.: Typial ;lo#e &al&e'
shuto-- o- -lo#/ They can also be used as pressure relie- 0al0es or as chec! 0al0es/
Co,pared to a gate 0al0e or ball 0al0e, the globe 0al0e has considerably higher
pressure loss in the -ully open position/ This is due to the -act that the -lo# o-
-luid changes direction as it goes through the 0al0e/ The L;< ratio -or this type o-
0al0e is appro>i,ately &'0/ Globe 0al0es are ,anu-actured in si:es up to $P"
26/ They are generally hand #heel operated/ 1 typical globe 0al0e is sho#n in
Figure 3/(/
/.10 CHEC< A"E
Chec! 0al0es are nor,ally in the closed position and are open #hen the -luid
-lo#s through the,/ They also ha0e the capability o- shutting o-- the -lo# in the e0ent
the pressure do#nstrea, e>ceeds the upstrea, pressure/ 4n this respect, they are used
-or -lo# in one direction only/ Thus, they pre0ent bac! -lo# through the 0al0e/ "ince
-lo# o- the -luid through these 0al0es is allo#ed to be in one direction only, chec!
0al0es ,ust be installed properly by noting the nor,al direction o- -lo#/ 1n arro#
sta,ped on the outside o- the 0al0e body indicates the direction o- -lo#/ Chec! 0al0es
can be classi-ied as s#ing chec! 0al0es and li-t chec! 0al0es/ The L;< ratios -or chec!
0al0es range -ro, 50 -or the s#ing chec! 0al0e to as high as 600 -or li-t chec! 0al0es/
?>a,ples o- typical chec! 0al0es are sho#n in Figure 3/3/
+14 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
'i4ure /./ Typial heJ &al&e!' ARepro%$e% fro" T$lli!, @'P', H!draulics of Pielines, @ohn
=iley & Son!, Ne? YorJ, (343' =ith per"i!!ion'B
/.11 PRESS#RE C!NTR!" A"E
1 pressure control 0al0e is used to auto,atically control the pressure at a certain point
in a pipeline/ 4n this respect it is si,ilar to a pressure regulator discussed ne>t/
%hereas the pressure regulator is generally used to ,aintain a constant do#nstrea,
pressure, a pressure control 0al0e is used to control the upstrea, pressure/ The
upstrea, and do#nstrea, are relati0e to the location o- the 0al0e on the pipeline/
Generally, a bypass piping syste, around the control 0al0e is installed to isolate the
control 0al0e in the e0ent o- an e,ergency or -or ,aintenance #or! on the control
0al0e/ This is illustrated in Figure 3/20/
Up!trea" pre!!$re P(
Pre!!$re %rop RP
Do?n!trea" pre!!$re P)
'i4ure /.10 Pre!!$re ontrol &al&e'
+13
'i4ure /.11 Pre!!$re re;$lator' ARepro%$e% fro" Qat9 et al', Handbook of Natural Gas
Engineering, /Gra?6Hill, Ne? YorJ, (3-3' =ith per"i!!ion'B
/.12 PRESS#RE REG#"AT!R
1 pressure regulator is a 0al0e that is si,ilar to a pressure control 0al0e/ 4ts -unction is
to control or regulate the pressure in a certain section o- a pipeline syste,/ For
e>a,ple, on a lateral piping that co,es o-- a ,ain pipeline, used -or deli0ering gas to a
custo,er, a lo#er pressure ,ight be re9uired on the custo,er side/ 4- the ,ain pipeline
pressure at the point o- connection to the lateral pipeline is (00 psig, but the custo,erAs
piping is li,ited to 600 psig, a pressure regulator is used to reduce the pressure by 200
psig, as sho#n in Figure 3/22/
/.1$ PRESS#RE RE"IE' A"E
The pressure relie- 0al0e is used to protect a section o- piping by relie0ing the pipeline
pressure #hen it reaches a certain 0alue/ For e>a,ple, i- the =BP o- a pipeline syste, is
2'00 psig, a pressure relie- 0al0e ,ay be set at 2'50 psig/ 1ny upset conditions
+(1 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
that cause the pipeline pressure to e>ceed the nor,al 2'00 psig #ill cause the relie-
0al0e to open at the set point o- 2'50 psig and e>pel the gas to the at,osphere or to a
relie- 0essel, thereby protecting the pipeline -ro, o0erpressure and, e0entually,
rupture/ The di--erence bet#een the relie- 0al0e set point 62'50 psig8 and the pipeline
=BP 62'00 psig8 #ill depend on the actual application, the 0al0e type, and e>pected
-luctuations in pressure/ Generally, the di--erence #ill range bet#een 20 and 50 psig/
Too close a di--erence #ill result in -re9uent operation o- the relie- 0al0e, #hich #ill be
a nuisance and, in ,any cases, a #aste o- 0aluable gas/ 1 large di--erence bet#een a
relie- 0al0e set point and the pipeline =BP ,ay render the 0al0e ine--ecti0e/
/.1( '"!W MEAS#REMENT
Gas -lo# ,easure,ent in a pipeline is necessary -or properly accounting -or the
a,ount o- gas transported -ro, one point to another along a gas pipeline/ The o#ner o-
the gas and the custo,er #ho purchases the gas both re9uire that the correct a,ount
o- gas be deli0ered -or the agreed*upon price/ ?0en a 0ery s,all error in -lo#
,easure,ent on large*capacity pipelines can result in huge losses to either the o#ner or
custo,er o- the gas/ For e>a,ple, consider a gas pipeline transporting &00
=="CF< at a tari-- o- 50 cents per =CF/ 1n error o- 2L in the gas -lo#
,easure,ent can translate to a loss o- ,ore than m500,000 per year to either the
seller or the buyer/ 7ence, it is easy to appreciate the i,portance o- good, accurate
-lo# ,easure,ent in gas pipelines/ B0er the years, gas -lo# ,easure,ent technology
ha0e i,pro0ed considerably/ =any organi:ations ha0e Cointly de0eloped standards
and procedures -or ,easure,ent o- natural gas through ori-ice ,eters installed in
pipelines/ 1G1, 1P4, 1$"4, and 1"=? ha0e together endorsed standards -or ori-ice
,etering o- natural gas/ The 1G1 =easure,ent Co,,ittee Report $o/ & is consid*
ered to be the leading publication in this regard/ This standard is also endorsed by
1$"4 and 1P4 and is re-erred to as the 1$"4;1P4 25&0 standard/ %e #ill re-er to
sections o- this standard #hen discussing ori-ice ,eters/
/.1) '"!W METERS
"ince the ori-ice ,eter is the ,ain -lo# ,easure,ent instru,ent used in the gas
industry, #e #ill discuss this -irst/
/.1).1 !rifice Meter
The ori-ice ,eter is a -lat steel plate that has a concentric ,achined hole #ith
a sharp edge and is positioned inside the pipe, as sho#n in Figure 3/22/
1s the gas -lo#s through the pipeline and then through the ori-ice plate, due to the
reduction in cross*sectional area as the gas approaches the ori-ice, the 0elocity o- -lo#
increases and, correspondingly, the pressure drops/ 1-ter the ori-ice, the crosssectional
area increases again bac! to the -ull pipe dia,eter, #hich results in e>pansion o- gas
and decrease in -lo# 0elocity/ This process o- accelerating -lo# through
+((
Pre!!$re tap Setion ( D Pre!!$re tap DF) Setion )
P(
D
P
)
'i4ure /.12 *rifie "eter'
the ori-ice and subse9uent e>pansion -or,s a 0ena contracta, or
a throat, i,,ediately past the ori-ice, as sho#n in the -igure/
Three di--erent types o- ori-ice ,eters are illustrated in Figure
3/2&/
The di--erent types o- ori-ice ,eters sho#n ha0e di--erent
crest shapes, #hich a--ect the e>tent o- contraction o- the Cet
o- gas as it -lo#s through the ori-ice/ The contraction
coe--icient 7
c
is de-ined in ter,s o- the area o- cross section o-
the 0ena contracta co,pared to the cross*sectional area o- the
ori-ice, as de-ined belo#5
7c M )c '
(Y.1)
#here
7
c
M contraction coe--icient, di,ensionless
)
c
M cross*sectional area o- the
0ena contracta, in2 )
'
M cross*
sectional area o- the ori-ice,
in2
'i4ure /.1$ Different type! of orifie "eter!' ARepro%$e% fro" Li$,
H', Pieline Engineering, CRC Pre!!, 8oa Raton, FL,
)11+'B
+() GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
The discharge through the ori-ice ,eter is represented by the -ollo#ing basic
e9uation5
: M 77v)'
2 ZZ 6p2 Rp28;Pg(Z2 RZ28_a
2R 7c
2
()';))2
63/28
#here
: M -lo# rate, -t&;s
7 c M contraction coe--icient, di,ensionless
7 v M discharge coe--icient, di,ensionless
) ' M cross*sectional area o- the ori-ice, in2
) M cross*sectional area o- pipe containing the ori-ice, in2
p2 M upstrea, pressure, psig
p 2 M do#nstrea, pressure, psig
r M density o- gas, lb;-t&
Z 2 M upstrea, ele0ation, -t
Z 2 M do#nstrea, ele0ation, -t
g M acceleration due to gra0ity
%hen the ele0ation di--erence bet#een the upstrea, and do#nstrea,
pressure taps is negligible, the discharge e9uation -or the ori-ice ,eter can be
si,pli-ied to
: M 7 7v)'
26p2 R p28;
2R726)[82
63/&8
#here all sy,bols are as de-ined earlier/
For round*crested and no::le*crested ori-ice ,eters, sho#n in Figure 3/2&, the
0alue o- 7c can be ta!en as 2/0/ This indicates an absence o- 0ena contracta -or
these types o- ori-ices/ For the sharp*crested ori-ice at high Reynolds nu,bers or
-or turbulent -lo#, 7c is calculated -ro, the e9uation
5
7 c M 0/535 P 0/236) ' 2 ) ZZ
63/'8
#here all sy,bols are as de-ined earlier/
There are basically t#o types o- pressure ,easure,ents in ori-ice ,eters/
These are called -lange taps and pipe taps/ They relate to the locations #here the
pressure ,easure,ents are ta!en/ 1 -lange tap re9uires that the upstrea, tap be
located at a distance o- 2 in/ upstrea, o- the nearest plate -ace and that the
do#nstrea, tap be located 2 in/ do#nstrea, o- the nearest plate -ace/ Pipe taps are
such that the upstrea, tap be located at a distance o- 2/5 ti,es the inside
dia,eter o- the pipe, upstrea, o- the nearest plate -ace and that the do#nstrea,
tap be located at a distance o- ( ti,es the inside dia,eter o- the pipe, do#nstrea,
o- the nearest plate -ace/ Figure 3/2' illustrates the location o- -lange taps and pipe
taps/
>AL>ES AND FL*= /EASURE/ENTS +(+
( in' A<FG 1'1, in for #eta ratio U 1'0B A<FG 1'1) in for #eta ratio V 1'0B
) (F)D <FG 1'(DI ( 4D <FG
1'(D
) (F) D an% 4D Tap! Apipe tap!B
'i4ure /.1( Flan;e tap! an% pipe tap!'
"e0eral ter,s used in the calculation o- the ori-ice -lo# ,ust be e>plained
-irst/ The di--erential pressure -or an ori-ice is the pressure di--erence
bet#een the upstrea, and do#nstrea, taps/ The ori-ice dia,eter is de-ined as
the arith,etic a0erage o- -our or ,ore inside dia,eter ,easure,ents e0enly
spaced/ "trict tolerances -or the ori-ice dia,eters are speci-ied in the
1G1&;1$"4 25&0 standard/ Table 3/& sho#s these tolerances ta!en -ro, the
standard/
9.15.1.1 Meter Tube
The ,eter tube is the piece o- pipe in #hich the ori-ice plate is installed, along
#ith straightening 0anes as needed/ 1 typical ,eter tube consisting o- the
ori-ice plate and straightening 0anes is illustrated in Figure 3/25/
The di,ensions o- the ,eter tube, such as 1, , C, and C
Y
, depend upon the
ori-ice to pipe dia,eter ratio, also !no#n as beta ratio b, and are speci-ied in
1G1 Report $o/ &/ For e>a,ple, -or beta M 0/5,
)M 2 5 )
Y
M 2 0 * M ' 7 M 5 7 Y M 5 / 5
Ta*+e /.$ !rifice P+ate Dia3eter To+erances
!rifice
Dia3eter& in.
To+erance
<2G& in.
1')-1 1'111+
1'+5- 1'111,
1'-11 1'111-
1'0)- 1'111-
1'5-1 1'111-
1'45- 1'111-
('111 1'111-
a#o&e ('111 1'111- Aper inh %iaB
+(, GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
'i4ure /.1) /eter t$#e in!tallation'
These nu,bers are actually ,ultiples o- the pipe or ,eter tube dia,eter/ The
re9uire,ents o- straightening 0anes be-ore the ori-ice plate depend on the speci-ic
installation/ The ,ain reason -or straightening 0anes is to reduce -lo# disturbance
at the ori-ice plate -ro, upstrea, -ittings/ Re-er to 1G1 Report $o/ & -or 0arious
,eter tube con-igurations/
The ori-ice -lo# rate is the ,ass -lo# rate or 0olu,e -lo# rate o- gas per unit o-
ti,e/ The density is the ,ass per unit 0olu,e o- gas at a speci-ic te,perature and
pressure/
9.15.1.2 Expansion Factor
The e>pansion -actor is a di,ensionless -actor used to correct the calculated -lo# rate
to ta!e into account the reduction in gas density as it -lo#s through an ori-ice, #hich
is caused by the increased 0elocity and corresponding reduced static pressure/
=ethods o- calculating the e>pansion -actor \ #ill be discussed in subse9uent
sections/
The beta ratio is de-ined as the ratio o- the ori-ice dia,eter to the ,eter tube
dia,eter, as -ollo#s5
Md 4 63/58
For ori-ice ,eters #ith -lange taps, the beta ratio ranges bet#een 0/25 and 0/)0/ For
ori-ice ,eters #ith pipe taps, the beta ratio ranges bet#een 0/20 and 0/6), #here b
M beta ratio, di,ensionless
d M ori-ice dia,eter, in/
4 M ,eter tube dia,eter, in/
The -unda,ental ori-ice ,eter -lo# e9uation described in 1$"4 25&0;1G1
Report $o/ & is as -ollo#s5
6 3 / 6 8
2 ?m M 62R/8'/s \ C d262gp-/80/5
'
+(-
or
6 3 / ) 8
6 3 / ( 8
6 3 / 3 8
L?m M K\
'
d2 6 2gf /8 0 / 5
Md 4
7 742
KM
62R ]' 8 0 / 5 ( 4
'
Rd' 8 0 / 5
#here
?
m
M ,ass -lo# rate o- gas, lb;s r
f
M
density o- gas, lb; -t&
7 M discharge coe--icient
b = beta ratio, di,ensionless
d = ori-ice dia,eter, in/
\ M e>pansion -actor, di,ensionless
g M acceleration due to gra0ity, -t;s2
iP M pressure drop across the ori-ice, psi
K M -lo# coe--icient, di,ensionless
These e9uations #ere arri0ed at using the conser0ation o- energy and ,ass e9ua*
tions #ith ther,odyna,ics and the e9uation o- state -or the gas in 9uestion/ 4t can be
seen that, essentially, these -or,ulas gi0e the ,ass -lo# rate o- gas/ %e need to con0ert
these to the 0olu,e -lo# rate using the density/ The coe--icient o- discharge 7 in the
preceding e9uation is appro>i,ately 0/6, and the -lo# coe--icient K is a 0alue that is
bet#een 0/6 and 0/)/ oth the -lo# coe--icient K and the e>pansion -actor \ are
deter,ined using test data/ The 0olu,e -lo# rate at standard 6base8 conditions is
calculated -ro, the ,ass -lo# rate as -ollo#s5
63/208
? m ?v M 8
#here
?
v
M 0olu,e -lo# rate, -t&;s
?
m
M ,ass -lo# rate, lb;s
r
8
= gas density at base te,perature, lb;-t&
The e>pansion -actor \ -or lo#*co,pressibility -luids, such as #ater at 60KF
and 2 at,osphere pressure, is ta!en as 2/0/ For gases, \ can be calculated as e>plained
in the ne>t section/ The -lo# coe--icient K is -ound to 0ary #ith the dia,eter o- the
,eter tube <, ori-ice dia,eter d, ,ass -lo# rate ?
m
, and -luid density and 0iscosity at
the -lo#ing te,perature/ For gases, K also 0aries #ith the ratio o-
+(0 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
the di--erential pressure to the static pressure and 5, the ratio o- speci-ic heat o- the
gas/ 4n ,any cases, the -lo# coe--icient K is considered to be a -unction o- the
Reynolds nu,ber, acoustic ratio, ,eter tube dia,eter, and beta ratio/ Rearranging
?9uation 3/), #e get
S '?mK\ Bd2]2gcfiP^0/5 63/228
"e0eral e,pirical e9uations are a0ailable to calculate the -lo# coe--icient K. The
-ollo#ing e9uation by uc!ingha, and ean is endorsed by the $ational ureau o-
"tandards 6$"8 and is listed in 1G1 Report $o/&/
For -lange taps,
Z2/5
^Z Z
63/228
K
e
M0/533&P
0/00)
PZ0/&6'P / 5
6
8_&
'
P0/'Z 2/6R 2 4 `( 4
C5 0/0)P 0/5 Z
ZRZ 0/003P
0
/
'Z
r60/5R^82/5P 65P&Z6]R0/)82/5
#here
K
e
M -lo# coe--icient -or Reynolds nu,ber $
d
M d620
6
;258, di,ensionless 4
M ,eter tube dia,eter, in/
For pipe taps,
K M 0/ 5325P
0 /
g
( 2
P Z 0/ ''0R
0
/ 0
6
Z
]
2
PZ 0/ 3&5P0/ 25Z_ & 5
P2/& 5]
2'
P 2/
s
60/25 R ]8
2/5
63/2&8 /
63/2'8
4
#here all sy,bols are as de-ined be-ore/
K
e
For -lange taps and pipe taps, the 0alue o- K
'
is calculated -ro,
KMWWWWWWWWWWWW
' 2P 2 5 O 2 0 R 6 3 d
#here the para,eter 3 in ?9uation 3/2' is -ound -ro,
3 M d6(&0 R 5000]P 3000]
2
R '200]
&
P *) 63/258
>AL>ES AND FL*= /EASURE/ENTS +(5
The 0alue o- para,eter * in ?9uation 3/25 is de-ined as -ollo#s5
63/268
63/2)8
63/2(8
For -lange taps, * M 5&0 0 /5 4
For pipe taps, * M ()5 P)5 4
Finally, the -lo# coe--icient K is calculated -ro,
KM K' Z2P $ Z
Z d
#here
K
o
M -lo# coe--icient -or in-initely large ori-ice Reynolds nu,bers, di,ensionless
$
d
M Reynolds nu,ber at the inlet o- ori-ice, di,ensionless
The Reynolds nu,ber used in the preceding e9uations is calculated -ro,
63/238
$
d
M Vfdf
"
#here
$
d
M Reynolds nu,ber at the inlet o- ori-ice, di,ensionless V
f
M
0elocity o- -luid at inlet o- ori-ice, -t;s
d M ori-ice dia,eter, -t
r
f
= -luid density at -lo#ing conditions, lb;-t&
m = dyna,ic 0iscosity o- -luid, lb;-t/s
The 0alues o- -lo# coe--icient K calculated using the preceding e9uations apply to
ori-ice ,eters ,anu-actured and installed in accordance #ith 1G1 Report $o/ &, as
long as the ,eter tube is greater than 2/6 in/ inside dia,eter and the beta ratio is
bet#een 0/20 and 0/)5/
The uncertainties in -lo# coe--icient K, in accordance #ith 1G1 Report $o/ &,
-ollo#5
For -lange taps, the uncertainty is P;R0/5L -or 0/25 r b r 0/)0
For -lange taps, the uncertainty is greater than P;R2/0L -or 0/25 c b c 0/)0
For pipe taps, the uncertainty is P;R0/)5L -or 0/20 r b r 0/6)
For pipe taps, the uncertainty is greater than P;R2/5L -or 0/20 c b c 0/6)
The e>pansion -actor \ is calculated in t#o #ays/ 4n the -irst ,ethod, it is calculated
using the upstrea, pressure, and in the second ,ethod, it is calculated using the
do#nstrea, pressure/ The -ollo#ing e9uation is used -or the e>pansion -actor \2 #ith
re-erence to upstrea, pressure/
+(4 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
For -lange taps,
\2M2R60/'2P0/&5]'8 22 5
For pipe taps,
\,M2R]0/&&&P2/2'56]2 P0/)]5 P22]2 & 8^
522
63/228
and the pressure ratio 2
2
is
Pf2 R P f 2 M h w 63/228
22 Pf2 2)/)0)Pf2 3/22
#here
\
2
M e>pansion -actor based on upstrea, pressure
2
2
M ratio o- di--erential pressure to absolute upstrea, static pressure
h
w
M di--erential pressure bet#een upstrea, and do#nstrea, taps in in/ o- #ater at
60KF
Pf2 M static pressure at upstrea, tap, psia
Pf2 M static pressure at do#nstrea, tap, psia
2
2
;5 M acoustic ratio, di,ensionless
5 M ratio o- speci-ic heats o- gas, di,ensionless
The 0alue o- \
2
calculated using these e9uations is subCect to a tolerance -ro, 0
to P;R 0/5L -or the range o- 2 M 0 to 0/20/ For larger 0alues o- 2, the uncertainty is
larger/ For -lange taps, the 0alues o- \
2
are 0alid -or a beta ratio range o- 0/20 to 0/(0/
For pipe taps, the beta ratio range is 0/20 to 0/)0/
%ith re-erence to the do#nstrea, pressure, the e>pansion -actor \
2
is calculated
using the -ollo#ing e9uations/
For -lange taps,
63/2&8
63/2'8
\2 \262 2G22 Z0/5
562 P2280/5
\2 M62P22 80 5 R60/'2P0/&5]' 8 22
For pipe taps,
\
2
M 62 P 2
2
8
0/5
R ]0/&&& P 2/2'56]
2
P 0/)]
5
P 22]2 & 8^ 2 2 0 5 63/258
562P228
+(3
2
is
63/268
Pf2 R P f2 M h w
22 Pf2 2)/)0)Pf2
The density o- the -lo#ing gas used in ?9uation 3/6 ,ust be obtained -ro, the
e9uation o- state or -ro, tables/ 4t is i,portant to use the correct density in the -lo#
e9uations/ Bther#ise, the uncertainty in -lo# ,easure,ent could be as great as 20L/
Generally, the density o- the gas can be calculated -ro, the per-ect gas la# discussed in
Chapter 2, #ith the ,odi-ication using the co,pressibility -actor/ The -ollo#ing
e9uation is obtained by rearranging the real gas e9uation and using the gra0ity o-
gas 6see Chapter 2 -or details85
63/2)8
63/2(8
63/238
MmMGiPf f V & f $ % f
GiPf2 f2M &f2$%f
GiP8 P M $&8 %8 #here
m M ,ass o- gas
V M 0olu,e o- gas
G
i
M gra0ity o- gas 6air M 2/008
P
f
M absolute gas pressure
&
f
M co,pressibility -actor at -lo#ing te,perature
$ M gas constant
%
f
M absolute -lo#ing te,perature
subscript f 2 re-ers to upstrea, tap -lo#ing conditions
subscript f2 re-ers to do#nstrea, tap -lo#ing conditions
subscript 8 re-ers to base conditions
T#o other e9uations, based on real gas speci-ic gra0ity and ta!ing the base
conditions o- 2'/)& psia and 60KF, result in the gas densities at the upstrea, tap and at
the base conditions as -ollo#s5
63/&08
63/&28
P8
S &8 GPf 2
f2 0/333'3$&f2%f
S GP8
8 0/333'3$%8
+)1 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
Fno#ing the densities at the upstrea, tap and at the base condition, the -ollo#ing
e9uation is used -or the 0olu,e -lo# rate/ This e9uation is deri0ed -ro, the e9uations
listed in the preceding sections/
L2g (KHd
2
). D(f2 iP)
63/&28
?v M '
8
Co,bining all e9uations #e ha0e re0ie#ed so -ar, 1G1 Report $o/ & sho#s a
co,pact e9uation -or the -lo# o- gas through an ori-ice ,eter as -ollo#s5
63/&&8
#here
:
v
M gas -lo# rate at base conditions, -t&;h
h
w
M di--erential pressure bet#een upstrea, and do#nstrea, taps in in/ o-
#ater at 60KF
P
f
M absolute static pressure, psia
7 M ori-ice -lo# constant
For P
f
, subscript 2 is used -or upstrea, and subscript 2 -or do#nstrea,
pressure/
The ori-ice -lo# constant 7 consists o- the product o- se0eral -actors that
depend on the Reynolds nu,ber, e>pansion -actor, base pressure, base
te,perature, -lo#ing te,perature, gas gra0ity, and superco,pressibility -actor
o- gas/ 4t is gi0en by the -ollo#ing e9uation5
7 M
.
8
.
r
.
p8
.
t8
.
tf
.
gr
.
pv
\
63/&'8
#here the di,ensionless
-actors are .
8
M basic ori-ice
-actor
.
r
M Reynolds nu,ber
-actor .
p8
M pressure base
-actor
.t8 M te,perature base -actor
.tf M -lo#ing te,perature
-actor .gr M gas relati0e
density -actor .pv M
superco,pressibility -actor
\ M e>pansion -actor
These 0alues o- the -actors that constitute the ori-ice -lo# constant 7 are
de-ined in 1G1 Report $o/ & and are listed in 1ppendi> o- that publication/
7o#e0er, each o- these -actors can be calculated as -ollo#s/
The basic ori-ice -actor is
.
8
M &&(/2)(d
2
K
'
63/&58 #here K
'
is calculated
using ?9uation 3/2'/
+)(
63/'08
63/'28
The Reynolds nu,ber -actor is
63/&68
.rM2P 3 $
d
K M
K
'
.
r 63/&)8
The pressure base -actor is
63/&(8
63/&38
M 2'/)&
.p 8 P
8
The te,perature base -actor is
. M 8
t8 % 523/6)
The -lo#ing te,perature -actor is
0/5
C 523/6)Z ZZ
.tf M
%
The gas relati0e density -actor is
X2 D0/5.
Gr
#here all sy,bols in the preceding e9uations are as de-ined be-ore/
/.1. ENT#RI METER
The 0enturi ,eter, sho#n in Figure 3/26, is based upon ernoulliAs e9uation/ 4t
consists o- a s,ooth gradual contraction -ro, the ,ain pipe si:e to a reduced
section !no#n as the throat, -inally e>panding bac! gradually to the original
pipe dia,eter/
This type o- 0enturi ,eter is called the 7erschel type/ The angle o-
contraction -ro, the ,ain pipe to the throat section is in the range o- 22K P;R 2K/
The gradual e>pansion -ro, the throat to the ,ain pipe section is in the range
o- 5 to 25K/ This design causes the least energy loss such that the discharge
coe--icient can be assu,ed at 2/0/ Ienturi ,eters range in si:e -ro, '/0 in/ to
'(/0 in/ The beta ratio, e9ual to d;4, generally ranges bet#een 0/&0 and 0/)5/
The gas pressure in the ,ain pipe section is represented by P
2
and that at the
throat is represented by P
2
. 1s gas -lo#s through a 0enturi ,eter, it increases in
-lo# 0elocity in the narro# throat section/ Correspondingly, the pressure
reduces in the throat section according to ernoulliAs e9uation/ 1-ter gas lea0es
the throat section,
M
+)) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
Pipe !etion ( Throat !etion ) Pipe !etion +
P( P)
%
/ano"eter
'i4ure /.1. >ent$ri "eter'
it reduces in -lo# 0elocity due to the increase in pipe cross*sectional area, and it
reaches the original -lo# 0elocity/
The -lo# 0elocity in the ,ain pipe section be-ore the throat is calculated
-ro, the !no#n pressures P
2
and P21
2 g 6 .Y R P 2 ) P(&
2
R&28R5_a V, M 2
63/'28
6/2 R2
$eglecting the ele0ation di--erence &
2
+ &
2
and the -riction loss h
;
, this
e9uation reduces to the -ollo#ing5
63/'&8
I ZZ 2 g(.Y R P 2 )_a
V, M 7 2
(
) 2
)

R 2
) 2
#here
V
2
M 0elocity o- gas in the ,ain pipe section be-ore the throat
r M the a0erage gas density
)
2
M cross*sectional area o- the pipe
)
2
M cross*sectional area o- the throat
7 M discharge coe--icient, di,ensionless
The 0olu,e -lo# rate is then calculated by ,ultiplying the 0elocity by the
crosssectional area, resulting in the -ollo#ing e9uation5
63/''8
2 g 6 R 8
:M7)2 2 6/ 2 R2
+)+
.sing the beta ratio, #e si,pli-y the abo0e e9uation as -ollo#s5
63/'58
H Z
2

g
61Y
R

P
28

_
:M7)2 ' a 6 s 8 R2
The discharge coe--icient 7 is a nu,ber less than 2/0, and it depends on the Reynolds
nu,ber in the ,ain pipe section/ For a Reynolds nu,ber greater than 2 O 20
5
, the 0alue o-
7 re,ains constant at 0/3('/
4n s,aller pipe si:es, such as 2 to 20 in/, 0enturi ,eters are ,achined and, there-ore, ha0e a
better sur-ace -inish than the larger rough cast ,eters/ ",aller 0enturi ,eters ha0e a 7
0alue o- 0/335 -or Reynolds nu,bers larger than 2 O 205/
/.19 '"!W N!DD"E
The -lo# no::le sho#n in Figure 3/2) is another de0ice -or ,easuring -lo# rate/ 4t consists
o- a ,ain pipe section, -ollo#ed by a gradual reduction in cross*section area and a short
cylindrical section, ending in a gradual e>pansion to the original pipe si:e/
The discharge coe--icient 7 -or a -lo# no::le is appro>i,ately 0/33 -or Reynolds
nu,bers greater than 20
6
/ 1t lo#er Reynolds nu,bers, due to greater energy loss
subse9uent to the no::le throat, 7 0alues are lo#er/
The discharge coe--icient 7 depends on the beta ratio and Reynolds nu,ber/ 4t is
calculated using the -ollo#ing e9uation5
7 M 0/33)5 R 6/5&
63/'68
Pre!!$re tap Pre!!$re tap
Setion ( D DF) Setion )
% Flo?
D
'i4ure /.19 Flo? no99le'
+), GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
#here
b = d;4
$ M Reynolds nu,ber based on the pipe dia,eter 4
&4am!le )
1n ori-ice ,eter #ith ' in/ dia,eter is installed in a pipe #ith an inside dia,eter o-
22/03 in/ The di--erential pressure is ,easured at &0 in/ o- #ater, and the static
pressure upstrea, is 600 psig/ The gas gra0ity M 0/6 and the gas -lo#ing
te,perature M )0KF/ The base te,perature and the base pressure are 60KF and
2'/) psia, respecti0ely/ 1ssu,ing -lange taps, calculate the -lo# rate in
standard -t&;h/
The baro,etric pressure is 2'/5 psia/
"olution
The basic ori-ice -actor .8 is calculated -ro, the 1G1 & appendi> as
-ollo#s5 .8 M &25(/5
6hP8
0/5
M ]&0 O 6600 P 2'/58^
0/5
M2&5/)(
.r M2P
0/020)
M2/0002
2&5/)(
. M 2'/)& M2/002
p8 2'/)
. S 60P'60 M2/006 t8
523/6)
S 523/6) .tf M6)0P'60C0/5 M 0/3302
Z0/5
.grM6026Z M2/232 /
.pv M 2/0'6&
h M &0 M 0/0'(( P
62'/5
'SSSSSSSM 0/&&03
22/03 \ M 0/3335
7 M &25(/5 O 2/0002 O 2/002 O 2/006 O 0/3302 O 2/232 O 2/0'6& O 0/3335 M
'&32/36 .sing ?9uation 3/&&, the -lo# rate is
:v M '&32/36 O 2&5/)( M 536,&'0 -t&;h
^
>AL>ES AND FL*= /EASURE/ENTS +)-
/.1: S#MMAR%
4n this chapter #e co0ered the topics o- 0al0es and -lo# ,easure,ent as they relate
to gas pipeline transportation/ The 0arious types o- 0al0es used and their -unctions
#ere re0ie#ed/ The i,portance o- -lo# ,easure,ent in natural gas pipeline transac*
tion #as e>plained/ The predo,inantly used ,easuring de0ice !no#n as an ori-ice
,eter #as discussed in detail/ The calculation ,ethodology based on 1G1
Report $o/ & #as re0ie#ed/ The 0enturi ,eter and the -lo# no::le #ere also discussed/
PR!1"EMS
2/ 1n ori-ice ,eter 2 in/ in dia,eter is installed in a pipe #ith an inside dia,eter o-
22/03 in/ The di--erential pressure is ,easured at 20 in/ o- #ater, and the static
pressure upstrea, is 500 psig/ The gas gra0ity M 0/65 and gas -lo#ing
te,perature M )5KF/ The base te,perature and the base pressure are 60KF and 2'/)
psia, respecti0ely/ 1ssu,ing pipe taps, calculate the -lo# rate in standard -t
&
;h/
The baro,etric pressure is 2'/6 psia/
2/ 1n ori-ice ,eter has a bore si:e o- 2 in/ dia,eter and is installed in a pipe #ith an
inside dia,eter o- 6/225 in/ The di--erential pressure is ,easured at 20 in/ o-
#ater, and the static pressure upstrea, is &00 psig/ The gas gra0ity M 0/6 and gas
-lo#ing te,perature M )0KF/ The base te,perature and the base pressure are 60KF
and 2'/) psia, respecti0ely/ 1ssu,ing -lange taps, calculate the -lo# rate in
standard -t
&
;h/ The baro,etric pressure is 2'/6 psia/
RE'ERENCES
2/ =iller, R/%/, .l'w easurement 3ngineering Hand8''5, =cGra#*7ill, $e# Hor!,
23(&/
2/ .pp, ?/L/, .luid .l'w easurement, Gul- Publishing Co,pany, 7ouston, Tg,
233&/
23)6/
&/ Chere,isino--, $/, )pplied .luid .l'w easurement, =arcel <e!!er, 4nc/, $e#
Hor!, 23)3/
'/ Liu, 7/, Pipeline 3ngineering, CRC Press, oca Raton, FL, 200&/
2nd ed/, 1"=? Press, $e# Hor!, 200&/
BF, 233'/
2/ 6teady .l'w in Gas Pipelines, Contract Report $o/ 20, Duly 2365, Pipeline
Research Council 4nternational, 7ouston, Tg, 2365/
6/ Fat:, </L/ et al/, Hand8''5 'f Iatural Gas 3ngineering, =cGra#*7ill, $e#
Hor!, 2353/
&/ Hrifice etering 'f Iatural Gas, 1G1 Report $o/ &, 1$"4;1P4 25&0, 1,erican
Gas 1ssociation, 1rlington, I1, Dune 23()/
)/ =endel, B/, Practical Piping Hand8''5, Penn%ell oo!s, Tulsa, BF, 23(2/
CHAPTER 10
Pipe+ine Econo3ics
4n the pre0ious chapters #e e>plored di--erent scenarios o- pipe si:es and pressures to
transport natural gas through pipelines -ro, one location to another/ Iarious pressure drop
-or,ulas, co,pression re9uire,ents, and 7P re9uired #ere calculated #ithout
del0ing too ,uch into costs o- -acilities/ 4n this chapter the econo,ic aspects o-
pipelines #ill be re0ie#ed/ The econo,ic pipe si:e re9uired -or a particular throughput
#ill be arri0ed at considering the 0arious costs that ,a!e up a pipeline syste,/ The
initial capital cost o- pipeline and ancillary -acilities #ill be discussed, along #ith the
annual operating and ,aintenance costs/ "ince pipelines are generally designed to
transport gas belonging to one co,pany by another co,pany, a ,ethodology -or
deter,ining transportation cost or tari-- #ill be analy:ed/
1 pipeline can be constructed to transport natural gas -or the o#ner o- the pipeline, to
sell gas to another co,pany, or to transport so,e other co,panyAs gas/ These three
scenarios represent three ,aCor uses o- pipeline transportation o- natural gas/ The
econo,ics in0ol0ed in the selection o- pipe dia,eter, co,pressor station, and related
-acilities #ill 0ary slightly -or each scenario/ 1s an o#ner co,pany transporting its
o#n gas, ,ini,al -acilities #ill probably be built/ 7o#e0er, <epart,ent o- Trans*
portation 6<BT8 codes and other regulatory re9uire,ents #ill still ha0e to be ,et to
ensure a sa-e pipeline operation that #ill not endanger hu,ans or the en0iron,ent/ 4n
the second scenario, in #hich a co,pany builds a pipeline to transport its gas and
sells the gas at the end o- the pipeline to a custo,er, ,ini,al -acilities #ill be
constructed #ithout too ,uch regulatory control/ 4n the third scenario, a pipeline
co,pany constructs and operates a pipeline -or the purpose o- transporting gas
belonging to other co,panies/ This #ill be under the Curisdiction o- the Federal
?nergy Regulatory Co,,ission 6F?RC8 or a state agency such as the Public .tilities
Co,,ission 6P.C8 in Cali-ornia or the Te>as Railroad Co,,ission in Te>as/ 1n
interstate pipeline in #hich the pipeline crosses one or ,ore state boundaries #ill be
regulated by the F?RC/ 1 pipeline that is intrastate, such as #holly #ithin Cali-ornia,
#ill be subCect to P.C rules and not F?RC/ "uch regulatory re9uire,ents i,pose
strict guidelines on the type and nu,ber o- -acilities and costs that ,ay be passed on
to the custo,er re9uesting gas transportation/ These regulatory re9uire,ents #ill
dictate that e>cessi0e capital -acilities not be built and the a,orti:ed cost passed on
+)5
+)4 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
to the custo,ers/ %hereas a pri0ate pipeline co,pany transporting its o#n gas ,ay
build in e>tra co,pressor units as spares to ensure uninterrupted operation in the
e0ent o- e9uip,ent -ailure, F?RC*regulated pipelines ,ay not be able to do so/ Thus,
pipeline econo,ics #ill di--er slightly -ro, case to case/
4n this chapter #e #ill not discuss other ,odes o- transportation o- gas, such as
truc! transport o- pressuri:ed gas containers/ The general econo,ic principles dis*
cussed here are applicable to pri0ate unregulated pipelines as #ell as F?RC*regulated
pipelines used -or interstate transportation o- natural gas/
10.1 C!MP!NENTS !' C!ST
4n a gas pipeline syste, the ,aCor co,ponents that contribute to the initial capital
cost are the pipeline, co,pressor stations, ,ainline 0al0e stations and ,etering -aci *
lities, teleco,,unications, and super0isory control and data ac9uisition 6"C1<18/
Bther costs include en0iron,ental and per,itting costs, right o- #ay 6RB%8, ac9ui *
sition cost, engineering and construction ,anage,ent, legal and regulatory costs,
contingency, and allo#ance -or -unds used during construction 61F.<C8/
The recurring annual costs #ill include operating and ,aintenance 6B&=8 costs,
-uel, energy and utility costs, rental, per,itting, and annual right o- #ay costs/ The
B&= costs #ill include payroll and general and ad,inistrati0e 6G&18 costs/
4n any pipeline syste, constructed to pro0ide transportation o- gas, there #ill be
capital costs and annual operating costs/ 4- #e decide on a use-ul li-e o- the pipeline
6say, &0 or '0 years8 #e can annuali:e all costs and also deter,ine the re0enue strea,
necessary to a,orti:e the total in0est,ent in the pipeline proCect/ The re0enue earned
a-ter e>penses and ta>es plus a percentage -or pro-it di0ided by the 0olu,e
transported #ill gi0e the transportation tari-- necessary/ The calculation o- capital
cost, operating cost, and transportation tari-- #ill be illustrated using an e>a,ple/
Throughout this chapter #e #ill need to con0ert annual cash -lo#s or e>penses
into present 0alue and 0ice 0ersa/ 1 use-ul e9uation relating the present 0alue o- a
series o- annual pay,ents o0er a nu,ber o- years at a speci-ied interest rate is as
-ollo#s5
PV MZ2
$Z2
620/28
i 62 P i)n C
#here
PV M present 0alue, m
$ M series o- cash -lo#s, m
i M interest rate, deci,al 0alue n M
nu,ber o- periods, years
For e>a,ple, m20,000 in annual pay,ents -or 20 years at an annual interest rate o-
20L results in a present 0alue o-
PVM2020 62
62P02208208ZM
m(5,2&6
PI PELI NE EC*N*/I CS
+)3
"i,ilarly, #e can con0ert a present 0alue o- m20 ,illion into an annuali:ed cost
based on (L interest -or &0 years as -ollo#s/ Fro, ?9uation 20/2,
$20, 000, 000 M 0/0(6 62/0(8&0SSZZ
"ol0ing -or the annual cost $, #e get
$ M m(((,2)'
$e>t, #e #ill calculate the cost o- ser0ice and transportation tari-- using a si,ple
e>a,ple/
&4am!le )
1 natural gas pipeline transports 200 =="CF< at a load -actor o- 35L/ The
capital cost is esti,ated at m60 ,illion and the annual operating cost is m5
,illion/ 1,orti:ing the capital at 20L -or a proCect li-e o- 25 years, calculate
the cost o- ser0ice and transportation tari-- -or this pipeline/
"olution
1ll costs #ill be con0erted to annuali:ed 0alues -or a 25*year proCect li-e and
20L interest rate/ This #ill be the cost o- ser0ice on an annual basis/ %hen
this cost is di0ided by the annual pipeline throughput, #e obtain the
transportation tari--/
The capital cost o- m60 ,illion is -irst con0erted to annual cash -lo# at a 20L
interest rate -or a period o- 25 years/ .sing ?9uation 20/2,
1nnuali:ed capital cost M 60 O 0/20 M m6/62 ,illion
ZZ2 SSSSS_ R 62/208
25
a`
This assu,es :ero sal0age 0alue at the end o- the 25*year use-ul li-e o- the pipeline/
There-ore, -or a proCect li-e o- 25 years and a discount rate o- 20L, the capital
cost o- m60 ,illion is e9ui0alent to annual cost o- m6/62 ,illion/ 1dding the
annual operating cost o- m5 ,illion, the total annual cost is m6/62 P m5 M m22/62
,illion per year/ This annual cost is de-ined as the cost o- ser0ice incurred
each year/ 1ctually, to be accurate, #e should ta!e into account se0eral other
-actors such as the ta> rate, depreciation o- assets, and pro-it ,argin to arri0e
at a true cost o- ser0ice/
The transportation tari-- is de-ined as the cost o- ser0ice di0ided by the annual
0olu,e transported/ 1t a 35L load -actor and -lo# rate o- 200 =="CF<, the
transportation tari-- is
Tari-- M m22/62 O 20
6
O 20& M m0/&&'( per =CF
200O206O&65O0/35
++1 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
4n other #ords, -or this pipeline, e0ery =CF o- gas transported re9uires a pay,ent o-
appro>i,ately &&/5 cents to the pipeline o#ner that pro0ides the transportation/ This is a
0ery rough and si,plistic calculation o- an e>a,ple o- tari--/ 4n reality, #e ,ust ta!e
into account ,any other -actors to arri0e at an accurate cost o- ser0ice/ For
e>a,ple, the annual operating cost #ill 0ary -ro, year to year o0er the li-e o-
the pipeline, due to in-lation and other reasons/ Ta>es, depreciation o- assets,
and sal0age 0alue at the end o- the li-e o- the pipeline ,ust also be considered/
$e0ertheless, the preceding analysis gi0es a 9uic! o0er0ie# o- the approach used to
calculate a rough 0alue o- the transportation cost/
10.2 CAPITA" C!STS
The capital cost o- a pipeline proCect consists o- the -ollo#ing ,aCor co,ponents5
p Pipeline
p Co,pressor stations
p =ainline 0al0e stations
p =eter stations
p Pressure regulator stations
p "C1<1 and teleco,,unication
p ?n0iron,ental and per,itting
p Right o- #ay ac9uisitions
p ?ngineering and construction ,anage,ent
4n addition, there are other costs such as allo#ance -or -unds used during con*
struction 61F.<C8 and contingency/ ?ach o- the preceding ,aC or categories o- capital
cost #ill be discussed ne>t/
10.2.1 Pipe+ine
The pipeline cost consists o- those costs associated #ith the pipe ,aterial, coating,
pipe -ittings, and the actual installation or labor cost/ 4n Chapter 6, #e introduced a
si,ple -or,ula to calculate the #eight o- pipe per unit length/ Fro, this and the pipe
length, the total tonnage o- pipe can be calculated/ Gi0en the cost per ton o- pipe
,aterial, the total pipe ,aterial cost can be calculated/ Fno#ing the construction cost
per unit length o- pipe, #e can also calculate the labor cost -or installing the pipeline/
The su, o- these t#o costs is the pipeline capital cost/
.sing ?9uation 6/22 -or pipe #eight, the cost o- pipe re9uired -or a gi0en pipeline
length is -ound -ro,
620/28
P7
M
20/6(6 4 R %)%;7 O 52(0 2000
#here
P7 M pipe ,aterial cost, m
; M length o- pipe, ,i
PI PELI NE EC*N*/I CS ++(
% M pipe #all thic!ness, in/
7 M pipe ,aterial cost, m;ton
4n "4 units,
P7 M 0/02'664 R %)%;7 620/&8
#here
; M length o- pipe, !,
4 M pipe outside dia,eter, ,,
% M pipe #all thic!ness, ,,
7 M pipe ,aterial cost, m;,etric ton
Generally, pipe #ill be supplied e>ternally coated and #rapped/ There-ore, #e
,ust add this cost or a percentage to the bare pipe cost to account -or the e>tra cost
and the deli0ery cost to the construction site/ 4n the absence o- actual cost, #e ,ay
increase the bare pipe cost by a s,all percentage, such as 5L/ For e>a,ple, using
?9uation 20/2 -or a 200 ,i pipeline, $P" 20 #ith 0/500 in/ #all thic!ness, the total
pipe cost, based on m(00 per ton, is
P7 M 20/6(620 R 0/580/5 O 200 O (00 O 52(0 M m22/33 ,illion
2000
4- the pipe is e>ternally coated and #rapped and deli0ered to the -ield at an e>tra
cost o- m5 per -t, this cost can be added to the bare pipe cost as -ollo#s5
Pipe coating and #rapping cost M m5 O 52(0 O 200 M m2/6' ,illion
There-ore, the total pipe cost beco,es
m22/33 P m2/6' M m2'/6& ,illion
The labor cost to install the pipeline can be represented in dollars per unit length o-
pipe/ For e>a,ple, the labor cost ,ight be m60 per -t or m&26,(00 per ,i o- pipe -or a
particular si:e pipe in a certain construction en0iron,ent/ This nu,ber #ill depend on
#hether the pipeline is installed in open country, -ields, or city streets/ "uch nu,bers
are generally obtained -ro, contractors #ho #ill ta!e into consideration the di--iculty
o- trenching, installing pipe, and bac!-illing in the area o- construction/ For esti,ation
purposes, there is a #ealth o- historical data a0ailable -or construction cost -or 0arious
pipe si:es/ "o,eti,es the pipe installation cost is e>pressed in ter,s o- dollars per in/
dia,eter per ,i o- pipe/ For e>a,ple, an $P" 26 pipe ,ight ha0e an installation cost
o- m25,000 per in/*dia,eter*,ile/ Thus, i- 20 ,i o- $P" 26 pipe are to be installed, #e
esti,ate the labor cost as -ollo#s5
Pipe installation cost M m25,000 O 26 O 20 M m'/( ,illion
++) GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
Ta*+e 10.1 T,pica+ Pipe+ine Insta++ation Costs
Pipe Dia3eter&
in.
A?era4e Cost&
H2in.8-ia23i
4 (4,111
(1 )1,111
() )),111
(0 (,,311
)1 )1,(11
), ++,3-1
+1 +,,011
+0 ,1,5-1
4- #e con0ert this cost on a unit length basis, #e get
Pipe installation cost M '/( O 206 M m'5/'5 per -t
20 O 52(0
Table 20/2 sho#s typical installation costs -or pipelines/ These nu,bers ,ust be
0eri-ied by discussions #ith construction contractors #ho are -a,iliar #ith the
construction location/
"e0eral other construction costs ,ust be added to the installation costs -or straight
pipe/ These e>peditures include costs -or road, high#ay, and railroad crossings and
strea, and ri0er crossings/ These costs can be pro0ided as lu,p su, nu,bers, #hich
can be added to the pipeline installation costs to co,e up #ith a total pipeline
construction cost/ For e>a,ple, a pipeline ,ight include t#o road and high#ay cross*
ings that total m&00,000 in addition to a couple o- ri0er crossings costing m2 ,illion/
Co,pared to the installation cost o- a long*distance pipeline, the road and ri0er
crossings total ,ight be a s,all percentage/
10.2.2 Co3pressor Stations
4n order to pro0ide transportation o- gas through a pipeline, #e ha0e to install one or
,ore co,pressor stations to pro0ide the necessary gas pressure/ Bnce #e decide on
the details o- the co,pressor station e9uip,ent and piping, a detailed bill o- ,aterials
can be de0eloped -ro, the engineering dra#ings/ ased upon 9uotations -ro,
e9uip,ent 0endors, a detailed cost esti,ate o- the co,pressor stations can be
de0eloped/ 4n the absence o- 0endor data and in situations #here a rough order o-
,agnitude costs -or co,pressor stations is desired, #e can use an all*inclusi0e price o-
dollars per installed 7P/ For e>a,ple, using an installed cost o- m2000 per 7P, -or a
5000 7P co,pressor station, the capital cost #ill be esti,ated as -ollo#s5
Co,pressor station cost M 2000 O 5000 M m20 ,illion
4n the abo0e calculations, the all*inclusi0e nu,ber o- m2000 per installed 7P is
e>pected to include ,aterial and e9uip,ent cost and the labor cost -or installing the
co,pressor e9uip,ent, piping, 0al0es, instru,entation, and controls #ithin the
+++
co,pressor stations/ Generally, the m;7P nu,ber decreases as the si:e o- the co,*
pressor 7P increases/ Thus, a 5000 7P co,pressor station ,ight be esti,ated on the
basis o- m2000 per 7P, #hereas a 20,000 7P co,pressor station #ill be esti,ated at an
installed cost o- m2500 per 7P/ These nu,bers are ,entioned -or illustration purposes
only/ 1ctual m;7P 0alues ,ust be obtained -ro, historical pipeline cost data and in
consultation #ith co,pressor station construction contractors and co,pressor station
e9uip,ent 0endors/ Generally, the pipeline and co,pressor station costs constitute the
bul! o- the total pipeline proCect cost/
10.2.$ Main+ine a+?e Stations
=ainline bloc! 0al0es are installed to isolate sections o- a pipeline -or sa-ety reasons
and ,aintenance and repair/ 4n the e0ent o- a pipeline rupture, the da,aged pipeline
section can be isolated by closing o-- the ,ainline 0al0es on either side o- the rupture
location/ For ,ainline 0al0e stations installed at speci-ied inter0als along the pipeline,
the cost o- -acilities can be speci-ied as a lu,p su, -igure that includes the ,ainline
0al0e and operator, blo#do#n 0al0es and piping, and other pipe and -ittings that
constitute the entire bloc! 0al0e installation/ Generally, a lu,p su, -igure can be
obtained -or a typical ,ainline bloc! 0al0e installation -ro, a construction contractor/
For e>a,ple, an $P" 26 ,ainline 0al0e installation ,ight be esti,ated at m200,000
per site/ 4n a 200 ,i, $P" 26 pipeline, <BT code re9uire,ents ,ight dictate that a
,ainline 0al0e be installed e0ery 20 ,i/ There-ore, in this case there #ould be si>
,ainline 0al0es -or a 200 ,i pipeline/ 1t m200,000 per site, the total installed cost o-
all ,ainline 0al0e stations #ill be m600,000/ This #ill be added to the capital cost o- the
pipeline -acilities/
10.2.( Meter Stations an- Re4u+ators
=eter stations are installed -or ,easuring the gas -lo# rate through the pipeline/ These
,eter stations #ill consist o- ,eters, 0al0es, -ittings, instru,entation, and controls/
=eter stations can also be esti,ated as a -i>ed price, including ,aterial and labor
-or a particular site/ For e>a,ple, a 20 in/ ,eter station ,ight cost m&00,000
lu,p su,/ 4- there are -our such ,eter stations on a 200 ,i gas pipeline, the total
,eter station cost #ill be m2/2 ,illion/ The ,eter station costs, li!e the ,ainline 0al0e
station costs, #ill be added to the pipeline cost/
Pressure regulating stations are installed at so,e locations on a gas pipeline to
reduce the pressure -or deli0ery to a custo,er or to protect a section o- a pipeline #ith
a lo#er =BP/ "uch pressure regulating stations can also be esti,ated as a lu,p su, per
site and added to the capital cost o- the pipeline/
10.2.) SCADA an- Te+eco33unication S,ste3
Typically on a gas pipeline, the pressures, -lo# rates, and te,peratures are ,onitored
along the pipeline by ,eans o- electronic signals sent -ro, re,ote ter,inal units
6RT.8 on 0arious 0al0es and ,eters to a central control center 0ia telephone lines or
++, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
,icro#a0e or satellite co,,unication syste,s/ The ter, super0isory control and data
ac9uisition 6"C1<18 is used to re-er to these -acilities/ "C1<1 is used to re,otely
,onitor, operate, and control a gas pipeline syste, -ro, a central control center/ 4n
addition to ,onitoring 0al0e status, -lo#s, te,peratures, and pressures along a
pipeline, "C1<1 also ,onitors the co,pressor stations/ 4n ,any cases, starting and
stopping o- co,pressor units are per-or,ed re,otely using "C1<1/ The cost o-
"C1<1 -acilities range -ro, m2 ,illion to m5 ,illion or ,ore, depending on the
pipeline length, nu,ber o- co,pressor stations, and the nu,ber o- ,ainline 0al0es and
,eter stations/ "o,eti,es this category is esti,ated as a percentage o- the total proCect
cost, such as 2 to 5L/
10.2.. En?iron3enta+ an- Per3ittin4
The en0iron,ental and per,itting costs are those costs that are associated #ith the
,odi-ications to pipeline, co,pressor stations, and 0al0e and ,eter stations to ensure
that these -acilities do not pollute the at,osphere, strea,s, and ri0ers or da,age eco*
syste,s including the -lora and -auna, -ish and ga,e, and endangered species/ =any
sensiti0e areas, such as $ati0e 1,erican religious and burial sites, ,ust be considered
and allo#ances ,ust be ,ade -or ,itigation o- habitat in certain areas/ Per,itting
costs can include those costs associated #ith changes needed to co,pression e9uip*
,ent, pipeline align,ent such that to>ic e,issions -ro, pipeline -acilities do not
endanger the en0iron,ent, hu,ans, and plant and ani,al li-e/ 4n ,any cases, these
costs include ac9uisition o- land to co,pensate -or the areas that #ere disturbed due to
pipeline construction/ "uch lands ac9uired #ill be allocated -or public use, such as
par!s and #ildli-e preser0es/ Per,itting costs #ill also include an en0iron,ental
study, the preparation o- an en0iron,ental i,pact report, and per,its -or road cross*
ings, railroad crossings, and strea, and ri0er crossings/ These en0iron,ental and
per,itting costs on a gas pipeline proCect ,ay range bet#een 20 and 25L o- total
proCect costs/
10.2.9 Ri4ht of Wa, AcEuisitions
The right o- #ay 6RB%8 -or a pipeline is ac9uired -ro, pri0ate parties and state
and local go0ern,ent and -ederal agencies -or a -ee/ This -ee ,ight be a lu,p su,
pay,ent at the ti,e o- ac9uisition #ith additional annual -ees to be paid -or a certain
duration/ For e>a,ple, the right o- #ay can be ac9uired -ro, pri0ate -ar,s, coop*
erati0es, the ureau o- Land =anage,ent 6L=8, and railroads/ The initial cost -or
ac9uiring the RB% #ill be included in the capital cost o- the pipeline/ The annual rent
or lease pay,ent -or land #ill be considered an e>pense/ The latter #ill be included in
the annual costs, such as operating costs/ 1s an e>a,ple, the RB% ac9uisition costs
-or a gas pipeline ,ight be m&0 ,illion/ This cost #ould be added to the total capital
costs o- the gas pipeline/ 1lso, there ,ight be annual RB% lease pay,ents o-
m&00,000 a year, #hich #ould be added to other annual costs such as operating and
,aintenance costs and ad,inistrati0e costs/ For ,ost gas pipelines, the initial RB%
costs #ill be in the range o- 6 to 20L o- the total proCect costs/
PIPELINE EC*N*/ICS
++-
10.2.: En4ineerin4 an- Construction Mana4e3ent
?ngineering costs are those costs that pertain to the design and preparation o- dra#ings
-or the pipeline, co,pressor stations, and other -acilities/ This #ill include both pre*
li,inary and detailed engineering design costs, including de0elop,ent o- speci-ica*
tions, ,anuals, purchase docu,ents, e9uip,ent inspection, and other costs associated
#ith ,aterials and e9uip,ent ac9uisition -or the proCect/ The construction
,anage,ent costs include -ield personnel cost, rental -acilities, o--ice e9uip,ent,
transportation, and other costs associated #ith o0erseeing and ,anaging the
construction e--ort -or the pipeline and -acilities/ Bn a typical pipeline proCect,
engineering and construction ,anage,ent costs range -ro, 25 to 20L o- the total
pipeline proCect cost/
10.2./ !ther ProJect Costs
4n addition to the ,aCor cost categories discussed in the preceding sections, there are
other costs that should be included in the total pipeline proCect cost/ These include
legal and regulatory costs necessary -or -iling an application #ith the F?RC and state
agencies that ha0e Curisdiction o0er interstate and intrastate transportation o- natural
gas, as #ell as a contingency costs intended to co0er categories not considered or not
en0isioned #hen the proCect #as conceptuali:ed/ 1s the proCect is engineered, ne#
issues and proble,s ,ight sur-ace that re9uire additional -unds/ These are generally
included in the category o- contingency cost/ The -inal category o- cost, re-erred to as
allo#ance -or -unds used during construction 61F.<C8, is intended to co0er the cost
associated #ith -inancing the proCect during 0arious stages o- construction/
Contingency and 1F.<C costs can range bet#een 25 and 20L o- the total proCect
cost/ Table 20/2 sho#s a cost brea!do#n -or a typical natural gas pipeline proCect/
Ta*+e 10.2 Cost 1rea>-oCn for a T,pica+ Natura+ Gas Pipe+ine ProJect
Description Mi++ion H
( Pipeline (01'11
) Co"pre!!or !tation! )1'11
+ /ainline &al&e !tation! (')1
, /eter !tation! (')1
- Pre!!$re re;$lator !tation! 1'(1
0 SCADA an% teleo""$niation! ) to -W -',4
5 En&iron"ental an% per"ittin; (1 to (-W )('31
4 Ri;ht of ?ay aK$i!iton 0 to (1W (,'01
3 En;ineerin; an% on!tr$tion
"ana;e"ent
(- to )1W +0'-1
(1 Contin;eny (1W )0'(1
S$#6Total )45'14
(( =orJin; apital -'11
() AFUDC -W (,'+-
Total +10',+
++0 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
10.$ !PERATING C!STS
Bnce the pipeline, co,pressor stations, and ancillary -acilities are constructed and the
pipeline is put into operation, there #ill be annual operating costs o0er the use-ul li-e o-
the pipeline, #hich ,ight be &0 to '0 years or ,ore/ These annual costs consist o- the
-ollo#ing ,aCor categories5
p Co,pressor station -uel or electrical energy cost
p Co,pressor station e9uip,ent ,aintenance and repair costs
p Pipeline ,aintenance costs, such as pipe repair, relocation, aerial patrol, and
,onitoring
p "C1<1 and teleco,,unication
p Ial0e, regulator, and ,eter station ,aintenance
p .tility costs, such as #ater and natural gas
p 1nnual or periodic en0iron,ental and per,itting costs
p Lease, rental, and other recurring right o- #ay costs
p 1d,inistrati0e and payroll costs
Co,pressor station costs include periodic e9uip,ent ,aintenance and o0erhaul
costs/ For e>a,ple, a gas turbineUdri0en co,pressor unit ,ay ha0e to be o0erhauled
e0ery 2( to 2' ,onths/ Table 20/& sho#s the annual operating cost o- a typical gas
pipeline/
&4am!le *
1 ne# pipeline is being constructed to transport natural gas -ro, a gas processing plant
to a po#er plant 200 ,i a#ay T#o proCect phases are en0isioned/ <uring the -irst phase
lasting 20 years, the a,ount o- gas shipped is e>pected to be a constant
Ta*+e 10.$ Annua+ !peratin4 Cost of a T,pica+ Gas Pipe+ine
Description H per ,ear
( Salarie! 401,111
) Payroll o&erhea% A)1WB (5),111
+ A%"in an% ;eneral A-1WB -(0,111
, >ehile e7pen!e 5),411
- *ffie e7pen!e! A0WB 3),441
0 /i! "aterial! an% tool! (11,111
5 Co"pre!!or !tation "aintenane
4 Con!$"a#le "aterial! -1,111
3 Perio%i "aintenane (-1,111
(1 R*= pay"ent! +-1,111
(( Utilitie! (-1,111
() Ga! ontrol (11,111
(+ SCADA ontrat in!tall an% "aintenane )11,111
(, Internal orro!ion in!petion AX5-1,111F+ year!B )-1,111
(- Catho%i protetion !$r&ey (11,111
Total *&/ +,(0+,041
PI PELI NE EC*N*/I CS ++5
0olu,e o- 220 =="CF< at a 35L load -actor/ 1 pipe si:e o- $P" 26, 0/250 in/ #all
thic!ness is re9uired to handle the 0olu,es #ith t#o co,pressor stations #ith a
total o- 5000 7P/ The total pipeline cost can be esti,ated at m(00,000 per ,i and
co,pressor station cost at m2000 per 7P installed/ The annual operating costs are
esti,ated at m( ,illion/ The pipeline construction proCect #ill be -inanced by
borro#ing (0L o- the re9uired capital at an interest rate o- 6L/ The regulatory
rate o- return allo#ed on e9uity capital is 2'L/ Consider a proCect li-e o- 20 years
and an o0erall ta> rate o- '0L/
6a8 Calculate the annual cost o- ser0ice -or this pipeline and the transportation
tari-- in m;=CF/
6b8 The second phase, lasting the ne>t 20 years, is proCected to increase throughput
to 250 =="CF</ Calculate the transportation tari-- -or the second phase,
considering the capital cost to increase by m20 ,illion and the annual cost to
increase to m20 ,illion, #ith the sa,e load -actor as phase 2/
"olution
6a8 First, calculate the total capital cost o- -acilities o- phase 2/
Pipeline cost M m(00,000 O 200 M m(0 ,illion
Co,pressor station cost M m2000 O 5000 M m20 ,illion
Total capital cost M m(0 P m20 M m30 ,illion
(0L o- this capital o- m30 ,illion #ill be borro#ed at 6L interest -or 20 years/
Fro, ?9uation 20/2, the annual cost to a,orti:e the loan is
Loan a,orti:ation cost M 30 O 0/( O 0/06 M m6/2( ,illion
20
2
2R 62/06 8
There-ore, #e need to build into the cost o- ser0ice the annual pay,ent o- m6/2(
,illion to retire the debt o- m)2 ,illion 6(0L o- m30 ,illion8 o0er the proCect li-e
o- 20 years/ Bn the re,aining capital 6e9uity8 o- 6m30 U m)28 ,illion or m2(
,illion, a 2'L rate o- return per year is allo#ed/ There-ore, 2'L o- m2( ,illion
can be included in the cost o- ser0ice to account -or the e9uity capital/
2R0/'
1nnual re0enue on e9uity capital M 0/2' O m2( ,illion M m2/52 ,illion "ince
the ta> rate is '0L, the adCusted annual re0enue on e9uity capital is m2/52 ,illion
M m'/2 ,illion
$e>t, add the operating cost o- m( ,illion per year to the annual costs -or debt and
e9uity Cust calculated to arri0e at the annual cost o- ser0ice as -ollo#s5
1nnual pay,ent to retire debt M m6/2( ,illion
1nnual re0enue on e9uity capital M m'/2 ,illion
1nnual operating cost M m( ,illion
++4 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
There-ore,
1nnual cost o- ser0ice M 6/2( P '/2 P ( M m2(/'( ,illion
The transportation tari-- at 220 =="CF< and 35L load -actor is
Tari-- M 2(/'( O 20
6
O 20 & M m0/'''2 per =CF/ 220 O
20
6
O &65 O 0/35
6b8 4n the second phase, #hich lasts 20 years, the capital cost increases by m20
,illion/ The e>tra m20 ,illion #ill be assu,ed to be -inanced by (0L debt and
20L e9uity as be-ore/ The annual cost to a,orti:e the debt is
0/06O ( 0 O
20/
Loan a,orti:ation cost M 20 M m2/2) ,illion
2
2R 8
2/06
The re,aining capital o- 6m20 U m268 or m' ,illion is e9uity that, according to
regulatory guidelines, can earn 2'L interest/ 4t ,ust be noted that the interest
rate and RBR used in this e>a,ple are appro>i,ate and only -or the purpose
o- illustration/ The actual RBR allo#ed on a particular pipeline #ill depend on
0arious -actors such as the state o- the econo,y, current F?RC regulations, or
state la#s, and can range -ro, as lo# as (L to as high as 26L or ,ore/
"i,ilarly, the interest rate o- 6L used -or debt a,orti:ation is also an
illustrati0e nu,ber/ The actual interest rate on debt #ill depend on 0arious
-actors such as the state o- the econo,y, ,oney supply, and the -ederal interest
rate charged by Federal Reser0e 6pri,e rate8/ This rate #ill 0ary #ith the
country #here the pipeline is built and the ,ultinational ban! that ,ight
-inance the pipeline proCect/
For phase 2, the annual re0enue on e9uity capital is
' O 0/2' M m0/56 ,illion
1ccounting -or a '0L ta> rate, the adCusted annual re0enue on e9uity capital is
m0/56 M m0/3& ,illion
2R0/'
There-ore, -or phase 2, the increase in capital o- m20 ,illion and operating cost
o- m2 ,illion #ill result in an increase in cost o- ser0ice o-
1nnual cost o- ser0ice M m2/2) P 0/3& P 2 M m5/2
,illion 4n su,,ary, -or phase 2, the total cost o- ser0ices is
m2(/'( P m5/2 M m2&/5( ,illion
1t a -lo# rate o- 250 =="CF< and 35L load -actor, the tari-- -or phase 2 is
2&/5( O 20
6
O 20& M m0/'5&' per
=CF 250 O 20
6
O &65 O 0/35
PI PELI NE EC*N*/I CS ++3
10.( DETERMINING EC!N!MIC PIPE SIDE
For a particular pipeline transportation application, there is an econo,ic or opti,u,
pipe dia,eter that #ill result in the lo#est cost o- -acilities/ For e>a,ple, a pipeline
that re9uires 200 =="CF< gas to be transported -ro, a source location to a desti *
nation location ,ay be constructed o- a #ide range o- pipe ,aterials and dia,eters/
%e ,ay choose to use $P" 2', $P" 26, or $P" 2( pipe or any other pipe si:e -or this
application/ .sing the s,allest*dia,eter pipe #ill cause the greatest pressure drop
and the highest 7P re9uire,ent -or a gi0en 0olu,e -lo# rate/ The largest pipe si:e
#ill result in the lo#est pressure drop and, hence, re9uire the least 7P/ There-ore, the
$P" 2' syste, #ill be the lo#est in pipe ,aterial cost and highest in 7P re9uired/ Bn
the other hand, the $P" 2( syste, #ill re9uire the least 7P but considerably ,ore
pipe ,aterial cost due to the di--erence in pipe #eight per unit length/ <eter,ining
the opti,u, pipe si:e -or an application #ill be illustrated in the ne>t e>a,ple/
&4am!le +
1 gas pipeline is to be constructed to transport 250 =="CF< o- natural gas
-ro, <i>ie to Florence, 220 ,i a#ay/ Consider three pipe si:esJ$P" 2',
$P" 26, and $P" 2(Jall ha0ing 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness/ <eter,ine the ,ost
econo,ical pipe dia,eter, ta!ing into account the pipe ,aterial cost, cost o-
co,pressor stations, and -uel costs/ The selection o- pipe si:e ,ay be based on
a 20*year proCect li-e and a present 0alue (PV) o- discounted cash -lo# at (L
per year/ .se m(00 per ton -or pipe ,aterial and m2000 per installed 7P -or
co,pressor station cost/ Fuel gas can be esti,ated at m& per =CF/
The -ollo#ing in-or,ation -ro, hydraulic analysis is a0ailable5
$P" 2' pipeline5 T#o co,pressor stations, (236 7P total/ Fuel consu,ption is 2/6'
=="CF</
$P" 26 pipeline5 Bne co,pressor station, &()5 7P/ Fuel consu,ption is 0/)(
=="CF</
$P" 2( pipeline5 Bne co,pressor station, 2060 7P/ Fuel consu,ption is 0/'2
=="CF</
"olution
First, calculate the capital cost o- 220 ,i o- pipe -or each case/
Fro, ?9uation 20/2, the cost o- $P" 2' pipe is
P7 M 20/6(62' R 0/2508 O 0/250 O 220 O (00 O 52(0 M m3/& ,illion
2000
"i,ilarly, the cost o- $P" 26 pipe is
P7 M 20/6(626 R 0/2508 O 0/250 O 220 O (00 O 52(0 M m20/66 ,illion
2000
+,1 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
and the cost o- $P" 2( pipe is
P7 M 20/6(62( R 0/2508 O 0/250 O 220 O (00 O 52(0 M m22/02 ,illion
2000
$e>t, calculate the installed cost o- co,pressor stations -or each pipe si:e/
For $P" 2' pipe, the co,pressor station cost is
(236 O 2000 M m26/&3 ,illion
For $P" 26 pipe, the co,pressor station cost is
&()5 O 2000 M m)/)5 ,illion
For $P" 2( pipe, the co,pressor station cost is
2060 O 2000 M m'/22 ,illion
The operating -uel cost -or each case #ill be calculated ne>t, considering -uel gas at
m& per =CF and 2'*hour*a*day operation -or &50 days a year/ 1 shutdo#n -or
25 days per year is allo#ed -or ,aintenance and any operational upset
conditions/
For $P" 2' pipe, the -uel cost is
2/6' O 20
&
O &50 O & M m2/)2 ,illion per year
For $P" 26 pipe, the -uel cost is
0/)( O 20
&
O &50 O & M m0/(2 ,illion per
year For $P" 2( pipe, the -uel cost is
0/'2 O 20
&
O &50 O & M m0/'& ,illion per year
The actual operating cost includes ,any other ite,s besides the -uel cost/ For
si,plicity, in this e>a,ple #e #ill only consider the -uel cost/ The annual -uel
cost -or the proCect li-e o- 20 years #ill be discounted at (L in each case/ This
#ill then be added to the su, o- the pipeline and co,pressor station capital
cost to arri0e at a present 0alue (PV).
The present 0alue o- a series o- cash -lo#s, each e9ual to $ -or a period o- n
years at an interest rate o- iL, is gi0en by ?9uation 20/2/
The PV o- $P" 2' -uel cost is, -ro, ?9uation 20/ 2,
PV M 2/)2
Z
2R
2

ZZM2/)2 O 3/(2(2 M m26/(3
,illion 0/0(
4
\

62P0/0(820
The PV o- $P" 26 -uel cost is
PV M 0/(2 O 3/(2(2 M m(/05 ,illion
PIPELINE EC*N*/ICS
+,(
The PV o- $P" 2( -uel cost is
PV M 0/'& O 3/(2(2 M m'/22 ,illion
There-ore, adding up all costs, the PV -or $P" 2' is
PV2' M 3/& P 26/&3 P 26/(3 M m'2/5( ,illion
1dding up all costs, the PV -or $P" 26 is
PV26 M 20/66 P )/)5 P (/05 M m26/'6 ,illion
and adding up all costs, the PV -or $P" 2( is
PV2( M 22/02 P '/22 P '/22 M m20/&5 ,illion
There-ore, #e see that the lo#est cost option is $P" 2( pipeline #ith a PV o-
m20/&5 ,illion/
4n the preceding e>a,ple, i- the -lo# rate had been lo#er or higher, the result ,ay
be di--erent/ For each pipe si:e, i- #e #ere to calculate the 7P re9uired at 0arious
-lo# rates and the corresponding -uel consu,ption, #e could generate a graph
sho#ing the 0ariation o- total cost #ith -lo# rate/ Bb0iously, as -lo# rate is
increased, the 7P re9uired and -uel consu,ption also increase/ Per-or,ing these
calculations -or di--erent pipe si:es #ill yield a graph si,ilar to that sho#n in Figure
20/2/ 4n the ne>t e>a,ple, #e #ill consider three pipe si:es 6$P" 26, $P" 2(, and
$P" 208 and calculate the capital cost and B&= cost -or a range o- -lo# rates to
de0elop cur0es si,ilar to those sho#n in Figure 20/2/
'i4ure 10.1 Pipeline o!t &!' flo? rate for &ario$! pipe !i9e!'
+,) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
&4am!le ,
For a natural gas pipeline 220 ,i long, three pipe si:es #ere analy:ed -or -lo# rate
ranges o- 50 to 500 =="CF< using a hydraulic si,ulation so-t#are
application, G1"=B< 6###/syste!/us8/ The -ollo#ing are the pipe si:es and
-lo# rates studied5
$P" 26 pipe5 -lo# ratesJ50 to 200
=="CF< $P" 2( pipe5 -lo# ratesJ50 to
&00 =="CF< $P" 20 pipe5 -lo# ratesJ200
to 500 =="CF<
The #all thic!ness #as 0/250 in/ -or $P" 26 and $P" 2( and 0/500 in/ -or $P" 20/
Fro, the hydraulic si,ulation, the nu,ber o- co,pressor stations re9uired,
7P, and -uel consu,ption #ere obtained as sho#n in Table 20/'/
Ta*+e 10.( H,-rau+ic Si3u+ation Resu+ts for Three Pipe Si=es
NPS 1.
'+oC Rate&
MMSC'D
Co3press
or
Stations
Tota+
HP
'ue+&
MMSC'D
-1 ( ,3 1'1(
(11 ( (15) 1')(
(-1 ( +45- 1'54
(5- ) -51- ('(,
)11 ) 3)1+ ('4,
NPS 1:
'+oC Rate&
MMSC'D
Co3press
or
Stations
Tota+
HP
'ue+&
MMSC'D
-1 ( ,3 1'1(
(11 ( )13 1'1,
(-1 ( )101 1',(
(5- ( ++3, 1'04
)11 ( ,3-, (
)-1 ) 3+,4 ('45
+11 ) (531) +'-4
NPS 20
'+oC Rate&
MMSC'D
Co3press
or
Stations
Tota+
HP
'ue+&
MMSC'D
(11 ( 34 1'1)
(-1 ( (1-+ 1')(
(5- ( )1-5 1',(
)11 ( +)4( 1'00
)-1 ( 0+() (')0
+11 ) (1-(3 )'(
,11 ) +(,1( 0')4
-11 ) 5+)15 (,'0,
+,+
<e0elop annuali:ed costs -or each pipe si:e and -lo# rate using the -ollo#ing
assu,ptions5
The capital cost o- the pipe ,aterial is based on m(00 per
ton/ For pipe installation cost, use the -ollo#ing5
$P" 265 m50 per -oot
$P" 2(5 m60 per -oot
$P" 205 m(0 per -oot
For co,pressor station capital cost, use m2000 per installed 7P/
Fuel gas can be assu,ed to be m& per =CF/
The proCect li-e is 20 years, and the interest rate -or discounting cash -lo# is (L/
1dd '0L to the pipe and co,pressor capital costs to account -or ,iscellaneous costs
such as ,eter stationsE 0al0esE RB%E en0iron,ental, engineering, and
construction ,anage,entE and contingency/ The pipeline is assu,ed to be
operational &50 days a year/
"olution
Fro, the gi0en hydraulic si,ulation data, using the assu,ptions listed, #e de0elop
the total capital cost o- pipe, co,pressor station, and ,iscellaneous costs/
The pipe ,aterial cost is calculated -ro, ?9uation 20/2, using m(00 per ton -or
pipe ,aterial cost, as -ollo#s5
For $P" 26 pipe,
Pipe ,aterial cost M 20/6(626 R 0/2580/25 O 220 O m(00 O 52(0 M m20/66 ,illion
2000
"i,ilarly, -or $P" 2( pipe,
Pipe ,aterial cost M 20/6(62( R 0 /2580/25 O 220 O m(00 O 52(0 M m22/02 ,illion
2000
and $P" 20 pipe ,aterial cost is
Pipe ,aterial cost M 20/6(620 R 0/5 80/5 O 220 O m(00 O 52(0 M m26/&3 ,illion
2000
These costs are sho#n in Table 20/5 through Table 20/)/
Ta*+e 10.) NPS 1. Pipe Cost Su33ar,
NPS 1.
Nu3*er of Pipe Pipe Tota+ Co3pressor Misc Tota+ !KM Tota+ Annua+
'+oC Co3pressor Tota+ 'ue+& 'ue+& Materia+& "a*or& Pipe Station Cost& Capita+& Cost& Annua+i=e- Annua+ Cost&
Rate Stations HP MMSC'D H2,r H H Cost& H Cost& H H H H2,r Capita+& H2,r Cost& H H2MC'
-1 ( ,3 1'1( 1'1(
(1'0
0
+('0
4
,)'+
,
1'134 (0'35
-3',
(
)'1
1
0'1- 4'10
1',01
5
(11 ( (15) 1')( 1')) (1'0
0
+('0
4
,)'+
,
)'(,, (5'53 0)')
5
)'1
1
0'+, 4'-0 1'),,
5
(-1 ( +45- 1'54 1'4) (1'0
0
+('0
4
,)'+
,
5'5- )1'1, 51'(
)
)'1
1
5'(, 3'30 1'(43
5
(5- ) -51- ('(, (')1 (1'0
0
+('0
4
,)'+
,
((',( )('-1 5-')
-
+'1
1
5'00 (('40 1'(3+
5
)11 ) 3)1+ ('4, ('3+
(1'0
0
+('0
4
,)'+
,
(4',10 ),'+1
4-'1
,
+'1
1
4'00 (+'-3
1'(3,
)
Notes:
Pipe "aterial o!t M X411Fton
Pipe la#or o!t M X-1Fft for NPS (0
Co"pre!!or !tation o!t M X)111 per in!talle% HP
/i!ellaneo$! o!t i! ,1W of pipe an% o"pre!!or !tation o!t
*peratin; o!t #a!e% on +-1 %ay! per year
F$el o!t i! X+ per /CF
Capital o!t i! ann$ali9e% at 4W intere!t for )16year proHet life
Ta#le &al$e! in "illion! of %ollar!
Ta*+e 10.. NPS 1: Pipe Cost Su33ar,
NPS 1:
Nu3*er of
'+oC Co3pressor
Rate Stations
Tota
+
HP
'ue
+&
MMSC
'u
e+&
H2,
Pipe
Pipe
Materia+&
Tot
a+
Pip
e
Co3pressor Misc
Tota+
Station Cost&
Capita+&
!K
M
Co
st&
Annua+i=
e-
Capita+&
Tota
+
Ann
ua+
Ann
ua+
Cos
t&
-1 ( ,3 1'1(
1'1
(
()'1(
+4'1
)
-1'1+ 1'134 )1'1- 51'(4
)'1
1
5'(- 3'(0
1'-)
++
(11 ( )13 1'1, 1'1
,
()'1( +4'1
)
-1'1+ 1',(4 )1'(4 51'0) )'1
1
5'(3 3'), 1')0
+3
(-1 ( )101 1',( 1',
+
()'1( +4'1
)
-1'1+ ,'() )('00 5-'4( )'1
1
5'5) (1'(- 1'(3
+, (5- ( ++3, 1'04 1'5
(
()'1( +4'1
)
-1'1+ 0'544 ))'5+ 53'-, )'1
1
4'(1 (1'4) 1'(5
00
)11 ( ,3-, ('11 ('1
-
()'1( +4'1
)
-1'1+ 3'314 )+'35 4+'3( )'1
1
4'-- (('01 1'(0
-5
)-1 ) 3+,4 ('45 ('3
0
()'1( +4'1
)
-1'1+ (4'030 )5',3 30')( +'1
1
3'41 (,'50 1'(0
45
+11 )
(531
)
+'-4
+'5
0
()'1(
+4'1
)
-1'1+ +-'41, +,'++
()1'(
0
+'1
1
()'), (3'11
1'(4
13
Notes:
Pipe la#or o!t M X01Fft for NPS (4
Co"pre!!or !tation o!t M X)111 per in!talle% HP
/i!ellaneo$! o!t i! ,1W of pipe an% o"pre!!or !tation o!t
*peratin; o!t #a!e% on +-1 %ay! per year
Capital o!t i! ann$ali9e% at 4W intere!t for )16year proHet life
Ta#le &al$e! in "illion! of %ollar!
Ta*+e 10.9 NPS 20 Pipe Cost Su33ar,
NPS 20
Nu3*er of
'+oC Co3pressor
Rate Stations
Tota
+
HP
'ue+&
MMSC
'D
'ue
+&
H2,r
Pipe
Pipe
Materia+&
Tot
a+
Pip
e
Co3pressor Misc
Tota+
Station Cost&
Capita+&
!K
M
Co
st&
Annua+i=
e-
Capita+&
Tota+
Annu
a+
Cost&
An
nu
a+
Co
(11 ( 34 1'1) 1'1) )0'+3 -1'0
3
55'14 1'(30 +1'3( (14'(
4
)'1
1
(('1) (+'1, 1'+
5)0
(-1 ( (1-+ 1')( 1')) )0'+3 -1'0
3
55'14 )'(10 +('05 ((1'4
0
)'1
1
((')3 (+'-( 1')
-5,
( +)4( 1'00 1'03 )0'+3 -1'0
3
55'14 0'-0) ++',0 ((5'(
1
)'1
1
(('3+ (,'0) 1')
143
)-1 ( 0+() (')0 ('+) )0'+3 -1'0
3
55'14 ()'0), +-'44 ()-'-
4
)'1
1
()'53 (0'(( 1'(
4,)
+11 ) (1-(
3
)'( )')( )0'+3 -1'0
3
55'14 )('1+4 +3')- (+5'+
0
+'1
1
(+'33 (3')1 1'(
4)4 ,11 ) +(,1
(
0')4 0'-3 )0'+3 -1'0
3
55'14 0)'41) --'3- (3-'4
+
+'1
1
(3'3- )3'-, 1')
((1
-11 )
5+)1
5
(,'0,
(-'+
5
)0'+3
-1'0
3
55'14 (,0',(, 43',1
+()'4
3
+'1
1
+('45 -1'),
1')
45(
Notes:
Pipe la#or o!t M X41Fft for NPS )1
Co"pre!!or !tation o!t M X)111 per in!talle% HP /i!ellaneo$! o!t i! ,1W of pipe an% o"pre!!or !tation o!t *peratin; o!t #a!e% on +-1 %ay! per year
Capital o!t i! ann$ali9e% at 4W intere!t for )16year proHet life Ta#le &al$e! in "illion! of %ollar!
+,5
The labor cost -or installing pipe is calculated as -ollo#s5
For $P" 26 pipe,
Pipe installation
cost M
m5
0 O
52(
0 O
2
2
M m&2/6(
,illion
"i,ilarly, -or $P" 2( pipe,
Pipe installation
cost M
and -or $P" 20 pipe,
Pipe installation
m6
0 O
m(
52(
0 O
52(
2
2
0
M m&(/02
,illion
M m50/63
$e>t, #e calculate the installation cost o- co,pressor stations using m2000
per installed 7P/
For the $P" 26 pipe at 200 =="CF< -lo# rate, the 7P re9uired is 20)2
and the installation cost is
m2000 O 20)2 M m2/2' ,illion
"i,ilarly, the installation costs o- each co,pressor station -or all cases are
calculated and tabulated as sho#n in Table 20/5 through Table 20/)/
The ,iscellaneous cost is '0L o- the su, o- the pipe cost and co,pressor
station cost, as -ollo#s5
Pipe ,aterial cost M m20/66 ,illion
Pipe installation cost M m&2/6( ,illion
Co,pressor station cost M m2/2'
,illion
Thus, -or $P" 26 pipe at 200 =="CF<,
=iscellaneous cost M 0/'0 O 620/66 P &2/6( P 2/2'8 M m2)/)3 ,illion
The operation and ,aintenance costs are added to the annual -uel cost to obtain the
total annual cost/ The total capital cost is annuali:ed at (L interest -or 20 years and
added to the B&= and -uel costs/ For e>a,ple, -or $P" 26 pipe at 200 =="CF<
-lo# rate, the total capital cost o- m62/2) ,illion is annuali:ed at m6/&'
,illion and added to the B&= and -uel costs to obtain the total annual cost o-
m(/56 ,illion/ <i0iding this annual cost by the gas transported per year, #e obtain
the annual cost per =CF as -ollo#s5
6
1nnual =CF
206
6
O
20&
M
m0/2
'')
cost per M 20
200 O
20
6
O
&5
0
"i,ilarly, -or each pipe si:e and -lo# rate, the 0alues are tabulated as sho#n
in Table 20/5 through Table 20/)/
.pon re0ie#ing Table 20/5 -or $P" 26 pipe, #e see that the annual cost per =CF
decreases -ro, m0/'60) to m0/2(3)
as
the -lo# rate increases -ro, 50 to 250
=="CF</
+,4 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
1-ter that, it increases #ith -lo# rate and reaches a 0alue o- m0/23'2 at 200 =="CF</
There-ore, -or $P" 26 pipe, 250 =="CF< is the opti,u, -lo# rate that results in the
lo#est transportation cost/
"i,ilarly, -ro, Table 20/6, -or $P" 2( pipe, the annual cost per =CF
decreases -ro, m0/52&& to m0/265) as the -lo# rate increases -ro, 50 to 200
=="CF</ 1-ter that, it increases #ith -lo# rate and reaches a 0alue o-
m0/2(03 at &00 =="CF</ There-ore, -or $P" 2( pipe, 200 =="CF< is the
opti,u, -lo# rate that results in the lo#est transportation cost/
Finally, -ro, Table 20/), -or $P" 20 pipe, the annual cost per =CF decreases
-ro, m0/&)26 to m0/2(2( as the -lo# rate increases -ro, 200 to &00
=="CF</ 1-ter that, it increases #ith -lo# rate and reaches a 0alue o-
m0/2()2 at 500 =="CF</ There-ore, -or $P" 20 pipe, &00 =="CF< is the
opti,u, -lo# rate that results in the lo#est transportation cost/
1 plot o- the annual cost per =CF 0s/ -lo# rate -or the three pipe si:es is
sho#n in Figure 20/2/
4n the preceding calculations, to si,pli-y ,atters, se0eral assu,ptions #ere ,ade/
=iscellaneous costs #ere esti,ated as a percentage o- the pipeline and co,pressor
station costs/ 1lso, #e considered the annual costs to be constant -ro, year to year/ 1
,ore nearly accurate calculation #ould be to escalate the annual costs by a
percentage each year to account -or in-lation, using the Consu,er Price 4nde> 6CP48/
$e0ertheless, the preceding calculations illustrate a ,ethodology o- econo,ic
analysis to deter,ine the ,ost opti,u, pipe si:e/
&4am!le -
4n Chapter 5, #e co,pared e>panding the capacity o- the gas pipeline -ro,
%indsor to Cardi-- using t#o optionsJinstalling inter,ediate co,pressor
stations or installing pipe loops/ .sing the results o- ?>a,ple 2 in Chapter 5,
co,pare the t#o options,
1'0111 1'-111 1',111 1'+111 1')111 1'(111
1'1111
- 1 ( 1 1 ( - 1 ( 5 - ) 1 1 ) - 1 + 1 1 , 1 1
Flo? rate, //SCFD
NPS )1 NPS (4 NPS (0
'i4ure 10.2 Ann$ali9e% o!t &!' flo? rate for three pipe !i9e!'
+,3
ta!ing into account the capital cost, operating cost, and -uel cost and considering a
proCect li-e o- 25 years/ The capital #ill be -inanced #ith )0L debt at (L interest/
The regulatory return allo#ed on the &0L e9uity is 22L/ The ta> rate can be
assu,ed to be &5L/ Fuel consu,ption is 0/2 =CF per day per 7P and -uel gas
cost is m& per =CF/ 1ssu,e &50 days o- operation per year/ Calculate the
annuali:ed cost o- ser0ice and transportation tari-- -or both options/ 4t is
e>pected that the annual B&= cost #ill increase by m2 ,illion -or phase 2 and
an additional m& ,illion -or phase 2 co,pressor station options/ For the
looping option, the incre,ental B&= cost is m0/5 ,illion -or phase 2 and
m0/)5 ,illion -or phase 2/
"olution
Phase 2 e>pansion
This e>pansion results in a -lo# rate o- 2&(/'2 =="CF<, and the co,pressor station
option re9uires installing the -ollo#ing 7P5
%indsor co,pressor stationJ('6( 7P
10on co,pressor stationJ&653 7P
Total HP M ('6( P &653 M 22,22) 7P
The incre,ental 7P -or phase 2 #as calculated as
iHP M 22,22) U )06' M 506& 7P
The cost o- this incre,ental 7P based on m2000 per installed 7P is
iCapital cost M 506& O 2000 M m20/2& ,illion The
incre,ental -uel cost -or 506& 7P is
iFuel cost M 506& O 0/2 O m& O &50 M m2/06 ,illion per year/
The incre,ental capital cost o- m20/2& ,illion #ill be -unded by )0L debt and
&0L e9uity/ The debt capital M 20/2& O 0/) M m)/03 ,illion/
Loan a,orti:ation cost M 20/2& O 0/) O 0/0( M m0/66 ,illion peryear
2 25 P H 2/0(8 The
re,aining capital o- 6m20/2& U m)/038 ,illion or m&/0' ,illion is e9uity that,
according to regulatory guidelines, can earn 22L interest/
The annual re0enue allo#ed on e9uity capital is
&/0' O 0/22 M m0/&6 ,illion
1ccounting -or a &5L ta> rate, the adCusted annual re0enue on e9uity capital is
m0/&6
M m0/55 ,illion 2R0/&5
R6
+-1 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
$e>t, add the B&= cost increase o- m2 ,illion per year and the -uel cost o-
m2/06 ,illion to the annual costs -or debt and e9uity Cust calculated to arri0e at the
annual cost o- ser0ice as -ollo#s5
1nnual pay,ent to retire debt M m0/66 ,illion
1nnual re0enue on e9uity capital M m0/&6
,illion 1nnual operating cost M m2/0 ,illion
1nnual -uel cost M m2/06 ,illion
There-ore, the incre,ental annual cost o- ser0ice -or phase 2 e>pansion
co,pressor station option is m0/66 P 0/&6 P 2/0 P 2/06 M m'/0( ,illion/
This a,ount is the incre,ental annual cost o- ser0ice o0er and abo0e the cost o-
ser0ice -or the initial -lo# rate o- 2((/'2 =="CF</
The incre,ental tari-- -or an incre,ental -lo# rate o- 50 =="CF< -or phase 2
e>pansion is
4ncre,ental tari-- M '/0( O 20
6
O 20 & M m0/2&&2 per =CF
50O 20
6
O &50
$e>t, #e calculate the cost o- ser0ice and tari-- considering the looping option/
4n ?>a,ple 2 o- Chapter 5, -or phase 2 e>pansion, #e re9uired installation o- 50/0& ,i o-
loop at a cost o- m25/02 ,illion/ 4n addition to this cost o- pipe loop, #e ,ust
include the cost o- the increased horsepo#er re9uire,ent at %indsor -or the phase 2
-lo# rate, #hich #as calculated at 2'0' 7P/
1t m2000 per installed 7P, the e>tra cost -or incre,ental 7P is m2/(2 ,illion/
Thus, -or phase 2 the total cost o- looping pipe upstrea, o- Cardi-- and
increased 7P cost at the %indsor co,pressor station is calculated as
m25/02 P m2/(2 M m2)/(& ,illion
The incre,ental -uel cost -or the e>tra 2'0' 7P is
iFuel cost M 2'0' O 0/2 O m& O &50 M m0/&0 ,illion per year
The incre,ental capital o- m2)/(& ,illion -or the looping option #ould also be -unded by
)0L debt and &0L e9uity/
<ebt capital M 2)/(& O 0/) M m23/'( ,illion
Loan a,orti:ation cost M 23/'( O 0/0( M m2/(2 ,illion per year
25
2
2
R62/0(8
The
The re,aining capital o- 6m2)/(& U m23/'(8 ,illion or m(/&5 ,illion is e9uity that,
+-(
(/&5 O 0/22 M m2/0 ,illion
2R0/&5
m2/0 M m2/5' ,illion
$e>t, add the B&= cost increase o- m0/5 ,illion per year and the -uel cost o-
m0/&0 ,illion to the annual costs -or debt and e9uity Cust calculated to arri0e at
the incre,ental annual cost o- ser0ice as -ollo#s5
1nnual pay,ent to retire debt M m2/(2 ,illion
1nnual re0enue on e9uity capital M m2/0
,illion 1nnual operating cost M m0/5 ,illion
1nnual -uel cost M m0/& ,illion
There-ore, the incre,ental annual cost o- ser0ice -or phase 2 e>pansion
looping option is m2/(2 P 2/0 P 0/5 P 0/& M m&/62 ,illion/
This a,ount is the incre,ental annual cost o- ser0ice o0er and abo0e the cost o-
ser0ice -or the initial -lo# rate o- 2((/'2 =="CF</
The incre,ental tari-- -or an incre,ental -lo# rate o- 50 =="CF< -or the
phase 2 e>pansion looping option is
4ncre,ental tari-- M &/62 O 20
6
O 20& M m0/2063 per =CF
50O 20
6
O &50
%e can su,,ari:e the calculations as -ollo#s5
For the phase 2 e>pansion, co,pressor station option5
4ncre,ental annual cost o- ser0ice M m'/0( ,illion
4ncre,ental tari-- M m0/2&&2 per =CF
For the phase 2 e>pansion, looping option5
4ncre,ental annual cost o- ser0ice M m&/62 ,illion
4ncre,ental tari-- M m0/2063 per =CF
4t can be seen that the incre,ental annual cost o- ser0ice and the incre,ental tari--
-or phase 2 e>pansion are less in the looping option than the co,pressor
station option/ There-ore, -or phase 2 e>pansion, the looping option is the
pre-erred choice/
For phase 2 e>pansion, the throughput increase o- 50 =="CF< #ill be on top
o- phase 2 e>pansion/ "ince the pre-erred choice -or phase 2 e>pansion is the
+-) GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
looping option, #e ,ust consider the increase in -acilities re9uired -or phase 2
#ith 50/0& ,i o- pipe loop already installed/ 4n ?>a,ple 2 o- Chapter 5, -or
phase 2, the loop re9uired #as calculated to be )6/26 ,i/ The incre,ental 7P
at %indsor #as calculated as 2))5 7P/ 1lso, the incre,ental looping re9uired
and cost o- increased 7P at %indsor o0er the phase 2 0alues #ere calculated
to be m26/66 ,illion/
The incre,ental -uel cost -or the e>tra 2))5 7P is
iFuel cost M 2))5 O 0/2 O m& O &50 M m0/&) ,illion per year
The incre,ental capital o- m26/66 ,illion -or the phase 2 looping option #ould also be
-unded by )0L debt and &0L e9uity/
<ebt capital M 26/66 O 0/) M m22/66 ,illion
Loan a,orti:ation cost M 22/66 O 0/0( M m2/03 ,illion per year
25
2
2
R62/0(8
The re,aining capital o- 6m26/66 U m22/668 ,illion or m5/0 ,illion is e9uity that,
m5/0 O 0/22 M m0/6 ,illion
m0/6 M m0/32 ,illion
2R0/&5
$e>t, add the B&= cost increase o- m0/)5 ,illion per year and the -uel cost o-
m0/&) ,illion to the annual costs -or debt and e9uity Cust calculated to arri0e at
the incre,ental annual cost o- ser0ice -or the phase 2 looping e>pansion as
-ollo#s5
1nnual pay,ent to retire debt M m2/03 ,illion
1nnual re0enue on e9uity capital M m0/6
,illion 1nnual operating cost M m0/)5 ,illion
1nnual -uel cost M m0/&) ,illion
There-ore, the incre,ental annual cost o- ser0ice -or phase 2 e>pansion looping option is
m2/03 P 0/6 P 0/)5 P 0/&) M m2/(2 ,illion/
This a,ount is the incre,ental annual cost o- ser0ice o0er and abo0e the cost
o- ser0ice -or the phase 2 -lo# rate o- 2&(/'2 =="CF</
+-+
The incre,ental tari-- -or an incre,ental -lo# rate o- 50 =="CF< -or the phase 2
e>pansion looping option is
4ncre,ental tari-- M 2 /(2 O 20
6
O 20& M m0/2606 per =CF
50 O 20
6
O&50
4n su,,ary,
For the phase 2 e>pansion, looping option5
4ncre,ental annual cost o- ser0ice M m2/(2 ,illion
4ncre,ental tari-- M m0/2606 per =CF
These incre,ental costs are o0er and abo0e the phase 2 nu,bers/
4t ,ust be noted that #e did not consider a co,pressor station option -or phase
2 e>pansion/ This is because the pre-erred option -or phase 2 e>pansion #as
installing loop/ "ince appro>i,ately 50 ,i o- pipe loop #as already installed
-or phase 2, #e si,ply loo!ed at adding appro>i,ately 26 ,i o- e>tra loop -or
phase 2/ For co,parison, #e could deter,ine additional co,pressor station
re9uire,ents -or phase 2 instead o- e>tending the loop/ This is le-t as an
e>ercise -or the reader/
10.) S#MMAR%
4n this chapter the econo,ic aspects o- a natural gas pipeline transportation #ere
re0ie#ed/ 1 ,ethod -or deter,ining the opti,u, pipe si:e necessary to transport a
certain -lo# rate #as discussed/ %e introduced concepts o- the capital cost o- pipeline
and co,pressor stations and the annual operating and ,aintenance costs/ The -uel
consu,ption calculations #ere also e>plained/ Ta!ing into account ti,e 0alue o- ,oney
and the rate o- return allo#ed on an e9uity in0est,ent in pipeline -acilities, #e calcu*
lated an annual cost o- transporting gas/ Fro, this annual cost, the transportation tari--
#as calculated/ The econo,ic pipe si:e -or a particular application #as illustrated using
three di--erent pipe si:es and esti,ating the initial capital cost and annual operating
costs/ 1 typical pipeline e>pansion scenario #ith the option o- installing co,pressors
0s/ pipe loops #as also e>plained using econo,ic principles/ 1dditionally, the ,aCor
co,ponents o- the capital cost o- a typical pipeline syste, #ere re0ie#ed/
PR!1"EMS
2/ 1 natural gas pipeline transports 220 =="CF< at a load -actor o- 35L/ The
capital cost is esti,ated at m)0 ,illion and the annual operating cost is m6 ,illion/
1,orti:ing the capital at (L -or a proCect li-e o- 20 years, calculate the cost o- the
ser0ice and transportation tari--s -or this pipeline/
2/ 1 ne# pipeline is being constructed to transport natural gas -ro, a processing
plant to a po#er plant 250 ,i a#ay/ 1n initial phase and an e>pansion phase
+-, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
are conte,plated/ <uring the initial phase lasting 20 years, the a,ount o- gas
shipped is e>pected to be a constant 0olu,e o- 200 =="CF< at a 35L load
-actor/ 1 pipe si:e o- $P" 2(, 0/250 in/ #all thic!ness, is re9uired to handle the
0olu,es #ith t#o co,pressor stations o- 5000 7P total/ The total pipeline cost
can be esti,ated at m)50,000 per ,i and the co,pressor station cost at m2000
per 7P installed/ The annual operating costs are esti,ated at m6 ,illion/ The
construction proCect #ill be -inanced by borro#ing )5L o- the re9uired capital at
an interest rate o- 6L/ The regulatory rate o- return allo#ed on e9uity is 2&L/
Consider a proCect li-e o- 25 years and an o0erall ta> rate o- &6L/
a/ Calculate the annual cost o- ser0ice -or this pipeline and the transportation tari-- in
m;=CF/
a/ The second phase, lasting the ne>t 20 years, is proCected to increase
throughput to 250 =="CF</ Calculate the transportation tari-- -or the
e>pansion phase, considering the capital cost to increase by m&0 ,illion and
the annual cost to increase by m' ,illion, #ith the sa,e load -actor as
be-ore/
&/ 1 gas pipeline is to be constructed to transport 200 =="CF< o- natural gas -ro,
Dac!son to Colu,bus, 2(0 ,i a#ay/ Consider three pipe si:esJ$P" 2(, $P" 20,
and $P" 2'Jall constructed o- 1P4 5L*g52 pipe #ith suitable #all thic!ness -or
an =BP o- 2'00 psig/ <eter,ine the ,ost econo,ical pipe dia,eter, ta!ing into
account the pipe ,aterial cost, cost o- co,pressor stations, and -uel costs/ The
selection o- pipe si:e can be based on a &0*year proCect li-e and a present 0alue o-
discounted cash -lo# at 6L per year/ .se m)50 per ton -or pipe ,aterial and
m2000 per installed 7P -or co,pressor station cost/ Fuel gas can be esti,ated at
m& per =CF/
RE'ERENCES
2nd ed/, 1"=? Press, $e# Hor!, 200&/
&/ Fat:, </L/ et al/, Hand8''5 'f Iatural Gas 3ngineering, =cGra#*7ill, $e# Hor!,
2353/
APPENDI; A
#nits an- Con?ersions
+--
+-0 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
APPENDI : A
+-5
APPENDI; 1
Ph,sica+ Properties of arious Gases
+-3
APPENDI: 8
+0(
APPENDI; C
Pipe PropertiesG#.S. Custo3ar,
S,ste3 of #nits
$.$
Co!yright *22- by Taylor & Francis 8rou!: LLC
+0, GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
APPENDI: C
+0-
APPENDI: C
+05
APPENDI: C
+03
APPENDI : C
+5(
APPENDI; D
GASM!D !utput Report
The -ollo#ing is a report -ro, G1"=B<SSSG4% P-#.'# H63$45.1%
S05.4!&' so-t#are 6###/syste!/us8J-or a pipeline transporting natural gas in an
$P" 26 pipeline '50 ,iles long -ro, Co,pton to 7ar0ard/
******* GASMOD - GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULIC SIMULATION ********
************ 32-b! "#$%&' ()00)200 ************
DATE+ 2*-S#-!#0b#$-200? TIME+ 0A+?(+0>
P-#.'# /$&0 C&0-!&' !& H4$94$3
*>M --#.'#
C4%# N50b#$+ *2>?
P-#.'# 34!4 /.#+ C+BGASMOD32BMYPIPE00*)TOT
P$#%%5$# 3$&- /&$05.4+ P-#.'#
#//1#'16+ C&0-$#%%b.!6 G41!&$
M#!7&3+ I'.#! G4% G$49!6:A$=*)0;+
I'.#! G4% "%1&%!6+
AGA T5$b5.#'!
*)00
AGA NN*A
0)>@DD3 0)00000@0:.bE/!-
%#1;
<$4'17 --# 14.15.4!&'%+ NO
L&&- --# 14.15.4!&'%+ NO
C&0-$#%%&$ G5#. C4.15.4!#3+ YES
,&5.# T7&0-%&' #//#1! '1.53#3+ NO
C5%!&0=#3 O5!-5!+ NO H&.3'8 D#.9#$6
P$#%%5$#
4! !#$0'5%
+5+
+5, GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
***************** C4.15.4!&'% <4%#3 &' S-#1/#3 T7#$04.
C&'351!9!#% &/ P-#F S&. 4'3 I'%5.4!&' **************
O$8' %51!&' !#0-#$4!5$#+ <4%#
!#0-#$4!5$#+ <4%# -$#%%5$#+
O$8' %51!&' -$#%%5$#+ D#.9#$6
-$#%%5$#+ M'050 -$#%%5$#+
G4% %-#1/1 7#4! $4!&+ M4H050
84% 9#.&1!6+
I'.#! G.&I $4!#+ O5!.#! G.&I
$4!#+
@0)00:3#8G;
>0)00:3#8G;
*?)@00:-%8;
D00)00:-%8;
(00)33:-%8;
200)00:-%8; *)2>
(0)00:/!E%#1;
*(0)0000:MMSCGD;
*2D)2@??:MMSCGD;
**************** PIPELINE PROGILE DATA ***********
D%!4'1# E.#94!&' D40#!#$ T712'#%%
:0; :/!; :'; :';
R&587'
#%%
:';
0)00 >20)00
*>)0
00
0)3@(
0)000@0
0
*()00 A>A)@0 *>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 20)00 *0D>)2
>
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 30)00 *3*A)3
A
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 ?2)00 *(AA)*
?
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 *@>0)0
0
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 D()00 2A2A)0
0
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 *2D)00 *2>0)0
0
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 *@30)@
@
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 *(0)00 2*23)0
D
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 *(?)00 22D0)0
0
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 2*D*)*
D
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 *D0)00 *D(*)D
0
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 23D)?0 DA0)00 *>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 2?0)00 DD3)*D *>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 2(0)00 D?0)(? *>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 2>0)00 @A@)A* *>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 2A0)00 >@0)00 *>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 2A2)00 @2@)00 *>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 300)00 A(()00 *>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 320)00 *(2()0
0
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 330)00 *(>3)3
3
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 3?>)00 *>2?)>
@
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 3(0)00 *>?0)0
0
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 3(>)00 *(?3)?
0
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 3>0)00 *?@A)0
0
*>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 ?00)00 D3()00 *>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 ?20)00 DD*)00 *>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0 ?(0)00 A(0)00 *>)0
00
0)3@( 0)000@0
0
APPENDI : D +5-
******** THERMAL CONDUCTI"ITY AND INSULATION DATA ********
T7#$04. C&'351!9!6
D%!4'1# C&9#$ :<!5E7$E/!E3#8G; I'%5.)T72 S&. T#0-
:0; :'; P-# S&. I'%5.4!&' :'; :3#8G;
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20)000 3>)000 2A)000 0)200 0)0
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30)000 3>)000 2A)000 0)200 0)0
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?D)A00 3>)000 2A)000 0)200 0)0
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D()000 3>)000 2A)000 0)200 0)0
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*2D)000 3>)000
2A)000
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*30)000 3>)000 2A)000 0)200 0)0
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*>0)000 3>)000 2A)000 0)200 0)0
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*D0)000 3>)000 2A)000 0)200 0)0
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23D)?00 3>)000 2A)000 0)200 0)0
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2?0)000 3>)000
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2(0)000 3>)000 2A)000 0)200 0)0
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2>0)000 3>)000 2A)000 0)200 0)0
00
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2A0)000 3>)000 2A)000 0)200 0)0
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***** *****
**
**
COMPRESSOR
STATION
DATA
**
*
* ***
*
GLOC RATESF PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES+
G.&I S51!) D%17) S51!) D%17) S51!) D%17) M4HP-#
R4!# P$#%%) P$#%%) C&0-$) L&%%) L&%%) T#0-) T#0- T#0-
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LLC
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******** LINE PACL "OLUMES AND PRESSURES
*********
****
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DATE+ 2*-S#-!#0b#$-200?
APPENDI; E
Su33ar, of 'or3u+as
CHAPTER 1
2/ <ensity
m M
V
51.17
2/ Gas gra0ity
GM g air
51.27
#here
g
air M ,olecular #eight o- air M 2(/3625
51.(7
+53
+41
GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
&/ Fine,atic 0iscosity
!M"6 2 / 5 8
#here, in ."C" units,
n = !ine,atic 0iscosity, -t2;s
m

=

d
y
n
a
,
i
c

0
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
,

l
b
;
-
t
*
s

r

=

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
,

l
b
;
-
t
&
and, in "4
units,
n =
!ine,ati
c
0iscosity,
c"t
m

=

d
y
n
a
,
i
c

0
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
,

c
P

r

=

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
,

!
g
;
,
&
'/ Iiscosity o- ,i>ture
62/68
S

Q
(
"
i
y
i

i

)
"
Q
(
y
i
i )
#here
m = dyna,ic 0iscosity o- gas
,i>ture
m
i
= dyna,ic 0iscosity o- gas
co,ponent i
y
i
M ,ole -raction or percent o-
gas co,ponent i
i
co,ponent i
5/ 4deal gas la# or per-ect gas
e9uation
PV M n$%
(1.E)
#here
P

M

a
b
s
o
l
u
t
e

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
o
u
n
d
s

p
e
r

s
9
u
a
r
e

i
n
c
h

a
b
solute 6psia8
V M gas
0olu,e, -t&
n M nu,ber o- lb ,oles as
de-ined in ?9uation 2/)
$ M uni0ersal gas constant, psia
-t
&
;lb ,ole KR
% M absolute te,perature o- gas,
KR 6KF P '608
6/ 1bsolute pressure
Pa
bs
M
Pg
aug
e P
Pa
t,
62/
20
8
)/ oyleAs la#
P M
V
2

or
P
2
V
2
M
P
2
V
2
62/2
&8
P
2

V2
APPENDI : E
+4(
(/ CharlesAs la#
V2 %2
62/2'8
62/258
62/268
Fa M % at constant pressure
P2 %2 at constant 0olu,e
P2 %2
3/ =odi-ied ideal gas e9uation PV M &n$% 6."C" units8
#here
V M 0olu,e o- gas, -t&
& M gas co,pressibility -actor, di,ensionless %
M absolute te,perature o- gas, KR
n M nu,ber o- lb ,oles as de-ined in ?9uation 2/) $ M
uni0ersal gas constant, 20/)& psia -t
&
;lb ,ole KR
3/ Reduced te,perature and reduced pressure
%r M% 62/2)8 % c
Pr MP 62/2(8 P c
20/ Pseudo*reduced te,perature and pseudo*reduced pressure
%pr M % 62/238
%pc
Ppr M P 62/208
Ppc
#here
P M absolute pressure o- gas ,i>ture, psia
% M absolute te,perature o- gas ,i>ture, KR
%pr M pseudo*reduced te,perature, di,ensionless Ppr
M pseudo*reduced pressure, di,ensionless %pc M
pseudo*critical te,perature, KR
22/ 1pparent ,olecular #eight o- gas ,i>ture a M Qyii 62/228
#here
a
M apparent ,olecular #eight o- gas ,i>ture y
i

M ,ole -raction o- gas co,ponent i
i
2&/ FayAs rule to calculate the a0erage pseudo*critical properties o- the gas
,i>ture
%pc M Qyi%c
62/228
Ppc M QyiPc
62/2&8
2'/ Pseudo*critical properties -ro, gas gra0ity
%pc M 2)0/'32 P &0)/&'' G 62/2'8
Ppc M )03/60' R 5(/)2( G
62/258
#here
%pc M pseudo*critical te,perature, KR Ppc M pseudo*critical pressure, psia
2
25/ "uperco,pressibility -actor
& M 6 .p)2
v
25/ <ranchu!, Pur0is, and Robinson ,ethod
Z)2
& M2 PZ)P % d P e &
r
P

)'P
%
C
r
2

P )5)6 r5 P ) ) r&
2
pr pr pr pr %pr 62P)(, )e(R)(r)
62/&28
#here
62/&28
0/2)P
pr
r J &%
and
pr
)
2
M
0/&25062&)
E
)
2
M
M
0/6(25)002
E
)
(
M
0/6(''65'3E
P
pr
M pseudo*reduced pressure
%
pr
M pseudo*reduced te,perature
APPENDI : E +4+
2)/ C$G1 ,ethod &M 2 62/&'8
C Z P
2P D &'','006208
2/)(5
G
ZZ
%&/(25
D
f
-or the a0erage gas pressure
P
a0g c 200 psig/ For
Pa0g r 200 psig, & M 2/00
#here
Pa0g M a0erage gas pressure, psig %
f
M
a0erage gas te,perature, KR G M gas
gra0ity 6air M 2/008
2(/ 10erage pressure in a pipe seg,ent
62/&68
2ZP 2&R P 2& Z a0g M&ZZP2JP2Z
2 2
23/ 7eating 0alue Hm M Q(y
i
H
i
) 62/&)8
#here
H
m
M gross heating 0alue o- ,i>ture, tu;-t&
y
i
M ,ole -raction or percent o- gas co,ponent i H
i

M heating 0alue o- gas co,ponent, tu;-t&
CHAPTER 2 2/
General Flo# e9uation using -riction -actor
O HN P 22 22O0/5:M ))/5'O G% /P242/5 6."C"units862/28
P
O 8 fLG
#here
: M gas -lo# rate, ,easured at standard conditions, -t
&
;day 6"CF<8
P
8
%
8
P
2
P
2
M do#nstrea, pressure, psia G M
gas gra0ity 6air M 2/008
%
f
M a0erage gas -lo#ing te,perature, KR 6'60 P KF8
Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis ltoup, LLC
Z
ZZ6P2 RP
:
M 2 / 2 '
#here
: M gas -lo# rate, ,easured at standard conditions, ,&;day
P8 M base pressure, !Pa
%8 M base te,perature, F 62)& P KC8
P
2
P
2
M do#nstrea, pressure, !Pa G
%f M a0erage gas -lo#ing te,perature, F 62)& P KC8
2/ General Flo# e9uation using trans,ission -actor
Z ,/2
0
/
5
%8CXP
:M&(/)) .Z
ZP8
2Re
P
42/5 6."C" units8
62/)8
G%f; &
: M 5/)') O 20R'
F4
Z
%
Z]6
P8 Z
0/5
2 R esP2)C
@
2s
62/(8
6"4 units8
G%f; &`
#here the ele0ation correction is as -ollo#s5
;
e
;(e
s
R28 62/38
M
s
Z R
Z
s M 0/0&)5
6."C" units8 62/208
08
Z@(H2
%
ZZ
f &
#here
s M ele0ation adCust,ent para,eter, di,ensionless
H
2
H
2
e M base o- natural logarith,s
APPENDI : E
+4-
and
62/228
Zs M 0/06('
GZH 2R H 2
6"4 units8 ZZ
%
f&
#here
H
2
M upstrea, ele0ation, ,
H
2
M do#nstrea, ele0ation, ,
&/ The e9ui0alent length
;
e
M <2;2 P <2;2es2 P
'/ The gas 0elocity
2
uM 0/0022226:84 Z
<
&
;
&
e
s2
4
%8
P///
4
P&
Z
62/2&8
62/2(8
#here
u M gas 0elocity, -t;s
:
8
M gas -lo# rate, ,easured at standard conditions, -t
&
;day 6"CF<8 4
P
8
%
8
P M upstrea, pressure, psia
% M upstrea, gas te,perature, KR 6'60 P KF8
& M gas co,pressibility -actor at upstrea, conditions, di,ensionless
4n "4 units, the gas 0elocity at any point in a gas pipeline is gi0en by
Z : Z
uM2'/)&'3Z Z
4
%8
4 p
units8
62/238
Z Z Z
8
ZZ6
"4
#here
u M gas 0elocity, ,;s
:
8
M gas -lo# rate, ,easured at standard conditions, ,&;day
P
8
%
8
P M pressure, !Pa
% M a0erage gas -lo#ing te,perature, F 62)& P KC8
5/ =a>i,u, 0elocity
62/&28
u,a> M200,
&$%
6."C" uni t s8 23G
#here
& M co,pressibility -actor o- gas, di,ensionless
$ M gas constant M 20/)& -t
&
psia;lb*,oleR %
M gas te,perature, KR
P M gas pressure, psia
6/ Reynolds nu,ber
62/&'8
Z Z ZSSSSSSZ
Re M 0/000'))( Z P8 Z 4 Z
Z
Z6."C" units8
Z %
8
"4
#here
P
8
%
8
M base te,perature, KR 6'60 P KF8 G
M speci-ic gra0ity o- gas 6air M 2/08
: M gas -lo# rate, standard -t
&
;day 6"CF<8 4
m= 0iscosity o- gas, lb;-t*s
4n "4 units, the Reynolds nu,ber is
Re M 0/52&'
Z
Z
8
Z
Z
Z Z
4 ZZ6"4 units8
"4
#here
P
8
%
8
M base te,perature, KF 62)& P KC8
G M speci-ic gra0ity o- gas 6air M 2/08
: M gas -lo# rate, ,
&
;day 6standard conditions8
m= 0iscosity o- gas, Poise
)/ Colebroo!*%hite e9uation
62/&38
Z
2 M R 2 Lo g
2
a Z
e

P
2 / 5 2 Z
- o r

Re c '0 00
f &/)4 f Re I Z
#here
e M absolute pipe roughness, in/
Re M Reynolds nu,ber o- -lo#, di,ensionless
APPENDI : E +45
2 2
2 J R2Log20 /52
-or turbulent -lo# in s,ooth pipes
62/'08
MR2L0
320
e

ogl o -or turbulent -lo# in -ully rough pipes 62/'28 2 &/)4 C
The trans,ission -actor . is related to the -riction -actor f as -ollo#s5
62/'28
.M
2
f
There-ore,
#here
f M -riction -actor
. M trans,ission -actor
S '
f .2
62/'&8
(/ Colebroo! e9uation in ter,s o- trans,ission -actor .
62/'58
R'L
eWWWWWWW
2/255 .
g2

&/)4 Re
3/ =odi-ied Colebroo!*%hite e9uation -or turbulent -lo# using -riction -actor
Z
2
MR2Log
20
Z
e

P 2/(25Z62/'68
f Z&/)4 f Re Z
=odi-ied Colebroo!*%hite e9uation in ter,s o- the trans,ission -actor
. M R' Log20 e P
2/'225.Z
6."C"

and "4 units8 62/')8
6&/)4 Re ZZ
62/'(8
.
62/528
(/ 1G1e9uation
e
. M 'Log20 C &/) 4 Z Z
3/ end inde>
*D Mtotal degrees o- all bends in pipe section total length o-pipe
section
Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis ltoup, LLC
22/ %ey,outh e9uation
: M '&&/5
2 s
2Z
%8 2 R e
P2
/
5
42/66
)
6in ."C" units8
62/528
ZP
8
G%
f
;
&
#here
&
;day 6"CF<8
3 M pipeline e--iciency, a deci,al 0alue less than or e9ual to 2/0
P
8
%
8
P2 M upstrea, pressure, psia
P2 M do#nstrea, pressure, psia G
%
f
;
e
%ey,outh trans,ission -actor
. M 22/2(6<8
2;6
6in ."C" units8 62/5&8
%ey,outh e9uation
2
s2Z
/
5
: M &/)'&5 O 20R& %8 2 R e P2
CX
42/66)
6in "4 units8
62/5'8
P
8
G%
f
; <
#here
%
8
P
8
%
f
P2 M upstrea, pressure, !Pa
P2 M do#nstrea, pressure, !Pa
Bther sy,bols are as de-ined pre0iously/ %ey,outh trans,ission -actor
. M 6/522648
2;6
"4
;
e
6in
units8
2&/ Panhandle 1
62/5&
a8
20)((
%
2
s
PP22
: M '&5/() 2 R e 42/62(2
6."C" units8 62/558
G0/(5&3%;e&
f
P
8
Z
: M '/5365 O 20
R&
3 Z
T8
2/0)(
(
P22 R esP2
0/5
&3
' 42/62(2
6"4
units8
62/568
DZZG0/(5&3%fC&
D
Z P
8
APPENDI : E
The e9ui0alent trans,ission -actor -or Panhandle 1 e9uation
+43
.M)/22223 (:
and in "4 units, it is
Z0/0)0
ZZ6."C"8
62/5)8
.M22/(53
: \
G
6"48 62/5(8
Z
2&/ Panhandle e9uation
%
8
2
/
0
2R esP2
Z
: M )&)
6."C" units8 62/538
0 36
Ga %f;&
P
8
2/02
2s
0/52
:M2/002O20 23X;8 PR e
2
42/5& 6"4 62/608
0362
G .
P
8
The e9ui0alent trans,ission -actor -or Panhandle e9uation is
. M26 )3Z
G Z0/02362
ZZ6."C" units8
62/628
Z
0/.
M23/0(3
units8
Z :G ZZ6"4
62/628
2'/ 4GT e9uation
Z Z
: M2&6/33 Z %8 b
P
Z 8
P22 R
esp@
0/555
42/66)
6."C" units8
62/6&8
Ze
G0/(%
2 s
2
X
0/
55
5
: M2/2(22 O 20R&36% P0 42/66) 6"4 62/6'8
02(%
8
;
G f e "
Z
25/ "pit:glass e9uation The lo# pressure 6less than or e9ual
to 2 psig8 0ersion
0/5
:M&/(&3O20&
Z
Z
Z
%8D
1 RP2 42/5
6."C"
units8
units8 G%
f
; &( 2 P * P 0/0&4 Z
8
62/658 62/658
The high pressure 6,ore than 2 psig8 0ersion
Z T8
0/5
: M )23/60()3 Z
sp2
, R
42/5
6."C"
G%-;
e
& l
[
2 P &/6P 0/0&4 4
Z
8
Z P
8
D
D
62/6)8
The lo# pressure 6less than 6/3 !Pa8 0ersion
5/63 O 20R23Z%8
:
ZP8
P2 J
P
2
0/5
42&
6"4 units
8
G%f;&(2P3/
P0/0022
48Z6
62/668
The high pressure 6,ore than 6/3 !Pa8 0ersion
Z Z
:M2/0(25 O 20
R2
3Z%8
P
8
26/ The =ueller e9uation
Z2s 2
PR e P2
0
/
5
42/5
6"4 units8
62/6(8
G%f;&62P3/'P0/002248 Z
0/5)5
: M (5/)&6(
Z
Z
Z
Z2 s
2
P2 R e P2
42/)25 6."C" units8
62/638
G0/)&32%f
e
;
0/2603
P
8
Z
0/5)5
Z
: M &/0&3( O 20R2
3
ZP
Z2s
2
42/)25
6"4 units8
0/)
p
2
%
;
/2603
P8 G
e"
Z
2)/ Frit:sche -or,ula
Z
T
8 2 2
0/5&(
: M '20/26((3Z 1 P R 2 42/63
6."C" units8
G0/(5()%
;
Z f e
Z P8
8
0/5&(
Z
s
2
: M 2/(2)3Z%8 PR e
P
2
f
e i
42/63
6"4 units8
G0/(5()%
;
PP
8
CHAPTER $ 2/
Total e9ui0alent lengthJseries piping
6&/68
642Z5 Z5
;eM;
2
P;2 D PL&Z <2 Z <2 Z 4&
APPENDI : E
+3(
2/ ?9ui0alent dia,eterJparallel pipes
2_2;5
6&/2)8
2 C 2 P 7'nst 2
#here
4 M
4Z 7'nst2 a
7'nst2 M
6&/2(8
Flo# rates :
2
and :
2
are calculated -ro,
6&/238
6&/208
6&/238
6&/2(8
M :7'nst 2
:2 2 P 7'nst2
and
S :S
:2 2 P 7'nst2
&/ Te,perature pro-ile o- gas in a pipe seg,ent
%2M%s P (%
2
R%s)eR M
N M L F4 i ;
m7p
#here
F M o0erall heat trans-er coe--icient, tu;h;-t2;KF
i; M length o- pipe seg,ent
i) M sur-ace area o- pipe -or heat trans-er M
p
4i;
%
2
M gas te,perature upstrea, o- pipe seg,ent,
KF
%
2
M gas te,perature do#nstrea, o- pipe
seg,ent, KF
%
s
M a0erage soil te,perature surrounding pipe
seg,ent, KF
4 M pipe inside dia,eter, -t
m M ,ass -lo# rate o- gas, lb;s
'/ Line pac!
Z
ZIb M 2(/)3( Z Tb D @n0g
6<2L8 6."C" units8 6&/&'8 8
G 0 g A T 0 g C Copyright 2005 by
Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ZP
#here
V
8
V
8
M )/(55 O 20R' 6%8CX @
n0g

Z
(4
2
;) 6"4 units8 6&/&58
P8 &0 g AT0 g
#here
V
8
M line pac! in pipe seg,ent, standard ,&
CHAPTER (
2/ Co,pression ratio
Pd
rM P
s
6'/28
#here
Qi M isother,al #or! done, -t*lb;lb o- gas G
M gas gra0ity, di,ensionless %
2
M suction
te,perature o- gas, KR
P
2
P
2
Log
e
M natural logarith, to base e(e M 2/)2(8
6'/'8
6'/58
APPENDI : E
+3+
&/ 1diabatic #or! done
Qa M 5&/ 2( %ZS
G 2ZSR2 ZZ
CZ
SR2
6'/(8
Z
#here
Qa M
adiabatic
#or!
done, -t*
lb;lb o-
gas G M
gas
gra0ity,
di,ensio
nless %2 M
suction
te,perat
ure o-
gas, KR
Qa M 2(6/ )6 %ZS
G 2ZSR2 ZZ
ZSR2 _
Z
PZS
6'/38
#here
Qa M
adiaba
tic
#or!
done,
D;!g o-
gas %2
M
suction
te,per
ature
o- gas,
F
P2 M suction pressure o- gas, !Pa absolute
P2 M discharge pressure o- gas, !Pa absolute
'/ 7orsepo#er
2
R2
S
Z
HP00(5)9
2
2&2Z6
6P2C
R2`6'/
258
M/Z 2Z: 2Z
a 2
Z
Z
Z
#here
HP M co,pression horsepo#er
: M gas -lo# rate, =="CF<
%2 M suction te,perature o- gas, KR
&2 M co,pressibility o- gas at suction conditions,
di,ensionless
&2 M co,pressibility o- gas at
discharge conditions,
di,ensionless ha M co,pressor
adiabatic 6isentropic8 e--iciency,
deci,al 0alue
4n "4 units, the Po#er e9uation is as -ollo#s5
2 &2
Z ZPo#er
'06&
4
U
a
Z SR2
R2 6P2ZS ZZ
P2
Z
Z
Z
Z

6'/268
M /Z
#here
Po#er M co,pression po#er, !%
: M gas -lo# rate, =,
&
;day 6standard8
%2 M suction te,perature o- gas, F
P2 M suction pressure o- gas, !Pa
P2 M discharge pressure o- gas, !Pa
&2 M co,pressibility o- gas at suction conditions, di,ensionless
&2 M co,pressibility o- gas at discharge conditions, di,ensionless
ha = co,pressor adiabatic 6isentropic8 e--iciency, deci,al 0alue
*HP M HP
Um
5/ Co,pression ratio
2
rM(rt)n
#here
r M co,pression ratio, di,ensionless
r
t
M o0erall co,pression ratio, di,ensionless
n M nu,ber o- co,pressors in series
CHAPTER .
2/ arlo#As e9uation
I
P4 6h
2t
#here
6
h
M hoop or circu,-erential stress in pipe ,aterial, psi
P M internal pressure, psi
1>ial or longitudinal stress
6 M
P
4

'
t
6'/2)8
6'/258
66/28
66/28
APPENDI : E +3-
2/ 4nternal design pressure
(R.E)
P M 2 t63.% 4
#here
P M internal pipe design pressure, psig
6 M speci-ied ,ini,u, yield strength 6"=H"8 o- pipe ,aterial, psig
3 M sea, Coint -actor, 2/0 -or sea,less and sub,erged arc #elded 6"1%8 pipes
. M design -actor, usually 0/)2 -or cross*country gas pipelines, but can be as lo# as
0/', depending on class location and type o- construction
% M te,perature deration -actor M 2/00 -or te,peratures belo# 250KF
&/ lo#do#n calculations
(R.Y)
66/208
2% M 0/05(( P,aG 24 2;. 6."C" units8
#here
% M blo#do#n ti,e, ,in
P
2
M initial pressure, psia
; M length o- pipe section, ,i
d M inside dia,eter o- blo#do#n pipe, in/ .
c
M cho!e -actor 6as
-ollo#s8
Cho!e -actor list
4deal no::le M 2/0
Through gate M 2/6
Regular gate M 2/(
Regular lube plug M 2/0 Ienturi lube plug M &/2
4n "4 units,
2 2
0/0232P2&G242;F
%MWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW 6"4 units8
d2
#here
P
2
M initial pressure, !Pa
+30 GAS PIPELINE
HYDRAULICS
; M length o- pipe section, !,
d M pipe inside dia,eter o- blo#do#n, ,,
Bther sy,bols are as de-ined be-ore/ '/
Pipe #eight
w M 20/6( O t O (4 R t) 6."C" units8 66/228
#here
w M pipe #eight, lb;-t
4 M pipe outside dia,eter, in/ t
M pipe #all thic!ness, in/
w M 0/02'6 O t O (4 R t) 6"4 units8 66/228
#here
w M pipe #eight, !g;,
4 M pipe outside dia,eter, ,, t
M pipe #all thic!ness, ,,
CHAPTER / 2/
The discharge through the ori-ice ,eter
: M 7c7v)'
2]6 p
2
R p
2
8; P g ( Z
2
R Z2)0
2R 7X ();))2
63/28
#here
: M -lo# rate, -t&;s
7
c
M contraction coe--icient, di,ensionless 7
v
M discharge
coe--icient, di,ensionless )
'
M cross*sectional area o- the
ori-ice, in /2
) M cross*sectional area o- pipe containing the ori-ice, in /2
p
2
M upstrea, pressure, psig
p
2
M do#nstrea, pressure, psig
r = density o- gas, lb;-t&
Z
2
Z
2
g M acceleration due to gra0ity
2/ "harp*crested ori-ice
6 3 / ' 8
2
7
c
M 0/535 P 0/236cD5
APPENDI : E
+35
&/ The -unda,ental ori-ice ,eter -lo# e9uation described in the 1$"4 25&0;1G1
Report $o/ & is as -ollo#s5
6 3 / 6 8
6 3 / ) 8
6 3 / ( 8
6 3 / 3 8
2 ?mM62 R 7' 8 0 / 5 SSS\ C d262gfiP80/5
^
or
?
m
M K\ C d262gfiP80/5
M d 4
KMWWWWWWWWWWWWMSSSSSSSSSSS
62R ]'80/5 (4
'
Rd '0/5 7 742
#here
?
m
M ,ass -lo# rate o- gas, lb;s r
f
M
density o- gas, lb;-t&
7 M discharge coe--icient
\ M e>pansion -actor, di,ensionless g M
acceleration due to gra0ity, -t;s2 iP M
pressure drop across the ori-ice, psi K M
-lo# coe--icient, di,ensionless
'/ uc!ingha, and ean e9uation endorsed by the $ational ureau o- "tandards
6$"8 and listed in 1G1 Report $o/&
For -lange taps5
0 ) 4 5 4
6D ' C5 4
C
2s
K M0/533&P
/
PZ0/&6'PSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS _& P0/'Z2/6R*ZL
Z
Z0/0)P*R ]
4 _ a
60/003P
0/
0
'

Z
60/5RX
2/2
PZ
65
P&Z6]R0/)82/5 63/228
#here
K
e
M -lo# coe--icient -or Reynolds nu,ber $
d
M d620
6
;258, di,ensionless 4
M ,eter tube dia,eter, in/
For pipe taps5
K M0/ 5325P
0 /

g
( 2

PZ 0/ ''0R
0

/ 0
6

Z
]
2
PZ 0/ 3&5P 0/ 22 5 Z]5 ZZ
63/2&8
P2/& 5]
2'
P 2/
s
60/25R ]825/
/
4
5/ ?>pansion -actor
For -lange taps5
\ M2R60/'2P0/&5]'8
5
63/208 For pipe taps5
63/228
63/228
2
\
2
M2R]0/&&&P2/2'56]
2
P0/)]
5
P22]
2&
8^ !
2
is
hw
2 M Pf 2 R P f 2 M
2 Pf2 2)/)0)Pf2
#here
\
2
M e>pansion -actor based on upstrea, pressure
2
2
M ratio o- di--erential pressure to absolute upstrea, static pressure
h
w
M di--erential pressure bet#een upstrea, and do#nstrea, taps in in/ o- #ater at
60KF
Pf2 M static pressure at upstrea, tap, psia
Pf2 M static pressure at do#nstrea, tap, psia
2
2
;5 M acoustic ratio, di,ensionless
5 M ratio o- speci-ic heats o- gas, di,ensionless
6/ "uperco,pressibility -actor
7 M
.
8
.
r
.
p8
.
t8
.
,f
.
gr .pv\ 63/&'8
#here the di,ensionless -actors are
.
8
M basic ori-ice -actor
.
r
M Reynolds nu,ber -actor
.
p8
M pressure base -actor
.t 8 M te,perature base -actor .
tf
M
-lo#ing te,perature -actor .gr M gas
relati0e density -actor .pv M
superco,pressibility -actor \ M
e>pansion -actor
APPENDI : E
+33
CHAPTER 10
2/ Present 0alue
620/28
620/28
PV M Z2
$Z2
i 62 P i)n ZZ
#here
PV M present 0alue, m
$ M series o- cash -lo#s, m
i M interest rate, deci,al 0alue n M nu,ber o- periods, years
2/ Pipe ,aterial cost
P7 M 20/6(6 4 R %)%;7 O 52(0 2000
#here
; M length o- pipe, ,i
% M pipe #all thic!ness, in/
7 M pipe ,aterial cost, m;ton
4n "4 units,
P7 M 0/02'664 R %)%;7 620/&8
#here
; M length o- pipe, !,
4 M pipe outside dia,eter, ,,
% M pipe #all thic!ness, ,,
7 M pipe ,aterial cost, m;,etric ton

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