Classification of Figures of Speech

Classification of figures of speech
figures of speech /
schemata lexeos
figurae dictionis
figures of thought
schemata dianoias
figurae sententiarum
Many rhetoricians have divided rhetorical figures into those of speech and those of thought (see chart).
Figures of speech pertain to verbal expression; figures of thought, to ideas. (The latter category
overlaps generally, therefore with invention and its topics).
English Latin Greek
figures of speech
figurae dictionis
figurae verborum
figurae elocutionis
in !ree"#
schemata lexeos
figures of thought
figurae sententiarum
figurae sensus
figurae mentis
in !ree"#
schemata dianoias
Typically, this distinction proves difficult to maintain. The figures of thought overlap considerably with
the topics of invention, and at times differ from figures of speech only in degree. $onse%uently, some
authorities create a third category of terms consisting of those that overlap between figures of diction
and of thought, and typically call these figures of amplification (see Melanchthon &'() b*r+b,v; c-v+
d&r.; .usenbrotus (.(.)).
.ee /lso
/d 0erennium list of Figures of 1iction
/d 0erennium list of Figures of Thought
copia
This concept embraces this same basic division by discussing the rhetorical amplification of
expression (copia verborum) and that of ideas (copia rerum).

The fourth boo" of Rhetorica Ad Herennium contains a
dictionary of stylistic terms. These are outlined below, with
lin"s to the Silva Rhetoricae where definitions and examples
can be found.
Figures of Diction
1. repetitio (epanaphora)
(. conversio (antistrophe)
). conplexio
2. traductio (ploce 3 antimetathesis 3 syncrisis 3
transplacement 3 and antanaclasis)
'. contentio (antithesis)
*. exclamatio (apostrophe)
,. interrogatio (erotema
-. ratiocinatio (aetiologia, 4reasoning by %uestion and
answer4)
5. sententia (maxim)
&6. contrarium (epicheireme, enthymeme, 4reasoning by
contraries4)
&&. membrum orationis (colon, 4clause4)
12. articulus (comma or phrase)
13. continuatio (period, 4sentence4)
14. conpar (isocolon)
15. similiter cadens (homoioptoton)
&*. similiter desinens (homoeoteleuton)
17. adnominatio (paronomasia)
18. subiectio (hypophora)
19. gradatio (climax)
(6. definitio (horismus, 4definition4)
(&. transitio
22. correctio (epidiorthosis)
23. occultatio (paralipsis)
(2. disiunctum (dia7eugma, 4dis8unction4)
('. coniunctio (syne7eugma, 4con8unction4)
(*. adiunctio (epi7eugma, 4ad8unction4)
27. conduplicatio (anadiplosis, 4reduplication4)
28. interpretatio (synonymia, 4interpretation4)
29. commutatio (antimetabole, 4reciprocal change4)
30. permissio (epitrope, 4surrender4)
)&. dubitatio (aporia, 4indecision4)
32. expeditio (4elimination4)
33. dissolutum (asyndeton)
)2. praecisio (aposiopesis)
)'. conclusio
Tropes:
36. nominatio (onomatopoeia)
37. pronominatio (antonomasia)
)-. denominatio (metonymy)
39. circumitio (periphrasis)
40. transgressio (hyperbaton)
41. superlatio (hyperbole)
42. intellectio (synecdoche)
43. abusio (catachresis)
22. translatio (metaphor)
45. permutatio (allegory)
Figures of Thought
&. distributio (diaeresis, merismus, 4distribution4)
2. licentia (parresia, 4fran"ness of speech4)
). deminutio (antenantiosis, meiosis, litotes,
4understatement4)
4. descriptio (diatyposis, 4vivid description4)
'. divisio (prosopodosis, 4division4)
*. fre%uentatio (synathroismus, 4accumulation4)
,. expolitio (chreia, 4refining4)
-. commoratio (epimone, 4dwelling on the point4)
9. contentio (antithesis)
&6. similitudo (parabole, 4comparison4)
&&. exemplum (paradigma, 4exemplification4)
12. imago (simile)
&). effictio (characterismus, 4portrayal4)
&2. notatio (ethopoeia, 4character delineation4)
&'. sermocinatio (dialogue)
&*. conformatio (prosopopoeia, 4personification4)
&,. significatio (emphasis)
&-. brevitas (brachylogia, 4conciseness4)
19. demonstratio (enargeia, 4ocular demonstration4)
repetitio
re-pe-ti'-ti-o L. repetition
1. Latin equivalent for anaphora
2. Latin equivalent for epanalepsis

Note !his shoul" not #e $onfuse" %ith repetition in &eneral' %hi$h
(anifests itself in a variet) of %a)s a$ross the spe$tru( of rhetori$.
*elate" +i&ures

+i&ures of repetition.
,ee -lso
.eneral *hetori$al ,trate&) -(plifi$ation

Sources:
Ad Herennium 4.13.19/
0uintilian 9.3.29
anaphora
an-aph'-o-ra +ro( .1. ana a&ain an" phero to #rin& or
$arr)
epanaphora, epembasis, epibole
adjectio, relatio, repetitio, repeticio
repeticion, the figure of report
*epetition of the sa(e %or" or &roup of %or"s at the
#e&innin& of su$$essive $lauses' senten$es' or lines.

23a(ples
This ro)al throne of 1in&s' this s$eptre" isle'
This earth of (a4est)' this seat of 5ars'
This other 2"en' "e(i6para"ise'
This fortress #uilt #) Nature for herself
-&ainst infe$tion an" the han" of %ar'
This happ) #ree" of (en' this little %orl"'
This pre$ious stone set in the silver sea'
7hi$h serves it in the offi$e of a %all'
8r as 9a: (oat "efensive to a house'
-&ainst the env) of less happier lan"s/
This #lesse" plot' this earth' this real(' this 2n&lan"'
This nurse' this tee(in& %o(# of ro)al 1in&s 9. . .:
This lan" of su$h "ear souls' this "ear "ear lan"'
;ear for her reputation throu&h the %orl"'
<s no% leas=" out > < "ie pronoun$in& it >
Li1e to a tene(ent or peltin& far(.
>?ohn of .aunt in ,ha1espeare=s Richard II @2.1.40651/ 57660A
*elate" +i&ures
epistrophe
2n"in& a series of lines' phrases' $lauses' or senten$es %ith
the sa(e %or" or %or"s. !he opposite of anaphora.
s)(plo$e
!he $o(#ination of anaphora an" epistrophe.
+i&ures of repetition

Sources:
Ad Herennium 4.12.19 @BrepetitioBA/ 0uintilian 7.4.8 @BrelatioBA/ <si"ore 1.36.869
@Banaphora'B BepanaphoraBA/ -quila 34 @BepanaphoraBA/ ,herr) @1550A 47 @Bepanaphora'B
Brepeti$io'B Brepeti$ionBA/ Cea$ha( @1577A D4v @BanaphoraB' BepanaphoraBA/ ,uareE
@BrepetitioB BanaphoraB Bepi#oleBA 58v669r/ +raun$e @1588A 1.19/ Cutt. @1589A 208
@Banaphora'B Bthe fi&ure of reportBA/ ;a) 1599 84 @Banaphora'B BrepetitioBA/ Dos1ins
@1599A13.
epistrophe
e-pis'-tro-fee fro( .1. epi' BuponB an" strophe' Bturnin&B
@B%heelin& a#outBA
antistrophe, epiphora
conversio
the counter turne, conversion
2n"in& a series of lines' phrases' $lauses' or senten$es %ith
the sa(e %or" or %or"s.

23a(ples

7hat lies #ehin" us an" %hat lies #efore us are tin) $o(pare" to
%hat lies %ithin us.B >2(erson
Dourl) 4o)s #e still upon )ouF
?uno sin&s her #lessin&s on )ou. 9. . .:
,$ar$it) an" %ant shall shun )ou'
Geres= #lessin& so is on )ou.
> ,ha1espeare' The Tempest @4.1.1086109/ 116617A
7e are #orn to sorrow' pass our ti(e in sorrow' en" our "a)s in
sorrow.
*elate" +i&ures
anaphora
s)(plo$e
!he $o(#ination of anaphora an" epistrophe.

Sources:
-" Derenniu( 4.13.19 @B$onversioBA/ ,herr) @1550A
47 @Bantistrophe'B B$onversioBA/ Cea$ha( @1577A <1v
@BepiphoraBA/ ,uareE @B$onversioB BepistropheB
BantistropheBA 59r/ +raun$e @1588A 1.20 @Bepistrophe'B
B$onversionBA/ Cutt. @1589A 208 @Bantistrophe'B Bthe
$ounter turneBA/ ;a) 1599 85/ Dos1ins @1599A13
s)(plo$e
sim'-plo-see or
sim'-plo-kee
fro( .1. sym' Bto&etherB an" plekein Bto %eaveB
-lso sp. symploche, symploke
adjunct, circulo rhetorica, conplexio
the figure of reply
!he $o(#ination of anaphora an" epistrophe #e&innin& a
series of lines' $lauses' or senten$es %ith the sa(e %or" or
phrase %hile si(ultaneousl) repeatin& a "ifferent %or" or
phrase at the en" of ea$h ele(ent in this series.

23a(ples

BAgainst )ourself )ou are $allin& hi('
against the la%s )ou are $allin& hi('
against the "e(o$rati$ $onstitution )ou are $allin& hi(B >
-es$hines
*elate" +i&ures
$oenotes
,)(plo$e' #ut of phrases.

Sources:
Ad Herennium 4.14.20
@B$onple3ioBA/ ,herr) @1550A
47 @Bs)(plo$e'B B$onple3ioBA/
,uareE @B$o(ple3ioB
Bs)(plo$heBA 59r/ Cea$ha(
@1577A <1v/ +raun$e @1588A
1.21 @Bs)(plo$e'B
B$o(ple3io'B
B$o(prehensioBA/ Cutt. @1589A
209 @Bs)(plo$he'B Bthe fi&ure
of replieBA/ ;a) 1599 85
@Bs)(plo$heBA/ Dos1ins
@1599A13 @Bs)(plo$e'B
B$o(ple3ioBA
$oenotes
cee'-no-tees .1. Bsharin& in $o((onB
combined repetition
*epetition of t%o "ifferent phrases one at the #e&innin&
an" the other at the en" of su$$essive para&raphs.

Note Go(pose" of anaphora an" epistrophe' $oenotes is si(pl) a
(ore spe$ifi$ 1in" of s)(plo$e @the repetition of phrases' not
(erel) %or"sA.
23a(ples

8 &ive than1s unto the Lor"/ for he is &oo" for his mercy endureth for ever.
8 &ive than1s unto the .o" of &o"s for his mercy endureth for ever
8 &ive than1s to the Lor" of Lor"s for his mercy endureth for ever.
> Csal( 136163
*elate" +i&ures
s)(plo$e
anaphora
epistrophe
,ee -lso
+i&ures of repetition

Sources:
Hullin&er
345
@B$oenotes'B
B$o(#ine"
repetitionBA
$o(ple3io
com-plex'-i-o L. B$olle$tion/ en$ir$lin&' enfol"in&B
-lso sp. conplexio
interlacement
1. Latin ter( for ana$ephalaeosis.
2. Latin ter( for s)(plo$e.
3. Latin ter( for $oenotes.

Sources: Ad Herennium 2.18.28/ 4.14.20
ana$ephalaeosis
an'-a-sef-a-li-o'-sis fro( .1. ana' B#a$1B an" cephale' Bhea"B
enumeratio' complexio
- re$apitulation of the fa$ts. - 1in" of su((ar) e(plo)e"
in the peroratio.

*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of ,u((ar)
a$$u(ulatio
$o(ple3io
enu(eratio
epano"os
epiphone(a
s)nathroes(us
,ee -lso
-rran&e(ent peroratio

Sources:
0uintilian 6.1.163 @Bana$ephalaeosis'B Benu(eratioBA/ ,herr) @1550A 63
@Benu(era$io'B Benu(era$ionBA/ Cea$ha( @1577A 04v @Benu(eratioBA
peroratio the $on$lusion
-rran&e(ent of

1. e3or"iu(
I
2. narratio
I
3. partitio
Glassi$al 8ration

4. $onfir(atio
I
5. refutatio
I
6. peroratio

+ollo%in& the refutatio an" $on$lu"in& the $lassi$al oration' the
peroratio $onventionall) e(plo)e" appeals throu&h pathos' an" often
in$lu"e" a su((in& up @see the fi&ures of su((ar)' #elo%A.
Related Figures
+i&ures of ,u((ar)
o a$$u(ulatio
o ana$ephalaeosis
o $o(ple3io
o epano"os
o epiphone(a
o s)(peras(a
o s)nathroes(us
See Also
pathos
+i&ures of Cathos
Sources: Gi$. ;e <nv. 1.52656/ Gi$. !op. 25.98699
fi&ures of su((ar)
figures of speech overvie% I
&roupin&s
in"e3
Crovi"in& a su((ar) or overvie% is a re&ular rhetori$al strate&) that
has #een na(e" as several fi&ures. ,u((ariEin& is also a rhetori$al
$onvention %ithin an oration @see #elo%A.
a$$u(ulatio
ana$ephalaeosis
$o(ple3io
epano"os
epiphone(a
s)(peras(a
s)nathroes(us
,ee -lso
Carts of an 8ration propositio
Carts of an 8ration peroratio
Cro&)(nas(ata Crover#
Cro&)(nas(ata *efutation
Cro&)(nas(ata Gonfir(ation
*hetori$al Ce"a&o&) -##reviation
fi&ures of spee$h
turns of phrase, schemes, tropes, ornaments, colors, flowers
overview I &roupin&s in"e3 I s$he(es an" tropes
Overview
Li1e %il"flo%er see"s tosse" on fertile &roun"' the fi&ures of spee$h'
so(eti(es $alle" the Bflo%ers of rhetori$B @flores rhetoricaeA' have
(ultiplie" into a &ar"en of enor(ous variet) over ti(e. -s the ri&ht
fra(e of this %e# resour$e illustrates' the nu(#er of fi&ures of spee$h
$an see( quite i(posin&. -n" in"ee"' the nu(#er' na(es' an"
&roupin&s of fi&ures have #een the (ost varia#le aspe$t of rhetori$
over its histor).
Naming the Figures
!he fi&ures first a$quire" their na(es fro( the .ree1s an" *o(ans
%ho $atalo&ue" the(. -lthou&h atte(pts have #een (a"e to
an&li$iEe or up"ate the fi&ures= na(es' this so(eti(es proves to
$onfuse thin&s' even thou&h the .ree1 an" Latin ter(s are o"" to
(o"ern ears. Cronun$iation &ui"es an" et)(olo&ies have #een
provi"e" to $larif) the .ree1 ter(s' in parti$ular. -n" #e$ause there
are so (an) s)non)(s or $lose s)non)(s a(on& the fi&ures' ea$h
entr) $ontains equivalent an" $o(parative ter(s fro( .ree1' Latin'
an" 2n&lish. !o vie% the ter(s fro( 4ust one of these lan&ua&es' see
vie%in& options.
Categorizing the Figures
8ver ti(e these fi&ures have #een or&aniEe" in a variet) of "ifferent
%a)s in or"er to (a1e sense of the( an" to learn their various
qualities >(u$h as a s$ientist (i&ht $lassif) the flora of a forest'
&roupin& li1e spe$ies into fa(ilies. Jarious 1in"s of &roupin&s for
the fi&ures $an #e foun" here @$ross referen$es at the #otto( of ea$h
fi&ure=s pa&e $an also lea" one to relate" fi&uresA. !he si(plest @an"
ol"estA arran&e(ent for the fi&ures "ivi"es the( into t%o #roa"
$ate&ories' Bs$he(esB an" BtropesB>useful startin& points.
Situating the Figures within Rhetoric
-s ri$h an" interestin& as the fi&ures are' the) "o not $onstitute the
%hole of rhetori$' as so(e have (ista1enl) sur(ise". ,u$h a vie% is
a vast re"u$tion of the "is$ipline of rhetori$' %hi$h has 4ust as (u$h
to "o %ith the "is$over) of thin&s to sa) @<nventionA' their
arran&e(ent @-rran&e(entA' $o((ital to (e(or) @5e(or)A' an"
presentation @;eliver)A as it has to "o %ith the fi&ures of spee$h'
%hi$h are t)pi$all) $ate&oriEe" un"er the thir" of these $anons of
rhetori$' ,t)le.
Figures of Thought Topics of !nvention
!he %or" Bfi&ureB has so(eti(es #een use" to refer not onl) to
(eans of e3pression' #ut to strate&ies of ar&u(ent. ,o(e theorists
"istin&uish #et%een Bfi&ures of spee$hB an" Bfi&ures of thou&htB @see
+i&ures of ,pee$h an" !hou&htA. !hese latter Bfi&uresB are #etter
1no%n as topi$s of invention.
<n this resour$e' a serious atte(pt has #een (a"e to sho% the $lose
fi&ures of spee$h
overvie% I groupings I s$he(es an" tropes
Groupings of Figures
-(on& the least $onsistent #ut (ost i(portant aspe$ts of the
rhetori$al tra"ition is the s)ste(ati$ arran&e(ent of fi&ures. !he
si(plest arran&e(ents have #een #roa" "i$hoto(ies
1. fi&ures of spee$h
2. fi&ures of thou&ht
@,ee +i&ures of ,pee$h an" !hou&htA
8r
1. s$he(es
2. tropes
@,ee ,$he(es an" !ropesA
7ithin Silva Rhetoricae !he +orest of *hetori$' the fi&ures are
asso$iate" %ith lar&er rhetori$al $ate&ories to %hi$h the) are relate"
@+or e3a(ple' fi&ures of "ivision are liste" %ith the !opi$ of
<nvention ;ivision' et$.A/ also' the fi&ures are &roupe" a$$or"in& to
fun$tion or strate&)
of -(plifi$ation
of -rran&e(ent @see +i&ures of 8r"erA
of Halan$e
of ;efinition
of ;es$ription
of ;ivision
of 2thos
of .ra((ar
of <nterruption
of Na(in&
of 8(ission
of 8r"er
of 8verstate(ent
of Carallelis(
of Cathos
of Cla$e
of Cla)
of *easonin&
of *efutation
of *epetition
of *h)th(
of ,oun"
of ,u#stitution
of ,u((ar)
of !i(e
of 7or"pla)
,e(anti$ <nversions
Ji$es
.ra((ati$al ,$he(es
.roupin&s #) rhetori$al $ate&or)
.roupin&s (a"e #) %ell61no%n authorities @authors an"
te3tsA
+i&ures of .ra((ar
Original suggestions for other kinds of groupings are invited.
lease contact !ideon "urton
Figures of Speech: Groupings by rhetorical
category
Audience:
+i&ures in %hi$h an au"ien$e is a""resse"
o asteis(us
"ersuasive Appeals:
+i&ures of *easonin& @ logos A
+i&ures of Cathos
+i&ures of 2thos
Figures of Speech: Groupings made by well-
known authorities (authors and texts
1. +ro( -ntiquit)
o .or&ias
o -" Derenniu( @$a. 100 H.G.A
o 0uintilian @$a. 100 -.;.A
2. +ro( the 5i""le -&es
o .eoffre) of Jinsauf @1210A
3. +ro( the *enaissan$e
o Leonar" Go3 @1526630KA
o ?oannes ,usen#rotus @1540A
o !ho(as 7ilson @1560A
o *i$har" *ainol"e @1563A
o ;u"le) +enner @1584A
o -#raha( +raun$e' The Arcadian Rhetoricke @1588A
o Gharles Hutler @1598A
o ?ohn Dos1ins @159961600KA
o *i$har" ,herr) @1550A
o Denr) Cea$ha(' The !arden of #lo$uence ' @1577A
o .eor&e Cuttenha( @1589A
o -n&el ;a)' The #nglish Secretary @1599A
4. +ro( the 17th an" 18th Genturies
5. +ro( the 19th Gentur)
o 2.7. Hullin&er' %igures of Speech in the "i&le @1898A
6. +ro( the 20th Gentur)
o Lee -. ,onnino @1968A
o 7arren !a)lor @1972A
o -rthur 0uinn @1982A
o Hernar" ;uprieE @1984A
o *i$har" Lanha( @1991A
fi&ures of spee$h
overvie% I
&roupin&s
I
schemes and tropes
Schemes and !ropes
,$he(es an" tropes #oth have to "o %ith usin& lan&ua&e in
an unusual or Bfi&ure"B %a)
!rope -n artful "eviation fro( the or"inar) or prin$ipal
si&nifi$ation of a %or".
,$he(e -n artful "eviation fro( the or"inar) arran&e(ent
of %or"s.
23a(ples
B< %or1 li1e a slaveB 9trope si(ile:
B< "on=t 1no% if <=( %or1in& () 4o# or () 4o#' (eB 9s$he(es
anti(eta#ole' ellipsis' personifi$ation:
"ategories of tropes and schemes#
Gli$1 on a $ate&or) to see spe$ifi$ fi&ures of spee$h' or pro$ee"
"ire$tl) to the tropes pa&e or the s$he(es pa&es to see the( all. !o
see other or&aniEational (etho"s for the fi&ures of spee$h' $li$1 here.
#inds of Tropes
1. *eferen$e to 8ne !hin& as -nother
2. 7or"pla) an" puns
3. ,u#stitutions
4. 8verstate(entLMn"erstate(ent
5. ,e(anti$ <nversions
#inds of Schemes
1. ,tru$tures of Halan$e
2. Ghan&e in 7or" 8r"er
3. 8(ission
4. *epetition
invention
inventio
!he five $anons invention I arran&e(ent I st)le I (e(or) I "eliver)

<nvention $on$erns fin"in& so(ethin& to sa) @its na(e "erives fro(
the Latin invenire' Bto fin".BA. Gertain $o((on $ate&ories of thou&ht
#e$a(e $onventional to use in or"er to #rainstor( for (aterial. !hese
$o((on pla$es @pla$es N topoi in .ree1A are $alle" the Btopi$s of
invention.B !he) in$lu"e' for e3a(ple' $ause an" effe$t' $o(parison'
an" various relationships.
<nvention is tie" to the rhetori$al appeal of lo&os' #ein& oriente" to
what an author %oul" sa) rather than how this (i&ht #e sai".
<nvention "es$ri#es the ar&u(entative' persusive $ore of rhetori$.
-ristotle' in fa$t' "efines rhetori$ pri(aril) as invention' B"is$overin&
the #est availa#le (eans of persuasion.B -n i(portant pro$e"ure that
for(e" part of this fin"in& pro$ess %as stasis.
,a(ple *hetori$al -nal)sis <NJ2N!<8N
<n "es$ri#in& the state of hu(anit)' Hlaise Cas$al aphoristi$all) states
7e "esire truth' an" fin" %ithin ourselves onl) un$ertaint). 7e see1
happiness' an" fin" onl) (iser) an" "eath. 7e $annot #ut "esire truth
an" happiness' an" are in$apa#le of $ertaint) or happiness.
<n these ni$el) parallel $lai(s' Cas$al follo%s a si(ilar pattern of
"evelop(ent #ase" on the i"entifi$ation of an ante$e"ent an" its
inevita#le $onsequen$e. 9ante$e"entL$onsequen$e is a $o((on topi$
of invention:. 7e (ust as1 ourselves' -re these the ne$essar)
ante$"ents to the state" $onsequen$esK ;oes his $on$ision #etra) a
lar&er $o(ple3it)K -ren=t these $onsequen$es the $auses the(selves
for pursuin& %hat he refers to as ante$e"entsK
*elate" +i&ures
,ee "is$ussion of relationship #et%een +i&ures of ,pee$h an"
+i&ures of !hou&ht. <nvention is asso$iate" %ith the latter.
+i&ures of -(plifi$ation
,ee -lso
!he !opi$s of <nvention
,tasis !heor)
arran&e(ent
dispositio
!he five $anons invention I arrangement I st)le I (e(or) I "eliver)
-rran&e(ent @dispositio or ta'isA $on$erns ho% one or"ers spee$h or
%ritin&. <n an$ient rhetori$s' arran&e(ent referre" solel) to the or"er
to #e o#serve" in an oration' #ut the ter( has #roa"ene" to in$lu"e all
$onsi"erations of the or"erin& of "is$ourse' espe$iall) on a lar&e
s$ale.
Arrangement of a Classical $ration
1. <ntro"u$tion e'ordium prooimion
2. ,tate(ent of +a$ts narratio diegesis
3. ;ivision partitio
4. Croof confirmatio pistis
5. *efutation refutatio
6. Gon$lusion peroratio epilogos
Gi$ero ali&ne" $ertain rhetori$al appeals %ith spe$ifi$ parts of the
oration. <n the e3or"iu( or intro"u$tion' it is ne$essar) for one to
esta#lish his or her o%n authorit). !herefore' one e(plo)s ethi$al
appeals @see ethosA. <n the ne3t four parts of the oration @state(ent of
fa$ts' "ivision' proof' an" refutationA' one $hiefl) e(plo)s lo&i$al
ar&u(ents @see lo&osA. <n the $on$lusion' one finishes up #)
e(plo)in& e(otional appeals @see pathosA.
*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of 8r"er
+i&ures of Carallelis(
h)per#aton
anastrophe
s)n$h)sis
pare$#asis
$ata$os(esis
,ee -lso
+our Gate&ories of Ghan&e !ransposition
Jirtues of ,t)le Glarit)
!he proper or"erin& of (aterial ai"s st)listi$ $larit).
,tasis
!his has to "o %ith follo%in& the $orre$t or"er of $o(posin&
an ar&u(ent #) as$ertainin& first %hat is the point at issue' the
stasis.
(e(or)
memoria
!he five $anons invention I arran&e(ent I st)le I memory I "eliver)

-t first' 5e(or) see(e" to have to "o solel) %ith (ne(oni$s
@(e(or) ai"sA that %oul" assist a #u""in& orator in retainin& his
spee$h. Do%ever' it $learl) ha" to "o %ith (ore than si(pl) learnin&
ho% to (e(oriEe an alrea") $o(pose" spee$h for re6presentation.
!he Ad Herennium author $alls (e(or) the Btreasur) of thin&s
invente"'B thus lin1in& 5e(or) %ith the first $anon of rhetori$'
<nvention. !his allu"es to the pra$ti$e of storin& up $o((onpla$es or
other (aterial arrive" at throu&h the topi$s of invention for use as
$alle" for in a &iven o$$asion. ,ee $opia.
!hus' 5e(or) is as (u$h tie" to the i(provisational ne$essities of a
spea1er as to the nee" to (e(oriEe a $o(plete spee$h for "eliver). <n
this sense 5e(or) is relate" to 1airos @sensitivit) to the $onte3t in
%hi$h one (a) $o((uni$ateA as %ell as to the $on$epts of $opia an"
a(plifi$ation.
5e(or)' it $an #e seen has ha" to "o %ith (u$h (ore than 4ust
(e(oriEation. <t %as a requisite for #e$o(in& peritus dicendi' %ell6
verse" in spea1in&' so(ethin& onl) possi#le if one ha" a vast "eal of
infor(ation on han" to #e #rou&ht forth appropriatel) an" effe$tivel)
&iven the $ir$u(stan$es an" the au"ien$e.
!he $anon of 5e(or) also su&&ests that one $onsi"er the
ps)$holo&i$al aspe$ts of preparin& to $o((uni$ate an" the
perfor(an$e of $o((uni$atin& itself' espe$iall) in an oral or
i(pro(ptu settin&. !)pi$all) 5e(or) has to "o onl) %ith the orator'
#ut invites $onsi"eration of ho% the au"ien$e %ill retain thin&s in
(in". !o this en"' $ertain fi&ures of spee$h are availa#le to help the
(e(or)' in$lu"in& the use of vivi" "es$ription @e$phrasisA an"
enu(eration. -lon& %ith ;eliver)' 5e(or) has often #een e3$lu"e"
fro( rhetori$. Do%ever' it %as a vital $o(ponent in the trainin& of
orators in antiquit).
23a(ple
8rators %ere en$oura&e" to envision %here the) %oul" #e spea1in&
as a preparation for (e(oriEin& their spee$h. !hen' havin&
$o(plete" the spee$h=s $o(position' the) %ere to "ivi"e it into
(ana&ea#le portions' ea$h of %hi$h the) %oul" assi&n' in turn' to a
"ifferent part of the roo( %here the spee$h %as to o$$ur. !hus' #)
$astin& their e)es a#out "urin& their spee$h' the) %oul" #e re(in"e"
of the ne3t part of their spee$h to &ive.
Rhetorical analysis in terms of %&%$R':
He$ause 5e(or) "iffers %i"el) in %hat it $an (ean as an aspe$t of
rhetori$' rhetori$al $riti$is( in ter(s of 5e(or) has equall) #roa"
possi#ilities.
the "e&ree to %hi$h a spea1er su$$essfull) re(e(#ers a
(e(oriEe" oration
the fa$ilit) %ith %hi$h a spea1er $alls upon his (e(or) of apt
quotations an" thou&hts that effe$tivel) (eet the rhetori$al
intention
an anal)sis of the (etho"s a spea1er uses in or"er for the
(essa&e to #e retaine" in the (e(or) of those hearin&
@(ne(oni$sA
assess(ent of "ire$t appeals to (e(or) or the (ention of it or
relate" ter(s
*elate" +i&ures
ana(nesis
,ee -lso
-rran&e(ent partitio
Sources: Gi$. ;e <nv. 1.7/ Gi$. ;e 8r. 2.8662.88/ 0uint. 3.3.10
the $anons of rhetori$
invention I arran&e(ent I st)le I (e(or) I "eliver)

*hetori$' as an art' has lon& #een "ivi"e" into five (a4or $ate&ories
or B$anonsB
1. <nvention
2. -rran&e(ent
3. ,t)le
4. 5e(or)
5. ;eliver)
!hese $ate&ories have serve" #oth anal)ti$al an" &enerative
purposes. !hat is to sa)' the) provi"e a te(plate for the $riti$is( of
"is$ourse @an" orations in parti$ularA' an" the) &ive a pattern for
rhetori$al e"u$ation. *hetori$al treatises throu&h the $enturies have
#een set up in li&ht of these five $ate&ories' althou&h (e(or) an"
"eliver) $onsistentl) have re$eive" less attention. *hetori$ shares
%ith another lon&stan"in& "is$ipline' "iale$ti$' trainin& in invention
an" arran&e(ent. 7hen these "is$iplines $o(pete"' rhetori$ %as
so(eti(es re"u$e" to st)le alone.
-lthou&h the five $anons of rhetori$ "es$ri#e areas of attention in
rhetori$al pe"a&o&)' these shoul" not #e ta1en as the onl)
e"u$ational te(plate for the "is$ipline of rhetori$. !reatises on
rhetori$ also "is$uss at so(e len&th the roots or sour$es of rhetori$al
a#ilit)' an" spe$ifi$ 1in"s of rhetori$al e3er$ises inten"e" to pro(ote
lin&uisti$ fa$ilit).
,a(ple *hetori$al -nal)sis CAN$NS $F R(&T$R!C
5artin Luther Oin&' ?r. %as not the first to $lai( he ha" a "rea(.
,o(e' su$h as Gla)#orne Garson an" Oeith ;. 5iller have re$entl)
sho%n that the $ivil ri&hts lea"er=s (ost fa(ous spee$h is in fa$t
lar&el) lifte" fro( the ser(ons of others. <f Oin& is not responsi#le
for inventin& the su#4e$t (atter of this a""ress' he $an #e $re"ite"
%ith or"erin& an" "eliverin& it in a st)le appropriate to his ver)
(i3e" au"ien$e. ,pea1in& to a hu&e $ro%" #oth in 7ashin&ton' ;.G.
an" a$ross television' Oin& "re% upon $o((onpla$es of our $ountr)
that lie "eep in our $ultural (e(or)' an" "i" so %ith a 1in" of so#er
$haris(a that (a"e his o%n %or"s (e(ora#le an" a#ove all'
effe$tive.
Sources:Gi$. ;e <nv. 1.7/ Gi$. ;e 8r. 1.31.142/ 0uint. 3.3/ 5el3 -8v @Boffi$iaBA
P 199662004' .i"eon 8. Hurton' Hri&ha( Qoun& Mniversit)
Clease $ite B,ilva *hetori$aeB @rhetori$.#)u.e"uA
st)le
elocutio
!he five $anons invention I arran&e(ent I style I (e(or) I "eliver)
Style: Jirtues I Levels I 0ualities I +i&ures of ,pee$h
,t)le $on$erns the artful e3pression of i"eas. <f invention a""resses
what is to #e sai"/ st)le a""resses how this %ill #e sai". +ro( a
rhetori$al perspe$tive st)le is not in$i"ental' superfi$ial' or
supple(entar) st)le na(es ho% i"eas are e(#o"ie" in lan&ua&e an"
$usto(iEe" to $o((uni$ative $onte3ts @see Gontent L +or(A.
He$ause of the $entralit) of st)le' rhetori$ians have &iven &reat
attention to ever) aspe$t of lin&uisti$ for(>so (u$h so that rhetori$
has at ti(es #een equate" %ith @or re"u$e" toA B(ere st)le'B as thou&h
rhetori$ %ere $on$erne" onl) %ith superfi$ial orna(entation.
Hut orna(entation %as not at all superfi$ial in $lassi$al an"
renaissan$e rhetori$' for to orna(ent @ornare N Bto equip' fit out' or
suppl)BA (eant to equip one=s thou&hts %ith ver#al e3pression
appropriate for a$$o(plishin& one=s intentions.
Mpon this #asi$ prin$iple of st)le there has #een a&ree(ent' #ut less
so respe$tin& ho% (atters of st)le have #een (appe" %ithin the
rhetori$al tra"ition' espe$iall) %ith respe$t to $ate&oriEin& the fi&ures
of spee$h. !hese are the (a4or &roupin&s of st)listi$ $on$erns %ithin
the rhetori$al tra"ition
1. Jirtues of ,t)le
+ive en$o(passin& $on$erns of st)le %hi$h relate st)le to &ra((ar'
au"ien$e' effe$tive an" affe$tive appeals' the &ui"in& prin$iple of
"e$oru(' an" the i(portan$e of orna(entin& lan&ua&e throu&h
fi&urative spee$h. - $o(para#le (appin& of seven virtues of st)le
has #een lai" out #) Der(o&enes.
2. Levels of ,t)le
+ro( the *o(an tra"ition three levels of st)le have #een lai" out'
ea$h suite" to one of three "istin$t rhetori$al purposes.
3. 0ualities of ,t)le
- lar&e "es$riptive ter(inolo&) has #een "evelope" to $ritique the
qualities of st)le. !hese are interpretive in nature' an" overlap
#roa"l) %ith fi&ures of spee$h or the virtues an" levels of st)le.
4. +i&ures of ,pee$h
,o(eti(es $onsi"ere" part of BornatenessB @one of the Jirtues of
,t)leA' an" so(eti(es ta1en to represent the %hole of rhetori$' the
rhetori$al fi&ures $onstitute a vast te$hni$al vo$a#ular) na(in& %a)s
that #oth i"eas an" lan&ua&e have #een $onfi&ure".
,t)le is often ali&ne" %ith pathos' sin$e its fi&ures of spee$h are often
e(plo)e" to persua"e throu&h e(otional appeals @see +i&ures of
pathosA. Do%ever' st)le has 4ust as (u$h to "o %ith ethos' for one=s
st)le often esta#lishes or (iti&ates one=s authorit) an" $re"i#ilit) @see
+i&ures of ethosA. Hut it shoul" not #e assu(e"' either' that st)le
si(pl) a""s on a patheti$ or ethi$al appeal to the $ore' lo&i$al
$ontent. ,t)le is ver) (u$h part of the appeal throu&h lo&os'
espe$iall) $onsi"erin& the fa$t that s$he(es of repetition serve to
pro"u$e $oheren$e an" $larit)' o#vious attri#utes of the appeal to
reason. !here are also spe$ifi$ fi&ures of spee$h that are #ase" upon
lo&i$al stru$tures su$h as the s)llo&is( @,ee +i&ures of *easonin&A.
,t)le is not an optional aspe$t of "is$ourse' althou&h those %ho ta1e
"eliver)
actio (
pronuntiatio
!he five $anons invention I arran&e(ent I st)le I (e(or) I delivery

;eliver)' the last of the five $anons of rhetori$' $on$erns itself @as
"oes st)leA %ith how so(ethin& is sai"' rather than what is sai" @the
provin$e of <nventionA. !he .ree1 %or" for "eliver) is Bh)po1risisB
or Ba$tin&'B an" rhetori$ has #orro%e" fro( that art a stu"ie"
attention to vo$al trainin& an" to the use of &estures.
<n antiquit) the %a) a spee$h %as "elivere" %as $onsi"ere" a $ru$ial
"eter(inant of its (eanin& or effe$t' espe$iall) sin$e "eliver) (a"e
use of the po%erful persuasive appeal of pathos.
;eliver) @alon& %ith 5e(or)A has often #een o(itte" fro( rhetori$al
te3ts/ ho%ever' it has retaine" a stron& pla$e in rhetori$al pe"a&o&) .
!he i(portan$e of "eliver) %as e(phasiEe" in "is$ussions of
e'ercitatio @pra$ti$e e3er$isesA an" has #een (anifeste" in the
pro&)(nas(ata an" pra$ti$e spee$hes @"e$la(ationsA of a rhetori$al
e"u$ation.
;eliver) ori&inall) referre" to oral rhetori$ at use in a pu#li$ $onte3t'
#ut $an #e vie%e" (ore #roa"l) as that aspe$t of rhetori$ that
$on$erns the pu#li$ presentation of "is$ourse' oral or %ritten. <n
either $ase ;eliver) o#viousl) has (u$h to "o %ith ho% one
esta#lishes ethos an" appeals throu&h pathos' an" in this sense is
$o(ple(entar) to <nvention' %hi$h is (ore stri$tl) $on$eren" %ith
lo&os.
!he oral nature of rhetori$al trainin& an" perfor(an$e in antiquit)
(a"e a $loser asso$iation #et%een rhetori$ an" literature than e3ists
to"a). -ristotle i"entifies $o((onalities #et%een the re$itation of
poetr) an" the "eliver) of spee$hes. Hoth involve" (atters of st)le
an" e(otion in vo$aliEin& %or"s.
,a(ple *hetori$al -nal)sis )&*!+&R'
7inston Ghur$hill $oul" never have stirre" the Hritish pu#li$ as he
"i" %ere it not for the &rave' serious' an" $ontrolle" tone of voi$e that
he e(plo)e" in his ra"io spee$hes. Dis faith in the allie" po%ers ran&
out in stentorian $a"en$es that #) their ver) vi#rations instille" #elief
in the (asses. Dis (essa&e %as often $li$he' #ut his "eliver) %as
never an)thin& #ut spell6#in"in&. Da" he ha" a fee#le voi$e' perhaps
.er(an) %oul" have fare" #etter.
*elate" +i&ures
(i(esis
!he i(itation of another=s &estures' pronun$iation' or
utteran$e.
()$teris(us
- (o$1 &iven %ith an a$$o(pan)in& &esture' su$h as a
s$ornful $ountenan$e.
tasis
,ustainin& the pronun$iation of a %or" or phrase #e$ause of
its pleasant soun"
epenthesis
!he a""ition of a s)lla#le or letter to the (i""le of a %or". -
1in" of (etaplas( that is so(eti(es e(plo)e" in or"er to
fa$ilitate easier arti$ulation.
,ee -lso
Cathos
*hetori$al Ce"a&o&)
Cro&)(nas(ata
Sources: -ristotle *het. 3.1.369/ Gi$. ;e <nv. 1.7/ Gi$. ;e 8r. 3.11.4063.12.46
rhetori$al pe"a&o&)
*hetori$al -nal)sis *hetori$al 23er$ises
<(itation

Cro&)(nas(ata
;e$la(ation
+ro( antiquit) to the present "a)' rhetori$ has al%a)s #een $losel)
asso$iate" %ith s$hoolin&. -s a "is$ipline %ithin $lassi$al .ree1 an"
*o(an $urri$ula' in the (e"ieval triviu(' an" %ithin renaissan$e
hu(anist e"u$ation' rhetori$ o$$upie" a $entral pla$e. *hetori$al
pe"a&o&) has not al%a)s #een $onsistent' of $ourse. Do%ever' $ertain
#asi$ assu(ptions an" (etho"s have persiste"' parti$ularl) fro( the
$lassi$al an" renaissan$e perio"s %hen rhetori$al e"u$ation %as (ost
$o"ifie".
- pri(ar) assu(ption %ithin rhetori$al pe"a&o&) has #een the i"ea
that spea1in& an" %ritin& a#ilit) is not (erel) a pro"u$t of in#orn
talent' #ut that instru$tion in theor)' $ouple" %ith pra$ti$e' $an
$o(ple(ent native a#ilit) an" lea" one to e3$ellen$e in spea1in& an"
%ritin& @see *hetori$al -#ilit)A.
Ne3t' rhetori$al pe"a&o&) is #uilt upon the assu(ption that the
$areful o#servation an" anal)sis of su$$essful $o((uni$ation is
require" @,ee *hetori$al -nal)sisA. <n"ee"' the (an) rhetori$al
han"#oo1s #e&an not as a#stra$t pres$riptions for ho% to spea1 or
%rite' #ut as "es$riptive a$$ounts of #est pra$ti$es. -s the ha#its of
su$$essful spea1ers an" %riters have #een o#serve" over ti(e' these
strate&ies have #een na(e" an" pla$e" %ithin a theoreti$al s)ste(
an" have thus #e$o(e the BartB @or tekhneA of rhetori$
*hetori$al pe"a&o&) has (aintaine" this e(phasis upon o#servin&
an" anal)Ein& #est pra$ti$es #) re(ainin& a profoun"l) literar)
en"eavor. !he spee$hes an" %ritin&s of the #est orators an" authors
have re(aine" a prin$ipal fo$us for rhetori$al instru$tion/ rhetori$al
(anuals "o not su#stitute for' #ut #e$o(e an ai" to' rhetori$al
anal)sis of literar) (o"els. Literature %as rea" #oth for its $ontent' as
part of pro"u$in& %hat 0uintilian "es$ri#e" as the vir &onus peritus
dicendi' Ba &oo" (an %ho spea1s %ell'B an" for its e3e(plar) for(
an" rhetori$al te$hniques.
*hetori$al pe"a&o&) relie" upon a ver) $lose relationship #et%een
rea"in& an" %ritin&' o#servin& an" $o(posin&. 8ne rhetori$ian' Ceter
*a(us' a$$or"in&l) "ivi"e" rhetori$al pe"a&o&) into t%o
overar$hin& a$tivities anal)sis an" &enesis. !he o#servation of
su$$essful spea1in& or %ritin& @Banal)sisBA pre$e"es an" i(proves
one=s o%n spea1in& or %ritin& @B&enesisBA.
,tu"ents %ere tau&ht to listen an" to rea" not (erel) for i"eas' #ut for
fin"in& useful strate&ies an" te$hniques @,ee "etails un"er *hetori$al
-nal)sisA. ,u$h te$hniques $oul" #e a"opte" an" a"apte" into their
o%n spea1in& an" %ritin& throu&h various 1in"s of i(itation @,ee
<(itationA. +inall)' spe$ifi$ rhetori$al e3er$ises have #een assi&ne" to
stu"ents to train the( to (ove fro( anal)sis' throu&h i(itation' to
&enesis>$o(posin& for the(selves @see *hetori$al 23er$isesA.
Sources: !he $lassi$al an" *enaissan$e sour$es for ea$h aspe$t of rhetori$al
pe"a&o&) $an #e foun" in Hurton.
P 199662004' .i"eon 8. Hurton' Hri&ha( Qoun& Mniversit)
Clease $ite B,ilva *hetori$aeB @rhetori$.#)u.e"uA
rhetori$al anal)sis
*hetori$al Ce"a&o&) Rhetorical Analysis *hetori$al 23er$ises
<(itation

Cro&)(nas(ata
;e$la(ation
7ithin rhetori$al pe"a&o&) the rhetori$al anal)sis of literar)
e3e(plars (a"e possi#le the intelli&ent i(itation of those (o"els
@,ee <(itationA. ,u$h anal)sis shoul" #e un"erstoo" as a $lose
$ounterpart to B&enesis'B $reatin& one=s o%n %ritin& or spea1in& @,ee
*hetori$al 23er$isesA.
*hetori$al anal)sis #e&ins %ith the appropriate $hoi$e of a &iven
(o"el' an" su$h a sele$tion %oul" have #een (a"e %ith an e)e #oth
to the content an" espe$iall) to the style of the author @,ee Gontent
an" +or(A. Dere %e see that rhetori$al anal)sis is inti(atel) relate"
to lar&er $urri$ular issues re&ar"in& the value of $ertain %or1s or
authors. 5u$h literar) $riti$is( in antiquit) an" the *enaissan$e %as
"evote" to assessin& the (erits of &iven authors as a"equate (o"els
for i(itation. ,o(e an$ient spea1ers or %riters have re(aine" $entral
to rhetori$al anal)sis an" to i(itation' in$lu"in& ;e(osthenes in
.ree1 an" Gi$ero in Latin.
!he anal)sis of an author $an #e un"erstoo" %ith respe$t to three
"is$ursive "is$iplines %hi$h provi"e" the te$hni$al vo$a#ular) for
"ifferent @#ut overlappin&A (o"es of lin&uisti$ an" literar) anal)sis
&ra((ar' lo&i$' an" rhetori$. !hus' passa&es fro( a &iven te3t $oul"
#e anal)Ee" &ra((ati$all)' su$h as %hen stu"ents %ere tau&ht to
parse a te3t' i"entif)in& the various parts of spee$h an" verif)in& the
$orrespon"en$e of a$$i"en$e' et$.A. ,i(ilarl)' a passa&e %oul" #e
anal)Ee" lo&i$all) for its ar&u(ents or topi$s of invention @the
purvie% of #oth rhetori$ an" of lo&i$' "epen"in& on the perio"A.
+inall)' so(e anal)ses %oul" #e of a purel) rhetori$al $hara$ter'
in$lu"in& the i"entifi$ation of tropes an" fi&ures' as %ell as other
rhetori$al "i(ensions su$h as the arran&e(ent of the entire "is$ourse'
or (atters of rh)th( an" st)le.
-s a pra$ti$al ai" to rhetori$al anal)sis' stu"ents %ere tau&ht to (ar1
their te3ts' na(in& the i"entifie" fi&ure or strate&)' an" also to use
$op)#oo1s spe$iall) "ivi"e" into Bfor(B an" B$ontentB or into su#4e$t
hea"in&s for &eneral topi$s or $o((onpla$es. H) thus re$or"in&
passa&es that e3e(plifie" note%orth) $ontent or for(' the) $oul"
then quote or i(itate these passa&es %ithin their o%n spee$hes or
$o(positions.
!hese anal)ti$al a$tivities prepare" stu"ents "ire$tl) for the ensuin&
rhetori$al an" i(itative e3er$ises @see rhetori$al e3er$ises an"
i(itationA.

Sources: ,ee the (an) pri(ar) sour$es for these e3er$ises as "es$ri#e" in Hurton'
1994.
rhetori$al e3er$ises
e'ercitatio
*hetori$al Ce"a&o&) *hetori$al -nal)sis Rhetorical &,ercises
<(itation

Cro&)(nas(ata
;e$la(ation
*hetori$ has al%a)s #een a pra&(ati$ $on$ern @thou&h natural a#ilit)
an" theoreti$al instru$tion are $onsi"ere" $o(ple(ents of rhetori$al
pra$ti$e66see *hetori$al -#ilit)A. +ro( the ti(e of the an$ient
,ophists' rhetori$ has #een a "is$ipline provi"in& e3er$ises to prepare
stu"ents for spea1in& an" %ritin&.
Cra$ti$e spee$hes have pre"o(inate" as e3er$ises %ithin the
rhetori$al tra"ition' in$lu"in&
the pro&)(nas(ata' a set of 14 preli(inar) e3er$ises fo$use"
on su#si"iar) s1ills nee"e" %ithin a $o(plete spee$h/ an"
"e$la(ations @"ivi"e" into suasoriae an" controversiaeA' in
%hi$h stu"ents finall) pra$ti$e" $o(posin& an" "eliverin&
$o(plete "eli#erative or 4u"i$ial orations.
Hoth the pro&)(nas(ata an" "e$la(ation e3er$ises' ho%ever' rel)
upon prin$iples an" (etho"s foun" %ithin the pra$ti$e of i(itation'
espe$iall) the e(phasis upon the rhetori$al anal)sis of literar)
(o"els. ,u$h $lose anal)sis provi"e" stu"ents (eans for learnin&
(etho"s to "evelop their o%n (aterial' an" #) (ar1in& an" $op)in&
out passa&es the) #e&an to &lean $o((onpla$es' "es$riptions'
(a3i(s' an" fi&urative lan&ua&e the) $oul" appl) else%here.
Li1e i(itation' a(plifi$ation $an #e $onsi"ere" #oth a prin$iple an" a
set of pra$ti$es %ithin rhetori$al pe"a&o&)' an" %as $losel)
asso$iate" %ith it. 7hile a(plifi$ation so(eti(es $arrie" the
restri$te" (eanin& of in$reasin& the patheti$ appeal of a &iven
spee$h' it (ore &enerall) (eant the a$tivit) of $o(posin& variousl)
upon a the(e provi"e" fro( a (o"el passa&e or author. 2ras(us of
*otter"a(=s )e copia %as si&nifi$ant in this re&ar"' provi"in& a
rationale an" a host of spe$ifi$ (etho"s for a(plif)in& an" var)in&
lan&ua&e. ,i(ilarl)' B$opiaB has so(eti(es na(e" a fulso(e qualit)
of st)le' #ut %ithin rhetori$al pe"a&o&) this la#ele" a fa(ous
*enaissan$e te3t#oo1 an" a set of (etho"s #) %hi$h one learne" to
var) an" a(plif) #oth thou&ht @resA an" e3pression @ver&aA @see
GopiaA.
&,ercises in !mitation- Amplification- and +ariation
*hetori$al e3er$ises in i(itation' a(plifi$ation an" variation are
foun" #roa"l) %ithin rhetori$al pe"a&o&)' #oth at the (ost
ru"i(entar) an" a"van$e" levels. <nstru$tion in i(itation' an"
e3er$ises to a(plif) an" var) %oul" pre$e"e "oin& pra$ti$e spee$hes'
#ut %oul" also #e e(plo)e" to help polish an" "evelop the
pro&)(nas(ata or "e$la(ation e3er$ises. !he various e3er$ises in
i(itation' a(plifi$ation' an" variation are #ase" upon or (a1e use of
the four $ate&ories of $han&e' an" are per(utations of the #asi$
notion of i(itation to $han&e the $ontent of a (o"el %hile retainin&
its for(' or to $han&e its for( %hile retainin& its $ontent
Jar)in& a senten$e
2ra(us "e(onstrates ho% to a""' su#tra$t' invert' an"
su#stitute #oth &ra((ati$al an" rhetori$al ele(ents of a
(o"el senten$e @&ivin& 150 %a)s to sa) BQour letter please"
(e &reatl)B as an e3a(pleA.
;ou#le !ranslation
- favorite e3er$ise of ?uan Luis Jives' this in$lu"e"
translatin& a passa&e fro( Latin to 2n&lish' lettin& it rest a
"a)' an" then @%ithout help of the ori&inalA atte(ptin& to
retranslate the 2n&lish #a$1 into Latin.
5etaphrasis
!his in$lu"e" Btranslatin&B %ithin a &iven lan&ua&e fro( one
&enre to another' su$h as a prose letter into a poe(.
Caraphrasis
!his e3er$ise "i" not (ean to shorten a (o"el te3t #ut to
e3press its (eanin& usin& other %or"s.
2pito(e
!o a##reviate a (o"el te3t or passa&e' #oilin& its $ontent
"o%n to a pith) su((ar).
Sources: ,ee Hurton' $h. 566 for "etails fro( *enaissan$e pri(ar) sour$es' an"
espe$iall) 2ras(us' )e copia.
i(itation
imitatio
*hetori$al Ce"a&o&) *hetori$al -nal)sis *hetori$al 23er$ises
!mitation

Cro&)(nas(ata
;e$la(ation
<(itation %as a fun"a(ental (etho" of instru$tion in an$ient *o(an
an" in *enaissan$e hu(anist $urri$ula' the pra$ti$al $ounterpart
@Be3er$itatioBA to rhetori$al theor) @BarsB/ see rhetori$al a#ilit)A.
<(itation too1 pla$e on (an) levels an" throu&h (an) (etho"s. -t
an ele(entar) level stu"ents use" i(itation in learnin& the ru"i(ents
of .ree1 or Latin @spellin&' &ra((arA' $op)in& the purit) of spee$h
of a &iven author. -s the) pro&resse"' the) %ere tau&ht parsin&
@fin"in& the parts of spee$hA' %hi$h le" to various 1in"s of rhetori$al
anal)sis of their (o"els @fin"in& fi&ures of spee$h' ar&u(entative
strate&ies' patterns of arran&e(entA. ,tu"ents %ere instru$te" to use
$op)#oo1s to re$or" passa&es fro( their rea"in& that e3e(plifie"
note%orth) $ontent or for(' %hi$h the) %oul" then quote or i(itate
%ithin their o%n spee$hes or $o(positions.
- nu(#er of i(itative e3er$ises %ere provi"e" to help stu"ents
assi(ilate an" appropriate the virtues of their literar) (o"els @see
rhetori$al e3er$isesA. <n &eneral' ho%ever' i(itative e3er$ises
$onsiste" either of $op)in& so(e t)pe of form %ithin the ori&inal' #ut
suppl)in& ne% $ontent/ or' of $op)in& the content of the ori&inal' #ut
suppl)in& a ne% for(. !he intention %as to provi"e a 1in" of literar)
an" rhetori$al apprenti$eship #) %hi$h the #est (o"es of e3pression
fro( the #est (o"els $oul" #e appropriate" in a re&ulate"' &ra"uate"
fashion.
<(itation %as the #ri"&e #et%een one=s rea"in& an" %ritin& @or
spea1in&A. <t also represente" the pra&(ati$ arena in %hi$h issues of
arran&e(ent an" st)le %ere $onsi"ere" si(ultaneousl)' not separatel)
as the) so(eti(es appear to #e in the a#stra$tion of a $urri$ular
outline.
-s a (etho" of $o(position' i(itation is $losel) relate" to the
prin$iples an" pra$ti$es of a(plifi$ation an" variation. ,tu"ents
(ove" fro( $lose i(itations of their (o"els to looser sorts' usin&
these (o"els in$reasin&l) as startin& points for lon&er' (ore involve"
$o(positions of their o%n (a1in&.
<t has so(eti(es (ista1enl) #een assu(e" that i(itation ha" onl) to
"o %ith $op)in& the st)le of a (o"el' %hereas $onsi"era#le e(phasis
an" instru$tion has #een &iven #) authorities su$h as 0uintilian an"
2ras(us in ho% stu"ents %ere to o#serve an" i(itate the
ar&u(entative (etho"s or the $ontent of (o"els as %ell.
,till' so(eti(es i(itation "i" lea" to the servile i(itation of a sin&le
author=s st)le @su$h as Gi$eroA' or to the errors of $op)in& the %orst
features of one=s (o"el. <ts &reat #enefit' ho%ever' %as to provi"e
stu"ents %ith rea") (etho"s of e3pressin& the(selves' to inte&rate
the infor(ation the)=" #een tau&ht in a spe$ialiEe" %a) @su$h as
&ra((ar an" rhetori$A' an" to orient stu"ents to o#serve %ith &reat
"etail those spe$ifi$ lin&uisti$ (etho"s that (a"e $ertain (o"els so
su$$essful.
*elate" +i&ures
(i(esis
!his .ree1 ter( for i(itation (ore t)pi$all) la#els not the
rhetori$al pe"a&o&) of i(itation' #ut a spe$ifi$ rhetori$al
fi&ure.
,ee -lso
<nvention
Li1e the topi$s of invention' i(itation also serves as a startin&
point for &eneratin& "is$ourse.
,t)le6Jirtues
<(itation %as a (eans of i"entif)in& an" assi(ilatin& the
various virtues of st)le fro( a &iven literar) author.
Sources: Gi$. ;e 8r. 2.32633' 3.31.125/ 0uint. 10/
pro&)(nas(ata
pro6&)(6nas=6(a6ta fro( .1. pro B#eforeB an" gymnasmata Be3er$isesB
praeexercitamina
*hetori$al Ce"a&o&) *hetori$al 23er$ises
- set of ru"i(entar) e3er$ises inten"e" to prepare stu"ents of rhetori$
for the $reation an" perfor(an$e of $o(plete pra$ti$e orations
@gymnasmata or declamationsA. - $ru$ial $o(ponent of $lassi$al an"
renaissan$e rhetori$al pe"a&o&). 5an) pro&)(nas(ata e3er$ises
$orrelate "ire$tl) %ith the parts of a $lassi$al oration.
!he $% &rogymnasmata
,i(ilar pro&)(nas(ata are &roupe" to&ether. !he e3er$ises are in
&eneral sequential.
1. +a#le
2. Narrative
3. Ghreia
4. Crover#
5. *efutation
6. Gonfir(ation
7. Go((onpla$e
8. 2n$o(iu(
9. Jituperation
10. Go(parison
11. <(personation
12. ;es$ription
13. !hesis or !he(e
14. ;efen" L -tta$1 a La%
*elate" +i&ures
e3er&asia
e3politio
,ee -lso
*hetori$al Ce"a&o&)
o *hetori$al 23er$ises
-rran&e(ent
o Go(pare the pro&)(nas(a BnarrativeB %ith narratio
o Go(pare the pro&)(nas(a BrefutationB %ith refutatio
o Go(pare the pro&)(nas(a B$onfir(ationB %ith
confirmatio
<nternet *esour$es
8nline 2n&lish translations of the progymnasmata of
-phthonius an" of Li#anius
Sources:
-" -le3an"ru( 1436a26/ !heon/ -phthonius/ Der(o&enes/ 0uintilian
@Bpri(ae e3er$itationesBA/ *i$har" *ainol"e @1563A
"e$la(ation
declamatio melet*
*hetori$al Ce"a&o&) *hetori$al 23er$ises .1. Bpra$ti$eB
!he $ul(inatin& e3er$ises of a rhetori$al e"u$ation %ere those
pra$ti$e spee$hes 1no%n as "e$la(ations. !hese $o(plete pra$ti$e
orations $a(e after the ru"i(entar) e3er$ises or pro&)(nas(ata.
7hile those preli(inar) e3er$ises "ealt %ith &eneral the(es in
a#stra$t ter(s @su$h as the thesis e3er$iseA' a "e$la(ation applie" a
the(e to a spe$ifi$ in"ivi"ual or a &iven pra&(ati$ $on$ern
@hypothesisA. H) provi"in& a spe$ifi$ $onte3t or 1airos for orator)'
stu"ents %ere intro"u$e" to the $onstraints of #oth o$$asion an"
au"ien$e' an" the nee" @throu&h "e$oru(A to fin" apt %or"s for the(
%ithin a unifie" oration.
!hese e3er$ises %ere either "eli#erative in nature @the suasoriaA or
forensi$ @the controversiaA
Suasoria
<n these pra$ti$e spee$hes a stu"ent presente" a"vi$e to a spe$ifi$
histori$al or ()thi$al $hara$ter fa$e" %ith a "e$ision on ta1in& a
$ourse of a$tion. !hese t)pi$all) involve" "e#atin& so(e ethi$al
"ile((a in sele$tin& the #est poli$). -s su$h' these spee$hes
$onstitute" pra$ti$e in "eli#erative orator) an"' #e$ause of their
i(a&inative ena$t(ents' 4oin the pro&)(nas(ata e3er$ise'
i(personation' in tea$hin& stu"ents to un"erstan" the role of $hara$ter
@or ethosA in persuasion. 8f spe$ial e(phasis in the suasoria %as
attention to the "ivision of the ethi$al ar&u(ent.
23a(ple !he(es
,houl" Gato &et (arrie"K
,houl" -le3an"er ta1e to the seaK
,houl" the ,partans %ith"ra% fro( !her(op)laeK
,houl" -&a(e(non sa$rifi$e his "au&hter <phi&eniaK
,houl" the ,$)thians return to their for(er %a) of life in the
%il"erness or re(ain a $it) peopleK
Controversia
<f the suasoria en&a&e" stu"ents in ethi$al "eli#eration' the (ore
a"van$e" $ontroversia invite" the stu"ent into an i(a&inar) 4u"i$ial or
forensi$ "e#ate' an" is $o(para#le to @or a $ontinuation ofA the
pro&)(nas(ata e3er$ise in "efen"in& or atta$1in& a la%. <n #oth $ases
the stu"ent $oul" #e as1e" to ar&ue either or #oth si"es of an issue @see
in utru(qe partesA. -lso' li1e the i(personation e3er$ise' a
$ontroversia %as ar&ue" fro( the perspe$tive of a &iven $hara$ter.
!he $ontroversia $onsiste" of an i(a&inar) le&al $ase. - stu"ent %as
presente" %ith a &iven la% an" a situation in %hi$h the la% is violate".
De %oul" then' either as plaintiff or "efen"ant' have to interpret an"
appl) the la% in a $o(plete forensi$ spee$h' sta)in& in the $hara$ter of
the person %ho( he %as "esi&ne" to i(personate. ;oin& this
so(eti(es involve" the stu"ent in $reatin& a $re"i#le #a$1stor) to
e3plain or e3$use the (otives an" $ulpa#ilit) of his B$lient.B -s the
(ost "evelope" of the pra$ti$e spee$hes' a $ontroversia %as e3pe$te"
to have the arran&e(ent of a $o(plete oration' in$lu"in& an
intro"u$tion' a narrative state(ent of the fa$ts' $onfir(in& proofs' an"
a $on$lusion.
,a(ple $ontroversiae %hi$h $ir$ulate" in antiquit) reveal these
"e$la(ations as rhetori$al sho%pie$es in %hi$h all of the topi$s of
invention' various fi&ures of spee$h' an" ele(ents of st)listi$
$o(position %ere "ispla)e" to sho% off the ver#al a&ilit) of the
stu"ent an" his (aster) of rhetori$al te$hniques' espe$iall) the various
(etho"s &iven fo$use" attention %ithin the pro&)(nas(ata e3er$ises'
su$h as the in$lusion of "ialo&ue @"ialo&is(usA or paintin& a vivi"
"es$ription.
23a(ple Gontroversia
B!he Gase of the Coor 5an=s HeesB
*aw 8ne (a) sue for unla%ful "a(a&e to propert)
Situation - poor (an an" a ri$h (an have a"4a$ent &ar"ens. !he ri$h
(an has flo%ers/ the poor (an' #ees. !he ri$h (an $o(plaine" that
the #ees %ere fee"in& on @an" har(in&A his flo%ers' an" tol" the poor
(an to (ove his #ees. De "i" not' so the ri$h (an put poison on his
flo%ers' %hi$h 1ille" the poor (an=s #ees. !he ri$h (an is $har&e"
%ith unla%ful "a(a&e to propert).
9<(personatin& the poor (an' the stu"ent then presents his $ase
a&ainst the ri$h (an.:
Sources: ,ene$a' +ontroversiae, Suasoriae/ 0uint 2.667' 2.10/ 0uint. ;e$la(.
thesis or the(e
thesis
The "rogymnasmata -ll
!he(e or ar&u(ent is Ba lo&i$al e3a(ination of a su#4e$t un"er
investi&ationB an" $oul" #e politi$al or theoreti$al in nature. <t is the
first e3er$ise to intro"u$e ar&uin& on t%o si"es of a &iven question.
!)pi$al su#4e$ts for politi$al the(es in$lu"e (atters one %oul"
"e#ate in a "eli#erative #o") su$h as' ,houl" the $it) #e %alle"K an"
&eneral so$ial issues su$h as B,houl" one (arr)KB. ,pe$ulative or
theoreti$al the(es in$lu"e" su$h questions as B<s the heaven
spheri$alKB -s oppose" to the hypothesis @see "e$la(ationA' the
thesis %as not applie" to a spe$ifi$ in"ivi"ual or a &iven pra&(ati$
$on$ern' #ut ar&ue" &enerall) @as the Go((onpla$e pro&)(nas(ata
e3er$ise' fro( %hi$h it #orro%s its hea"in&sA.
;ire$tions for Go(position
23a(ine a politi$al or spe$ulative question fro( #oth si"es @thesis
an" antithesisA
1. He&in %ith an e3or"iu(
2. -"" narratio ' if appropriate
3. Cresent $onfir(ator) ar&u(ents @proofA
4. *e#ut opposition @refutationA
5. Gon$lu"e %ith epilo&ue.
6. <n pro$ee"in&' $onsi"er ar&u(ents #ase" on
o le&alit)
o 4usti$e
o e3pe"ien$)
o pra$ti$a#ilit)
o "e$en$)
o $onsequen$es
*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of *efuation
antithesis
,ee -lso
ar&u(ent in utru(que partes
fa#le
mythos

,tu"ents %ere &iven a fa#le' t)pi$all) one of -esop=s' %hi$h the)
%oul" a(plif) an" a##reviate. 8r' the) %oul" %rite a ne% fa#le in
$lose i(itation of -esop. <t %as spe$ifi$all) re$o((en"e" that
stu"ents turn in"ire$t "is$ourse into "ire$t "is$ourse.
23a(ple
!his e3a(ple $o(es fro( Der(o&enes= treatise on the
progymnasmata. De first &ives the B#are narrative'B follo%e" #) his
a(plifi$ation e(plo)in& "ialo&ue
B!he (on1e)s in $oun$il "eli#erate" on the ne$essit) of settlin& in
houses. 7hen the) ha" (a"e up their (in"s to this en" an" %ere
a#out to set to %or1' an ol" (on1e) restraine" the(' sa)in& that the)
%oul" (ore easil) #e $apture" if the) %ere $au&ht %ithin
en$losures.B
!hus if )ou are $on$ise/ #ut if )ou %ish to e3pan"' pro$ee" in this
%a).
B!he (on1e)s in $oun$il "eli#erate" on the foun"in& of a $it)/ an"
one $o(in& for%ar" (a"e a spee$h to the effe$t that the) too (ust
have a $it). B+or see'B sai" he' Bho% fortunate in this re&ar" are (en.
Not onl) "oes ea$h of the( have a house' #ut all &oin& up to&ether to
pu#li$ (eetin& or theater "eli&ht their souls %ith all (anner of thin&s
to see an" hear.B
.o on thus' "%ellin& on the in$i"ents an" sa)in& that the "e$ree %as
for(all) passe"/ an" "evise a spee$h for the ol" (on1e).
*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of "ialo&ue
o ser(o$inatio
o ethopoeia
o prosopopoeia
+i&ures of "es$ription
o enar&ia
,ee -lso
Cro&)(nas(ata <(personation
Cro&)(nas(ata ;es$ription
!he ne3t of the pro&)(nas(ata e3er$ises narrative
narrative
diegema

!ellin& narratives %as one of the first e3er$ises in a rhetori$al
e"u$ation a$$or"in& to 0uinitlian' an" in$lu"e" stu"ents retellin& a
stor) fro( the en" to the #e&innin&' or fro( the (i""le #a$1%ar"s or
for%ar"s. +ro( provi"in& stu"ents an initial e3perien$e in
e3pression' narrative e3er$ises #e$a(e the #uil"in& #lo$1s for the
pro&)(nas(ata e3er$ises that follo%e" it @%hi$h require"
su((aries' "i&ressions' or narrations of various sortsA an" prin$ipall)
for the narratio portion of a $o(plete pra$ti$e spee$h.
,u"ents %ere to ta1e a fa$tual or fi$tional stor) fro( the poets or
historians an" retell it in their o%n %or"s' atte(ptin& to #e $lear as to
the fa$ts
7ho "i" it
7hat %as "one
7hen it %as "one
7here it %as "one
Do% it %as "one
7h) it %as "one
,ee -lso
Carts of an 8ration narratio
Sources: -" Derenniu( 1.8.12613/ 0uintilian 2.4.2' 2.4.15
$hreia' or ane$"ote
chreia
BGhreiaB @fro( the .ree1 chreiodes, BusefulBA is Ba #rief
re(inis$en$e referrin& to so(e person in a pith) for( for the purpose
of e"ifi$ation.B <t ta1es the for( of an ane$"ote that reports either a
sa)in&' an e"if)in& a$tion' or #oth.
-(plif) a #rief a$$ount of %hat so(eone has sai" or "one' usin&
these steps
1. Craise the sa)er or "oer' or praise the $hreia itself
2. .ive a paraphrase of the the(e
3. ,a) %h) this %as sai" or "one
4. <ntro"u$e a $ontrast
5. <ntro"u$e a $o(parison
6. .ive an e3a(ple of the (eanin&
7. ,upport the sa)in&La$tion %ith testi(on) of others
8. Gon$lu"e %ith a #rief epilo& or $on$lusion
23a(ple !his e3a(ple' ta1en fro( Clato=s Repu&lic' "oes not follo%
the a#ove steps stri$tl)' #ut )ou $an &et a sense of ho% the $hreia %as
use" in literature to support a point. +or a (ore e3a$t follo%in& of the
steps' see the e3a(ple of the prover#. <n the follo%in& passa&e
Gephalus a""resses ,o$rates an" .lau$on re&ar"in& the apparent
pains of ol" a&e
BDo% %ell < re(e(#er the a&e" poet ,opho$les' %hen in ans%er to
the question' Do% "oes love(a1in& suit %ith ol" a&e' ,opho$les' >
are )ou still the (an )ou %ereK Cea$e' he replie"/ (ost &la"l) have <
es$ape" the thin& of %hi$h )ou spea1/ < feel as if < ha" es$ape" fro(
a (a" an" furious (aster. Dis %or"s have often o$$urre" to () (in"
sin$e' an" the) see( as &oo" to (e no% as at the ti(e %hen he
uttere" the(. +or $ertainl) ol" a&e has a &reat sense of $al( an"
free"o(/ %hen the passions rela3 their hol"' then' as ,opho$les sa)s'
%e are free" fro( the &rasp not of one (a" (aster onl)' #ut of
(an).B
*elate" +i&ures
prover#
(a3i(
senten$e
*elate" !opi$s of <nvention
-uthorities
Sources: 0uintilian 2.4.26
prover#
gnome

<n the e3er$ise 1no%n as prover# stu"ents %ere to a(plif) Ba
su((ar) "e$larative state(ent' re$o((en"in& or $on"e(nin&
so(ethin&B. !his is si(ilar to the B$hreia'B e3$ept the author of the
sa)in& is unna(e". .eneri$ Bsententiae'B or $o((onl) 1no%n
(oralisti$ sa)in&s' are ta1en as su#4e$ts to #e a(plifie" in %a)s
nearl) i"enti$al to those of the $hreia.
-(plif) a #rief a$$ount of %hat so(eone has sai" or "one' usin&
these steps
1. Craise the sa)in& itself
2. . ive a paraphrase of the the(e
3. ,a) %h) this %as sai"
4. <ntro"u$e a $ontrast
5. <ntro"u$e a $o(parison
6. .ive an e3a(ple of the (eanin&
7. ,upport the sa)in&La$tion %ith testi(on) of others
8. Gon$lu"e %ith a #rief epilo& or $on$lusion
23a(ple If one were to &egin with this prover& from the "i&le,
B<t is #etter to "%ell in a $orner of the housetop' than %ith a #ra%lin&
%o(an in a %i"e house.B >Crover#s 21 9
One could amplify it using the steps mentioned a&ove as follows,
,olo(on' that para&on of %is"o(' "i" in"ee" sho% his a$u(en %hen
he state" in Crover#s that it %oul" #e #etter to live in a tin) an"
insi&nifi$ant "%ellin& than to have a (ansion #ut share it %ith a
$antan1erous %ife. - (an of so (an) %ives (ust have 1no%n this
fro( e3perien$e' )et he &ave this prover# as a $aution #oth to %ives
an" their hus#an"s an" for their (utual #enefit. <t is in"ee" #etter to
have "o(esti$ har(on) than to have that "is$or" that $o(es %hen
one spouse rails a&ainst the other. Livin& %ith a na&&in&' #ra%lin&
%ife is li1e livin& %ith the !J forever tune" to *ush Li(#au&h on a
$ran1) "a). +or e3a(ple' < 1ne% of one (an of &reat potential for
pu#li$ offi$e %ho %on over ever $onstituen$) e3$ept that at his
house. !here' %here his %ife see(e" to have an inor"inate po%er of
veto' none of his le&islation ever passe". De #e$a(e so "is$oura&e"
that he &ave up his politi$al a(#itions an" no% s%eeps floors at !a$o
Hell. 23perts in fa(il) s$ien$e have $autione" us to (aintain pea$e
in the ho(e. 7e $annot hope to follo% these e3perts or the ol"er an"
%isest ,olo(on if %e "o not ta1e the a"vi$e of the latter an" so avoi"
the unhapp) s$ene "es$ri#e" #) the for(er.
*elate" +i&ures
prover#
(a3i(
senten$e
$hreia
+i&ures of ,u((ar) @see step t%o a#oveA
,ee -lso
Cro&)(nas(ata $hreia
Sources:
refutation
anaskeue
!he e3er$ises in refutation is an atta$1 on an opposite vie%' t)pi$all)
atta$1in& the $re"i#ilit) of a ()th or le&en". <t %as a $o(panion to
the follo%in& e3er$ise @$onfir(ationA. Hoth e3er$ises $orrespon"e"
"ire$tl) to the parts of an oration'
+ro( the ti(e of Der(o&enes' the refutation e3er$ise pre$e"e" that
of the $onfir(ation @the opposite of ho% the confirmatio an"
refuatatio are or"ere" in the spee$h properA. 8ne (a) sur(ise that
this %as "ue to the fa$t that it is easier to #e&in spea1in& #)
$riti$iEin& the %ea1nesses of an opposin& ar&u(ent.
!he refutation e3er$ise %as paire" %ith that of the $onfir(ation
e3er$ise' an" to&ether $o(prise" the thesis or the(e e3er$ise' in
%hi$h one ar&ue" #oth si"es of a question' or in utrum$ue partes.
-tta$1 the $re"i#ilit) of a ()th or le&en" e(plo)in& these steps
1. Hla(e the teller of the stor)
2. .ive a su((ar) of the stor)
3. -tta$1 it as #ein&
o o#s$ure
o in$re"i#le
o i(possi#le
o illo&i$al
o unfittin&' an"
o unprofita#le.
23a(ple
-pthonius &ives the e3a(ple of the stor) of ;aphne an" -pollo as
#ein& i(pro#a#le.
*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of ,u((ar)
+i&ures of *efutation
,ee -lso
Cro&)(nas(ata $onfir(ation
$onfir(ation
kataskeue
Gonfir(ation' the opposite of the previous e3er$ise' is the si(ple
atte(pt to prove a &iven vie%' t)pi$all) #) ar&uin& the $re"i#ilit) of
a ()th or le&en". <t follo%e" a si(ilar pattern as refutation' an" li1e
it' $orrespon"e" "ire$tl) to one of the parts of an oration.
-r&ue for the $re"i#ilit) of a ()th or le&en" e(plo)in& the
follo%in& steps
1. Craise the teller of the stor)
2. .ive a su((ar) of the stor)
3. Gonfir( the stor) as #ein&
o (anifest
o pro#a#le
o possi#le
o lo&i$al
o fittin&' an"
o profita#le.
23a(ple -pthonius &ives the e3a(ple of the stor) of ;aphne an"
$lai(s it is pro#a#le.
,ee -lso
lo&os
Carts of an oration Gonfir(ation
+i&ures of ,u((ar) @see step t%o a#oveA
$o((onpla$e
koinos topos
Go((onpla$e is Ba $o(position %hi$h a(plifies inherent evilsB
@ori&inall) "es$ri#e" as an a(plifi$ation of either a virtue or vi$e' #ut
in pra$ti$e (ore the latterA. - preparation for the follo%in& t%o
e3er$ises' en$o(iu( an" vituperation' the $o((onpla$e "iffere"
fro( these #) ta1in& up a &eneral virtue or vi$e' rather than the
spe$ifi$ qualities of a sin&le person. ,u#4e$ts in$lu"e" &a(#lin&'
theft' a"ulter)' et$. ,o(eti(es it too1 up the virtuesLvi$es of spe$ifi$
1in"s of persons/ e.&.' t)rants. ,ee also topi$s of invention
@so(eti(es na(e" the B$o((onpla$esB an" prover#s' (a3i(s' an"
sententia @all of %hi$h are so(eti(es referre" to as B$o((onpla$esBA
-r&ue for or a&ainst a &eneral @$o((onA fault or virtue of hu(an
nature @or a t)pe of personA' usin& these steps
1. He&in %ith the $ontrar) or a $ontra"i$tion
2. <ntro"u$e a $o(parison' $o(parin& so(ethin& #etter to %hat
is atta$1e"
3. <ntro"u$e a prover# that up#rai"s the (otivation of the "oer
of the "ee"
4. 2(plo) a "i&ression %ith a "efa(ator) $on4e$ture as to the
past life of the person a$$use"
5. *epu"iate the i"ea of ta1in& pit) on su$h a person
6. Gonsi"er the follo%in& hea"in&s in "is$ussin& this virtue or
vi$e
o le&alit)
o 4usti$e
o e3pe"ien$)
o pra$ti$a#ilit)
o "e$en$)
o $onsequen$es
,ee -lso
Cro&)(nas(ata en$o(iu(
Cro&)(nas(ata vituperation
en$o(iu(
enkomion
2n$o(iu( is Ba $o(position e3positor) of atten"ant e3$ellen$ies.B
,u#4e$ts in$lu"e persons' thin&s @su$h as a#stra$t i"easA' ti(es @as the
seasonsA' pla$es' ani(als' an" &ro%in& thin&s' either &eneral or
spe$ifi$.
Craise a person or thin& for #ein& virtuous. -fter $o(posin& an
e3or"iu( @intro"u$tionA' follo% these steps
1. ;es$ri#e the sto$1 a person $o(es fro(
o %hat people
o %hat $ountr)
o %hat an$estors
o %hat parents
2. ;es$ri#e the person=s up#rin&in&
o e"u$ation
o instru$tion in art
o trainin& in la%s
3. ;es$ri#e the person=s "ee"s' %hi$h shoul" #e "es$ri#e" as the
results of
o hisLher e3$ellen$ies of (in" @su$h as fortitu"e or
pru"en$eA
o hisLher e3$ellen$ies of #o") @su$h as #eaut)' spee"' or
vi&orA
o hisLher e3$ellen$ies of fortune @as hi&h position'
po%er' %ealth' frien"sA
4. 5a1e a favora#le $o(parison to so(eone else to es$alate
)our praise
5. Gon$lu"e %ith an epilo&ue in$lu"in& either an e3hortation to
)our hearers to e(ulate this person' or a pra)er.
*elate" +i&ures
en$o(iu(
,ee -lso
epi"ei$ti$
Cro&)(nas(ata vituperation
vituperation
psogos
Jituperation or inve$tive is Ba $o(position e3positor) of atten"ant
evilsB an" is a $o(panion to the previous e3er$ise' en$o(iu(. <t also
$o(pares to the Go((onpla$e e3er$ise' #ut "iffers in spea1in&
a&ainst not &eneral vi$es or t)pes of persons' #ut a spe$ifi$
in"ivi"ual. -s the en$o(iu(' the vituperation in$lu"es as su#4e$ts
$hiefl) persons' #ut also $an ta1e up thin&s @su$h as a#stra$t i"easA'
ti(es @as the seasonsA' pla$es' or ani(als.
-tta$1 a person or thin& for #ein& vi$ious. -fter $o(posin& an
e3or"iu( @intro"u$tionA' follo% these steps
1. ;es$ri#e the sto$1 a person $o(es fro(
o %hat people
o %hat $ountr)
o %hat an$estors
o %hat parents
2. ;es$ri#e the person=s up#rin&in&
o e"u$ation
o trainin& in la%s
3. ;es$ri#e the person=s "ee"s' %hi$h shoul" #e "es$ri#e" as the
results of
o hisLher evils of (in" @su$h as %ea1ness or
in"is$retionA
o hisLher evils of #o") @su$h as plainness' lethar&)' or
la$1 of vi&orA
o hisLher evils of fortune @as la$1 of or $orruption of
hi&h position' po%er' %ealth' frien"sA
4. 5a1e a "isfavora#le $o(parison to so(eone else to es$alate
)our vituperation
)our hearers not to e(ulate this person' or a pra)er.
23a(ple
Gi$ero=s inve$tives a&ainst -nton)' li1e those of ;e(osthenes
a&ainst Chilip of 5a$e"on' are &oo" e3a(ples of vituperation.
,ee -lso
epi"ei$ti$
Cro&)(nas(ata en$o(iu(
Cro&)(nas(ata $o((onpla$e
$o(parison
synkrisis
Go(parison is Ba $o(parative $o(position' settin& so(ethin& &reater
or equal si"e #) si"e %ith the su#4e$t.B Huil"in& on the previous t%o
e3er$ises' this is either a "ou#le en$o(iu( or an en$o(iu( paire"
%ith a vituperation. ,tu"ents %ere instru$te" to (a1e a for$eful
effe$t. ,u#4e$t (atter is the sa(e as in the prior t%o e3er$ises' #ut
often in$lu"e" histori$al' le&en"ar)' or fi$titious $hara$ters.
Craise t%o people @or thin&sA in $lose $o(parison' or praise one an"
vituperate a&ainst the other. He $ertain not to treat the( separatel)'
#ut to&ether' in parallel fashion. -fter $o(posin& an e3or"iu(
@intro"u$tionA' follo% these steps
1. ;es$ri#e the sto$1 ea$h person $o(es fro(
o %hat people
o %hat $ountr)
o %hat an$estors
o %hat parents
2. ;es$ri#e ea$h person=s up#rin&in&
o e"u$ation
o trainin& in la%s
3. ;es$ri#e ea$h person=s "ee"s' %hi$h shoul" #e "es$ri#e" as
the results of
o hisLher e3$ellen$ies or evils of (in" @su$h as
fortitu"eL%ea1ness or pru"en$eLin"is$retionA
o hisLher e3$ellen$ies or evils of #o") @su$h as
#eaut)Lplainness' spee"Llethar&)' or vi&orLla$1 of
vi&orA
o hisLher e3$ellen$ies or evils of fortune @&oo"Lill use of
hi&h position' po%er' %ealth' or frien"sA
)our hearers toLnot to e(ulate either person' or a pra)er.
23a(ple- $o(parison of -$hilles an" De$tor is su&&este". !he
(ost fa(ous e3a(ples fro( antiquit) of $o(parison or sinkrisis are
fro( Clutar$h=s parallel lives' su$h as that $o(parin& ;e(osthenes
an" Gi$ero.
*elate" +i&ures
parallelis(
i$on
Go(parison
i(personation
ethopoeia ( prosopopoeia
<(personation or Cersonifi$ation is Ban i(itation of the ethos
9$hara$ter: of a person $hosen to #e portra)e".B <t is $o(para#le to
the (o"ern B"ra(ati$ (onolo&ue.B Li1e the en$o(iu(' the su#4e$t
$oul" #e an histori$al' le&en"ar)' or fi$titious $hara$ter. Mnli1e an)
e3er$ise so far' as an Bi(itationB the i(personation %as "ra(ati$ in
for(' e(plo)in& "ialo&ue.
Go(pose lines for a person' real or i(a&inar)' "ea" or livin&' to
spea1 un"er &iven $ir$u(stan$es. ;ra(atiEe throu&h "ire$t spee$h'
usin& "es$ription an" e(otional lan&ua&e %here appropriate' fittin&
the spee$h to the $hara$ter of the spea1er an" the $ir$u(stan$es.
1. 8ne shoul" $o(pose the i(personation in the st)le in %hi$h
the $hara$ter %oul" spea1' $onsi"erin&
o $larit)
o $on$iseness
o flori"it)
o la$1 of finish
o a#sen$e of fi&ures
2. Gonsi"er also aspe$ts of
o past
o present
o future
23a(ple -pthonius &ives the e3a(ple of $o(posin& a spee$h for
Der$ules in repl) to 2ur)stheus %hen the latter i(poses the la#ors on
hi(.
*elate" +i&ures
prosopopoeia
-uthorities
Cast +a$t L +uture +a$t
,ee -lso
pathos
"es$ription
ekphrasis
;es$ription is Ba $o(position #rin&in& the su#4e$t $learl) #efore the
e)es.B Li1e the en$o(iu(' the su#4e$ts (a) #e persons' a$tions'
ti(es' pla$es' ani(als' an" &ro%in& thin&s.
2(plo)in& (an) fi&ures of spee$h' "es$ri#e a person or other su#4e$t
so that it stan"s #efore the listener=s e)es. 8ften a $o(plete
"es$ription @if "es$ri#in& a person' fro( hea" to foot/ if an a$tion'
fro( the start to the resultsA.
23a(ple
-phthonius &ives the e3a(ple of "es$ri#in& the a$ropolis of
-le3an"ria
*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of ;es$ription
effi$tio
enar&ia L h)pot)posis
,u#4e$t an" -"4un$ts
thesis or the(e
thesis
!he(e or ar&u(ent is Ba lo&i$al e3a(ination of a su#4e$t un"er
investi&ationB an" $oul" #e politi$al or theoreti$al in nature. <t is the
first e3er$ise to intro"u$e ar&uin& on t%o si"es of a &iven question.
!)pi$al su#4e$ts for politi$al the(es in$lu"e (atters one %oul"
"e#ate in a "eli#erative #o") su$h as' ,houl" the $it) #e %alle"K an"
&eneral so$ial issues su$h as B,houl" one (arr)KB. ,pe$ulative or
theoreti$al the(es in$lu"e" su$h questions as B<s the heaven
spheri$alKB -s oppose" to the hypothesis @see "e$la(ationA' the
thesis %as not applie" to a spe$ifi$ in"ivi"ual or a &iven pra&(ati$
$on$ern' #ut ar&ue" &enerall) @as the Go((onpla$e pro&)(nas(ata
e3er$ise' fro( %hi$h it #orro%s its hea"in&sA.
23a(ine a politi$al or spe$ulative question fro( #oth si"es @thesis
an" antithesisA
1. He&in %ith an e3or"iu(
2. -"" narratio ' if appropriate
3. Cresent $onfir(ator) ar&u(ents @proofA
4. *e#ut opposition @refutationA
5. Gon$lu"e %ith epilo&ue.
6. <n pro$ee"in&' $onsi"er ar&u(ents #ase" on
o le&alit)
o 4usti$e
o e3pe"ien$)
o pra$ti$a#ilit)
o "e$en$)
o $onsequen$es
*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of *efuation
antithesis
,ee -lso
ar&u(ent in utru(que partes
"efen" L atta$1 a
nomou eisphora
la%
;efen" or atta$1 a la% is (ore of a "e$la(ation than a
pro&)(nas(a' (ore of an hypothesis than a thesis' #ut #orro%s fro(
the thesis the atte(pt to ar&ue t%o si"es of an issue' %hile appl)in&
this to a spe$ifi$ la%' real or fi$tional.
;is$uss the pros an" $ons of real' histori$al' or even fi$titious la%s.
Mse the follo%in& hea"in&s
le&alit)
4usti$e
e3pe"ien$)
pra$ti$a#ilit)
"e$en$)
$onsequen$es
23a(ple
-pthonius provi"es the e3a(ple of opposin& a la% that requires an
a"ulterer' ta1en in the a$t' to #e 1ille".
La%s
,ee -lso
;eli#erative orator)
!esti(on)

Topics of !nvention -ll
-uthorities
Gitin& e3perts or authorities to #rin& $re"i#ilit) to one=s ar&u(ent.
23a(ples

7e %ho are reli&ious shoul" thin1 t%i$e #efore "ispara&in&
s$ien$e' for in (an) %a)s their %or1 is a %or1 of &reat faith. -s
-l#ert 2instein on$e sai"' Bthe serious s$ientifi$ %or1ers are the
onl) profoun"l) reli&ious people.B
*elate" +i&ures
ana(nesis
antirrhesis
,ee -lso

Cersuasive -ppeals 2thos
-ppealin& to authorities is a prin$ipal (etho" for
esta#lishin& ethos.
Cro&)(nas(ata Ghreia
!his rhetori$al e3er$ise a(plifies an ane$"ote #ase" on the
%or"s or "ee"s of an authoritative fi&ure.
;ire$tions for this rhetori$al e3er$ise in$lu"e supportin&
the sa)in& #) referrin& to authoritative testi(on).

7itnesses
Gallin& upon a person or person=s %ho have personall) seen or
e3perien$e" so(ethin& to len" $re"i#ilit) to one=s ar&u(ent.
23a(ples

7e (i&ht as1 Gatherine ?ensen a#out the nee" for ne% safet)
(easures at N-,-. ,he is not an en&ineer' nor a ro$1et s$ientist.
,he %as si(pl) one of the (an) spe$tators in that ele(entar)
s$hool $lassroo( %ho sa% #oth the spa$e shuttle e3plo"e an" the
e(pt) loo1 on the $hil"ren=s fa$es as the) realiEe" their tea$her
%as 1ille"
*elate" +i&ures
"eesis

5a3i(s or Crover#s
!he use of a fa(ous sa)in&' pre$ept' or pith) &eneraliEation either to
open or len" $re"i#ilit) to one=s ar&u(ent.
23a(ples

!hat the ta3 refun" %ill #e ill spent is as sure as the fa$t that a fool
an" his (one) are soon parte".
*elate" +i&ures
,)non)(s for short' pith) sa)in&s @a"a&e apothe&( &no(e
(a3i( paroe(ia prover# sententiaA
epiphone(a
,ee -lso

$o((onpla$e
Cro&)(nas(ata Ghreia
!his rhetori$al e3er$ise a(plifies an ane$"ote #ase" on the
%or"s @or "ee"sA of an authoritative fi&ure.
!his rhetori$al e3er$ise in$lu"es "ire$tions for ho% to
a(plif) a prover#.

*u(ors
8f &reater si&nifi$an$e histori$all) than to"a)' referen$e to ru(ors is
still a via#le te$hnique for su&&estin& %hat one $annot or $hooses not
to prove "ire$tl). !his is often use" to "is$re"it others.
23a(ples

+or several (onths it has #een no se$ret a(on& 7or"Cerfe$t
e(plo)ees that Novell ha" never inten"e" to "o an)thin& #ut
"is(antle the on$e ro#ust $o(pan)

8aths
8f (ore persuasive for$e in so$ieties that pla$e" &reater i(portan$e
upon one 1eepin& one=s %or" than ours' oaths are still e(plo)e" in
persuasive $ir$u(stan$es' espe$iall) in le&al settin&s.
23a(ples

Do% $an )ou (aintain that the L-C; ha" not prepare" for the
possi#le out$o(e of the *o"ne) Oin& trialK -$$or"in& to this
s%orn affi"avit of ?une 11' 1992' the poli$e $hief ha" instru$te" his
offi$ers that the) nee"e" to prepare for $ivil unrest
*elate" +i&ures
or$os
eu$he
eustathia
"eesis
a"hortatio
,ee -lso
Cersuasive -ppeals Cathos

;o$u(ents
*eferrin& to %ritten proof to (a1e one=s $ase.
23a(ples

Loo1' < (a) #e onl) four feet tall an" have the appearan$e of #ein&
a prepu#es$ent trou#le6(a1er' #ut )ou have to sell (e that $ase of
#eer #e$ause () "river=s li$ense>as )ou $an plainl) see ri&ht
there>sa)s <=( 45.

La%
;ra%in& upon statutes' $ontra$ts' testa(ents' le&al re$or"s' et$. in
or"er to su#stantiate or refute a $lai(.
23a(ples

Qour i"ea for +oming to America' 5r. 5urph)' %oul" have #een
perfe$tl) fine' if )our sour$e for it ha" not violate" the statues in
!itle RJ<< of the M.,. Go"e re&ar"in& $op)ri&ht.
,ee -lso

;eli#erative 8rator)
Cro&)(nas(ata ;efen" L -tta$1 a La%
-rran&e(ent *efutation
?u"i$ial 8rator)

Cre$e"ent
2ither (a1in& referen$e to a past 4u"i$ial "e$ision or @(ore
&enerall)A referrin& to the past to su#stantiate a $lai( or
interpretation in the present.
23a(ples

5r. ,i(pson a"(its to havin& #eat his %ife in the past. <s it so
unreasona#le that this pattern of violen$e %oul" have $ontinue"'
even es$alate"K
*elate" +i&ures
ana(nesis
,ee -lso

!he ,upernatural
Gallin& upon .o" or appealin& to an authorit) #e)on" the rational or
natural in or"er to #e $onvin$in&.
23a(ples

B< 1no% that the ;e(o$rats are ri&ht' for .o"=s spirit
tells (e in () heart.B
*elate" +i&ures
"eesis
anthropopathei
narratio the state(ent of fa$ts
-rran&e(ent of

1. e3or"iu(
I
.. narratio
I
3. partitio
Glassi$al 8ration

4. $onfir(atio
I
5. refutatio
I
6. peroratio

!he se$on" part of a $lassi$al oration' follo%in& the intro"u$tion or
e'ordium. !he spea1er here provi"es a narrative a$$ount of %hat has
happene" an" &enerall) e3plains the nature of the $ase. 0uintilian
a""s that the narratio is follo%e" #) the propositio' a 1in" of
su((ar) of the issues or a state(ent of the $har&e.
,ee -lso
Cro&)(nas(ata Narrative
Sources: -" Derenniu( 1.8.1161.9.16/ Gi$. ;e <nv. 1.19621/ Gi$. !op. 25.97/ Gi$.
;e 8r. 2.80.32662.81.330/ 0uintilian 4.2
partitio the "ivision L outline
-rran&e(ent of

1. e3or"iu(
I
2. narratio
I
/. partitio
Glassi$al 8ration

4. $onfir(atio
I
5. refutatio
I
6. peroratio

+ollo%in& the state(ent of fa$ts' or narratio' $o(es the partitio or
divisio. <n this se$tion of the oration' the spea1er outlines %hat %ill
follo%' in a$$or"an$e %ith %hat=s #een state" as the status' or point at
issue in the $ase. 0uintilian su&&ests the partitio is #len"e" %ith the
propositio an" also assists (e(or).
Related Figures
ta3is
(eris(us
"iaeresis
"ial)sis
eutrepis(us
prosapo"osis
h)poEeu3is
"istri#utio
Related Topic of !nvention
;ivision
fi&ures of refutation
&roupin&s
in"e3
*efutin&' as a #asi$ rhetori$al (o"e' has #een for(aliEe" %ithin the
arran&e(ent of the $lassi$al oration @see -rran&e(ent *efutationA. <t
is also realiEe" as a &eneral (o"e of ar&u(entation %ithin $ertain
topi$s of invention @!he <(possi#le' Gontra"i$tion' La%A. 7ithin
rhetori$al pe"a&o&)' refutation has itself #een a stan"ar" preli(inar)
e3er$ise @see Ce"a&o&) !he Cro&)(nas(ata *efutationA' an" is part
of (ore a"van$e" ar&u(entation in %hi$h #oth si"es of an issue are
"e#ate" @see Cro&)(nas(ata !hesis or !he(e an" in utru(que
partesA.
8f $ourse refuation $an happen &enerall) an" spe$ifi$all) in a variet)
of $ir$u(stan$es' as illustrate" #) the follo%in& fi&ures spe$ifi$ to
refutin&' re4e$tin&' or "en)in&
a$$is(us
- fei&ne" refusal of that %hi$h is earnestl) "esire".
anth)pophora
8ne as1s an" then i((e"iatel) ans%ers one=s o%n questions
@or raises an" then settles i(a&inar) o#4e$tionsA
anti$ate&oria
- retort in %hi$h one turns the ver) a$$usation (a"e #) one=s
a"versar) #a$1 a&ainst hi(.
antirrhesis
*e4e$tin& reprehensivel) the opinion or authorit) of so(eone.
apo"io3is @re4e$tioA
*e4e$tin& of so(eone or so(ethin& @su$h as the a"versar)=s
ar&u(entA as #ein& i(pertinent' nee"less' a#sur"' false' or
%i$1e".
apophasis L e3pe"itio
!he re4e$tion of several reasons %h) a thin& shoul" or shoul"
not #e "one an" affir(in& a sin&le one' $onsi"ere" (ost vali".
"ias)r(us
*e4e$tin& an ar&u(ent throu&h ri"i$ulous $o(parison.
"i$aeolo&ia
-"(ittin& %hat=s $har&e" a&ainst one' #ut e3$usin& it #)
ne$essit).
elen$hus
- lo&i$al refutation.
erote(a
!o affir( or "en) a point stron&l) #) as1in& it as a question.
e3$itatio
!o e3$ite an au"ien$e' espe$iall) out of a stupor or #ore"o('
usin& @a(on& other propose" strate&iesA a "i&ression that
"enies or prohi#its so(ethin&.
litotes
;eli#erate un"erstate(ent' often a$hieve" #) %a) of "en)in&
the opposite of so(ethin&.
(etastasis
;en)in& an" turnin& #a$1 on )our a"versaries ar&u(ents use"
a&ainst )ou.
pro$atalepsis
*efutin& anti$ipate" o#4e$tions.
!opi$s of <nvention !he <(possi#le
!opi$s of <nvention Gontra"i$tion
!opi$s of <nvention La%
refutatio the refutation
-rran&e(ent of

1. e3or"iu(
I
2. narratio
I
3. partitio
Glassi$al 8ration

4. $onfir(atio
I
0. refutatio
I
6. peroratio
+ollo%in& the the $onfir(atio or se$tion on proof in a $lassi$al
oration' $o(es the refutation. -s the na(e $onnotes' this se$tion of a
spee$h %as "evote" to ans%erin& the $ounterar&u(ents of one=s
opponent.
*elate" +i&ures
(etastasis
$ontrariu(
Gontraries an" Gontra"i$tions
,ee -lso
!his ele(entar) e3er$ise %as spe$ifi$all) "esi&ne" to prepare
stu"ents for the refutation se$tion of a $o(plete oration.
Cro&)(nas(ata Go((onpla$e
Cro&)(nas(ata !hesis or !he(e
Sources:Gi$. ;e <nv. 1.42651/ 0uintilian 5.13
$onfir(atio the proof
-rran&e(ent of

1. e3or"iu(
I
2. narratio
I
3. partitio
Glassi$al 8ration

1. confirmatio
I
5. refutatio
I
6. peroratio
+ollo%in& the "ivision L outline or partitio $o(es the (ain #o") of
the spee$h %here one offers lo&i$al ar&u(ents as proof. !he appeal to
logos is e(phasiEe" here.
Sources: Gi$. ;e <nv. 1.24641/ Gi$. ;e 8r. 3.526201/ 0uintilian 5.1612
e3or"iu( the intro"u$tion
-rran&e(ent of

2. e,ordium
I
2. narratio
I
3. partitio
Glassi$al 8ration

4. $onfir(atio
I
5. refutatio
I
6. peroratio

!he intro"u$tion of a spee$h' %here one announ$es the su#4e$t an"
purpose of the "is$ourse' an" %here one usuall) e(plo)s the
persuasive appeal of ethos in or"er to esta#lish $re"i#ilit) %ith the
au"ien$e.
ethos
!he persuasive appeals lo&os I pathos I ethos

2thos na(es the persuasive appeal of one=s $hara$ter' espe$iall) ho%
this $hara$ter is esta#lishe" #) (eans of the spee$h or "is$ourse.
-ristotle $lai(e" that one nee"s to appear #oth 1no%le"&ea#le a#out
one=s su#4e$t an" #enevolent. Gi$ero sai" that in $lassi$al orator) the
initial portion of a spee$h @its e3or"iu( or intro"u$tionA %as the
pla$e to esta#lish one=s $re"i#ilit) %ith the au"ien$e.
,a(ple *hetori$al -nal)sis &T($S
<n Gi$ero=s spee$h "efen"in& the poet -r$hias' he #e&ins his spee$h
#) referrin& to his o%n e3pertise in orator)' for %hi$h he %as fa(ous
in *o(e. 7hile la$1in& (o"est)' this ta$ti$ still esta#lishe" his ethos
#e$ause the au"ien$e %as for$e" to a$1no%le"&e that Gi$ero=s pu#li$
servi$e &ave hi( a $ertain ri&ht to spea1' an" his su$$ess in orator)
&ave hi( spe$ial authorit) to spea1 a#out another author. <n effe$t'
his entire spee$h is an atte(pt to in$rease the respe$ta#ilit) of the
ethos of literature' lar&el) a$$o(plishe" #) t)in& it to Gi$ero=s o%n'
alrea") esta#lishe"' pu#li$ $hara$ter.
*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of 2thos
!he topi$s of invention serve to in$rease the ethos or
$re"i#ilit) of the spea1er insofar as these are lo&i$all)
persuasive' an" insofar as one appeals to the 1in"s of proofs
or authorities that are seen as authoritative to one=s au"ien$e.
au"ien$e
en$o(passin& ter(s 1airos au"ien$e "e$oru(
-ll rhetori$all) oriente" "is$ourse is $o(pose" in li&ht of those %ho
%ill hear or rea" that "is$ourse. 8r' in other %or"s' rhetori$al anal)sis
al%a)s ta1es into a$$ount ho% an au"ien$e shapes the $o(position of
a te3t or respon"s to it.
<n $lassi$al ti(es' the au"ien$e ha" to "o %ith the settin&s or
o$$asions in %hi$h &enres of orator) %ere pra$ti$e" @,ee #ran$hes of
orator)A. Later theorists have ta1en into a$$ount the (ultiple
au"ien$es to %hi$h "is$ourse is presente"' intentionall) or not @for
e3a(ple' the se$on"ar) au"ien$es that the printe" version of a spee$h
rea$hes a$ross pla$e an" ti(e' or the (ultiple au"ien$es present in
the theater those onsta&e %ho hear a &iven $hara$ter=s spee$h' an"
those in the pu#li$ au"ien$e o#servin& all of thisA.
*hetori$=s preo$$upation %ith au"ien$e $an #e seen in "ire$t $ontrast
to philosophi$al "is$ourse that prefers orientin& itself to truth rather
than to the do'a or opinion' of the unlearne" pu#li$. ,ee Clato=s
!orgias.
*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of *easonin&
+i&ures of Cathos
+i&ures of spee$h in %hi$h one e3pli$itl) or "ire$tl) a""resses
an au"ien$e
o asteis(us
o apostrophe
o epitrope
o s)n$horesis
-ll topi$s of invention appeal to an au"ien$e #) (eans of
reason @lo&osA or #) esta#lishin& $re"i#lit) %ith the au"ien$e
@ethosA. ,ee the various topi$s of invention.
,a(ple *hetori$al -nal)sis A3)!&NC&
5artin Luther=s passionate response to 2ras(us on the issue of free
%ill ha" less to "o %ith his "esire to $orre$t 2ras(us than it "i" %ith
his %ish to influen$e the pu#li$ %ho %oul" rea" the e3$han&es (a"e
#et%een the t%o &reat *enaissan$e thin1ers. Luther=s intent %as to
$reate an ethos of $onfi"en$e in the fa$e of 2ras(us=s intelle$tual
a(#ivalen$e' in$itin& the pu#li$ to follo% his stron& lea". !hus'
2ras(us %as onl) the no(inal au"ien$e. 8ne (ust interpret Luther=s
ar&u(ents an" rhetori$ in li&ht of the #roa"er popula$e %ho( he %as
reall) a""ressin&.
#ran$hes of orator)
genera causarum
4u"i$ial "eli#erative epi"ei$ti$
<n $lassi$al rhetori$' orator) %as "ivi"e" into three #ran$hes or 1in"s
of $auses @genera causarumA
1. 4u"i$ial orator) @or Bforensi$BA/
2. "eli#erative orator) @or Ble&islativeBA an"
3. epi"ei$ti$ orator) @B$ere(onialB or B"e(onstrativeBA.
+or #oth the anal)sis of spee$hes an" for $o(posin& the(' stu"ents
%ere traine" in re$o&niEin& the appropriate 1in" of orator). -ristotle
asso$iate" %ith ea$h t)pe of orator) an aspe$t of ti(e @past' present'
futureA' set purposes' an" appropriate @Bspe$ialBA topi$s of invention
4ranch of
oratory
time purposes
special topics
of invention
4u"i$ial past
a$$use or
"efen"
4usti$e L in4usti$e
"eli#erative future
e3hort or
"issua"e
&oo" L un%orth)
a"vanta&eous L
"isa"vanta&eous
epi"ei$ti$ present praise or #la(e virtue L vi$e
!here is little "ou#t that these $ate&ories "o not e3haust the 1in"s of
"is$ourse @or even orator)A possi#le. 0uintilian' for e3a(ple'
$atalo&e" (an) other possi#le "ivisions of "is$ourse outline" fro(
antiquit) @3.4A. Qet these three have persiste" an" still prove useful in
rhetori$al anal)sis' partl) #e$ause the) fo$us on $o((on so$ial
situations %here persuasion is i(portant an" on #roa" $ate&ories of
intention @the purposes liste" a#oveA.
,ee -lso
stasis
!he #ran$hes of orator) are $losel) tie" to this pro$ess of
esta#lishin& the issue at question.
,a(ple *hetori$al -nal)sis 5RANC(&S $F $RAT$R'
<n the thir" a$t of ,ha1espeare=s Timon of Athens -l$i#ia"es atte(pts
to s%a) the -thenian senators fro( $on"e(nin& a frien" of his %ho
1ille" so(eone in a #ar fi&ht. De thus e(plo)s 6udicial oratory'
atte(ptin& to "efen" his frien". !his is also apparent in his use of
those spe$ial topi$s of invention -ristotle i"entifie" as appropriate for
forensi$ orator)' B4usti$e an" in4usti$e.B <n this $ase' -l$i#ia"es tries to
sho% that 1illin&' %hile usuall) un4ust' so(eti(es isn=t %ron&. <n
ter(s of stasis he "oes not "ispute %hether the 1illin& too1 pla$e @an
sit-A' or that it %as a 1illin& @$uid sit-A/ rather' he ar&ues on the #asis
of the nature of that a$t an" its 4ustifi$ation @$uale sit-A.
-l$i#ia"es $o(#ines 6udicial and epideictic oratory %hen he a""s
praises re&ar"in& his frien" @an encomiumA' hopin& that his lon&
servi$e re$or" %ill &et hi( off the hoo1. !he senators see throu&h
these plo)s' ho%ever' an" -l$i#ia"es is #anishe".
(etastasis
me-tas'-ta-sis fro( .1. meta' B#e)on"' overB an"
stasis' Ba stan"in& or pla$in&B
transmotionem
the flitting figure or remove
;en)in& an" turnin& #a$1 on )our a"versaries ar&u(ents
use" a&ainst )ou.

23a(ples

-n" it $a(e to pass' %hen -ha# sa% 2li4ah' that -ha# sai" unto
hi(' -rt thou he that trou#leth <sraelK -n" he ans%ere"' < have not
trou#le" <srael/ #ut thou' an" th) father=s house' in that )e have
forsa1en the $o((an"(ents of the L8*;' an" thou hast follo%e"
Haali(. >1 Oin&s 1817618
*elate" +i&ures
o anti$ate&oria
,ee -lso
-rran&e(ent *efutation

Sources:
-quil. 16 @B(etastasin'B Btrans(otione(BA/ Cea$ha( @1577A !3r/ Cutt. @1589A 240
@B(etastasis'B Bthe flittin& fi&ure'B Bthe re(oveBA
$ontrariu(
con-tra'-ri-um L. $ontrar)' re$ipro$al
?u3taposin& t%o opposin& state(ents @NantithesisA in
su$h a %a) as to prove the one fro( the other. 5ore
&enerall)' a $o(position of opposites @NantithetonA.
Li1e other +i&ures of 8pposition' $ontrariu( $an at ti(es see(
to e(phasiEe a le3i$al pattern an" so(eti(es the se(anti$ or
ar&u(entative $ontent. !he Ad Herennium author refers to
$ontrariu( as a fi&ure of "i$tion @perhaps #e$ause of the
opposition an" frequent parallelis( of su$h state(ents %hen
e3presse" $on$isel)A. Do%ever' as 0uintilian notes ' $ontrariu(
is (ore properl) un"erstoo" as a (etho" of ar&u(entation @N
!opi$ of <nvention GontrariesA.
23a(ples
-re %e afrai" to fi&ht those on the plains %ho( %e have hurle"
"o%n fro( the hillsK
*elate" +i&ures
aetiolo&ia
antitheton
antithesis
anth)pophora
apophasis
enth)(e(e
prosapo"osis
ratio$inatio
Gontraries an" Gontra"i$tions
,ee -lso
litotes
li-to'-tees fro( .1 litos' Bplain' s(all' (ea&reB
-lso sp. lyptote' liptote
antenantiosis
diminutio (deminutio), extenuatio
the moderatour
;eli#erate un"erstate(ent' espe$iall) %hen e3pressin&
a thou&ht #) "en)in& its opposite.

!he Ad Herennium author su&&ests litotes as a (eans of
e3pressin& (o"est) @"o%npla)in& one=s a$$o(plish(entsA in
or"er to &ain the au"ien$e=s favor @esta#lishin& ethosA.
23a(ples
<t isn=t ver) serious. < have this tin) little tu(or on the #rain.
>?.;. ,alin&er' The +atcher in the Rye
*unnin& a (arathon in un"er t%o hours is no s(all
a$$o(plish(ent.
*elate" +i&ures
(eiosis
iron)
h)per#ole
sar$as(us
+i&ures of ethos

Gontraries S Gontra"i$tions
,i(ilarit) S ;ifferen$e
(eiosis
(ei6o=6sis
fro( .1. mei.o.o to (a1e s(aller
extenuatio, detractio, diminutio
the disabler, belittling
*eferen$e to so(ethin& %ith a na(e "isproportionatel)
lesser than its nature @a 1in" of litotesA.
!his ter( is equivalent to tapinosis.
23a(ple
Said of an amputated leg. B<t=s 4ust a flesh %oun"B
>5ont) C)thon an" the Dol) .rail
*elate" +i&ures
iron)
5eiosis' as a 1in" of un"erstate(ent' na(es one of the t%o
prin$iple (eans of $o((uni$atin& throu&h iron) @the other
#ein& overstate(ent > see h)per#ole' #elo%A.
litotes
Li1e (eiosis' litotes is also a 1in" of "eli#erate
un"erstate(ent. Do%ever' this ter( (ore often na(es
un"erstate(ent "one #) "en)in& so(ethin& $ontrar) to %hat
one (eans.
tapinosis
Li1e (eiosis' tapinosis involves $allin& so(ethin& #) a na(e
that "i(inishes its i(portan$e' or &ives an un"erstate(ent of
its qualities.
au3esis !he e3a$t opposite of (eiosis @overstates rather than
un"erstates for ironi$ effe$tA.
h)per#ole !he &eneral ter( for e3a&&eration' in$lu"in&
au3esis. Not li(ite" to ironi$ uses.
$harientis(us !his fi&ure shares %ith (eiosis a si(ilar
strate&) > to (ollif) or li&hten @thou&h not ironi$all)A.
Gharientis(us usuall) involves re"u$in& the effe$t of a threat
throu&h teasin& or (o$1er).
;e&ree
5eiosis "oes not %or1 as a fi&ure unless one senses the
"e&ree of "ifferen$e #et%een the la#el an" the thin& it la#els.
<t is thus relate" to this 1in" of $o(parative strate&).
,ee -lso
,u#tra$tion
Sources: Gi$ero ;e 8r. 3.53.202 @Be3tenuatioBA/ 0uintilian 8.3.50/ -quil. 46
@BelleipsisB 9N(eiosis:' B"etra$tioBA/ 5elan$h. 2* ;4v @B(eiosisB
BtapinosisB B"i(inutioBA/ ,herr) @1550A 61 @B(iosis'B B"i(inutioBA/
Cea$ha( @1577A N4v/ Cutt. @1589A 195' 227 @B(eiosis'B Bthe "isa#lerBA
iron)
i'-ron-ee .1.' Baffe$tation of i&noran$eB
ironia, illusio
dissimulatio, simulatio
the dry mock
,pea1in& in su$h a %a) as to i(pl) the $ontrar) of %hat
one sa)s' often for the purpose of "erision' (o$1er)' or
4est.

23a(ples

The /ews said of +hrist,
Dail' Oin& of the ?e%sF
*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of iron)
antiphrasis
<ron) of one %or"' often "erisivel) throu&h patent
$ontra"i$tion.
paralipsis
,tatin& an" "ra%in& attention to so(ethin& in the ver) a$t
of preten"in& to pass it over.
epitrope
- fi&ure in %hi$h one turns thin&s over to one=s hearers'
either ironi$all)' or in su$h a %a) as to su&&est a proof of
so(ethin& %ithout havin& to state it.
sar$as(us
Mse of (o$1er) or ver#al taunts.
()$teris(us

Gontraries S Gontra"i$tions

Sources:
0uintilian 9.2.45651/ He"e 615/ -quil. 7
@Bironia'B Bsi(ulatioBA/ ,usen#rotus @1540A
14615 @Bironia'B BillusioBA/ ,herr) @1550A
45 @Bironia'B B"issi(ulatioBA/ Cea$ha(
@1577A ;3r/ +raun$e @1588A 1.6/ Cutt.
@1589A 199 @Bironia'B Bthe "r) (o$1BA/
;a) 1599 80 @BironiaBA
tapinosis
ta-pi-no'-sis .1. Ba "e(eanin& or hu(#lin&B
-lso tapeinosis, antenantiosis
humiliatio
abbaser, a demeaning
.ivin& a na(e to so(ethin& %hi$h "i(inishes it in
i(portan$e. - 1in" of (eiosis.
!his ter( is equivalent to (eiosis.
23a(ples
Said of the 0ississippi River, Ba strea(B
*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of ;efinition
(eiosis
fi&ures of "efinition
&roupin&s
in"e3
;efinin& is a #asi$ (o"e of "is$ourse. -s su$h' ;efinition is one of
the !opi$s of <nvention' servin& as a $o((on (etho" for "evelopin&
or supportin& an ar&u(ent. 2ven if "efinition is not e(plo)e" to
support a (ain point or "evelop the se$tion of a spee$h' (an) fi&ures
are #ase" on so(e 1in" of "efinition
horis(us
Crovi"in& a $lear' #rief "efinition' espe$iall) #) e3plainin&
"ifferen$es #et%een asso$iate" ter(s
antono(asia
,u#stitutin& a "es$riptive phrase for a proper na(e' or
su#stitutin& a proper na(e for a qualit) asso$iate" %ith it.
$ir$u(lo$ution
,uppl)in& a "es$riptive phrase in pla$e of a na(e.
s)strophe
!he listin& of (an) qualities or "es$riptions of so(eone or
so(ethin&' %ithout provi"in& an e3pli$it "efinition.
$orre$tio
!o a(en" a ter( or phrase one has 4ust e(plo)e".
au3esis @2A an" (eiosis @tapinosisA
!hese ter(s involve a 1in" of re"efiinin&>referrin& to
so(ethin& in ter(s "isproportionatel) lar&e or s(all.
parenthesis
- le3i$al interruption (a) in$lu"e a 1in" of e3planation or
"efinition' su&&este" #) one Lati( s)non)( provi"e" @#)
,uareEA for this ter(' Binterpretatio.B
s)non)(ia
2(plo)in& (ultiple ter(s for the sa(e i"ea is a 1in" of
e3planation or "efinition.
e3er&asia @e3politioA
*epetition of the sa(e i"ea in "ifferent %or"s' %hi$h $an
serve the purpose of e3plainin& or "efinin& that i"ea.
,ee -lso
!opi$s of <nvention ;efinition
;efinition

;efinition
- topi$ of invention that invites one to $onsi"er the lar&er &roup to
%hi$h so(ethin& #elon&s' often as a %a) of referrin& to the
si(ilarities or "ifferen$es it has %ith other (e(#ers of that &roup.
Glosel) relate" to ;ivision' this topi$ is often use" in as$ertainin& the
spe$ifi$ issue to #e "is$usse" @a pro$e"ure $alle" BstasisBA.
B;efinitionB is so(eti(es $onsi"ere" s)non)(ous %ith' so(eti(es
the lar&er $ate&or) e(#ra$in& another $o((on topi$ of invention'
B.enus L ,pe$iesB.
23a(ples

7hen a$$use" of not #ein& a Ghristian' she respon"e" that she
#elieve" in an" follo%e" the tea$hin&s of ?esus' an" if that %asn=t
Ghristian' %hat %asK
*elate" +i&ures
horis(us
s)strophe
$ir$u(lo$ution
$orre$tio
;ivision
.enus an" ,pe$ies
Sources: Gi$. !op. 5.2667.32/ ,uareE 11r612r

.enus an" ,pe$ies
- topi$ of invention #) %hi$h one i"entifies a &iven thin& as #ein&
part of a lar&er $lass @B&enusBA' sharin& the properties of other
(e(#ers of that $lass.
23a(ples

Li1e other $ri(es a&ainst so$iet)' litterin& shoul" #e
stron&l) punishe".
*elate" +i&ures
s)ne$h"o$he
,ee -lso
T,ee -lsoU

;ivision

7hole L Carts
- (etho" of a(plif)in& or of $larif)in& #) "es$ri#in& a %hole an" its
$onstituent parts' or the parts that (a1e up a %hole.
Note !his topi$ is ver) $losel) relate" to the topi$ of ;efinition' #ut "iffers in that
it is not atte(ptin& to $lassif) so(ethin& #) pla$in& it as a spe$ies %ithin a &enus.
23a(ples

7hatsoever is a livin& $reature' the sa(e is a thin&' that either hath
reason' or els 9si$: that la$1eth reason.... 2ither it is "a)' or els it is
ni&ht. >!ho(as 7ilson
*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of ;ivision
s)ne$"o$he
ta3is
(eris(us
"iaeresis
"ial)sis
eutrepis(us
prosapo"osis
h)poEeu3is
"istri#utio
,ee -lso
-rran&e(ent Cartitio
Go(parison

,i(ilarit) L ;ifferen$e
!hat topi$ of invention %hi$h invites us to $onsi"er ho% so(ethin&
$o(pares an" $ontrasts %ith others. 8ne use of this topi$ is ar&uin&
#) analo&)' usin& the lo&i$ that if t%o thin&s are si(ilar in one or t%o
%a)s' the) are li1el) si(ilar in another $hara$teristi$. -nother use of
this topi$ is "ra%in& a $on$lusion #ase" on an e3a(ple of one
instan$e of si(ilarit).
23a(ples

<n )our state(ent )ou assert that our a$tions' even thou&h
pea$eful' (ust #e $on"e(ne" #e$ause the) pre$ipitate violen$e.
Hut is this a lo&i$al assertionK <sn=t this li1e $on"e(nin& a ro##e"
(an #e$ause his possession of (one) pre$ipitate" the evil a$t of
ro##er)K <sn=t this li1e $on"e(nin& ,o$rates #e$ause his
uns%ervin& $o((it(ent to truth an" his philosophi$al inquiries
pre$ipitate" the a$t #) the (is&ui"e" popula$e in %hi$h the) (a"e
hi( "rin1 he(lo$1K <sn=t this li1e $on"e(nin& ?esus #e$ause his
unique .o"6$ons$iousness an" never6$easin& "evotion to .o"=s
%ill pre$ipitate" the evil a$t of $ru$ifi3ionK 7e (ust $o(e to see
that' as the fe"eral $ourts have $onsistentl) affir(e"' it is %ron& to
ur&e an in"ivi"ual to $ease his efforts to &ain his #asi$
$onstitutional ri&hts #e$ause the quest (a) pre$ipitate violen$e.
,o$iet) (ust prote$t the ro##e" an" punish the ro##er.
>5artin Luther Oin&' Letter fro( Hir(in&ha( ?ail
The following use of the topic of similarity(difference is an
argument &y analogy
-"(inistrative %or1 is li1e 4u&&lin& a $hain sa% on$e in a %hile
)ou pull it off an" reall) %o% people...
*elate" +i&ures
(etaphor
si(ile
s)n$risis
,ee -lso
Cro&)(nas(ata Go(parison
Sources: Gi$. !op. 3.15616' 10.41611.46 / ,uareE 13r6v

;e&ree
- topi$ of invention that invites one to loo1 at issues of B(oreB an"
Bless.B
23a(ples

-ristotle propose" $onsi"erin& these $riteria to &enerate i"eas
usin& the topi$ of "e&ree. 2a$h of these $an #e inverte"
1. - &reater nu(#er of thin&s is often $onsi"ere" #etter than a
s(all nu(#er of the sa(e thin&s
23a(ple 7e nee" less %ar an" (ore pea$e.
2. !hat %hi$h is an en" is a &reater &oo" than that %hi$h is
onl) a (eans
23a(ple 23er$ise is all &oo" an" %ell' #ut shoul" #e
avoi"e" if it a$tuall) threatens one=s health.
3. 7hat is s$ar$e is &reater than %hat is a#un"ant.
23a(ple !his %as no $o((on pe##le to #e foun" on an)
roa" or #)%a)/ it %as a #lue "ia(on"' (ore rare than an)
other of its 1in".
4. 7hat learne" people %oul" $hoose is #etter than %hat the
i&norant %oul" $hoose.
23a(ple -ll of )our frien"s (a) #e han"lin& their
uraniu( $olle$tion %ithout lea" &loves' #ut )our un$le the
nu$lear ph)si$ist has tol" )ou the #est $ourse.
5. 7hat the (a4orit) of people %oul" $hoose is #etter than
%hat the (inorit) %oul" $hoose.
23a(ple Qou=re %at$hin& the net%or1 %at$he" #) (ore
-(er$ans than an) other...
6. 7hat people %oul" reall) li1e to possess is a &reater &oo"
than %hat the) %oul" (erel) li1e to &ive the i(pression of
possessin&.
23a(ple Dealth is a &reater &oo" than 4usti$e' #e$ause
%hile people $an #e $ontent %ith the (ere reputation for
#ein& 4ust' the) prefer #ein& health) to onl) see(in&
health).
7. <f a thin& "oes not e3ist %here it is (ore li1el) to e3ist' it
%ill not e3ist %here it is less li1el) to e3ist
23a(ple <n his fa(ous poe( B;eath' #e not prou"'B ?ohn
;onne $o(pares "eath to sleep. !o paraphrase the
ar&u(ent that he (a1es' %e all "erive a &reat "eal of
pleasure fro( rest an" sleep/ therefore' %e shoul" "erive
even (ore pleasure fro( that %hi$h rest an" sleep i(itate
"eath. <f there is so (u$h pleasure fro( the lesser thin&'
there is to #e so (u$h (ore pleasure fro( the &reater thin&.
!his is often referre" to as ar&uin& a fortiori @Latin Bfro(
the stron&erBA
*elationship

Gause an" 2ffe$t
- topi$ of invention in %hi$h one $onsi"ers the effe$ts of a &iven
$ause or the $auses $ontri#utin& to &iven effe$ts.
23a(ples

In /onathan Swift1s A 0odest roposal, he argues from effect,
indicating what the results would &e if his ironic proposal to sell
Irish children for food were to &e accepted
+or first' it %oul" &reatl) lessen the nu(#er of papists' %ith %ho(
%e are )earl) overrun' #ein& the prin$ipal #ree"ers of the nation as
%ell as our (ost "an&erous ene(ies...et$.
*elate" +i&ures
apa&oresis
enu(eratio
,ee -lso

Hran$hes of 8rator) ;eli#erative
Gause an" 2ffe$t is a topi$ $o((onl) e(plo)e" in
"eli#erative or le&islative orator) in %hi$h the effe$ts of
propose" plans or la%s are %ei&he".
Hran$hes of 8rator) ?u"i$ial
Gause an" 2ffe$t is a topi$ $o((onl) e(plo)e" in 4u"i$ial
or forensi$ orator) as the $auses of present effe$ts @su$h as
a $ri(eA are investi&ate".

Sources: Gi$. !op. 3.22623' 15.58618.67

-nte$e"ent an" Gonsequen$e
Jer) si(ilar to $ause an" effe$t' this topi$ of invention invites one to
$onsi"er events or $onsequen$es that follo% &iven a$tions or
$on"itions. !he "ifferen$e is that %hat follo%s (a) not #e $ause" #)
%hat pre$e"e" it' #ut %ill naturall) flo% fro( those earlier
$on"itions. .iven a $ertain situation @the ante$e"entA' %hat is li1el)
to follo% @the $onsequen$eAK !his often ta1es the for( of an
Bif...thenB $o(poun" senten$e' an" is $losel) asso$iate" %ith the
for( of reasonin& t)pi$al in rhetori$' the enthymeme.
23a(ples

,in$e Louisa +ran1lin %as not Caul +ran1lin=s le&al %ife %hen he
"ie"' she isn=t entitle" to an) of his Hlue 8)ster Gult re$or"
$olle$tion.
<f stu"ents violate" the "ress $o"e' then the) shoul" suffer the
$onsequen$es.
*elate" +i&ures
apa&oresis
$ataple3is
,ee -lso

Hran$hes of 8rator) ;eli#erative
-nte$e"ent an" Gonsequen$e is a topi$ $o((onl)
e(plo)e" in "eli#erative or le&islative orator) in %hi$h the
$onsequen$es of propose" plans or la%s are %ei&he".
Gir$u(stan$es Cast +a$t L +uture +a$t
-nte$e"ent an" Gonsequen$e is $losel) relate" to this topi$
of invention %hi$h $onsi"ers the relationship' often
$onsequential in nature' #et%een past an" present or future.

Sources: Gi$. !op. 3.19620

Gontraries
- topi$ of invention in %hi$h one $onsi"ers opposite or in$o(pati#le
thin&s that are of the sa(e 1in" @if the) are of "ifferent 1in"s' the
topi$ of si(ilarit) L "ifferen$e is (ore appropriateA. He$ause
$ontraries o$$ur in pairs an" e3$lu"e one another' the) are useful in
ar&u(ents #e$ause one $an esta#lish one=s $ase in"ire$tl)' provin&
one=s o%n assertion #) "is$re"itin& the $ontrar). !his is so(eti(es
1no%n as the fi&ure of thou&ht' antitheton.
23a(ples

,elf6$ontrol is #enefi$ial #e$ause li$entiousness is har(ful.
<f %ar is the $ause of our (iser)' pea$e is the %a) to pro(ote our
happiness
*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of <ron)
$ontrariu(
enantiosis
s)noe$iosis
antitheton
in utru(que partes
antithesis
antiphrasis
,ee -lso

<t %as often su&&este" one #e&in this rhetori$al e3er$ise #)
e(plo)in& a $ontrar) or $ontra"i$tion.
in utru(que partes
-r&uin& #oth si"es of an issue.

Sources: Gi$. !op. 3.17' 11.47651

Gontra"i$tions
Mnli1e the topi$ B$ontraries'B B$ontra"i$tionsB "eals %ith "enial
rather than opposition. @+or e3a(ple' in response to the assertion Bthe
prea$her %as %hiteB one is usin& the topi$ of $ontraries in sa)in& Bthe
prea$her %as #la$1B/ #ut the topi$ of $ontra"i$tion in sa)in& Bthe
prea$her %as not %hiteB 9the prea$her $oul" have #een of a thir"
ra$e:A. !his topi$ is useful for settin& up an issue @see BstasisBA an"
often ta1es the for( of an either L or proposition.
23a(ples

,o(e people (aintain that the Gonstitution &uarantees the
ri&ht of ever) $itiEen to o%n a &un/ others (aintain that the
Gonstitution states no su$h ri&ht.
2ither she is %illin& to (a1e the 1elp i$e $rea(' or she is
not.
*elate" +i&ures
inter se pu&nantia
antiphrasis
antilo&)
,ee -lso

<t %as often su&&este" one #e&in this rhetori$al
e3er$ise #) e(plo)in& a $ontrar) or $ontra"i$tion.
in utru(que partes
-r&uin& #oth si"es of an issue.

Gir$u(stan$es


!he Cossi#le an" <(possi#le
- topi$ of invention in %hi$h one "es$ri#es so(ethin& propose" as
either possi#le or i(possi#le for the purpose of en$oura&in& or
"is$oura&in&. -n e3a(ination of the feasi#ilit) of a propose" a$tion.
23a(ples

BDo%ever (u$h %e (a) "esire to travel to other %orl"s #e)on"
our solar s)ste(' %e are not a#le to "o so no% or in the foreseea#le
future.B
*elate" +i&ures
a")naton
,ee -lso

!he possi#le is one of the topi$s re$o((en"e" for use in
this rhetori$al e3er$ise.
!he i(possi#le is one of the topi$s re$o((en"e" for use in
this rhetori$al e3er$ise.

Sources: -ristotle' Rhetoric 2.19.1615

- topi$ of invention in %hi$h one refers #a$1 to &eneral events in the
past or to %hat %e $an safel) suppose %ill o$$ur in the future #ase"
on the re$or" of the past. 7hen pre$e"ents are #rou&ht for%ar" fro(
the past' this topi$ of invention overlaps %ith !esti(on)/ %hen
"is$ussin& %hat is li1el) or not for the future' it has o#vious
$onne$tion to topi$ of !he Cossi#le an" <(possi#le.
23a(ples

-s ever) $reature %ho has live" on this earth throu&h its (an)
a&es has en"e" this life in "eath' %e $an #e quite assure" that
this %ill #e the $o((on lot for the rest of us' sooner or later.
*elate" +i&ures
ana(nesis
$hrono&raphia
,ee -lso

Hran$hes of 8rator) ?u"i$ial 8rator)
.enerall)' in 4u"i$ial orator) one (a1es ar&u(ents
a#out past events.
Hran$hes of 8rator) ;eli#erative 8rator)
.enerall)' in "eli#erative orator) one (a1es
ar&u(ents oriente" to future events.
Cro&)(nas(ata <(personation
<n $reatin& a $hara$ter throu&h this rhetori$al e3er$ise
stu"ents %ere instru$te" to $onsi"er aspe$ts of #oth the
past an" future.
<n one of the steps of this rhetori$al e3er$ise it %as
re$o((en"e" that one "is$uss a person=s past life.

Sources:
-ristotle' Rhetoric
2.19.16625
antithesis
an-tith'-e-sis fro( .1. anti a&ainst an" thesis
a settin& or tithenai to set' pla$e
contrarium
contentio, comparatio
contrast
?u3taposition of $ontrastin& %or"s or i"eas @often' althou&h
not al%a)s' in parallel stru$tureA.

!his is $losel) relate" to the !opi$ of <nvention Gontraries' an" is
so(eti(es 1no%n as the si(ilarl) na(e" fi&ure of thou&ht'
antitheton.
23a(ples

B<t has #een () e3perien$e that fol1s %ho have no vices have ver)
fe% virtues.B >-#raha( Lin$oln
B<t $an=t #e wrong if it feels so rightB >;e##ie Hoone
*elate" +i&ures
enantiosis
antitheton
para"o3
o3)(oron
+i&ures of Halan$e
.or&iani$ +i&ures

Gontraries
Gontra"i$tions

Sources:
Ad Herennium 4.15.21 @B$ontentioBA/ Cea$ha( @1577A O1r/ ;a) 1599 92 @Bantithesis'B
B$ontentioBA
enantiosis
e-nan-ti-o'-sis fro( .1. enantios' BoppositeB
contraries
contentio
contraries, contention, contrariety
Msin& opposin& or $ontrar) "es$riptions to&ether'
t)pi$all) in a so(e%hat para"o3i$al (anner.
23a(ples
5one) is an e3$ellent servant #ut a $ruel (aster.
< $oul" neither $ontinue listenin& nor turn a%a).
Hlesse" is the (an that %al1eth not in the $ounsel of the
un&o"l)' nor stan"eth in the %a) of sinners' nor sitteth in
the seat of the s$ornful. >Csal( 11
*elate" +i&ures
antithesis
antitheton
para"o3
o3)(oron
Gontraries
,ee -lso
in utru(que partes
antitheton
an-tith'-e-ton fro( .1. anti a&ainst an" thesis
a settin& or tithenai to set' pla$e
compositum ex contrariis, contentio
the renconter, the quarreller
contencion
- proof or $o(position $onstru$te" of $ontraries.

-ntitheton is $losel) relate" to an" so(eti(es $onfuse" %ith
the fi&ure of spee$h that 4u3taposes opposin& ter(s'
antithesis. Do%ever' it is (ore properl) $onsi"ere" a fi&ure
of thou&ht @N!opi$ of <nvention GontrariesA.
23a(ples

+latter) hath pleasant 4eginnings' #ut the sa(e hath ver)
#itter endings. > *. ,herr)
*elate" +i&ures
antithesis
Gontraries
para"o3
pa'-ra-dox fro( .1. para' Bpast' $ontrar) toB an" do'a' BopinionB
paradoxon' paradoxum
wondrer
1. - state(ent that is self6$ontra"i$tor) on the surfa$e' )et see(s to evo1e a truth
nonetheless.
23a(ple
7hosoever loses his life' shall fin" it.
2. N inopinatu(. !he e3pression of one=s ina#ilit) to #elieve or $on$eive of
so(ethin&/ a t)pe of fau3 %on"erin&A. -s su$h' this 1in" of para"o3 is (u$h
li1e aporia an" fun$tions (u$h li1e a rhetori$al question or erote(a.
23a(ple
<t see(s i(possi#le to (e that this a"(inistration $oul" so qui$1l) reverse itself on this
issue.
*elate" +i&ures
o3)(oron
- $o(presse" para"o3.
*hetori$al 0uestions
erote(a
aporia
iron)
Gontraries
o3)(oron
ox-y-mo'-ron ro( .1. o'y' BsharpB an" moros' B"ullB
acutifatuum
wise-folly
Cla$in& t%o or"inaril) opposin& ter(s a"4a$ent to one
another. - $o(presse" para"o3.

23a(ples

...Qet fro( those fla(es
No li&ht' #ut rather "ar1ness visi#le
,erve" onl) to "is$over si&hts of %oe.
>5ilton' aradise 2ost 1.62664
!he ,oun"s of ,ilen$e
%estina lente @(a1e haste slo%l)A.
*elate" +i&ures
para"o3
iron)
s)noe$iosis
au3esis
ok-see'-sis .1. Bin$rease' a(plifi$ationB
incrementum
the avancer
1. -rran&in& %or"s or $lauses in a sequen$e of
in$reasin& for$e. <n this sense' au3esis is
$o(para#le to $li(a3 an" has so(eti(es #een
$alle" incrementum.
2. - fi&ure of spee$h in %hi$h so(ethin& is
referre" to in ter(s "isproportionatel) lar&e @a
1in" of e3a&&eration or h)per#oleA.
3. -(plifi$ation in &eneral.

!his fi&ure @in its se$on" (eanin&A is often paire" %ith its
opposite' (eoisis.
23a(ples

Said of a scratch
Loo1 at this %oun"F
*elate" +i&ures
<n its se$on" "efinition' au3esis fun$tions as a 1in"
of re"efinition' asso$iatin& it &enerall) %ith the
topi$ of invention ;efinition.
h)per#ole
(eiosis
!he opposite of au3esis @2A>referrin& to so(ethin&
%ith a na(e "isproportionatel) lesser than its nature.
h)per#ole
hy-per'-bo-lee fro( hyper' BoverB an" &ollein' Bto thro%B
T-lt ,pellin&U
superlatio- e,cessus
over reacher or the loud lyer
*hetori$al e3a&&eration. D)per#ole is often a$$o(plishe"
via $o(parisons' si(iles' an" (etaphors.

23a(ples
<=ve tol" )ou a (illion ti(es not to e3a&&erate.
*elate" +i&ures
+i&ures of 23$ess an" ,uperfluit)
au3esis
litotes
#o(phiolo&ia
(etalepsis
(etaphor
,ee -lso

Sources:
-ristotle 3.11.15616/ -" Derenniu( 4.33.44 @BsuperlatioBA/
0uintilian 8.6.67676/ He"e 615/ !re#iEon" 61v @Bsuperlatio'B
Bh)per#oleBA/ ,usen#rotus @1540A 17619 @Bh)#er#ole'B
Bsuperlatio'B B"e(entiens superie$tio'B Be(inentia'B Be3$essusBA/
,herr) @1550A 71/ Cea$ha( @1577A ;4v/ Cutt. @1589A 202
@Bhiper#ole'B Bover rea$her or the lou" l)erBA/ ;a) 1599 80/
Hutler H1r6v
(etaphor
met-a-phor fro( meta #e)on"' over an" pherein to $arr)
metaphora
translatio
translation, figure of transport
- $o(parison (a"e #) referrin& to one thin& as another.
23a(ples
No (an is an islan" >?ohn ;onne
+or ever sin$e that ti(e )ou %ent a%a)
<=ve #een a ra##it #urro%e" in the %oo" >5auri$e ,$eve
Life is a #ea$h.
7ho $aptains the ship of stateK
*elate" +i&ures
si(ile
Li1e a (etaphor' a si(ile involves (a1in& a $o(parison
@e3$ept it "oes so e3pli$itl)A.
$ata$hresis
alle&or)
-n alle&or) is an e3ten"e" (etaphor that &oes throu&h a
%hole narrative.
Go(parison
,in$e a (etaphor is #ase" on an i(plie" $o(parison' it is
(ost $losel) relate" to this topi$ of invention.
,i(ilarit) L ;ifferen$e
,in$e this topi$ of invention often ta1es the for( of ar&uin&
#) analo&)' it is relate" to the fi&ure (etaphor sin$e a
(etaphor is a 1in" of analo&).
,ee -lso
Cathos
He$ause (etaphors are often $on$rete an" sensor)' the)
$an affe$t the au"ien$e=s e(otions.

Sources:
Ad Herennium
4.34.45
@BtranslatioBA/
0uintilian
8.6.4618/
,usen#rotus
@1540A 7
@B(etaphor'B
BtranslatioBA/
,herr) @1550A
40
@B(etaphora'B
Btranslatio'B
Btransla$ionBA/
+raun$e @1588A
1.7/ Cutt.
@1589A 189
@B(etaphora'B
Bfi&ure of
transsporteBA/
;a) 1599 77
@B(etaphoraBA/
Dos1ins 1599 8
@B(etaphor'B
BtranslationBA/
5elan$hthon
@1531A a8r
si(ile
si'-mi-lee L. li1e
similitudo
-n e3pli$it $o(parison' often @#ut not ne$essaril)A
e(plo)in& Bli1eB or Bas.B

23a(ples

5) love is li1e a re"' re" rose >*o#ert Hurns
Der hair %as li1e &rav)' runnin& #ro%n off her hea" an" $lu(pin&
up on her shoul"ers.
!he "a) %e passe" to&ether for a %hile
,ee(e" a #ri&ht fire on a %inter=s ni&ht >5auri$e ,$eve
Qou are li1e a hurri$ane there=s $al( in )our e)e' #ut <=( &ettin&
#lo%n a%a) >Neil Qoun&
!he air6lifte" rhino$eros hit the &roun" li1e a &ar#a&e #a& fille"
%ith split pea soup.
*elate" +i&ures
(etaphor
Go(parison

Sources: -ristotle 3.11.11/ 0uintilian 8.6.8/ 5elan$hthon a8r
alle&or)
al'-le-go-ry fro( .1. eirein' to spea1
allegoria
permutatio
the figure of false semblant, continued metaphor
- sustaine" (etaphor $ontinue" throu&h %hole senten$es
or even throu&h a %hole "is$ourse.
23a(ples
!he (ost o#vious use of alle&or) is %or16len&th narratives su$h as
the (e"ieval #veryman or Hun)an=s ilgrim1s rogress.
3uintilian la&els allegory what is elsewhere called a 4conceit4, an
e'tended metaphor,
!he ship of state has saile" throu&h rou&her stor(s than the
te(pest of these lo##)ists.
Allegory also occurs when an allusion is made with no
introductory e'planation and the speaker trusts the audience to
make the connection, as in the following e'ample, where reference
is made to the historic landing of a craft on the moon, &ut no
direct connection is made to the more mundane application of this
allusion,
7ell' the 2a&le has lan"e". < thou&ht )ou=" never (a1e partner in
the fir(.
*elate" +i&ures
(etaphor
si(ile
$on$eit
$ata$hresis
para#ola
+i&ures of o#s$urin&
Go(parison
,ee -lso

Sources:
Ad Herennium
4.34.46
@Bper(utatioBA/
0uintilian
8.6.44658/
He"e 6156618/
,usen#rotus
@1540A 12614
@Balle&oria'B
Binversio'B
Bper(utatioBA/
,herr) @1550A
45/ Cea$ha(
@1577A ;1r/
Cutt. @1589A
197
@Balle&oria'B
Bthe fi&ure of
false
se(#lantBA/
;a) 1599 79/
Dos1ins 1599
9.
$on$eit

-n e3ten"e" (etaphor. Copular "urin& the *enaissan$e an"
t)pi$al of ?ohn ;onne or ?ohn 5ilton. Mnli1e alle&or)'
%hi$h ten"s to have one6to6one $orrespon"en$es' a $on$eit
t)pi$all) ta1es one su#4e$t an" e3plores the (etaphori$
possi#ilities in the qualities asso$iate" %ith that su#4e$t.

23a(ples
*o#ert Derri$1=s B!he JineB
*elate" +i&ures
(etaphor
si(ile
alle&or)

Sources:
fi&ures of o#s$urin&
&roupin&s
in"e3
7hile an ar&u(ent $an #e (a"e that an) rhetori$al fi&ure is an
o#s$urin& of (eanin&' there are so(e fi&ures %hi$h are e3pli$itl)
inten"e" to (a1e un"erstan"in& "iffi$ult or i(possi#le.
eni&(a
8#s$urin& one=s (eanin& #) presentin& it %ithin a ri""le or
#) (eans of (etaphors that purposefull) $hallen&e the rea"er
or hearer to un"erstan".
s$he(atis(us
Gon$ealin& a (eanin& #) usin& fi&urative lan&ua&e' either out
of ne$essit) or for hu(or=s sa1e.
noe(a
-n o#s$ure an" su#tle spee$h.
alle&or)
- sustaine" (etaphor $ontinue" throu&h %hole senten$es or
even throu&h a %hole "is$ourse. 7hile not ne$essaril)
o#s$urin&' it $an #e.
s1otison
Curposeful o#s$urit).

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