40GATE Material For Mechanical Engg - Opt

Gate for Mechanical Engineering:
Introduction to Mechanisms:
1 Physical Principles
This chapter introduces the basic physical principles behind mechanisms as well as basic
conceptsand principles required for this course.
1.1 Force and Torque
1.1.1 Force
Force: an agent or influence that, if applied to a free body results chiefly in an acceleration of the body
and sometimes in elastic deformation and other effects.
Every day we deal with forces of one kind or another. A pressure is a force. The earth exerts a
force of attraction for all bodies or objects on its surface. To study the forces acting on objects,
we must know how the forces are applied, the direction of the forces and their value.
Graphically, forces are often represented by a vector whose end represents the point of action.
A mechanism is what is responsible for any action or reaction. Machines are based on the ideaof
transmitting forces through a series of predetermined motions. These related concepts are the
basis of dynamic movement.
1.1.2 Torque
Torque: Something that produces or tends to produce rotation and whose effectiveness is
measured by the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the line of action of
the force to the axis of rotation.
Consider the lever shown in Figure 1-1. The lever is a bar that is free to turn about the fixed
point, A, called the fulcrum; a weight acts on the one side of the lever, and a balancing force acts
on the other side of the lever.
Figure 1-1 A lever with balanced forces
To analyze levers, we need to find the torques of the forces acting on the lever. To get the torque
of force W about point A, multiply W by l
1
, its distance from A. Similarly F x l
2
is the torque of
F about fulcrum A.
1.2 Motion
Motion: a change of position or orientation.
1.2.1 Motion Along a Straight Path
We begin our study of motion with the simplest case, motion in a straight line.
1. Position and displacement along a line
The first step in the study of motion is to describethe position of a moving object. Consider a
car on an east-west stretch of straight highway. We can describe the displacement of the car by
saying "the car is 5 kilometers west of the center town". In this description, we specified two
factors, the original point of measure and the direction of the displacement.
2. Velocity
We can define the velocityof an object moving steadily as its displacement per unit time:
(1-1)
wheret =t2 - t1 is the time interval during which the displacement occurred. When
velocity varies, we can let the time interval become infinitesimally small, thus
(1-2)
3. Acceleration
Accelerationis the variation of the velocity in a unit time period. If the velocity changes in a
constant rate, then we can describe the acceleration by
(1-3)
More generally, acceleration is
(1-4)
1.2.2 Linear Motion in Space
The picture becomes more complicated when the motion is not merely along a straight line, but
rather extends into a plane. Here we can describe the motion with a vector which includes the
magnitude and the direction of movement.
1. Position vector and displacement vector
The directed segment which describes the position of an object relative to an origin is the
position vector, as d
1
and d
2
in Figure 1-2
Figure 1-2 Position vector and displacement vector
If we wish to describe a motion from position d
1
to position d
2
, for example, we can use
vector d
1
, the vector starts at the point described by d
1
and goes to the point described by
d
2
, which is called the displacement vector.
(1-5)
2. Velocity vector
For a displacement doccurring in a time interval t, the average velocity during the interval is
(1-6)
Clearly V
ave
has the direction of d.
In the limit as delta t approaches zero, the instantaneous velocity is
(1-7)
The direction of V is the direction of d for a very small displacement; it is therefore
along, or tangent to, the path.
3. Acceleration vector
The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of the ratio V/ t as t becomes very small:
(1-8)
1.2.3 Motion of a Rigid Body in a Plane
The previous sections discuss the motion of particles. For a rigid body in a plane, its motion is
often more complex than a particle because it is comprised of a linear motion and a rotary
motion. Generally, this kind of motion can be decomposed into two motions (Figure 1-3), they
are:
1. The linear motion of the center of the mass of the rigid body. In this part of the motion, the
motion is the same as the motion of a particle on a plane.
2. The rotary motion of the rigid body relative to its center of mass.
Figure 1-3 Motion of a rigid body in a plane
1.3 Newton's Law of Motion
1.3.1 Newton's First Law
When no force is exerted on a body, it stays at rest or moves in a straight line with constant
speed. This principle of inertia is also known as Newton's first law. It is from this law that
Newton was able to build up our present understanding of dynamics.
1.3.2 Newton's Second Law
From our daily life, we can can observe that:
1. When a force Fis applied on an object, V, the change of the velocity of the object, increases
with the length of time delta t increases;
2. The greater the force F, the greater V; and
3. The larger the body (object) is, the less easily accelerated by forces.
It is convenient to write the proportionality between F t and V in the form:
(1-9)
The proportionality constant m varies with the object. This constant m is refered to as the inertial
mass of the body. The relationship above embodies Newton's law of motion (Newton's second
law). As
(1-10)
in which a is the acceleration of the object. We have
(1-11)
If m =1 kg and a =1m/sec
2
, than F =1 newton.
Forces and accelerations are vectors, and Newton's law can be written in vector form.
(1-12)
1.4 Momentum and Conservation of Momentum
1.4.1 Impulse
Try to make a baseball and a cannon ball roll at the same speed. As you can guess, it is harder to
get the cannon ball going. If you applya constant force F for a time t, the change in velocity is
given by Equation 1-9. So, to get the same v, the product F t must be greater the greater the
mass m you are trying to accelerate.
To throw a cannon ball from rest and give it the same final velocity as a baseball (also starting
from rest), we must push either harder or longer. What counts is the product F t. This product F
t is the natural measure of how hard and how long we push to change a motion. It is called the
impulse of the force.
1.4.2 Momentum
Suppose we apply the same impulse to a baseball and a cannon ball, both initially at rest. Since
the initial value of the quantity mv is zero in each case, and since equal impulses are applied, the
final values mv will be equal for the baseball and the cannon ball. Yet, because the mass of the
cannon ball is much greater than the mass of the baseball, the velocity of the cannon ball will be
much less than the velocity of the baseball. The product mv, then, is quite a different measure of
the motion than simply v alone. We call it the momentum p of the body, and measure it in
kilogram-meters per second.
(1-13)
Velocity and momentum are quite different concepts: velocity is a kinematical quantity, whereas
momentum is a dynamic one, connected with the causes of changes in the motion of masses.
Because of its connection with the impulse which occurs naturally in Newton's law (Equation 1-
9), we expect momentum to fit naturally into Newtonian dynamics. Newton did express his law
of motion in terms of the momentum, which he called the quantity of motion. We can express
Newton's law in terms of the change in momentum instead of change in velocity:
(1-14)
where v and v' are the velocities before and after the impulse. The right-hand side of the last
equation can be written as
(1-15)
the change in the momentum. Therefore
(1-16)
or, in other words, the impulse equals the change in the momentum.
1.4.3 Conservation of Momentum
In Figure 1-4 a moving billiard ball collides with a billiard ball at rest. The incident ball stops
and the ball it hits goes off with the same velocity with which the incident ball came in. The two
billiard balls have the same mass. Therefore, the momentum of the second ball after the collision
is the same as that of the incident ball before collision. The incident ball has lost all its
momentum, and the ball it struck has gained exactly the momentum which the incident ball lost.
Figure 1-4 Collision of billiard balls
This phenomenon is consistent with the law of conservation of momentum which says that the
total momentum is constant when two bodies interact.
1.5 Work, Power andEnergy
1.5.1 Work
Work is a force applied over a distance. If you drag an object along the floor you do work in
overcoming the friction between the object and the floor. In lifting an object you do work against
gravity which tends to pull the object toward the earth. Steam in a locomotive cylinder does work
when it expands and moves the piston against the resisting forces. Work is the product of the
resistance overcome and the distance through which it is overcome.
1.5.2 Power
Power is the rate at which work is done.
In the British system, power is expressed in foot-pounds per second. For larger measurements,
the horsepower is used.
1horsepower =550ft *lb/s =33,000ft*lb/min
In SI units, power is measured in joules per second, also called the watt (W).
1hp =746 W =0.746kW
1.5.3 Energy
All object possess energy. This can come from having work done on it at some point in time.
Generally, there are two kinds of energy in mechanical systems, potential and kinetic. Potential
energy is due to the position of the object and kinetic energy is due to its movement.
For example, an object set in motion can overcome a certain amount of resistance before being
brought to rest, and the energy which the object has on account of its motion is used up in
overcoming the resistance, bring the object to rest. Fly wheels on engines both receive and give
up energy and thus cause the energy to return more smoothly throughout the stroke.
Elevated weights have power to do work on account of their elevated position, as in various
types of hammers, etc.
Introduction to Mechanisms and Simple
Machines:
2 Mechanisms and Simple Machines
Mechanism: the fundamental physical or chemical processes involved in or responsible for an
action, reaction or other natural phenomenon.
Machine: an assemblage of parts that transmit forces, motion and energy in a predetermined
manner.
Simple Machine: any of various elementary mechanisms having the elements of which all
machines are composed. Included in this category are the lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined
plane, wedge and the screw.
The word mechanism has many meanings. In kinematics, a mechanism is a means of
transmitting, controlling, or constraining relativemovement (Hunt 78). Movements which are
electrically, magnetically, pneumatically operated are excluded from the concept of mechanism.
The central theme for mechanisms is rigid bodies connected together by joints.
A machine is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies, formed and connected do that they move
with definiterelative motions and transmit force from the source of power to the resistance to be
overcome. A machine has two functions: transmitting definite relative motion and transmitting
force. These functions require strength and rigidity to transmit the forces.
The term mechanism is applied to the combination of geometrical bodies which constitute a
machine or part of a machine. A mechanism may therefore be defined as a combination of rigid
or resistant bodies, formed and connected so that they move with definite relative motions with
respect to one another (Ham et al. 58).
Although a truly rigid body does not exist, many engineering components are rigid because their
deformations and distortions are negligible in comparison with their relative movements.
The similarity between machines andmechanisms is that
they are both combinations of rigid bodies
the relative motion among the rigid bodies are definite.
The difference between machine and mechanism is that machines transform energy to do work,
while mechanisms so not necessarily perform this function. The term machinery generally
means machines and mechanisms. Figure 2-1 shows a picture of the main part of a diesel engine.
The mechanism of its cylinder-link-crank parts is a slider-crank mechanism, as shown in Figure
2-2.
Figure 2-1 Cross section of a power cylinder in a diesel engine
Figure 2-2 Skeleton outline
2.1 The Inclined Plane
Figure 2-3a shows an inclined plane, AB is the base, BC is the height and AC the inclined plane.
With the use of the inclined plane a given resistance can be overcome with a smaller force than if
the plane is not used. For example, in Figure 2-3b, suppose we wish to raise a weight of 1000 lb.
through the vertical distance BC =2 ft. If this weight were raised vertically and without the use
of the inclined plane the force 1000 lb. would have to be exerted through the distance BC. If,
however, the inclined plane is used and the weight is moved over its inclined plane AC, a force
of only 2/3 of 1000 lb. or 667 lb. is necessary, although this force is exerted through a distance
AC which is greater than distance BC.
Figure 2-3 Inclined plane
Using an inclined plane requires a smaller force exerted through a greater distance to do a certain
amount of work.
Letting F represent the force required to raise a given weight on the inclined plane, and W the
weight to be raised, we have the proportion:
(2-1)
2.1.1 Screw Jack
One of the most common applicationof the principle of the inclined plane is in the screw jack
which is used to overcome a heavy pressure or raise a heavy weight of Wby a much smaller
force F applied at the handle. R represents the length of the handle and P the pitch of the screw,
or thedistance advances in one complete turn.
Figure 2-4 The screw jack
Neglecting the friction the following rule is used: The force F multiplied by the distance through
which it moves in one complete turn is equal to the weight lifted times the distance through
which it is lifted in the same time. In one complete turn the end of the handle describes a circle
of circumference 2 R. This is the distance through which the force F is exerted.
Therefore from the rule above
(2-2)
and
(2-3)
Suppose R equals 18 in., P equals 1/8 in. and the weight to be lifted equals 100,000 lb., then the
force required at F is then 110 lb. This means that, neglecting friction, 110 lb. at F will raise
100,000 lb. at W, but the weight lifted moves much slower than the force applied at F.
2.2 Gears
A gear, or toothed wheel, when in operation, may actually be considered as a lever with the
additional feature that it can be rotated continuously, instead of rocking back and forth through a
short distance. One of the basic relationships for a gear is the number of teeth, the diameter, and
the rotary velocity of gears. Figure 2-5 shows the ends of two shafts A and B connected by 2
gears of 24 and 48 teeth respectively. Notice that the larger gear will make only one-half turn
while the smaller makes a complete turn. That is, the ratio of speeds (velocity ratio) of the large
to the smaller is as 1 to 2.
Figure 2-5 Gears
The gear that is closer to the source of power is called the driver, and the gear that receives
power from the driver is called the driven gear.
2.2.1 Gear Trains
A gear train may have several driversand several driven gears.
Figure 2-6 Gear train
When gear A turns once clockwise, gear B turns 4 times counter-clockwise and gear C turns
once clockwise. Hence gear B does not change the speed of C from what it would have been if
geared directly to gear A, but it changes its direction from counterclockwise to clockwise.
The velocity ratio of the first and last gears in a train of simple gears dose not changedby putting
any number of gears between them.
Figure 2-7 shows compound gears in which two gears are on the middle shaft. Gears B and D
rotate at the same speed since they are keyed (fixed) to the same shaft. The number of teeth on
each gear is given in the figure. Given these numbers, if gear A rotates at 100 r.p.m. clockwise,
gear B turns 400 r.p.m. (rotations per minute) counterclockwise and gear C turns 1200 r.p.m.
clockwise.
Figure 2-7 Compound gears
2.2.2 Gear Ratios
It is important when working with gears to know what number of teeth the gears should have so
that they can mesh properly in a gear train. The size of the teeth for connecting gears must be
match properly.
2.3 Belts and Pulleys
Belts and pulleys are an important part of most machines. Pulleys are nothing but gears without
teeth and instead of running together directly they are made to drive one another by cords, ropes,
cables, or belting of some kinds.
As with gears, the velocities of pulleys are inversely proportional to their diameters.
manner.
with definite relative motions and transmit force from the source of power to the resistance to be
2-2.
Figure 2-1 Cross section of a power cylinder ina diesel engine
however, the inclined plane is used and the weight is moved over its inclined plane AC, a force
amount of work.
(2-1)
2.1.1 Screw Jack
One of the most common application of the principle of the inclined plane is in the screw jack
or the distance advances in one complete turn.
2.2 Gears
Figure 2-5 Gears
2.2.1 Gear Trains
The velocity ratio of the first and last gears in a train of simple gears dose not changed by putting
rotate at the same speedsince they are keyed (fixed) to the same shaft. The number of teeth on
clockwise.
2.2.2 Gear Ratios
match properly.
manner.
with definite relative motions and transmit force from the source of power to the resistance to be
2-2.
Figure 2-1 Cross section of a power cylinder in a diesel engine
however, the inclined plane is used and the weight is moved over its inclined planeAC, a force
amount of work.
(2-1)
2.1.1 Screw Jack
One of the most common applicationof the principle of the inclined plane is in the screw jack
or thedistance advances in one complete turn.
2.2 Gears
Figure 2-5 Gears
2.2.1 Gear Trains
The velocity ratio of the first and last gears in a train of simple gears dose not changed by putting
rotate at the same speed since they are keyed (fixed) to the same shaft. The number of teeth on
clockwise.
2.2.2 Gear Ratios
match properly.
More on Machines:
3 More on Machines and Mechanisms
3.1 Planar and Spatial Mechanisms
Mechanisms can be divided into planar mechanisms and spatial mechanisms, according to the
relativemotion of the rigid bodies. Ina planar mechanisms, all of the relative motions of the
rigid bodies are in one plane or in parallel planes. If there is any relative motion that is not in the
same plane or in parallel planes, the mechanism is called the spatial mechanism. In other words,
planar mechanisms are essentially two dimensional while spatial mechanisms are three
dimensional. This tutorial only covers planar mechanisms.
3.2 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanisms
Kinematics of mechanisms is concernedwith the motion of the parts without considering how
the influencing factors (force and mass) affect the motion. Therefore, kinematicsdeals with the
fundamental conceptsof space and time and the quantities velocityand acceleration derived
there from.
Kinetics deals with action of forces on bodies. This is where the the effects of gravity come into
play.
Dynamics is the combination of kinematics and kinetics.
Dynamics of mechanisms concerns the forces that act on the parts -- both balanced and
unbalanced forces, taking into account the masses and accelerations of the parts as well as the
external forces.
3.3 Links, Frames and Kinematic Chains
A link is defined as a rigid body having two or morepairing elements which connect it to other
bodies for the purpose of transmitting force or motion (Ham et al. 58).
In every machine, at least one link either occupies a fixed position relative to the earth or carries
the machine as a whole along with it during motion. This link is the frame of the machine and is
called the fixed link.
The combination of links and pairs without a fixed link is not a mechanism but a kinematic
chain.
3.4 Skeleton Outline
For the purpose of kinematic analysis, a mechanism may be represented in an abbreviated, or
skeleton, form called the skeleton outline of the mechanism. The skeleton outline gives all the
geometrical information necessary for determining the relative motions of the links. In Figure 3-
1, the skeleton outline has been drawn for the engine shown in Figure 2-1. This skeleton contains
all necessary information to determine the relative motions of the main links, namely, the length
AB of the crank; the length BC of the connecting rod; A the location of the axis of the main
bearing; and the path AC of point C, which represents the wrist-pin axis.
3.5 Pairs, Higher Pairs, Lower Pairs and Linkages
A pair is a joint between the surfaces of two rigid bodies that keeps them in contact and
relatively movable. For example, in Figure 3-2, a door jointed to the frame with hinges makes
revolute joint (pin joint), allowing the door to be turned around its axis. Figure 3-2b and c show
skeletons of a revolute joint. Figure 3-2b is used when both links joined by the pair can turn.
Figure 3-2c is used when one of the link jointed by the pair is the frame.
Figure 3-2 Revolute pair
In Figure 3-3a a sash window can be translated relative to the sash. This kind of relative motion
is called a prismatic pair. Its skeleton outlines are shown in b, c and d. c and d are used when
one of the links is the frame.
Figure 3-3 Prismatic pair
Generally, there are two kinds of pairs in mechanisms, lower pairs and higher pairs. What
differentiates them is the type of contact between the two bodies of the pair. Surface-contact
pairs are called lower pairs. In planar (2D) mechanisms, there are two subcategories of lower
pairs -- revolute pairs and prismatic pairs, as shown in Figures 3-2 and 3-3, respectively. Point-,
line-, or curve-contact pairs are called higher pairs. Figure 3-4 shows some examples of higher
pairs Mechanisms composed of rigid bodies and lower pairs are called linkages.
Figure 3-4 Higher pairs
3.6 Kinematic Analysis and Synthesis
In kinematic analysis, a particular given mechanism is investigated based on the mechanism
geometry plus other known characteristics (such as input angular velocity, angular acceleration,
etc.). Kinematic synthesis, on the other hand, is the process of designing a mechanism to
accomplish a desired task. Here, both choosing the types as well as the dimensions of the new
mechanism can be part of kinematic synthesis. (Sandor & Erdman 84)
Basic Kinematics of Constrained Rigid
Bodies:
4 Basic Kinematics of Constrained Rigid Bodies
4.1 Degrees of Freedom of a Rigid Body
4.1.1 Degrees of Freedom of a Rigid Body in a Plane
The degrees of freedom (DOF) of a rigid body is defined as the number of independent
movements it has. Figure 4-1 shows a rigid body in a plane. To determine the DOF of this body
we must consider how many distinct ways the bar can be moved. In a two dimensional plane
such as this computer screen, there are 3 DOF. The bar can be translated along the x axis,
translated along the y axis, and rotated about its centroid.
Figure 4-1 Degrees of freedom of a rigid body in a plane
4.1.2 Degrees of Freedom of a Rigid Body in Space
An unrestrained rigid body in space has six degrees of freedom: three translating motions along
the x, y and z axes and three rotary motions around thex, y and z axes respectively.
Figure 4-2 Degrees of freedom of a rigid body in space
4.2 Kinematic Constraints
Two or morerigid bodies in space are collectively called a rigid body system. We can hinder the
motion of these independent rigid bodies with kinematic constraints. Kinematic constraints are
constraints between rigid bodies that result inthe decrease of the degrees of freedom of rigid
body system.
The term kinematic pairs actually refers to kinematic constraints between rigid bodies. The
kinematic pairs are divided into lower pairs and higher pairs, depending on how the two bodies
are in contact.
4.2.1 Lower Pairs in Planar Mechanisms
There are two kinds of lower pairs in planar mechanisms: revolute pairs and prismatic pairs.
A rigid body in a plane has only three independent motions -- two translational and one rotary --
so introducingeither a revolute pair or a prismatic pair between two rigid bodies removes two
degrees of freedom.
Figure 4-3 A planar revolute pair (R-pair)
Figure 4-4 A planar prismatic pair (P-pair)
4.2.2 Lower Pairs in Spatial Mechanisms
There are six kinds of lower pairs under the category of spatial mechanisms. The types are:
spherical pair, plane pair, cylindrical pair, revolutepair, prismatic pair, and screw pair.
Figure 4-5 A spherical pair (S-pair)
A spherical pair keeps two spherical centerstogether. Two rigid bodies connected by this
constraint will be able to rotate relatively around x, y and z axes, but there will be no relative
translation along any of these axes. Therefore, a spherical pair removes three degrees of freedom
in spatial mechanism. DOF = 3.
Figure 4-6 A planar pair (E-pair)
A plane pair keeps the surfaces of two rigid bodies together. To visualize this, imagine a book
lying on a table where is can move in any direction except off the table. Two rigid bodies
connected by this kind of pair will have two independent translational motions in the plane, and a
rotary motion around the axis that is perpendicular to the plane. Therefore, a plane pair removes
three degrees of freedom in spatial mechanism. In our example, the book would not be able to
raise off the table or to rotate into the table. DOF = 3.
Figure 4-7 A cylindrical pair (C-pair)
A cylindrical pair keeps two axes of two rigid bodies aligned. Two rigid bodies that are part of
this kind of system will have an independent translational motion along the axis and a relative
rotary motion around the axis. Therefore, a cylindrical pair removes four degrees of freedom
from spatial mechanism. DOF = 2.
Figure 4-8 A revolute pair (R-pair)
A revolute pair keeps the axes of two rigid bodies together. Two rigid bodies constrained by a
revolute pair have an independent rotary motion around their common axis. Therefore, a revolute
pair removes five degrees of freedom in spatial mechanism. DOF = 1.
Figure 4-9 A prismatic pair (P-pair)
A prismatic pair keeps two axes of two rigid bodies align and allow no relative rotation. Two
rigid bodies constrained by this kind of constraint will be able to have an independent
translational motion along the axis. Therefore, a prismatic pair removes five degrees of freedom
Figure 4-10 A screw pair (H-pair)
The screw pair keeps two axes of two rigid bodies aligned and allows a relative screw motion.
Two rigid bodies constrained by a screw pair a motion which is a composition of a translational
motion along the axis and a corresponding rotary motion around the axis. Therefore, a screw pair
removes five degrees of freedom in spatial mechanism.
4.3 Constrained Rigid Bodies
Rigid bodies and kinematic constraints are the basic components of mechanisms. A constrained
rigid body system can be a kinematic chain, a mechanism, a structure, or none of these. The
influence of kinematic constraints in the motion of rigid bodies has two intrinsic aspects, which
are the geometrical and physical aspects. In other words, we can analyze the motion of the
constrained rigid bodies from their geometrical relationships or using Newton's Second Law.
A mechanism is a constrained rigid body system in which one of the bodies is the frame. The
degrees of freedom are important when considering a constrained rigid body system that is a
mechanism. It is less crucial when the system is a structure or when it does not have definite
motion.
Calculating the degrees of freedom of a rigid body system is straight forward. Any unconstrained
rigid body has six degrees of freedom in space and three degrees of freedom in a plane. Adding
kinematic constraints between rigid bodies will correspondingly decrease the degrees of freedom
of the rigid body system. We will discuss more on this topic for planar mechanisms in the next
section.
4.4 Degrees of Freedom of Planar Mechanisms
4.4.1 Gruebler's Equation
The definition of the degrees of freedom of a mechanism is the number of independent relative
motions among the rigid bodies. For example, Figure 4-11 shows several cases of a rigid body
constrained by different kinds of pairs.
Figure 4-11 Rigid bodies constrained by different kinds of planar pairs
In Figure 4-11a, a rigid body is constrained by a revolute pair which allows only rotational
movement around an axis. It has one degree of freedom, turning around point A. The two lost
degrees of freedom are translational movements along the x and y axes. The only way the rigid
body can move is to rotate about the fixed point A.
In Figure 4-11b, a rigid body is constrained by a prismatic pair which allows only translational
motion. In two dimensions, it has one degree of freedom, translating along the x axis. In this
example, the body has lost the ability to rotate about any axis, and it cannot move along the y
axis.
In Figure 4-11c, a rigid body is constrained by a higher pair. It has two degrees of freedom:
translating along the curved surface and turning about the instantaneous contact point.
In general, a rigid body in a plane has three degrees of freedom. Kinematic pairs are constraints
on rigid bodies that reduce the degrees of freedom of a mechanism. Figure 4-11 shows the three
kinds of pairs in planar mechanisms. These pairs reduce the number of the degrees of freedom. If
we create a lower pair (Figure 4-11a,b), the degrees of freedom are reduced to 2. Similarly, if we
create a higher pair (Figure 4-11c), the degrees of freedom are reduced to 1.
Figure 4-12 Kinematic Pairs in Planar Mechanisms
Therefore, we can write the following equation:
(4-1)
Where
F =total degrees of freedom in the mechanism
n =number of links (including the frame)
l =number of lower pairs (one degree of freedom)
h =number of higher pairs (two degrees of freedom)
This equation is also known as Gruebler's equation.
Example 1
Look at the transom above the door in Figure 4-13a. The opening and closing mechanism is
shown in Figure 4-13b. Let's calculateits degree of freedom.
Figure 4-13 Transom mechanism
n =4 (link 1,3,3 and frame 4), l =4 (at A, B, C, D), h =0
(4-2)
Note: D and E function as a same prismatic pair, so they only count as one lower pair.
Example 2
Calculate the degrees of freedom of the mechanisms shown in Figure 4-14b. Figure 4-14a is an
application of the mechanism.
Figure 4-14 Dump truck
n =4, l =4 (at A, B, C, D), h =0
(4-3)
Example 3
Calculate the degrees of freedom of the mechanisms shown in Figure 4-15.
Figure 4-15 Degrees of freedom calculation
For the mechanism in Figure 4-15a
n =6, l =7, h =0
(4-4)
For the mechanism in Figure 4-15b
n =4, l =3, h =2
(4-5)
Note: The rotation of the roller does not influence the relationship of the input and output motion
of the mechanism. Hence, the freedom of the roller will not be considered; It is called a passive
or redundant degree of freedom. Imagine that the roller is welded to link 2 when counting the
degrees of freedom for the mechanism.
4.4.2 Kutzbach Criterion
The number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is also called the mobility of the device. The
mobility is the number of input parameters (usually pair variables) that must be independently
controlled to bring the device into a particular position. The Kutzbach criterion, which is similar
to Gruebler's equation, calculates the mobility.
In order to control a mechanism, the number of independent input motions must equal the
number of degrees of freedom of the mechanism. For example, the transom in Figure 4-13a has a
single degree of freedom, so it needs one independent input motion to open or close the window.
That is, you just push or pull rod 3 to operate the window.
To see another example, the mechanism in Figure 4-15a also has 1 degree of freedom. If an
independent input is applied to link 1 (e.g., a motor is mounted on joint A to drive link 1), the
mechanism will have the a prescribed motion.
4.5 Finite Transformation
Finite transformation is used to describe the motion of a point on rigid body and themotion of
the rigid body itself.
4.5.1 Finite Planar Rotational Transformation
Figure 4-16 Point on a planar rigid body rotated through an angle
Suppose that a point P on a rigid body goes through a rotation describing a circular path from P
1
to P
2
around the origin of a coordinate system. We can describe this motion with a rotation
operator R
12
:
(4-6)
where
(4-7)
4.5.2 Finite Planar Translational Transformation
Figure 4-17 Point on a planar rigid body translated through a distance
Supposethat a point P on a rigid body goes through a translation describing a straight path from
P
1
to P
2
with a change of coordinates of ( x, y). We can describe this motion with a
translation operator T
12
:
where
4.5.3 Concatenation of Finite Planar Displacements
Figure 4-18 Concatenation of finite planar displacements in space
1
to P
2
' around the origin of a coordinate system, then a translation describing a straight path from
P
2
' to P
2
. We can represent these two steps by
(4-10)
and
(4-11)
We can concatenate these motions to get
(4-12)
where D
12
is the planar general displacement operator :
(4-13)
4.5.4 Planar Rigid-Body Transformation
We have discussed various transformations to describe the displacements of a point on rigid
body. Can these operators be applied to the displacements of a system of points such as a rigid
body?
We used a 3 x 1 homogeneous column matrix to describe a vector representing a single point. A
beneficial feature of the planar 3 x 3 translational, rotational, and general displacement matrix
operators is that they can easily be programmed on a computer to manipulate a 3 x n matrix of n
column vectors representing npoints of a rigid body. Since the distance of each particle of a rigid
body from every other point of the rigid body is constant, the vectors locating each point of a
rigid body must undergo the same transformation when the rigid body moves and the proper
axis, angle, and/or translation is specified to represent its motion. (Sandor & Erdman 84). For
example, the general planar transformation for the three points A, B, C on a rigid body can be
represented by
(4-14)
4.5.5 Spatial Rotational Transformation
We can describe a spatial rotation operator for the rotational transformation of a point about an
unit axis u passing through the origin of the coordinate system. Suppose the rotational angle of
the point about u is , the rotation operator will be expressed by
(4-15)
where
u
x
, u
y
, u
z
are the othographical projection of the unit axis uon x, y, and zaxes, respectively.
s =sin
c =cos
v =1 - cos
4.5.6 Spatial Translational Transformation
Suppose that a point P on a rigid body goes through a translation describing a straight path from
P
1
to P
2
with a change of coordinates of ( x, y, z), we can describe this motion with a
translation operator T:
(4-16)
4.5.7 Spatial Translation and Rotation Matrix for Axis Through the Origin
Suppose a point P on a rigid body rotates with an angular displacement about an unit axis u
passing through the origin of the coordinate system at first, and then followed by a translation
Du along u. This composition of this rotational transformation and this translational
transformation is a screw motion. Its corresponding matrix operator, the screw operator, is a
concatenation of the translation operator in Equation 4-7 and the rotation operator in Equation 4-
9.
(4-17)
4.6 Transformation Matrix Between Rigid Bodies
4.6.1 Transformation Matrix Between two Arbitray Rigid Bodies
For a system of rigid bodies, we can establish a local Cartesian coordinate system for each rigid
body. Transformation matrices are used to describe the relative motion between rigid bodies.
For example, two rigid bodies in a space each have local coordinate systems x
1
y
1
z
1
and x
2
y
2
z
2
.
Let point P be attached to body 2 at location (x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) in body 2's local coordinate system. To
find the location of P with respect to body 1's local coordinate system, we know that that the
point x
2
y
2
z
2
can be obtained from x
1
y
1
z
1
by combining translation L
x1
along the x axis and
rotation z about z axis. We can derive the transformation matrix as follows:
(4-18)
If rigid body 1 is fixed as a frame, a global coordinate system can be created on this body.
Therefore, the above transformation can be used to map the local coordinates of a point into the
global coordinates.
4.6.2 Kinematic Constraints Between Two RigidBodies
The transformation matrix above is a specific example for two unconstrained rigid bodies. The
transformation matrix depends on the relative position of the two rigid bodies. If we connect two
rigid bodies with a kinematic constraint, their degreesof freedom will be decreased. In other
words, their relative motion will be specified in some extent.
Suppose we constrain the two rigid bodies above with a revolute pair as shown in Figure 4-19.
We can still write the transformation matrix in the same form as Equation 4-18.
Figure 4-19 Relative position of points on constrained bodies
The difference is that the L
x1
is a constant now, because the revolute pair fixes the origin of
coordinate system x
2
y
2
z
2
with respect to coordinate system x
1
y
1
z
1
. However, the rotation z is
still a variable. Therefore, kinematic constraints specify the transformation matrix to some
extent.
4.6.3 Denavit-Hartenberg Notation
Denavit-Hartenberg notation (Denavit & Hartenberg 55) is widely used in the transformation of
coordinate systems of linkages and robot mechanisms. It can be used to represent the
transformation matrix between links as shown in the Figure 4-20.
Figure 4-20 Denavit-Hartenberg Notation
In this figure,
z
i-1
and z
i
are the axes of two revolute pairs;
i
is the included angle of axes x
i-1
and x
i
;
d
i
is the distance between the origin of the coordinate system x
i-1
y
i-1
z
i-1
and the foot of the
common perpendicular;
a
i
is the distance between two feet of the common perpendicular;
i
is the included angle of axes z
i-1
and z
i
;
The transformation matrix will be T
(i-1)i
(4-19)
The above transformation matrix can be denoted as T(a
i
,
i
,
i
, d
i
) for convenience.
4.6.4 Application of Transformation Matrices to Linkages
A linkage is composed of several constrained rigid bodies. Like a mechanism, a linkage should
have a frame. The matrix method can be used to derive the kinematic equations of the linkage. If
all the links form a closed loop, the concatenation of all of the transformation matrices will be an
identity matrix. If the mechanism has n links, we will have:
T
12
T
23
...T
(n-1)n
=I
4 Basic Kinematics of Constrained Rigid Bodies
4.1 Degrees of Freedom of a Rigid Body
4.1.1 Degrees of Freedom of a Rigid Body in a Plane
The degrees of freedom (DOF) of a rigid body is defined as the number of independent
movements it has. Figure 4-1 shows a rigid body in a plane. To determine the DOF of this body
we must consider how many distinct ways the bar can be moved. In a two dimensional plane
such as this computer screen, there are 3 DOF. The bar can be translated along the x axis,
translated along the y axis, and rotated about its centroid.
Figure 4-1 Degrees of freedom of a rigid body in a plane
4.1.2 Degrees of Freedom of a Rigid Body in Space
An unrestrained rigid body in space has six degrees of freedom: three translating motions along
the x, y and z axes and three rotary motions around thex, y and z axes respectively.
Figure 4-2 Degrees of freedom of a rigid body in space
4.2 Kinematic Constraints
Two or morerigid bodies in space are collectively called a rigid body system. We can hinder the
motion of these independent rigid bodies with kinematic constraints. Kinematic constraints are
constraints between rigid bodies that result inthe decrease of the degrees of freedom of rigid
body system.
The term kinematic pairs actually refers to kinematic constraints between rigid bodies. The
kinematic pairs are divided into lower pairs and higher pairs, depending on how the two bodies
are in contact.
4.2.1 Lower Pairs in Planar Mechanisms
There are two kinds of lower pairs in planar mechanisms: revolute pairs and prismatic pairs.
A rigid body in a plane has only three independent motions -- two translational and one rotary --
so introducingeither a revolute pair or a prismatic pair between two rigid bodies removes two
degrees of freedom.
Figure 4-3 A planar revolute pair (R-pair)
Figure 4-4 A planar prismatic pair (P-pair)
4.2.2 Lower Pairs in Spatial Mechanisms
There are six kinds of lower pairs under the category of spatial mechanisms. The types are:
spherical pair, plane pair, cylindrical pair, revolute pair, prismatic pair, and screw pair.
Figure 4-5 A spherical pair (S-pair)
A spherical pair keeps two spherical centerstogether. Two rigid bodies connected by this
constraint will be able to rotate relatively around x, y and z axes, but there will be no relative
translation along any of these axes. Therefore, a spherical pair removes three degrees of freedom
Figure 4-6 A planar pair (E-pair)
A plane pair keeps the surfaces of two rigid bodies together. To visualize this, imagine a book
lying on a table where is can move in any direction except off the table. Two rigid bodies
connected bythis kind of pair will have two independent translational motions in the plane, and a
rotary motion around the axis that is perpendicular to the plane. Therefore, a plane pair removes
three degrees of freedom in spatial mechanism. In our example, the bookwould not be able to
raise off the table or to rotate into the table. DOF = 3.
Figure 4-7 A cylindrical pair (C-pair)
A cylindrical pair keeps two axes of two rigid bodies aligned. Two rigid bodies that are part of
this kind of system will have an independent translational motion along the axis and a relative
rotary motion around the axis. Therefore, a cylindrical pair removes four degreesof freedom
from spatial mechanism. DOF = 2.
Figure 4-8 A revolute pair (R-pair)
A revolute pair keeps the axes of two rigid bodies together. Two rigid bodies constrained by a
revolute pair have an independent rotary motion around their common axis. Therefore, a revolute
pair removes five degrees of freedom in spatial mechanism. DOF = 1.
Figure 4-9 A prismatic pair (P-pair)
A prismatic pair keeps two axes of two rigid bodies align and allow no relative rotation. Two
rigid bodies constrained by this kind of constraint will be able to have an independent
translational motion along the axis. Therefore, a prismatic pair removes five degrees of freedom
Figure 4-10 A screw pair (H-pair)
The screw pair keeps two axes of two rigid bodies aligned and allows a relative screw motion.
Two rigid bodies constrained by a screw pair a motion which is a composition of a translational
motion along the axis and a corresponding rotary motion around the axis. Therefore, a screw pair
removes five degrees of freedom in spatial mechanism.
4.3 Constrained Rigid Bodies
Rigid bodies and kinematic constraints are the basic components of mechanisms. A constrained
rigid body system can be a kinematic chain, a mechanism, a structure, or none of these. The
influence of kinematic constraints in the motion of rigid bodies has two intrinsic aspects, which
are the geometrical and physical aspects. In other words, we can analyze the motion of the
constrained rigid bodies from their geometrical relationships or using Newton's Second Law.
A mechanism is a constrained rigid body system in which one of the bodies is the frame. The
degrees of freedomare important when considering a constrained rigid body system that is a
mechanism. It is less crucial when the system is a structure or when it does not have definite
motion.
Calculating the degrees of freedom of a rigid body system is straight forward. Any unconstrained
rigid body has six degrees of freedom in space and three degrees of freedom in a plane. Adding
kinematic constraints between rigid bodies will correspondingly decrease the degrees of freedom
of the rigid body system. We will discuss moreon this topic for planar mechanisms in the next
section.
4.4 Degrees of Freedom of Planar Mechanisms
4.4.1 Gruebler's Equation
The definition of the degrees of freedom of a mechanism is the number of independent relative
motions among the rigid bodies. For example, Figure 4-11 shows several cases of a rigid body
constrained by different kinds of pairs.
Figure 4-11 Rigid bodies constrained by different kinds of planar pairs
In Figure 4-11a, a rigid body is constrained by a revolute pair which allows only rotational
movement around an axis. It has one degree of freedom, turning around point A. The two lost
degrees of freedom are translational movements along the x and y axes. The only way the rigid
body can move is to rotate about the fixed point A.
InFigure 4-11b, a rigid body is constrained by a prismatic pair which allows only translational
motion. In two dimensions, it has one degree of freedom, translating along the x axis. In this
example, the body has lost the ability to rotate about any axis, and it cannot move along the y
axis.
In Figure 4-11c, a rigid body is constrained by a higher pair. It has two degrees of freedom:
translating along the curved surface and turning about the instantaneous contact point.
In general, a rigid body in a plane has three degrees of freedom. Kinematic pairs are constraints
on rigid bodies that reduce the degrees of freedom of a mechanism. Figure 4-11 shows the three
kinds of pairs in planar mechanisms. These pairs reduce the number of the degrees of freedom. If
wecreate a lower pair (Figure 4-11a,b), the degrees of freedom are reduced to 2. Similarly, if we
create a higher pair (Figure 4-11c), the degrees of freedom are reduced to 1.
Figure 4-12 Kinematic Pairs in Planar Mechanisms
Therefore, we can write the following equation:
(4-1)
Where
F =total degrees of freedom in the mechanism
n =number of links (including the frame)
l =number of lower pairs (one degree of freedom)
h =number of higher pairs (two degrees of freedom)
This equation is also known as Gruebler's equation.
Example 1
Look at the transom above the door in Figure 4-13a. The opening and closing mechanism is
shown in Figure 4-13b. Let's calculateits degree of freedom.
Figure 4-13 Transom mechanism
n =4 (link 1,3,3 and frame 4), l =4 (at A, B, C, D), h =0
(4-2)
Note: D and E function as a same prismatic pair, so they only count as one lower pair.
Example 2
Calculate the degrees of freedom of the mechanisms shown in Figure 4-14b. Figure 4-14a is an
application of the mechanism.
Figure 4-14 Dump truck
n =4, l =4 (at A, B, C, D), h =0
(4-3)
Example 3
Calculate the degrees of freedom of the mechanisms shown in Figure 4-15.
Figure 4-15 Degrees of freedom calculation
For the mechanism in Figure4-15a
n =6, l =7, h =0
(4-4)
For the mechanism in Figure 4-15b
n =4, l =3, h =2
(4-5)
Note: The rotation of the roller does not influence the relationship of the input and output motion
of the mechanism. Hence, the freedom of the roller will not be considered; It is called a passive
or redundant degree of freedom. Imagine that the roller is welded to link 2 when counting the
degrees of freedom for the mechanism.
4.4.2 Kutzbach Criterion
The number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is also called the mobility of the device. The
mobility is the number of input parameters (usually pair variables) that must be independently
controlled to bring the device into a particular position. The Kutzbach criterion, which is similar
to Gruebler's equation, calculates the mobility.
In order to control a mechanism, the number of independent input motions must equal the
number of degrees of freedom of the mechanism. For example, the transom in Figure 4-13a has a
single degree of freedom, so it needs one independent input motion to open or close the window.
That is, you just push or pull rod 3 to operate the window.
To see another example, the mechanism in Figure 4-15a also has 1 degree of freedom. If an
independent input is applied to link 1 (e.g., a motor is mounted on joint A to drive link 1), the
mechanism will have the a prescribed motion.
4.5 Finite Transformation
Finite transformation is used to describe the motion of a point on rigid body and the motion of
the rigid body itself.
4.5.1 Finite Planar Rotational Transformation
Figure 4-16 Point on a planar rigid body rotated through an angle
1
to P
2
around the origin of a coordinate system. We can describe this motion with a rotation
operator R
12
:
(4-6)
where
(4-7)
4.5.2 Finite Planar Translational Transformation
Figure 4-17 Point on a planar rigid body translated through a distance
P
1
to P
2
with a change of coordinates of ( x, y). We can describe this motion with a
translation operator T
12
:
(4-8)
where
(4-9)
4.5.3 Concatenation of Finite Planar Displacements
Figure 4-18 Concatenation of finite planar displacements in space
1
to P
2
' around the origin of a coordinate system, then a translation describing a straight path from
P
2
' to P
2
. We can represent these two steps by
(4-10)
and
(4-11)
We can concatenate these motions to get
(4-12)
where D
12
is the planar general displacement operator :
(4-13)
4.5.4 Planar Rigid-Body Transformation
We have discussed various transformations to describe the displacements of a point on rigid
body. Can these operators be applied to the displacements of a system of points such as a rigid
body?
We used a 3 x 1 homogeneous column matrix to describe a vector representing a single point. A
beneficial feature of the planar 3 x 3 translational, rotational, and general displacement matrix
operators is that they can easily be programmed on a computer to manipulate a 3 x n matrix of n
column vectors representing n points of a rigid body. Since the distance of each particle of a rigid
body from every other point of the rigid body is constant, the vectors locating each point of a
rigid body must undergo the same transformation when the rigid body moves and the proper
axis, angle, and/or translation is specified to represent its motion. (Sandor & Erdman 84). For
example, the general planar transformation for the three points A, B, C on a rigid body can be
represented by
(4-14)
4.5.5 Spatial Rotational Transformation
We can describe a spatial rotation operator for the rotational transformation of a point about an
unit axis u passing through the origin of the coordinate system. Suppose the rotational angle of
the point about u is , the rotation operator will be expressed by
(4-15)
where
u
x
, u
y
, u
z
are the othographical projection of the unit axis uon x, y, and zaxes, respectively.
s =sin
c =cos
v =1 - cos
4.5.6 Spatial Translational Transformation
P
1
to P
2
with a change of coordinates of ( x, y, z), wecan describe this motion with a
translation operator T:
(4-16)
4.5.7 Spatial Translation and Rotation Matrix for Axis Through the Origin
Suppose a point P on a rigid body rotates with an angular displacement about an unit axis u
passing through the origin of the coordinate system at first, and then followed by a translation
Du along u. This composition of this rotational transformation and this translational
transformation is a screw motion. Its corresponding matrix operator, the screw operator, is a
concatenation of the translation operator in Equation 4-7 and the rotation operator in Equation 4-
9.
(4-17)
4.6 Transformation Matrix Between Rigid Bodies
4.6.1 Transformation Matrix Between two Arbitray Rigid Bodies
For a system of rigid bodies, we can establish a local Cartesian coordinate system for each rigid
body. Transformation matrices are used to describe the relative motion between rigid bodies.
For example, two rigid bodies in a space each have local coordinate systems x
1
y
1
z
1
and x
2
y
2
z
2
.
Let point P be attached to body 2 at location (x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) in body 2's local coordinate system. To
find the location of P with respect to body 1's local coordinate system, we know that that the
point x
2
y
2
z
2
can be obtained from x
1
y
1
z
1
by combining translation L
x1
along the x axis and
rotation z about z axis. We can derive the transformation matrix as follows:
(4-18)
If rigid body 1 is fixed as a frame, a global coordinate system can be created on this body.
Therefore, the above transformation can be used to map the local coordinates of a point into the
global coordinates.
4.6.2 Kinematic Constraints Between Two Rigid Bodies
The transformation matrix above is a specific example for two unconstrained rigid bodies. The
transformation matrix depends on the relative position of the two rigid bodies. If we connect two
rigid bodies with a kinematic constraint, their degrees of freedom will be decreased. In other
words, their relative motion will be specified in some extent.
Suppose we constrain the two rigid bodies above with a revolute pair as shown in Figure 4-19.
We can still write the transformation matrix in the same form as Equation 4-18.
Figure 4-19 Relative position of points on constrained bodies
The difference is that the L
x1
is a constant now, because the revolute pair fixes the origin of
coordinate system x
2
y
2
z
2
with respect to coordinate system x
1
y
1
z
1
. However, the rotation z is
still a variable. Therefore, kinematic constraints specify the transformation matrix to some
extent.
4.6.3 Denavit-Hartenberg Notation
Denavit-Hartenberg notation (Denavit & Hartenberg 55) is widely used in the transformation of
coordinate systems of linkages and robot mechanisms. It can be used to represent the
transformation matrix between linksas shown in the Figure 4-20.
Figure 4-20 Denavit-Hartenberg Notation
In this figure,
z
i-1
and z
i
are the axes of two revolute pairs;
i
is the included angle of axes x
i-1
and x
i
;
d
i
is the distance between the origin of the coordinate system x
i-1
y
i-1
z
i-1
and the foot of the
common perpendicular;
a
i
is the distance between two feet of the common perpendicular;
i
is the included angle of axes z
i-1
and z
i
;
The transformation matrix will be T
(i-1)i
(4-19)
The above transformation matrix can be denoted as T(a
i
,
i
,
i
, d
i
) for convenience.
4.6.4 Application of Transformation Matrices to Linkages
A linkage is composed of several constrained rigid bodies. Like a mechanism, a linkage should
have a frame. The matrix method can be used to derive the kinematic equations of the linkage. If
all the links form a closed loop, the concatenation of all of thetransformation matrices will be an
identity matrix. If the mechanism has n links, we will have:
T
12
T
23
...T
(n-1)n
=I
Planar Linkages:
5 Planar Linkages
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 What are Linkage Mechanisms?
Have you ever wondered what kind of mechanism causes the wind shield wiper on the front
widow of car to oscillate ( Figure 5-1a)? The mechanism, shown in Figure 5-1b, transformsthe
rotary motion of the motor into an oscillating motion of the windshieldwiper.
Figure 5-1 Windshield wiper
Let's make a simple mechanism with similar behavior. Take some cardboard and make four
strips as shown in Figure 5-2a.
Take 4 pins and assemble them as shown in Figure 5-2b.
Now, hold the 6in. strip so it can't move and turn the3in. strip. You will seethat the 4in. strip
oscillates.
Figure 5-2 Do-it-yourself four bar linkage mechanism
The four bar linkage is the simplest and often times, the most useful mechanism. As we
mentioned before, a mechanism composedof rigid bodies and lower pairs is called a linkage
(Hunt 78). In planar mechanisms, there are only two kinds of lower pairs --- revolute pairs and
prismatic pairs.
The simplest closed-loop linkage is the four bar linkage which has four members, three moving
links, one fixed link and four pin joints. A linkage that has at least one fixed link is a mechanism.
The following example of a four bar linkage was created in SimDesign in
si mdesi gn/ f our bar . si m
Figure 5-3 Four bar linkage in SimDesign
This mechanism hasthree moving links. Two of the links are pinned to the frame which is not
shown in this picture. In SimDesign, links can be nailed to the background thereby making them
into the frame.
How many DOF does this mechanism have? If we want it to have just one, we can impose one
constraint on the linkage and it will have a definite motion. The four bar linkage is the simplest
and the most useful mechanism.
Reminder: A mechanism is composed of rigid bodies and lower pairs called linkages (Hunt 78).
In planar mechanisms there are only two kinds of lower pairs: turning pairs and prismatic pairs.
5.1.2 Functions of Linkages
The function of a link mechanism is to produce rotating, oscillating, or reciprocating motion
from the rotation of a crank or vice versa (Hamet al. 58). Stated more specifically linkages may
be used to convert:
1. Continuous rotation into continuous rotation, with a constant or variable angular velocity ratio.
2. Continuous rotation into oscillation or reciprocation (or the reverse), with a constant or variable
velocity ratio.
3. Oscillation into oscillation, or reciprocation into reciprocation, with a constant or variable
velocity ratio.
Linkages have many different functions, which can be classified according on the primary goal
of the mechanism:
Function generation: the relative motion between the links connected to the frame,
Path generation: the path of a tracer point, or
Motion generation: the motion of the coupler link.
5.2 Four Link Mechanisms
One of the simplest examples of a constrainedlinkage is the four-link mechanism. A variety of
useful mechanisms can be formed from a four-link mechanism through slight variations, such as
changing the character of the pairs, proportions of links, etc. Furthermore, many complex link
mechanisms are combinations of two or more such mechanisms. The majority of four-link
mechanisms fall into one of the following two classes:
1. the four-bar linkage mechanism, and
2. the slider-crank mechanism.
5.2.1 Examples
Parallelogram Mechanism
In a parallelogram four-bar linkage, the orientation of the coupler does not change during the
motion. The figure illustrates a loader. Obvioulsy the behavior of maintaining parallelism is
important in a loader. The bucket should not rotate as it is raised and lowered. The corresponding
SimDesign file is si mdesi gn/ l oader . si m.
Figure 5-4 Front loader mechanism
Slider-Crank Mechanism
The four-bar mechanism has some special configurations created by making one or more links
infinite in length. The slider-crank (or crank and slider) mechanism shown below is a four-bar
linkage with the slider replacing an infinitely long output link. The corresponding SimDesign file
is si mdesi gn/ sl i der . cr ank. si m.
Figure 5-5 Crank and Slider Mechanism
This configuration translates a rotational motion into a translational one. Most mechanisms are
driven by motors, and slider-cranks are often used to transform rotary motion into linear motion.
Crank and Piston
You can also use the slider as the input link and the crank as the output link. In this case, the
mechanism transfers translational motion into rotary motion. The pistons and crank in an internal
combustion engine are an example of this type of mechanism. The corresponding SimDesign file
is si mdesi gn/ combust i on. si m.
Figure 5-6 Crank and Piston
You might wonder why there is another slider and a link on the left. This mechanism has two
dead points. The slider and link on the left help the mechanism to overcome these dead points.
Block Feeder
One interesting application of slider-crank is the block feeder. The SimDesign file can be found
in si mdesi gn/ bl ock- f eeder . si m
Figure 5-7 Block Feeder
5.2.2 Definitions
In the range of planar mechanisms, the simplest group of lower pair mechanisms are four bar
linkages. A four bar linkage comprises four bar-shaped links and four turning pairs as shown in
Figure 5-8.
Figure 5-8 Four bar linkage
The link opposite the frame is called the coupler link, and the links whick are hinged to the
frame are called side links. A link which is free to rotate through 360 degree with respect to a
second link will be said to revolve relative to the second link (not necessarily a frame). If it is
possible for all four bars to become simultaneously aligned, such a state is called a change point.
Some important concepts in link mechanisms are:
1. Crank: A side link which revolves relative to the frame is called a crank.
2. Rocker: Any link which does not revolve is called a rocker.
3. Crank-rocker mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if the shorter side link revolves and the other
one rocks (i.e., oscillates), it is called a crank-rocker mechanism.
4. Double-crank mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if both of the side links revolve, it is called a
double-crank mechanism.
5. Double-rocker mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if both of the side links rock, it is called a
double-rocker mechanism.
5.2.3 Classification
Before classifying four-bar linkages, we need to introduce some basic nomenclature.
In a four-bar linkage, we refer to the line segment between hinges on a given link as a bar where:
s=length of shortest bar
l =length of longest bar
p, q=lengths of intermediate bar
Grashof's theoremstates that a four-bar mechanism has at least one revolving link if
s +l <=p +q
(5-1)
and all three mobile links will rock if
s +l >p +q
(5-2)
The inequality 5-1 is Grashof's criterion.
All four-bar mechanisms fall into one of the four categories listed in Table 5-1:
Case l +s vers. p +q Shortest Bar Type
1 < Frame Double-crank
2 < Side Rocker-crank
3 < Coupler Doubl rocker
4 = Any Change point
5 > Any Double-rocker
Table 5-1 Classification of Four-Bar Mechanisms
From Table 5-1 we can see that for a mechanism to have a crank, the sum of the length of its
shortest and longest links must be less than or equal to the sum of the length of the other two
links. However, this condition is necessary but not sufficient. Mechanisms satisfying this
condition fall into the following three categories:
1. When the shortest link is a side link, the mechanism is a crank-rocker mechanism. The shortest
link is the crank in the mechanism.
2. When the shortest link is the frame of the mechanism, the mechanism is a double-crank
mechanism.
3. When the shortest link is the coupler link, the mechanism is a double-rocker mechanism.
5.2.4 Transmission Angle
In Figure 5-11, if AB is the input link, the force applied to the output link, CD, is transmitted
through the coupler link BC. (That is, pushing on the link CD imposes a force on the link AB,
which is transmitted through the link BC.) For sufficiently slow motions (negligible inertia
forces), the force in the coupler link is pure tension or compression (negligible bending action)
and is directed along BC. For a given force in the coupler link, the torque transmitted to the
output bar (about point D) is maximum when the angle between coupler bar BC and output bar
CD is /2. Therefore, angle BCD is called transmission angle.
(5-3)
Figure 5-11 Transmission angle
When the transmission angledeviates significantly from /2, the torque on the output bar decreases
and may not besufficient to overcome the friction in the system. For this reason, the deviation angle
=| /2- | should not be too great. In practice, there is no definite upper limit for , because the
existence of the inertia forces may eliminate the undesirable force relationships that is present under
static conditions. Nevertheless, the following criterion can be followed.
5.2.5 Dead Point
When a side link such as AB in Figure 5-10, becomes aligned with the coupler link BC, it can
only be compressed or extended by the coupler. In this configuration, a torque applied to the link
on the other side, CD, cannot induce rotation in link AB. This link is therefore said to be at a
dead point (sometimes called a toggle point).
Figure 5-10 Dead point
In Figure 5-11, if AB is a crank, it can become aligned with BC in full extension along the line
AB
1
C
1
or in flexion with AB
2
folded over B
2
C
2
. We denote the angle ADC by and the angle
DAB by . We use the subscript 1 to denote the extended state and 2 to denote the flexed state
of links AB and BC. In the extended state, link CD cannot rotate clockwise without stretching or
compressing the theoretically rigid line AC
1
. Therefore, link CD cannot move into the forbidden
zone below C
1
D, and must be at one of its two extreme positions; in other words, link CD is at
an extremum. A second extremum of link CD occurs with =
1
.
Note that the extreme positions of a side link occur simultaneously with thedead points of the
opposite link.
In some cases, the dead point can be useful for tasks such as work fixturing (Figure 5-11).
Figure 5-11 Work fixturing
In other cases, dead point should be and can be overcome with the moment of inertia of links or
with the asymmetrical deployment of the mechanism (Figure 5-12).
Figure 5-12 Overcoming the dead point by asymmetrical deployment (V engine)
5.2.6 Slider-Crank Mechanism
The slider-crank mechanism, which has a well-known application in engines, is a special case of
the crank-rocker mechanism. Notice that if rocker 3 in Figure 5-13a is very long, it can be
replaced by a block sliding in a curved slot or guide as shown. If the length of the rocker is
infinite, the guide and block are no longer curved. Rather, they are apparently straight, as shown
in Figure 5-13b, and the linkage takes the form of the ordinary slider-crank mechanism.
Figure 5-13 Slider-Crank mechanism
5.2.7 Inversion of the Slider-Crank Mechanism
Inversion is a term used in kinematics for a reversal or interchange of form or function as
applied to kinematic chains and mechanisms. For example, taking a different link as the fixed
link, the slider-crank mechanism shown in Figure 5-14a can be inverted into themechanisms
shown in Figure 5-14b, c, and d. Different examples can be found in the application of these
mechanisms. For example, the mechanism of the pump device in Figure 5-15 is the same as that
in Figure 5-14b.
Figure 5-14 Inversions of the crank-slide mechanism
Figure 5-15 A pump device
Keep in mind that the inversion of a mechanism does not change the motions of its links relative
to each other but does change their absolute motions.
Cams:
6 Cams
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 A Simple Experiment: What is a Cam?
Figure 6-1 Simple Cam experiment
Take a pencil and a book to do an experiment as shown above. Make the book an inclined plane
and use the pencil as a slider (use your hand as a guide). When you move the book smoothly
upward, what happens to thepencil? It will be pushed up along the guide. By this method, you
have transformed one motion into another motion by a very simple device. This is the basic idea
of a cam. By rotating the cams in the figure below, the bars will have either translational or
oscillatory motion.
6.1.2 Cam Mechanisms
The transformation of one of the simple motions, such as rotation, into any other motions is often
conveniently accomplished by means of a cam mechanism A cam mechanism usually consists
of two moving elements, the cam and the follower, mounted on a fixed frame. Cam devices are
versatile, and almost any arbitrarily-specified motion can be obtained. In some instances, they
offer the simplest and most compact way to transform motions.
A cam may be defined as a machine element having a curved outline or a curved groove, which,
by its oscillation or rotation motion, gives a predetermined specified motion to another element
called the follower . The cam has a very important function in the operationof many classes of
machines, especiallythose of the automatic type, such as printingpresses, shoe machinery,
textile machinery, gear-cutting machines, and screw machines. In any class of machinery in
which automatic control and accurate timing are paramount, the cam is an indispensable part of
mechanism. The possible applicationsof cams are unlimited, and their shapes occur in great
variety. Some of the most common forms will be considered in this chapter.
6.2 Classification of Cam Mechanisms
We can classify cam mechanisms by the modes of input/output motion, the configuration and
arrangement of the follower, and the shape of the cam. We can also classify cams by the
different types of motion events of the follower and by means of a great variety of the motion
characteristics of the cam profile. (Chen 82)
Engineering Mechanics:
Statically equivalent force and moment systems:
6.1 Definition of statically equivalent systems of forces and moments
Two force systems that exert the same resultant force and resultant moment are said to be
statically equivalent (they have the same effect onthe motion of a rigid body).
To make this precise, let force system A consist of forces

acting at positions
,
together with a set of moments
(we dont need to specify where the moments act).
Let force system B consist of forces

acting at positions
,
(we dont need to specify where the moments act).
The twoforce systems are statically equivalent if
or in a rather more convenient shorthandnotation
Note that
1. Both force and moment sums must be equal
2. It doesnt matter what point you take moments about when testing for static
equivalence, but you must take moments about the same point for both force systems.
Heres a simple problems to check that you understand the concept. The picture below shows
four different force systems acting on the same beam AB. All forces are specified in N,
distances in m, and moments in Nm. Find which force systems are statically equivalent.
All we need to do is to calculatethe resultant force and moment for each force system (1)-(4).
Its easy to see that
1.Force system 1: resultant force 6j ;
Resultant moment about A 18k
Therefore, force systems (1) and (3) are statically equivalent. Also, force systems (2) and (4) are
statically equivalent.
6.2 Replacing complex force and moment systems with simpler statically equivalent
systems
Whats the use of this definition? Well, we often find it convenient to replace a complex force
system with a simpler, statically equivalent system.
In the preceding section, we just checked to see whether a bunch of force systems were statically
equivalent. Usually, however, we are interested in finding a simple force system (B, say) that
replaces a complex force system (A).
To this end, the following result is helpful
Any complex system of forces and moments is statically equivalent to a single force acting at
some specified position, together with a moment.
To use this result, you need to choose where you want the equivalent force to act. Then you can
calculate the equivalent force and moment. The moment can act wherever you like, but its
magnitude and direction will depend on where you choose to put the force.
In fact, we can find general formulas for the equivalent force and moment. Let the complex
force system A consist of forces

acting at positions
,
.
Suppose we choose to replace force system A by a single force
acting at some convenient point
,
together with a moment
.
Clearly the formula for is simply
whereupon we find the following formula for
Lets work through a few examples
Example 1: Replace the force system shown with a statically equivalent force and moment
acting (a) at point A; (b) acting at point B
Its quicker to solve this problem by interpreting the meaning of the formulas than by cranking
through the vector algebra. The figure shows statically equivalent forces and moments acting at
A. We need to determine the unknown force and moment.
The formulas say:
(1) is equal to the resultant of the complex force system. Thus,
(2) is equal to the resultant moment of the complex force system, minus the moment of .
It doesnt matter what point we take moments about to do this computation. For the sake of
variety, lets take moments about B. The moment of the complex force system about B is -42k.
The moment of about B is -60k. Therefore
Now lets repeat the exercise to get statically equivalent forces at B.
(1) is equal to the resultant of the complex force system. Thus,
(2) is equal to the resultant moment of the complex force system, minus the moment of .
The moment of the complex force system about B is -42k. The moment of about B is zero.
Therefore .
Notice that the statically equivalent force is always the same, regardless of where you put it.
The moment depends on where you choose to put the force, however.
Example 2: In practice, statically equivalent force systems are used mostly to simplify
distributed loading. Weve already seen that its a pain to calculate resultant forces and moments
of a distributed load. In any problem that involves distributed loading, we usually start by
replacing the distributed load by a statically equivalent force and moment (or, as we shall see
below, we can sometimes replace the distributed load by a single force acting at a special point).
For example, lets replace the distributed force shown below by a statically equivalent force and
moment acting at A.
Weve already calculated the resultant force and moment of the distributed force. Remember
that
(1) The resultant force is
(2) The resultant moment about A is
Therefore, the distributed force is statically equivalent to a force and moment
acting at A, as shown below.
If we needed to calculate reaction forces acting at A and B, for example, we could now work
with this simpler equivalent force system and forget about the pressure.
6.3 An Application Centers of Gravity for a collection of solid objects
Sometimes its more convenient to try to replace a complex force system by a single force, which
is chosen to act at a special point, such that the moment vanishes. Actually, this cant always be
done it only works for special force systems. Examples include
1. Any 2D system of forces and moments
2. Any set of parallel forces (eg gravity loading)
3. Any pressure distribution acting normal to a surface.
4. Any set of forces that act through a single point
Its possible to derive a general formula for the force and its position, but the derivation is a bit
devious and the results arent particularly useful. If you have a strong background in vectors and
are up for a challenge you might try to derive the result yourself its a neat vector math
problem. If you give up the full scoop is here.
By far the most common situation where we need to work through this exercise is to find the
center of gravity of a collection of objects. In this case we are actually replacing the forces of
gravity (which act on each object) with a statically equivalent force, exerting the same resultant
force (the total weight), and acting at a special point (the center of gravity) chosen to ensure that
the equivalent force also exerts the same resultant moment.
Most practical engineering applications involve small objects close to the earths surface.
In this case the force of gravity can be taken to act in a fixed direction. Under these
conditions the center of gravity is the same as the center of mass.
Theres a simple formula for the position of the center of mass. Suppose we have a collection of
objects, with masses , centersof mass located at . The position of the
center of mass is for the collection of objects is
The same formula works with mass replaced by weight.
Example 1: Calculate the position of the center of mass of the object shown below, expressing
your answer as coordinatesrelative to point A in the basis shown. Evaluate the answer for the
particular geometry h=a=b. All parts have the same mass density.
The center of gravity of each of the two parts is shown in the picture. Its convenient to do the
calculationin a table. We will denote the mass per unit area of each object by
The CG position follows by dividing the sum of the last column by the sum of the second
For the particular case when a=h=b we find
Example 2: Calculate the position of the CG of a disk with a hole in, shown below. Express your
answer in terms of and as coordinates relative to the center of the disk.
Theres a really neat trick for dealing with a hole we can regard it as an object with negative
density!. So if the disk has mass density per unit area, we treat the hole as an object with mass
density per unit area, located at the position shown.
So the CG position is
Example 3: Aircraft weight and balance.
If you fly airplanes, you will regularly need to calculate the position of the center of gravity for
your aircraft. The center of gravity moves if you load the plane with passengers, fuel and
baggage. Its very important to keep the center of gravity within prescribed limits if you dont
do so, the aircraft may be unable to recover from a stall, or may even become uncontrollable.
FAA regulations require an accurate weight and balance record for each aircraft, which is an
official record of the planes empty weight, and the position of its center of gravity when empty.
The pilots operating handbook specifies the positions of passenger seats, fuel containers and
baggage compartment. This information can be used to determine the position of the center of
gravity in any loaded configuration. The position can then be compared with allowable limits.
As an example, the picture below gives data for a Cessna Skyhawk C-172N. All positions are
reported as distances behind the firewall, in inches. THIS INFORMATION IS NOT TO BE
USED FOR ACTUAL FLIGHT PLANNING PURPOSES. ALWAYS CONSULT THE
POH FOR YOUR OWN AIRCRAFT.
The operating manual also specifies admissible ranges for the position of the CG. The data for a
C-172N is shown below.
In addition to the data shown above, each aircraft has to be carefully weighed, with all its
equipment on board, but without fuel, oil, passengers and baggage, to find the basic empty
weight (BEW); and the basic empty CG arm.
Lets suppose our airplane has a BEW of 1454lb, and a CG arm of 39.6 inches.
Suppose we plan a family trip with the following loading
1. Pilot 150lb
2. Front seat passenger 180lb
3. Rear seat passengers 80lb+60lb
4. Baggage 20lb
Basic empty weight (includes unusable fuel & oil) 1454lb
Fuel capacity 43 gal, fuel tank CG arm 46 inches behind firewall datum
Fuel weight 6lb/gal
Is the CG within limits with full fuel? Will it remain within limits as fuel is consumed?
We can use our formula to calculate the distance of the CG behind the firewall
For this calculation we only need to work with one component of the position vector the
distance behind the firewall
The CG positionwith full fuel follows as
If all the fuel is used up the CG will move to
(FAA regulations require that you use at least a 30 min fuel reserve while planning a daytime
VFR flight; 45 mins for instrument flight or at night. The laws of physics allow you to use all
the fuel, but generally punish any attempt to use more than the total fuel available rather
severely)
We can check the position of the CG against the allowable range specified in the operators
manual. We are safely within limits both with full fuel and empty. As fuel is used up, the CG
moves along a straight line between the two end points, so will remain within limits throughout
the flight.
6.4 Simple problems involving replacing distributed loads with statically equivalent forces
We showedin an earlier example how a distributed load, or pressure, can be replaced by
a statically equivalent force and moment. Often, it is preferable to replace the distributed load
using a statically equivalent force only, which acts at a special point that is chosen so that the
moment vanishes.
Weve already seen the results of such calculations, in our discussion of gravitational loading
(distributed gravity load is replaced by a force acting at the CG); hydrostatic loading (distributed
fluid pressure is replaced by a buoyancy force acting at the center of buoyancy) and drag and lift
force (distributed loading replaced by equivalent drag and lift forces acting at center of lift).
So far, we dont know how to actually calculate the location of the special point (CG, center of
buoyancy, etc).
In this section we show how to do this for simple 1-D distributed loads. Real life is 3D,
unfortunately, and you will learn how to solve 3D problems in later courses.
As a simple example, lets find the location of the statically equivalent force for a uniform
pressure acting on a beam. The beam has length L and is subjected to a distributed load p per
unit length. Well work with the coordinate system shown in the picture.
We already know that
(1) The resultant force is
(2) The resultant moment about A is
We now need to find a statically equivalent system, which consists of a single force acting at
some special point , chosen so that has the same resultant force and moment.
For to have the same resultant as the distributed load, we need to set
To find we can set where are the unknown components of the
position vector of . The moment of follows as
We need to make this moment equal to that of the distributed pressure, so that
How about ? We didnt get an equation for it, so any value of will do. The reason
for this, of course, is that you can always move the force parallel to itself without
changing its resultant moment. Physically it makes sense to think of the equivalent force
as acting on the beam itself, so it makes sense to choose .
The statically equivalent point force and its location are shown in the picture.
Figure 6-2 Classification of cam mechanisms
4.2.1 Modes of Input/ Output Motion
1. Rotating cam-translating follower. (Figure 6-2a,b,c,d,e)
2. Rotating follower (Figure 6-2f):
The follower arm swings or oscillates in a circular arc with respect to the follower pivot.
3. Translating cam-translating follower (Figure 6-3).
4. Stationary cam-rotating follower:
The follower system revolves with respect to the center line of the vertical shaft.
Figure 6-3 Translating cam - translating follower
6.2.1 Follower Configuration
1. Knife-edge follower(Figure 6-2a)
2. Roller follower(Figure 6-2b,e,f)
3. Flat-faced follower(Figure 6-2c)
4. Oblique flat-faced follower
5. Spherical-faced follower(Figure 6-2d)
6.2.2 Follower Arrangement
1. In-line follower:
The center line of the follower passes through the center line of the camshaft.
2. Offset follower:
The center line of the follower does not pass through the center line of the cam shaft. The
amount of offsetis the distance betweenthese two center lines. The offset causes a reduction
of the side thrust present in the roller follower.
6.2.3 Cam Shape
1. Plate cam or disk cam:
The follower moves in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the camshaft. A
translating or a swing arm follower must be constrained to maintain contact with the cam
profile.
2. Grooved camor closed cam (Figure 6-4):
This is a plate cam with the follower riding in a groove in the face of the cam.
Figure 6-4 Grooved cam
3. Cylindrical camor barrel cam (Figure 6-5a):
The roller follower operates in a groove cut on the periphery of a cylinder. The follower may
translate or oscillate. If the cylindrical surface is replaced by a conical one, a conical cam results.
4. End cam(Figure 6-5b):
This cam has a rotating portion of a cylinder. The follower translates or oscillates, whereas the
cam usually rotates. The end cam is rarely used becauseof the cost and the difficulty in cutting
its contour.
Figure 6-5 Cylindrical cam and end cam
6.2.4 Constraints on the Follower
1. Gravity constraint:
The weight of the follower system is sufficient to maintain contact.
2. Spring constraint:
The spring must be properly designed to maintain contact.
3. Positive mechanical constraint:
A groove maintains positive action. (Figure 6-4 and Figure 6-5a) For the cam in Figure 6-6, the
follower has two rollers, separated by a fixed distance, which act asthe constraint; the mating
cam in such an arrangement is often called a constant-diameter cam.
Figure 6-6 Constant diameter cam
A mechanical constraint cam also be introduced by employing a dual or conjugate cam in
arrangement similar to what shown in Figure 6-7. Each cam has its own roller, but the rollers are
mounted on the same reciprocating or oscillating follower.
Figure 6-7 Dual cam
6.2.5 Examples in SimDesign
Rotating Cam, Translating Follower
Figure 6-8 SimDesign translating cam
Load the SimDesign file si mdesi gn/ cam. t r ansl at i ng. si m. If you turn the cam, the follower
will move. The weight of the follower keeps them in contact. This is called a gravity constraint
cam.
Rotating Cam/Rotating Follower
Figure 6-9 SimDesign oscillating cam
The SimDesign file is si mdesi gn/ cam. osci l l at i ng. si m. Notice that a roller is used at the end
of the follower. In addition, a spring is used to maintain the contact of the cam and the roller.
If you try to calculate the degrees of freedom (DOF) of the mechanism, you must imagine that
the roller is welded onto the follower because turning the roller does not influence the motion of
the follower.
6.3 Cam Nomenclature
Figure 6-10 illustrates some cam nomenclature:
Figure 6-10 Cam nomenclature
Trace point: A theoretical point on the follower, corresponding to the point of a fictitious knife-
edge follower. It is used to generate the pitch curve. In the case of a roller follower, the trace
point is at the center of the roller.
Pitch curve: The path generated by the trace point at the follower is rotated about a stationary
cam.
Working curve: The working surface of a cam in contact with the follower. For the knife-edge
follower of the plate cam, the pitch curveand the working curvescoincide. In a close or grooved
camthere is an inner profileand an outer working curve.
Pitch circle: A circle from the cam center through the pitch point. The pitch circle radius is used
to calculatea cam of minimum size for a given pressure angle.
Prime circle(reference circle): The smallest circle from the cam center through the pitch curve.
Base circle: The smallest circle from the cam center through the cam profile curve.
Strokeor throw:The greatest distance or angle through which the follower moves or rotates.
Follower displacement: The position of the follower from a specific zero or rest position (usually
its the position when the f ollower contacts with the base circleof the cam) in relation to time or
the rotary angle of the cam.
Pressure angle: The angle at any point between the normal to the pitch curve and the
instantaneous direction of the follower motion. This angle is important in cam design because it
represents the steepness of the cam profile.
6.4 Motion events
When the cam turns through one motion cycle, the follower executes a series of events consisting
of rises, dwells and returns. Rise is the motion of the follower away from the cam center, dwell
is the motion during which the follower is at rest; and return is the motion of the follower
toward the cam center.
There are many follower motions that can be used for the rises and the returns. In this chapter,
we describe a number of basic curves.
Figure 6-11 Motion events
Notation
: The rotary angle of the cam, measured from the beginning of the motion event;
: The range of the rotary angle corresponding to the motion event;
h : The stoke of the motion event of the follower;
S : Displacement of the follower;
V : Velocity of thefollower;
A : Acceleration of the follower.
6.4.1 Constant Velocity Motion
If the motion of the follower were a straight line, Figure 6-11a,b,c, it would have equal
displacements in equal units of time, i.e., uniform velocity from the beginning to the end of the
stroke, as shown in b. The acceleration, except at the end of the stroke would be zero, as shown
in c. The diagrams show abrupt changes of velocity, which result inlarge forces at the beginning
and the end of the stroke. These forces are undesirable, especially when the cam rotates at high
velocity. The constant velocity motion is therefore only of theoretical interest.
(6-1)
6.4.2 Constant Acceleration Motion
Constant acceleration motion is shown in Figure 6-11d, e, f. As indicated in e, the velocity
increases at a uniform rate during the first half of the motion and decreases at a uniform rate
during the second half of the motion. The acceleration is constant and positive throughout the
first half of the motion, as shown in f, and is constant and negative throughout the second half.
This type of motion gives the follower the smallest value of maximum acceleration along the
path of motion. In high-speed machinerythis is particularly important because of the forces that
are required to produce the accelerations.
When
,
(6-2)
When
,
(6-3)
6.4.3 Harmonic Motion
A cam mechanism with the basic curve like g in Figure 6-7g will impart simple harmonic motion
tothe follower. The velocity diagram at h indicates smooth action. The acceleration, as shown at
i, is maximum at the initial position, zero at the mid-position, and negative maximum at the final
position.
(6-4)
6.5 Cam Design
The translational or rotational displacement of the follower is a function of the rotary angle of the
cam. A designer can define the function according to the specific requirements in the design. The
motion requirements, listed below, are commonly used in cam profile design.
6.5.1 Disk Cam with Knife-Edge Translating Follower
Figure 6-12 is a skeleton diagram of a disk cam with a knife-edge translating follower. We
assume that the cam mechanism will be used to realize the displacement relationship between the
rotation of the cam and the translation of the follower.
Figure 6-12 A Skeleton Diagram of disk cam with knife-edge translation
Below is a list of the essential parameters for the evaluation of these types of cam mechanisms.
However, these parameters are adequate only to define a knife-edge follower and a translating
follower cam mechanism.
Parameters:
r
o
: The radius of the base circle;
e: The offset of the follower from the rotary center of the cam. Notice: it could be negative.
s: The displacement of the follower which is a function of the rotary angle of the cam -- .
IW: A parameter whose absolute value is 1. It represents the turning direction of the cam. When
the cam turns clockwise: IW=+1, otherwise: IW=-1.
Cam profile design principle:
The method termed inversion is commonly used in cam profile design. For example, in a disk
cam with translating follower mechanism, the follower translates when the cam turns. This
means that the relative motion between them is a combination of a relative turning motion and a
relative translating motion. Without changing this feature of their relative motion, imagine that
the cam remains fixed. Now the follower performs both the relative turning and translating
motions. We have inverted the mechanism.
Furthermore, imagine that the knife-edge of the follower moves along the fixed cam profile in
the inverted mechanism. In other words, the knife edge of the follower draws the profile of the
cam. Thus, the problem of designing the cam profile becomes a problem of calculating the trace
of the knife edge of the follower whose motion is the combination of the relative turning and the
relative translating.
Design equations:
Figure 6-13 Profile design of translating cam follower
In Figure 6-13, only part of the cam profile AK is displayed. Assume the cam turns clockwise. At
the beginning of motion, the knife edge of the follower contacts the point of intersection A of the
base circle and the cam profile. The coordinates of A are (So, e), and So can be calculated from
equation
Suppose the displacement of the follower is S whenthe angular displacement of the cam is . At
this moment, the coordinates of the knife edge of the follower should be (So + S, e).
To get the corresponding position of the knife edge of the follower in the inverted mechanism,
turn the follower around thecenter of the cam in the reverse direction through an angle of . The
knife edge will be inverted to point K, which corresponds to the point on the cam profile in the
inverted mechanism. Therefore, the coordinates of point K can be calculated with the following
equation:
(6-5)
Note:
The offset eis negative if the follower is located below the xaxis.
When the rotational direction of the cam is clockwise: IW =+1, otherwise: IW =-1.
6.5.2 Disk Cam with Oscillating Knife-Edge Follower
Suppose the cam mechanism will be used to make the knife edge oscillate. We need to compute
the coordinates of the cam profile that results in the required motion of the follower.
Figure 6-14 Disk cam with knife-edge oscillating follower
The essential parameters in this kind of cam mechanisms are given below.
r
o
: The radius of the base circle;
a: The distance between the pivot of the cam and the pivot of the follower.
l: The length of the follower which is a distance from its pivot to its knife edge.
: The angular displacement of the follower which is a function of the rotary angle of the cam --
.
IP: A parameter whose absolute value is 1. It represents the location of the follower. When the
follower is located above the xaxis: IP=+1, otherwise: IP=-1.
IW: A parameter whose absolute value is 1. It represents the turning direction of the cam. When
the cam turns clockwise: IW=+1, otherwise: IW=-1.
Cam profile design principle
The fundamental principle in designing the cam profiles is still inversion, similar to that that for
designing other cam mechanisms, (e.g., the translating follower cam mechanism). Normally, the
follower oscillates when the cam turns. This means that the relative motion between them is a
combination of a relative turning motionand a relative oscillating motion. Without changing this
feature of their relative motion, let the cam remain fixed and the follower performs both the
relative turning motion and oscillating motion. By imagining in this way, we have actually
inverted the mechanism.
Figure 6-15 Cam profile design for a rotating follower
In Figure 6-15, only part of the cam profile BK is shown. We assume that the cam turns
clockwise.
At the beginning of motion, the knife edge of the follower contacts the point of intersection (B)
of the base circle and the cam profile. The initial angle between the follower (AB) and the line of
two pivots (AO) is 0. It can be calculated from the triangle OAB.
When the angular displacement of the cam is , the oscillating displacement of the follower is
which measures from its own initial position. At this moment, the angle between the follower
and the line passes through two pivots should be + 0.
The coordinates of the knife edgeat this moment will be
(6-6)
To get the corresponding knife-edge of the follower in the inverted mechanism, simply turn the follower
around the center of the cam in the reverse direction of the cam rotation through an angle of . The
knife edge will be inverted to point Kwhich corresponds to the point on the cam profile in the inverted
mechanism. Therefore, the coordinates of point Kcan be calculated with the following equation:
(6-7)
Note:
When the initial position of the follower is above the xaxis, IP =+1, otherwise: IP =-1.
When the rotary direction of the cam is clockwise: IW =+1, otherwise: IW =-1.
6.5.3 Disk Cam with Roller Follower
Additional parameters:
r: the radius of the roller.
IM: a parameter whose absolute value is 1, indicating which envelope curve will be adopted.
RM: inner or outer envelope curve. When it is an inner envelope curve: RM=+1, otherwise: RM=-
1.
Design principle:
The basic principle of designing a cam profile with the inversion method is still used. However,
the curve is not directly generated by inversion. This procedure has two steps:
1. Imagine the center of the roller as a knife edge. This concept is important in cam profile design
and is called the trace point) of follower. Calculate the pitch curve aa, that is, the trace of the
pitch point in the inverted mechanism.
2. The cam profile bbis a product of the enveloping motion of a series of rollers.
Figure 6-16 The trace point of the follower on a disk cam
Design equations:
The problem of calculating the coordinates of the cam profile is the problem of calculating the
tangent points of a sequence of rollers in the inverted mechanism. At the moment shown Figure
6-17, the tangent point is P on the cam profile.
Figure 6-17 The tangent point, P, of a roller to the disk camm
The calculation of the coordinates of the point P has two steps:
1. Calculate the slope of the tangent tt of point Kon pitch curve, aa.
2. Calculate the slope of the normal nnof the curve aaat point K.
Since we have already have the coordinates of point K: (x, y), we can express the coordinates of
point Pas
(6-8)
Note:
When the rotary direction of the cam is clockwise: IW =+1, otherwise: IW =-1.
when the envelope curve (cam profile) lies inside the pitch curve: RM =+1, otherwise: RM =-1.
Gears:
7 Gears
Gears are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively engaging teeth. The
gear teeth act like small levers.
7.1 Gear Classification
Gears may be classified according to the relative position of the axes of revolution. The axes
may be
1. parallel,
2. intersecting,
3. neither parallel nor intersecting.
Here is a brief list of the common forms. We will discuss each in more detail later.
Gearsfor connecting parallel shafts
Gears for connecting intersecting shafts
Neither parallel nor intersecting shafts
Gears for connecting parallel shafts
1. Spur gears

The left pair of gears makes external contact, and the right pair of gears makes internal
contact
2. Parallel helical gears
3. Herringbone gears(or double-helical gears)
4. Rackand pinion(The rack is like a gear whose axis is at infinity.)
1. Straight bevel gears
2. Spiral bevel gears
1. Crossed-helical gears
2. Hypoid gears
3. Worm and wormgear
7.2 Gear-Tooth Action
7.2.1 Fundamental Law of Gear-Tooth Action
Figure 7-2 shows two mating gear teeth, in which
Tooth profile 1 drives tooth profile 2 by acting at the instantaneous contact point K.
N
1
N
2
is the common normal of the two profiles.
N
1
is the foot of the perpendicular from O
1
to N
1
N
2
N
2
2
to N
1
N
2
.
Figure 7-2 Two gearing tooth profiles
Although the two profiles have different velocities V
1
and V
2
at point K, their velocities along
N
1
N
2
are equal in both magnitude and direction. Otherwise the two tooth profiles would separate
from each other. Therefore, we have
(7-1)
or
(7-2)
We notice that the intersection of the tangency N
1
N
2
and the line of center O
1
O
2
is point P, and
(7-3)
Thus, the relationship between the angular velocities of the driving gear to the driven gear, or
velocity ratio, of a pair of mating teeth is
(7-4)
Point P is very important to the velocity ratio, and it is called the pitch point. Pitch point divides
the line between the line of centersand its position decides the velocity ratio of the two teeth.
The above expression is the fundamental law of gear-tooth action.
7.2.2 Constant Velocity Ratio
For a constant velocity ratio, the position of P should remain unchanged. In this case, the motion
transmission between two gears is equivalent to the motion transmission between two imagined
slipless cylinders with radius R
1
and R
2
or diameter D
1
and D
2
. We can get two circles whose
centers are at O
1
and O
2
, and through pitch point P. These two circle are termed pitch circles.
The velocity ratio is equal to the inverse ratio of the diameters of pitch circles. This is the
fundamental law of gear-tooth action.
Thefundamental law of gear-tooth action maynow also be stated as follow (for gears with
fixed center distance) (Ham 58):
The common normal to the tooth profiles at the point of contact must always pass through a fixed point
(the pitch point) on the line of centers (to get a constant velocity ration).
7.2.3 Conjugate Profiles
To obtain the expected velocity ratio of two tooth profiles, the normal line of their profiles must
pass through the corresponding pitch point, which is decided by the velocity ratio. The two
profiles which satisfy this requirement are called conjugate profiles. Sometimes, we simply
termed the tooth profiles which satisfy the fundamental law of gear-tooth action the conjugate
profiles.
Although many tooth shapes are possible for which a mating tooth could be designed to satisfy
the fundamental law, only two are in general use: the cycloidal and involute profiles. The
involute has important advantages -- it is easy to manufacture and the center distance betweena
pair of involute gears can be varied without changing the velocity ratio. Thus close tolerances
between shaft locations are not required when using the involute profile. The most commonly
used conjugate tooth curve is the involute curve (Erdman & Sandor 84).
7.3 Involute Curve
The following examples are involute spur gears. We use the word involute because the contour
of gear teeth curves inward. Gears have many terminologies, parameters and principles. One of
the important concepts is the velocity ratio, which is the ratio of the rotary velocity of the driver
gear tothat of the driven gears.
The SimDesign file for these gears is si mdesi gn/ gear 15. 30. si m. The number of teeth in these
gears are 15 and 30, respectively. If the 15-tooth gear is the driving gear and the 30-teeth gear is
the driven gear, their velocity ratio is 2.
Other examples of gears are in si mdesi gn/ gear 10. 30. si mand si mdesi gn/ gear 20. 30. si m
7.3.1 Generation of the Involute Curve
Figure 7-3 Involute curve
The curve most commonly used for gear-tooth profiles is the involute of a circle. This involute
curve is the path traced by a point on a line as the line rolls without slipping on the
circumference of a circle. It may also be defined as a path traced by the end of a string which is
originally wrapped on a circle when the string is unwrapped from the circle. The circle from
which the involute is derived is called the base circle.
In Figure 7-3, let line MN roll in the counterclockwise direction on the circumference of a circle
without slipping. When the line has reached the position M'N', its original point of tangent A has
reached the position K, having traced the involute curve AK during the motion. As the motion
continues, the point A will trace the involute curve AKC.
7.3.2 Properties of Involute Curves
1. The distance BKis equal to the arc AB, because link MNrolls without slipping on the circle.
2. For any instant, the instantaneous center of the motion of the line is its point of tangent with
the circle.
Note: We have not defined the term instantaneous center previously. The instantaneous center
or instant centeris defined in two ways (Bradford & Guillet 43):
1. When two bodies have planar relative motion, the instant center is a point on one body
about which the other rotates at the instant considered.
2. When two bodies have planar relative motion, the instant center is the point at which
the bodies are relatively at rest at the instant considered.
3. The normal at any point of an involute is tangent to the base circle. Because of the property (2)
of the involute curve, the motion of the point that is tracing the involute is perpendicular to the
line at any instant, and hence the curve traced will also be perpendicular to the line at any
instant.
4. There is no involute curve within the base circle.
7.4 Terminology for Spur Gears
Figure 7-4 shows some of the terms for gears.
Figure 7-4 Spur Gear
In the following section, we define many of the terms used in the analysis of spur gears. Some of
the terminology has been defined previously but we include them here for completeness. (See
(Ham 58) for more details.)
Pitch surface: The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that the toothed gear
may be considered to replace.
Pitch circle: A right section of the pitch surface.
Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a right section of the gear.
Root (or dedendum) circle: The circle bounding the spaces between the teeth, in a right section
of the gear.
Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendumcircle.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
Clearance: The difference betweenthe dedendum of one gear and the addendum of the mating
gear.
Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch surface.
Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.
Circular thickness(also called the tooth thickness) : The thickness of the tooth measured on the
pitch circle. It is the length of an arc and not the length of a straight line.
Tooth space: The distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch circle.
Backlash: The differencebetween the circle thickness of one gear and the tooth space of the
mating gear.
Circular pitchp: The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the pitch circle.
Diametral pitchP: The number of teeth of a gear per inch of its pitch diameter. A toothed gear
must have an integral number of teeth. The circular pitch, therefore, equals the pitch
circumference divided by the number of teeth. The diametral pitchis, by definition, the number
of teeth divided by the pitch diameter. That is,
(7-5)
and
(7-6)
Hence
(7-7)
where
p =circular pitch
P =diametral pitch
N =number of teeth
D =pitch diameter
That is, the product of the diametral pitch and the circular pitch equals .
Modulem: Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The pitch diameter is usually specified in
inches or millimeters; in the former case the module is the inverse of diametral pitch.
Fillet : The small radius that connects the profile of a tooth to the root circle.
Pinion: The smaller of any pair of mating gears. The larger of the pair is called simply the gear.
Velocity ratio: The ratio of the number of revolutions of the driving (or input) gear to the
number of revolutions of the driven (or output) gear, in a unit of time.
Pitch point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of a pair of mating gears.
Common tangent: The line tangent to the pitch circle at the pitch point.
Line of action: A line normal to a pair of mating tooth profiles at their point of contact.
Path of contact: The path traced by the contact point of a pair of tooth profiles.
Pressure angle : The angle between the common normal at the point of tooth contact and the
common tangent to the pitch circles. It is also the angle between the line of action and the
common tangent.
Base circle:An imaginary circle used in involute gearing to generate the involutes that form the
tooth profiles.
7 Gears
Gears are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively engaging teeth. The
gear teeth act like small levers.
7.1 Gear Classification
Gears may be classified according to the relative position of the axes of revolution. The axes
may be
1. parallel,
2. intersecting,
3. neither parallel nor intersecting.
Here is a brief list of the common forms. We will discuss each in more detail later.
1. Spur gears

The left pair of gears makes external contact, and the right pair of gears makes internal
contact
2. Parallel helical gears
3. Herringbone gears(or double-helical gears)
4. Rackand pinion(The rack is like a gear whose axis is at infinity.)
1. Straight bevel gears
2. Spiral bevel gears
1. Crossed-helical gears
2. Hypoid gears
3. Worm and wormgear
7.2 Gear-Tooth Action
7.2.1 Fundamental Law of Gear-Tooth Action
Figure 7-2 shows two mating gear teeth, in which
Tooth profile 1 drives tooth profile 2 by acting at the instantaneous contact point K.
N
1
N
2
is the common normal of the two profiles.
N
1
1
to N
1
N
2
N
2
2
to N
1
N
2
.
Figure 7-2 Two gearing tooth profiles
Although the two profiles have different velocities V
1
and V
2
at point K, their velocities along
N
1
N
2
are equal in both magnitude and direction. Otherwise the two tooth profiles would separate
from each other. Therefore, we have
(7-1)
or
(7-2)
We notice that the intersection of the tangency N
1
N
2
and the line of center O
1
O
2
is point P, and
(7-3)
Thus, the relationship between the angular velocities of the driving gear to the driven gear, or
velocity ratio, of a pair of mating teeth is
(7-4)
Point P is very important to the velocity ratio, and it is called the pitch point. Pitch point divides
the line between the line of centersand its position decides the velocity ratio of the two teeth.
The above expression is the fundamental law of gear-tooth action.
7.2.2 Constant Velocity Ratio
For a constant velocity ratio, the position of P should remain unchanged. In this case, the motion
transmission between two gears is equivalent to the motion transmission between two imagined
slipless cylinders with radius R
1
and R
2
or diameter D
1
and D
2
. We can get two circles whose
centers are at O
1
and O
2
, and through pitch point P. These two circle are termed pitch circles.
The velocity ratio is equal to the inverse ratio of the diameters of pitch circles. This is the
fundamental law of gear-tooth action.
Thefundamental law of gear-tooth action may now also be stated as follow (for gears with
fixed center distance) (Ham 58):
The common normal to the tooth profiles at the point of contact must always pass through a fixed point
(the pitch point) on the line of centers (to get a constant velocity ration).
7.2.3 Conjugate Profiles
To obtain the expected velocity ratio of two tooth profiles, the normal line of their profiles must
pass through the corresponding pitch point, which is decided by the velocity ratio. The two
profiles which satisfy this requirement are called conjugate profiles. Sometimes, we simply
termed the tooth profiles which satisfy the fundamental law of gear-tooth action the conjugate
profiles.
Although many tooth shapes are possible for which a mating tooth could be designed to satisfy
the fundamental law, only two are in general use: the cycloidal and involute profiles. The
involute has important advantages -- it is easy to manufacture and the center distance betweena
pair of involute gears can be varied without changing the velocity ratio. Thus close tolerances
between shaft locations are not required when using the involute profile. The most commonly
used conjugate tooth curve is the involute curve (Erdman & Sandor 84).
7.3 Involute Curve
The following examples are involute spur gears. We use the word involute because the contour
of gear teeth curves inward. Gears have many terminologies, parameters and principles. One of
the important concepts is the velocity ratio, which is the ratio of the rotary velocity of the driver
gear to that of the driven gears.
The SimDesign file for these gears is si mdesi gn/ gear 15. 30. si m. The number of teeth in these
gears are 15 and 30, respectively. If the 15-tooth gear is the driving gear and the 30-teeth gear is
the driven gear, their velocity ratio is 2.
Other examples of gears are in si mdesi gn/ gear 10. 30. si mand si mdesi gn/ gear 20. 30. si m
7.3.1 Generation of the Involute Curve
Figure 7-3 Involute curve
The curve most commonly used for gear-tooth profiles is the involute of a circle. This involute
curve is the path traced by a point on a line as the line rolls without slipping on the
circumference of a circle. It may also be defined as a path traced by the end of a string which is
originally wrapped on a circle when the string is unwrapped from the circle. The circle from
which the involute is derived is called the base circle.
In Figure 7-3, let line MN roll in the counterclockwise direction on the circumference of a circle
without slipping. When the line has reached the position M'N', its original point of tangent A has
reached the position K, having traced the involute curve AK during the motion. As the motion
continues, the point A will trace the involute curve AKC.
7.3.2 Properties of Involute Curves
1. The distance BKis equal to the arc AB, because link MNrolls without slipping on the circle.
2. For any instant, the instantaneous center of the motion of the line is its point of tangent with
the circle.
Note: We have not defined the term instantaneous center previously. The instantaneous center
or instant centeris defined in two ways (Bradford & Guillet 43):
1. When two bodies have planar relative motion, the instant center is a point on one body
about which the other rotates at the instant considered.
2. When two bodies have planar relative motion, the instant center is the point at which
the bodies are relatively at rest at the instant considered.
3. The normal at any point of an involute is tangent to the base circle. Because of the property (2)
of the involute curve, the motion of the point that is tracing the involute is perpendicular to the
line at any instant, and hence the curve traced will also be perpendicular to the line at any
instant.
4. There is no involute curve within the base circle.
7.4 Terminology for Spur Gears
Figure 7-4 shows some of the terms for gears.
Figure 7-4 Spur Gear
In the following section, we define many of the terms used in the analysis of spur gears. Some of
the terminology has been defined previously but we include them here for completeness. (See
(Ham 58) for more details.)
Pitch surface: The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that the toothed gear
may be considered to replace.
Pitch circle: A right section of the pitch surface.
Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a right section of the gear.
Root (or dedendum) circle: The circle bounding the spaces between the teeth, in a right section
of the gear.
Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
Clearance: The difference betweenthe dedendum of one gear and the addendum of the mating
gear.
Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch surface.
Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside thepitch surface.
Circular thickness(also called the tooth thickness) : The thickness of the tooth measured on the
pitch circle. It is the length of an arc and not the length of a straight line.
Tooth space: The distance between adjacent teeth measured onthe pitch circle.
Backlash: The differencebetween the circle thickness of one gear and the tooth space of the
mating gear.
Circular pitchp: The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the pitch circle.
Diametral pitchP: The number of teeth of a gear per inch of its pitch diameter. A toothed gear
must have an integral number of teeth. The circular pitch, therefore, equals the pitch
circumference divided by the number of teeth. The diametral pitchis, by definition, the number
of teeth divided by thepitch diameter. That is,
(7-5)
and
(7-6)
Hence
(7-7)
where
p =circular pitch
P =diametral pitch
N =number of teeth
D =pitch diameter
That is, the product of the diametral pitch and the circular pitch equals .
Modulem: Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The pitch diameter is usually specified in
inches or millimeters; in the former case the module is the inverse of diametral pitch.
Fillet : The small radius that connects the profile of a tooth to the root circle.
Pinion: The smaller of any pair of mating gears. The larger of the pair is called simply the gear.
Velocity ratio: The ratio of the number of revolutions of the driving (or input) gear to the
number of revolutions of the driven (or output) gear, ina unit of time.
Pitch point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of a pair of mating gears.
Common tangent: The line tangent to the pitch circle at the pitch point.
Line of action: A line normal to a pair of mating tooth profiles at their point of contact.
Path of contact: The path traced by the contact point of a pair of tooth profiles.
Pressure angle : The angle between the common normal at the point of tooth contact and the
common tangent to the pitch circles. It is also the angle between the line of action and the
common tangent.
Base circle:An imaginary circle used in involute gearing to generate the involutes that form the
tooth profiles.
Other Mechanisms:
Chapter 8. Other Mechanisms
8.1 Ratchet Mechanisms
A wheel provided with suitably shaped teeth, receiving an intermittent circular motion from an
oscillating or reciprocating member, is called a ratchet wheel. A simple form of ratchet
mechanism is shown in Figure 8-1.
Figure 8-1 Ratchet
A is the ratchet wheel, and B is an oscillating lever carrying the driving pawl, C. A
supplementary pawl at D prevents backward motion of the wheel.
When arm B moves counterclockwise, pawl C will force the wheel through a fractional part of a
revolutiondependent upon the motion of B. When the arm moves back (clockwise), pawl C will
slide over the points of the teeth while the wheel remains at rest because of fixed pawl D, and
will be ready to push the wheel on its forward (counterclockwise) motion as before.
The amount of backward motion possible varies with the pitch of the teeth. This motion could be
reduced by using small teeth, and the expedient is sometimes used by placing several pawlsside
by side on the same axis, the pawls being of different lengths.
The contact surfaces of wheel and pawl should be inclined so that they will not tend to disengage
under pressure. This means that the common normal at N should pass between the pawl andthe
ratchet-wheel centers. If this common normal should pass outside these limits, the pawl would be
forced out of contact under load unless held by friction. In many ratchet mechanisms the pawl is
held against the wheel during motion by the action of a spring.
The usual form of the teeth of a ratchet wheel is that shown in the above Figure, but in feed
mechanisms such as used on many machine tools it is necessary to modify the tooth shape for a
reversible pawl so that the drive can be in either direction. The following SimDesign example of
a ratchet also includes a four bar linkage.
If you try this mechanism, you may turn the crank of the link mechanism. The rocker will drive
the drivingpawl to drive the ratchet wheel. The corresponding SimDesign data file is:
/ af s/ andr ew. cmu. edu/ ci t / ce/ r api dpr ot o/ si mdesi gn/ r at chet . si m
8.2 Overrunning Clutch
A special form of a ratchet is the overrunning clutch. Have you ever thought about what kind of
mechanism drives the rear axle of bicycle? It is a free-wheel mechanism which is an overrunning
clutch. Figure 8-2 illustrates a simplified model. As the driver delivers torque to the driven
member, the rollers or balls are wedged into the tapered recesses. This is what gives the positive
drive. Should the driven member attempt to drive the driver in the directions shown, the rollers
or balls become free and no torque is transmitted.
Figure 8-2 Overrunning clutch
8.3 Intermittent Gearing
A pair of rotating members may be designed so that, for continuous rotation of the driver, the
follower will alternately roll with the driver and remain stationary. This type of arrangement is
know by the general term intermittent gearing. This type of gearing occurs in some counting
mechanisms, motion-picture machines, feed mechanisms, as well as others.
Figure 8-3 Intermittent gearing
The simplest form of intermittent gearing, as illustrated in Figure 8-3 has the same kind of teeth
as ordinary gears designed for continuous rotation. This example is a pair of 18-tooth gears
modified to meet the requirement that the follower advance one-ninth of a turn for each turn of
the driver. The interval of action is the two-pitch angle (indicated on both gears). The single
tooth on the driver engages with each space on the follower to produce the required motion of a
one-ninth turn of the follower. During the remainder of a driver turn, the follower is locked
against rotation in the manner shown in the figure.
To vary the relative movements of the driver and follower, the meshing teeth can be arranged in
various ways to suit requirements. For example, the driver may have more than one tooth, and
the periods of rest of the follower may be uniform or may vary considerably. Counting
mechanisms are oftenequipped with gearing of this type.
8.4 The Geneva Wheel
An interesting example of intermittent gearing is the Geneva Wheel shown in Figure 8-4. In this
case the driven wheel, B, makes one fourth of a turn for one turn of the driver, A, the pin, a,
working in the slots, b, causing the motion of B. The circular portion of the driver, coming in
contact with the corresponding hollow circular parts of the driven wheel, retains it in position
when the pin or tooth a is out of action. The wheel A is cut away near the pin a as shown, to
provide clearance for wheel B in its motion.
Figure 8-4 Geneva wheel
If one of the slots is closed, A can only move through part of the revolution in either direction
before pin a strikes the closed slot and thus stops the motion. The device in this modified form
was used in watches, music boxes, etc., to prevent overwinding. From this application it received
the name Geneva stop. Arranged as a stop, wheel A is secured to the spring shaft, and B turns on
the axisof the spring barrel. The number of slots or interval units in B depends upon the desired
number of turns for the spring shaft.
An example of this mechanism has been made in SimDesign, as in the following picture.
The corresponding SimDesign data file is:
/ af s/ andr ew. cmu. edu/ ci t / ce/ r api dpr ot o/ si mdesi gn/ geneva. si m
8.5 The Universal Joint
The engine of an automobile is usually located in front part. How does it connect to the rear axle
of the automobile? In this case, universal joints are used to transmit the motion.
Figure 8-5 Universal joint
The universal joint as shown in Figure 8-5is also known in the older literature as Hooke's
coupling. Regardless of how it is constructed or proportioned, for practical use it has essentially
the form shown in Figure 8-6, consisting of two semicircular forks 2 and 4, pin-jointed to a right
-angle cross 3.
Figure 8-6 General form for a universal joint
The driver 2 and the follower 4 make the complete revolution at the same time, but the velocity
ratio is not constant throughout the revolution. The following analysis will show how complete
information as to the relative motions of driver and follower may be obtained for any phase of
the motion.
8.5.1 Analysis of a Universal Joint
Figure 8-7 Analysis of a universal joint
If the plane of projection is taken perpendicular to the axis of 2, the path of a and b will be a
circle AKBL as shown in Figure 8-7.
If the angle between the shafts is , the path of c and d will be a circle that is projected as the
ellipse ACBD, in which
OC =OD =OKcos =OAcos
(8-1)
If one of the arms of the driver is at A, an arm of the follower will be at C. If the driver arm
moves through the angle to P, the follower arm will move to Q. OQ will be perpendicular to
OP; hence: angle COQ = . But angle COQ is the projection of the real angle describes by the
follower. Qn is the real component of the motion of the follower in a direction parallel to AB, and
line AB is the intersection of the planes of the driver's and the follower's planes. The true angle
described by the follower, while the driver describes the angle , can be found by revolving OQ
about AB as an axis into the plane of the circle AKBL. Then OR =the true length of OQ, and
ROK = =the true angle that is projected as angle COQ = .
Now
tan = Rm/Om
and
tan = Qn/On
But
Qn = Rm
Hence
Therefore
tan = cos tan
The ratio of the angular motion of the follower to that of the driver is found as follower, by
differentiating above equation, remembering that is constant
Eliminating :
Similarly, can be eliminated:
According to the above equations, when the driver has a uniform angular velocity, the ratio of
angular velocities varies between extremes of cos and 1/cos . These variations in velocity give
rise to inertia forces, torques, noise, and vibration which would not be present if the velocity
ratio were constant.
8.5.2 Double Universal Joint
By using a double joint shown on the right in Figure 8-7, the variation of angular motion between driver
and follower can be entirely avoided. This compensating arrangement is to place an intermediate shaft 3
between the driver and follower shafts. The two forks of this intermediate shaft must lie in the same
plane, and the angle between the first shaft and the intermediate shaft must exactly be the same with
that between the intermediate shaft and the last shaft. If the first shaft rotates uniformly, the angular
motion of the intermediate shaft will vary according to the result deduced above. This variation is
exactly the same as if the last shaft rotated uniformly, driving the intermediate shaft. Therefore, the
variable motion transmitted to the intermediate shaft by the uniform rotation of the first shaft is exactly
compensated for by the motion transmitted from the intermediate to the last shaft, the uniform motion
of either of these shafts will impart, through the intermediate shaft, uniform motion to the other.
Universal joints, particularly in pairs, are used in many machines. One common application is in
the drive shaft which connects the engine of an automobiles to the axle.
Engineering Thermodynamics:
Engineering Thermodynamics
Introduction to Classical Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the study of energies. More specifically, introductory thermodynamics is the
study of energy transfer in systems. Classical thermodynamics consists of methods and
constructs that areused to account for macroscopic energy transfer. In fact, energy accounting
is an appropriate synonym for classical thermodynamics. In much the same way that accountants
balancemoney in and money out of a bank account, rocket scientists simply balance the energy
in and out of a rocket engine. Of coursejust as a bank accounts balance is obfuscated by arcane
devices such as interest ratesand currencyexchange, so too is thermodynamics clouded with
seemingly difficult conceptssuch as irreversibility and enthalpy. But, also just likeaccounting, a
careful review of the rules suggests a coherent strategy for maintaining tabs on a particular
account.
If a statement about the simplicity of thermodynamics failed to convert would-be students, they
may be captured with a few words on the importance of understanding energy transfer in our
society. Up until about 150 years ago or so, the earths economy was primarily fueled by
carbohydrates. That is to say, humans got stuff done by converting food, through a biological
process, to fuel we could spend to do work (e.g. raise barns). This was a hindrance to getting
things accomplished because, as it turned out, most individuals had to use the brunt of that
energy to grow and cultivate more carbohydrates (e.g. crops and livestock). We wont even talk
about how much food the horses ate!
Today, we have the luxury, primarily through an understanding of energy, to concentrate our
energy production into efficient low maintenance operations. Massive power plants transfer
energy to power tools for raising barns. Extremely efficient rocket engines tame and direct
massive amounts of energy to blast TV satellites into orbit. This improvement in energy mastery
frees humanitys time to engage in more worthwhile activities such as watchingcable TV.
Although most are content to blissfully ignore the intricacies that command their way of life, I
challenge you to embrace the contrary.
By no means is the energy battle over. Understanding energy transfer and energy systems is the
second step to destroying the limits to what humanity can next accomplish. The first step is
commanding an interest in doing so from an inclined portion of the population. Given the reader
(and editor) has read this far through this aggrandizing rhetoric, I welcome your interest and
hope to see it continue until the end.
The Main Macroscopic Forms of Energy
It will be in the best interest of the reader to have defined energy before it is discussed further.
There are three primary forms of energy that are discussed in macroscopic thermodynamics.
Several other forms of energy exist, but they generally exist on a microscopic level and should
be deferred to more advanced study.
Kinetic Energy
The first form (probably most easily understood idea of energy) is defined by the motion of an
object. Kinetic energy is the energy of a moving mass. For instance, a moving car will have more
kinetic energy than a stationary car. The same car traveling at 60 km/h has more kinetic energy
than it does traveling at 30 km/h.
Kinetic Energy =(1/2) x (mass) x (velocity)
2
Ratio of v
60
2
/ v
30
2
=((60)(1,000 meters/sec)(3600 sec/hour))
2
/ ((30)(1,000 meters/sec)(3,600
sec/hour))
2
So, once the algebra is completed properly we find the vehicle traveling at 60 km/h has four
times the kinetic energy as when it is traveling at 30 km/h, while the vehicle has zero kinetic
energy when it is stationary because the velocity =zero results in 1/2mv
2
being zero.
Potential Energy
The second type of energy is called potential energy. Gravitational potential energy describes the
energy due to elevation. A car at a height of 50 m has more potential energy than a car at a height
of 25 m. This may be understood more easily if the car is allowed to drop from its height. On
impact with the earth at 0 m, the car that initially rested at 50 m will have more kinetic energy
because it was moving faster (allowed more time to accelerate). The idea that potential energy
can convert to kinetic energy is the first idea of energy transfer. Transfers between kinetic and
potential energy represent one type of account balance rocket scientists need be aware of.
Internal Energy of Matter
The third and most important concept of energy is reflected by temperature. The internal energy
of matter is measured by its temperature. Hot water has more internal energy than the same
amount of cold water. Internal energy is a measure of kinetic energy of the molecules and atoms
that make up the substance. Since each atom or molecule is acting on its own accord, this
internal energy is different from the bulk kinetic energy associated with the movement of the
entire solid. The internal energy of matter is exhibited by molecular motion. The molecules of a
gas at high temperature zip around their container constantly colliding with walls and other
molecules. The molecules of a high temperature solid also move around a lot; however, since
they are stuck together with other molecules, the most they can do is vibrate in place.
In a nutshell, the above forms of energy are studied in classical thermodynamics. Those forms of
energy are allowed to transfer among each other as well as in to or out of a system.
Thermodynamics essentially provides some definitions for interpreting thermodynamic systems.
It then goes on to define an important rule about fairly balancing energy and one rule about the
quality of energy. (some energy is more valuable) Understanding the framework and the few
rules that govern macroscopic thermodynamics proves to be an incredibly powerful set of tools
for analyzing a myriad of not only engineering problems, but issues of practical concern.
CONTRIBUTION BY CHANGES
Engineering Thermodynamics
Introduction to Classical Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the study of energies. More specifically, introductory thermodynamics is the
study of energy transfer in systems. Classical thermodynamics consists of methods and
constructs that areused to account for macroscopic energy transfer. In fact, energy accounting
is an appropriate synonym for classical thermodynamics. In much the same way that accountants
balancemoney in and money out of a bank account, rocket scientists simply balance the energy
in and out of a rocket engine. Of coursejust as a bank accounts balance is obfuscated by arcane
devices such as interest ratesand currencyexchange, so too is thermodynamics clouded with
seemingly difficult conceptssuch as irreversibility and enthalpy. But, also just likeaccounting, a
careful review of the rules suggests a coherent strategy for maintaining tabs on a particular
account.
If a statement about the simplicity of thermodynamics failed to convert would-bestudents, they
may be captured with a few words on the importance of understanding energy transfer in our
society. Up until about 150 years ago or so, the earths economy was primarily fueled by
carbohydrates. That is to say, humans got stuff done by converting food, through a biological
process, to fuel we could spend to do work (e.g. raise barns). This was a hindrance to getting
things accomplished because, as it turned out, most individuals had to use the brunt of that
energy to grow and cultivate more carbohydrates (e.g. crops and livestock). We wont even talk
about how much food the horses ate!
Today, we have the luxury, primarily through an understanding of energy, to concentrate our
energy production into efficient low maintenance operations. Massive power plants transfer
energy to power tools for raising barns. Extremely efficient rocket engines tame and direct
massive amounts of energy to blast TV satellites into orbit. This improvement in energy mastery
frees humanitys time to engage in more worthwhile activities such as watchingcable TV.
Although most are content to blissfully ignore the intricacies that command their way of life, I
challenge you to embrace the contrary.
By no means is the energy battle over. Understanding energy transfer and energy systems is the
second step to destroying the limits to what humanity can next accomplish. The first step is
commanding an interest in doing so from an inclined portion of the population. Given the reader
(and editor) has read this far through this aggrandizing rhetoric, I welcome your interest and
hope to see it continue until the end.
The Main Macroscopic Forms of Energy
It will be in the best interest of the reader to have defined energy before it is discussed further.
There are three primary forms of energy that are discussed in macroscopic thermodynamics.
Several other forms of energy exist, but they generally exist on a microscopic level and should
be deferred to more advanced study.
Kinetic Energy
The first form (probably most easily understood idea of energy) is defined by the motion of an
object. Kinetic energy is the energy of a moving mass. For instance, a moving car will have more
kinetic energy than a stationary car. The same car traveling at 60 km/h has more kinetic energy
than it does traveling at 30 km/h.
Kinetic Energy =(1/2) x (mass) x (velocity)
2
Ratio of v
60
2
/ v
30
2
=((60)(1,000 meters/sec)(3600 sec/hour))
2
/ ((30)(1,000 meters/sec)(3,600
sec/hour))
2
So, once the algebra is completed properly we find the vehicle traveling at 60 km/h has four
times the kinetic energy as when it is traveling at 30 km/h, while the vehicle has zero kinetic
energy when it is stationary because the velocity =zero results in 1/2mv
2
being zero.
Potential Energy
The second type of energy is called potential energy. Gravitational potential energy describes the
energy due to elevation. A car at a height of 50 m has more potential energy than a car at a height
of 25 m. This may be understood more easily if the car is allowed to drop from its height. On
impact with the earth at 0 m, the car that initially rested at 50 m will have more kinetic energy
because it was moving faster (allowed more time to accelerate). The idea that potential energy
can convert to kinetic energy is the first idea of energy transfer. Transfers between kinetic and
potential energy represent one type of account balance rocket scientists need be aware of.
Internal Energy of Matter
The third and most important concept of energy is reflected by temperature. The internal energy
of matter is measured by its temperature. Hot water has more internal energy than the same
amount of cold water. Internal energy is a measure of kinetic energy of the molecules and atoms
that make up the substance. Since each atom or molecule is acting on its own accord, this
internal energy is different from the bulk kinetic energy associated with the movement of the
entire solid. The internal energy of matter is exhibited by molecular motion. The molecules of a
gas at high temperature zip around their container constantly colliding with walls and other
molecules. The molecules of a high temperature solid also move around a lot; however, since
they are stuck together with other molecules, the most they can do is vibrate in place.
In a nutshell, the above forms of energy are studied in classical thermodynamics. Those forms of
energy are allowed to transfer among each other as well as in to or out of a system.
Thermodynamics essentially provides some definitions for interpreting thermodynamic systems.
It then goes on to define an important rule about fairly balancing energy and one rule about the
quality of energy. (some energy is more valuable) Understanding the framework and the few
rules that govern macroscopic thermodynamics proves to be an incredibly powerful set of tools
for analyzing a myriad of not only engineering problems, but issues of practical concern.
CONTRIBUTION BY CHANGES
Fluid Mechanics:
Introduction
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a tangential or shear stress,
however small the shear stress may be. Such a continuousdeformation under the stress
constitutes a flow. Fluid mechanics is therefore the study of mechanics of such matter. As such,
this pertains mostly to the study of liquids and gases, however the general theories may be
applied to the study of amorphous solids, colloidal suspensions and gelatinous materials.
Fluid mechanics is a subdivision of continuum mechanics. Consequentially, fluids are considered
continuous media for analysis, and their discrete nature is of no consequence for most
applications. This assumption is valid mostly on length scales much larger than intramolecular
distances. The departure from continuum is characterised by a dimensionless parameter, the
Knudsen Number, defined by K
n
= / L, where L is a characteristic length scale of the flow. The
continuum hypothesis holds good if Kn <0.01. However, recent applications in nanotechnology
and biotechnology are demonstrating that the governing equationsare still relevant on smaller
scales, specifically when they are modified to include the effects of electrostatic, magnetic,
colloidal and surface-tension driven forces.
Some fluid mechanics problems can be solved by applying conservation laws (mass, momentum,
energy) of mechanics to a finite control volume. However, in general, it is necessary to apply
those laws to an infintesimal control volume, then use the resulting differential equations.
Additionally, boundary values, initial conditions and thermodynamic state equations are
generally necessary to obtain numeric or analytic solutions.
Fluid Properties
In addition to the properties like mass, velocity, and pressure usually considered in physical
problems, the following are the basic properties of a fluid:
Density
The density of a fluid is defined as the mass per unit volume of the fluid over an infinitesimal
volume.
Viscosity
Viscosity (represented by ) is a material property, unique to fluids, that measures the fluid's
resistance to flow. Though this is a property of the fluid, its effect is understood only when the
fluid is in motion. When different elements move with different velocities, then the each element
tries to drag its neighbouring elements along with it. Thus shear stress can be identified between
fluid elements of different velocities.
Velocity gradient in laminar shear flow
The relationship between the shear stress and the velocity field was studied by Isaac Newton and
he proposed that the shear stresses are directly proportional to the velocity gradient.
The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of dynamic viscosity.
Another coefficient, known as the kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity
and density. = /
Reynolds Number
There are several dimensionless parameters that are important in fluid dynamics. Reynolds
number (after Osborne Reynolds, 1842-1912) is an important parameter in the study of fluid
flows. Physically it is the ratio between inertial and viscous forces. The value of Reynolds
number determines the kind of flow of the fluid.
where (rho) is the density, (mu) is the viscosity, V is the velocity of the flow, and L is the
dimension representing length for the flow. Additionally, we define a parameter (nu) as the
kinematic viscosity.
Low Re indicates creeping flow, medium Re is laminar flow, and high Re indicates turbulent
flow.
Reynolds number can also be transformed to take account of different flow conditions. For
example the reynolds number for flow within a pipe is expressed as
where u is the average fluid velocity within the pipe and d is the inside diameter of the pipe.
Application of dynamic forces (and the Reynolds number) to the real world: sky-diving, where
friction forces equal the falling body's weight. (jjam)
Pathlines and Streamlines
The path which a fluid element traces out in space is called a pathline. For steady non fluctuating
flows where a pathline is followed continuously by a number of fluid elements , the pathline is
called streamline. A streamline is the imaginary line whose tangent gives the velocity of flow at
all times if the flow is steady, however in an unsteady flow, the streamline is constantly changing
and thus the tangent gives the velocity of an element at an instant of time. A common practice in
analysis istaking some of the walls of a control volume to be along streamlines. Since there is no
flow perpendicular to streamlines, only the flow across the other boundaries need be considered.
Hydrostatics
The pressure distribution in a fluid under gravity is given by the relation dp/dz = g where dz is
the change in the direction of the gravitational field (usually in the vertical direction). Note that it
is quite straightforward to get the relations for arbitrary fields too, for instance, the pseudo field
due to rotation.
The pressure in a fluid acts equally in all directions. When it comes in contact with a surface, the
force due to pressure acts normal to the surface. The force on a small area dA is given by p dA
where the force is in the direction normal to dA. The total force on the area A is given by the
vector sum of all these infinitesimal forces.
Control Volume Analysis
A fluid dynamic system can be analysed using a control volume, which is an imaginary surface
enclosing a volume of interest. The control volume can be fixed or moving, and it can be rigid or
deformable. Thus, we will have to write the most general case of the laws of mechanics to deal
with control volumes.
The first equation we can write is the conservation of mass over time. Consider a system where
mass flow is given by dm/dt, where m is the mass of the system. We have,
For steady flow, we have
And for incompressible flow, we have
If we consider flow through a tube, we have, for steady flow,
1
A
1
V
1
=
2
A
2
V
2
andfor incompressible steady flow, A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2
.
Law of conservation of momentum as applied to a control volume states that
where V is the velocity vector and n is the unit vector normal to the control surface at that point.
Law of Conservation of Energy (First Law of Thermodynamics)
where e is the energy per unit mass.
Bernoulli's Equation
Bernoulli's equation considers frictionless flow along a streamline.
For steady, incompressible flow along a streamline, we have
We see that Bernoulli's equation is just the law of conservation of energy without the heat
transfer and work.
It may seem that Bernoulli's equation can only be applied in a very limited set of situations, as it
requires ideal conditions. However, since the equation applies to streamlines, we can consider a
streamline near the area of interest where it is satisfied, and it might still give good results, i.e.,
you don't need a control volume for the actual analysis (although one is used in the derivation of
the equation).
Energy in terms of Head
Bernoulli's equation can be recast as
This constant can be called head of the water, and is a representation of the amount of work that
can be extracted from it. For example, for water in a dam, at the inlet of the penstock, the
pressure is high, but the velocity is low, while at the outlet, the pressure is low (atmospheric)
while the velocity is high. The value of head calculated above remains constant (ignoring
frictional losses).
Heat Transfer:
Contents
Introduction The basics
Heat BalancesWhat goes in must come out
Conduction A mechanism of heat transfer
Convection A mechanism of heat transfer
Radiation A mechanism of heat transfer
Heat Transfer with Phase Change Different rules applywhen this happens
Heat Exchangers Industrial devices for heating, cooling and saving energy
Appendices There may be something in here later
Bibliography Recommended for more in-depth study
Pro Engineer:
Pro/E is the software product of PTC (Parametric Technology corporation) its intial versions
were Pro/E 1, 2...upto 17. Later Pro/E launched sequentially versions as Pro/E 2000; 2000i,
2000i
2
;2001i, wildfire1.0; wildfire2.0, wildfire3.0; wildfire4.0 till date. This book will explore
the various philosophies and methodologies employed by professionals who use the
Computer Aided Design (CAD) package Pro/Engineer. Additional topics include how to
acquire the software and optimal support.
Notes to Contributors:
Please write Pro/Engineer and Pro/Intralink fully not pro/e, pro/engineer or any other
variation.
Conventions:
*RMB - Ri ght Mouse But t on
*LMB - Lef t Mouse But t on
*MMB - Mi ddl e Mouse But t on
*BMB - Bot h Mouse But t ons
*I CON - Li nk t o i mage
All items assumed to be from top menu unless left menu is mentioned Proposed contents
Pro/E is the software product of PTC (Parametric Technology corporation) its intial versions
were Pro/E 1, 2...upto 17. Later Pro/E launched sequentially versions as Pro/E 2000; 2000i,
2000i
2
;2001i, wildfire1.0; wildfire2.0, wildfire3.0; wildfire4.0 till date. This book will explore
the various philosophies and methodologies employed by professionals who use the
Computer Aided Design (CAD) package Pro/Engineer. Additional topics include how to
acquire the software and optimal support.
Notes to Contributors:
Please write Pro/Engineer andPro/Intralink fully not pro/e, pro/engineer or any other
variation.
Conventions:
*RMB - Ri ght Mouse But t on
*LMB - Lef t Mouse But t on
*MMB - Mi ddl e Mouse But t on
*BMB - Bot h Mouse But t ons
*I CON - Li nk t o i mage
All items assumed to be from top menu unlessleft menu is mentioned Proposed contents
Robotics:
An Introduction to Robotics
Defining Robotics
Robotics can be describedas the current pinnacle of technical development. Robotics is a
confluence scienceusing the continuing advancements of mechanical engineering, material
science, sensor fabrication, manufacturing techniques, and advanced algorithms. The study
and practice of robotics will expose a dabbler or professional to hundreds of different avenues
of study. For some, the romanticism of robotics brings forth an almost magical curiosity of
the world leading to creation of amazing machines. A journey of a lifetime awaits in robotics.
Robotics can be defined as the science or study of the technology primarily associated
with the design, fabrication, theory, and application of robots. While other fields
contribute the mathematics, the techniques, and the components, robotics creates the magical
end product. The practical applications of robots drive development of robotics and drive
advancements in other sciences in turn. Crafters and researchers in robotics study more than
just robotics.
The promise of robotics is easy to describe but hard for the mind to grasp. Robots hold the
promise of moving and transforming materials with the same elan and ease asa computer
program transforms data. Today, robots mine minerals, assemble semi-processed materials
into automobile components, and assemble those components into automobiles. On the
immediate horizon are self-driving cars, robotics to handle household chores, and assemble
specialized machines on demand. It is not unreasonable to imagine robots that are given some
task, such as reclaim desert into photovoltaic cells and arable land, and left to make their own
way. Then the promise of robotics exceeds the minds grasp.
In summary, robotics is the field related to science and technology primarily related to
robotics. It stands tall by standing the accomplishments of many other fields of study.
Defining Robots
Robot used in English describes any construct that automates some behavior. For example, a
garage door opener automates the behavior of opening a door. A garage door opener has a
sensor to detect the signal from the remote control, actuators to open the door, and a control
system to stop turn off the motorsand lights when the garage is fully closed. In practice, this
type of a machine is better described as a Mechatronic device, and is a subset of the more
interesting robots that include autonomy or resourcefulness. This bookwill consider
mechatronic devices to be degenerate robots.
A Mechatronic Device is a degenerate robot with these components:
1. Sensors, which detect the state of the environment
2. Actuators, which modify the state of the environment
3. A Control System, which controls the actuators based on the environment as depicted by the
sensors
A Robot is a mechatronic device which also includes resourcefulness or autonomy. A
device with autonomy does its thing "on its own" without a human directly guiding it
moment-by-moment. Some authors would contend that all mechatronic devices are robots,
and that this book's restriction on robot entails only specialized software.
Various types of robots are usually classified by their capabilities. Two examples will be used
to capture most of what we see as a "robot".
1. Machine Pet: A machine, capable of moving in some way, that can sense its surroundings
and can act on what it senses autonomously. Most of these robots have no real useful
purpose, other than to entertain and challenge. These are also commonly used for
experimenting with sensors, artificial intelligence, actuators and more. Most of this book
covers this type of robot.
2. Autonomous Machine: A machine with sensors and actuators that can do some sort of work
"on its own". This includes things like robotic lawnmowers and vacuum cleaners, and also
self-operating construction machines such as CNC cutters. Most industrial and commercial
robots fall in this category.
What isn't considered a "robot" in this book? Pretty much everything you see on RobotWars;
those are remote-controlled vehicles without any form of autonomy, no sensors, and a just
enough of a control system to drive the actuators. These devices use many of the same
mechanical technologies described in this book, but not the advanced controls.
In short: If it has autonomy it's a robot (in this book). If it's remote controlled, it isn't.
Student Questions
1. Which of these studies would be considered robotics by this definition?
1. Studying the strength and flexibility of a titanium alloy used to make a robotic arm?
2. Integrating sensor data from sonar, laser, and CCD cameras and to build an accurate
map of surroundings?
3. The real-time software needed to drive two motors to make a robot go in a straight
line?
1. Classify each of these as a robot, a mechatronic device, a machine, or something else?
1. A spam email filter.
2. A garage door opener.
3. A remote controlled boat.
4. A 1970's automobile.
5. A current model automobile which includes lane-following.
6. An Apple IPod.
7. An actor in a silver suit.
Design Basics
Note to potential contributors: this section could be used to discuss the basics of robot
design/construction.
1. What you should know
2. Physical Design
3. Design software
4. Tools and Equipment
5. Electronic Components
6. Mechanical Components
7. Building materials
8. Basic Programming
Physical Construction
1. The Platform
2. Construction Techniques
3. Resourcefulness
Components
1. Power Sources
2. Actuation Devices
1. Motors
2. Shape Memory Alloys
3. Air muscle
4. Linear Electromagnetic
5. Piezoelectric Actuators
6. Pneumatics/Hydraulics
7. Miniature internal combustion engines
3. Grippers
4. Audio
5. Video
Computer Control
1. Control Architectures
1. Reactive Systems
2. Sense-Plan-Act
3. Brooks' Subsumption Architecture ( w:Subsumption architecture )
4. Hybrid Systems
2. The Interface
1. Personal Computers
2. Single Board Computers and multichip modules
3. Microcontrollers
4. Remote Control
5. Networks
Sensors
Sensors that a robot uses generally fall into three different categories:
1. Environment sensors tell the robot what is happening around it
1. Thermal Sensors
2. Pressure Sensors
2. Feedback sensors tell the robot what it is actually doing, and
3. Communication sensors allow a human or computer to provide a robot other information.
Sensors aren't perfect. When you use a sensor on your robot there will be a lot of times where
the sensors acts funny. It could miss an obstacle, or see one where none is. Key to successfuly
using sensors is knowing how they function and what they really measure.
Real World Sensors
Navigation
1. Navigation
1. Localization
2. Collision Avoidance
3. Exploration
4. Mapping
5. Trajectory Planning
Robotics
1. Design Basics
1. Physical Design
2. Tools and Components
2. Physical Construction
1. The platform
2. Resourcefulness
3. The LEGO World
1. Modded Lego Robots
2. The RCX
3. Programming the RCX
3. Components
1. Batteries
2. Power Supplies
1. Motors
2. Muscles
3. Electromagnetic
4. Audio
5. Visual
4. Robot Designs
1. The Rover
2. The Legged Robot
3. Advanced Locomotion
4. Robotic Arms
1. Revolute-coord Arm
2. Polar-coord Arm
5. Environment Interfaces
5. Computer Control
1. Laws of Robotics
2. The Interface
3. The Interface
1. Computers
2. Microcontrollers
3. Remote Control
6. Environment Sensors
1. Touch Sensors
2. Navigation Systems
2. Robotic Eyes
3. Spatial Awareness
3. Thermal Sensors
4. Sound Sensors
7. Resources
Exotic Robots
1. Special Robot brains
2. BEAM
3. Cooperating Robots
4. Contest Robot
5. Arms
6. Modular and fractal Robots
7. The LEGO World
1. LEGO Robots
2. Introduction to the RCX
An Introduction to Robotics
Defining Robotics
Robotics can be describedas the current pinnacle of technical development. Robotics is a
confluence scienceusing the continuing advancements of mechanical engineering, material
science, sensor fabrication, manufacturing techniques, and advanced algorithms. The study
and practice of robotics will expose a dabbler or professional to hundreds of different avenues
of study. For some, the romanticism of robotics brings forth an almost magical curiosity of
the world leading to creation of amazing machines. A journey of a lifetime awaits in robotics.
Robotics can be defined as the science or study of the technology primarily associated
with the design, fabrication, theory, and application of robots. While other fields
contribute the mathematics, the techniques, and the components, robotics creates the magical
end product. The practical applications of robots drive development of robotics and drive
advancements in other sciences in turn. Crafters and researchers in robotics study more than
just robotics.
The promise of robotics is easy to describe but hard for the mind to grasp. Robots hold the
promise of moving and transforming materials with the same elan and ease as a computer
program transforms data. Today, robots mine minerals, assemble semi-processed materials
into automobile components, and assemble those components into automobiles. On the
immediate horizon are self-driving cars, robotics to handle household chores, and assemble
specialized machines on demand. It is not unreasonable to imagine robots that are given some
task, such as reclaim desert into photovoltaic cells and arable land, and left to make their own
way. Then the promise of robotics exceeds the minds grasp.
In summary, robotics is the field related to science and technology primarily related to
robotics. It stands tall by standing the accomplishments of many other fields of study.
Defining Robots
Robot used in English describes any construct that automates some behavior. For example, a
garage door opener automates the behavior of opening a door. A garage door opener has a
sensor to detect the signal from the remote control, actuators to open the door, and a control
system to stop turn off the motors and lights when the garage is fully closed. In practice, this
type of a machine is better described as a Mechatronic device, and is a subset of the more
interesting robots that include autonomy or resourcefulness. This bookwill consider
mechatronic devices to be degenerate robots.
A Mechatronic Device is a degenerate robot with these components:
1. Sensors, which detect the state of the environment
2. Actuators, which modify the state of the environment
3. A Control System, which controls the actuators based on the environment as depicted by the
sensors
A Robot is a mechatronic device which also includes resourcefulness or autonomy. A
device with autonomy does its thing "on its own" without a human directly guiding it
moment-by-moment. Some authors would contend that all mechatronic devices are robots,
and that this book's restriction on robot entails only specialized software.
Various types of robots are usually classified by their capabilities. Two examples will be used
to capture most of what we see as a "robot".
1. Machine Pet: A machine, capable of moving in some way, that can sense its surroundings
and can act on what it senses autonomously. Most of these robots have no real useful
purpose, other than to entertain andchallenge. These are also commonly used for
experimenting with sensors, artificial intelligence, actuators and more. Most of this book
covers this type of robot.
2. Autonomous Machine: A machine with sensors and actuators that can do some sort of work
"on its own". This includes things like robotic lawnmowers and vacuum cleaners, and also
self-operating construction machines such as CNC cutters. Most industrial and commercial
robots fall in this category.
What isn't considered a "robot" in this book? Pretty much everything you see on RobotWars;
those are remote-controlled vehicles without any form of autonomy, no sensors, and a just
enough of a control system to drive the actuators. These devices use many of the same
mechanical technologies described in this book, but not the advanced controls.
In short: If it has autonomy it's a robot (in this book). If it's remote controlled, it isn't.
Student Questions
1. Which of these studies would be considered robotics by this definition?
1. Studying the strength and flexibility of a titanium alloy used to make a robotic arm?
2. Integrating sensor data from sonar, laser, and CCD cameras and to build an accurate
map of surroundings?
3. The real-time software needed to drive two motors to make a robot go in a straight
line?
1. Classify each of these as a robot, a mechatronic device, a machine, or something else?
1. A spam email filter.
2. A garage door opener.
3. A remote controlled boat.
4. A 1970's automobile.
5. A current model automobile which includes lane-following.
6. An Apple IPod.
7. An actor in a silver suit.
Design Basics
Note to potential contributors: this section could be used to discuss the basics of robot
design/construction.
1. What you should know
2. Physical Design
3. Design software
4. Tools and Equipment
6. Mechanical Components
7. Building materials
Physical Construction
1. The Platform
3. Resourcefulness
Components
1. Power Sources
1. Motors
2. Shape Memory Alloys
3. Air muscle
4. Linear Electromagnetic
5. Piezoelectric Actuators
6. Pneumatics/Hydraulics
7. Miniature internal combustion engines
3. Grippers
4. Audio
5. Video
Computer Control
1. Control Architectures
1. Reactive Systems
2. Sense-Plan-Act
3. Brooks' Subsumption Architecture ( w:Subsumption architecture )
4. Hybrid Systems
2. The Interface
1. Personal Computers
2. Single Board Computers and multichip modules
3. Microcontrollers
4. Remote Control
5. Networks
Sensors
Sensors that a robot uses generally fall into three different categories:
1. Environment sensors tell the robot what is happening around it
1. Thermal Sensors
2. Pressure Sensors
2. Feedback sensors tell the robot what it is actually doing, and
3. Communication sensors allow a human or computer to provide a robot other information.
Sensors aren't perfect. When you use a sensor on your robot there will be a lot of times where
the sensors acts funny. It could miss an obstacle, or see one where none is. Key to successfuly
using sensors is knowing how they function and what they really measure.
Real World Sensors
Navigation
1. Navigation
1. Localization
3. Exploration
4. Mapping
5. Trajectory Planning
Robotics
1. Design Basics
1. Physical Design
2. Tools and Components
2. Physical Construction
1. The platform
2. Resourcefulness
3. The LEGO World
1. Modded Lego Robots
2. The RCX
3. Components
1. Batteries
2. Power Supplies
1. Motors
2. Muscles
3. Electromagnetic
4. Audio
5. Visual
4. Robot Designs
1. The Rover
2. The Legged Robot
3. Advanced Locomotion
4. Robotic Arms
1. Revolute-coord Arm
2. Polar-coord Arm
5. Environment Interfaces
5. Computer Control
1. Laws of Robotics
2. The Interface
3. The Interface
1. Computers
2. Microcontrollers
3. Remote Control
6. Environment Sensors
1. Touch Sensors
2. Navigation Systems
2. Robotic Eyes
3. Spatial Awareness
3. Thermal Sensors
4. Sound Sensors
7. Resources
Exotic Robots
1. Special Robot brains
2. BEAM
3. Cooperating Robots
4. Contest Robot
5. Arms
6. Modular and fractal Robots
7. The LEGO World
1. LEGO Robots
2. Introduction to the RCX
Machines Kinematics:
Basic Kinematic concepts: Links, Kinematic pairs, Kinematic chains, Mechanism and
Inversions, single and double slider crank chains, straight line motion mechanisms, Velocity
and acceleration. in mechanism, Relativevelocity methods, Instantaneous center of rotation,
centroids, Acceleration diagram, Acceleration center, Friction Devices: Introduction to
friction, Belt, chain arnd rope drive, Transmission of Power through friction clutch,
Fundamental law of gearing: Classification of gears and basic terminology, Geometric and
Kinematic characteristics of involute and cycloidal tooth profiles, under cutting and
interference, Gear trains: Simple, compound and planetary, tooth load and torque, Balancing:
Balancing of revolving in the same Irlane by a single revolving mass, Balancing of several
revolving masses in different planes by two revolving masses in suitable planes
Machine Kinematics Dynamics - Notes, Tutorials
Force, Curvature, and Uncertainty - with lots of equations
Reflections on Relativity - Book in HTML format
Kinematics the study of constrained motion - Common single loop, closed chain
mechanisms
Kinematics Dictionary - From Free Directory
Acceleration, velocity, and Position - The connectionsbetween position, velocity, and
acceleration ...
Relative Velocity - Java Applet
Relative Velocity and Riverboat Problems - Vectors - Fundamentals and Operations
Acceleration, Forces and Free Body Diagrams - Newton's Second Law and Elevators
Introduction to Friction - Java Applet
Gears and Gear Systems - A good example of a gear train
What is Torque? - A measure of how much a force acting on an object causes that object to
rotat
Strength of Materials:
Strength of Materials (SOM) - Notes, Tutorials
Introduction/Review of Statics, Stress, Stress, Mechanical Properties of Materials,
Transformation of Stress, Axial Load, Transformation of Strain, Torsion, Beam Bending,
Bending of 'Composite ' Beams, Transverse Shear, Combined Loadings, Deflections of
Beams and Shafts
Strength of Materials (SOM)
Material Properties: Strength of Material - Simple Compression Studies, Plasticity and
Adiabatic Shear Bands, Metastable Phases, Phase-Change Measurements, Rear-Surface
Studies etc.
Material Selection Guide - Abbreviations and Acronyms, Metals,Plastics, Coefficient of
Friction Testing, Compressive Strength Testing, Deflection TemperatureTesting, Metal
Matrix Composites, Plastic Recycling Codes etc
Torsion Definitions - Dictionary meaning of word Torsion
Cast Iron - Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but can mean any of a group of iron-
based alloys containing more than 2%carbon ... read more
The Basics of Torsion Mechanics - The general principle of inertia as a generalization of
Newton's mechanics, Torsion Interactions, Torsion mechanics as a generalization of
Einstein's mechanics
SOM Syllabus- Strength of Materials Syllabus
A Study on Controlled Low Strength Material - The aim of this research is to address CLSMs
engineering properties and chemical resistance. Various tests were done to quantify the
workability, strength and chemical resistance.
Steel Terms and Definitions- Brinell Hardness, Yield Strength, Tensile Strength, Hi-Tensile
Steel, Corten Steel, Domex Steel, T-1 Steel, AR 400 Steel
Flexural Strength and Modulus of Polymers - Flexural Strength Testing of Plastics, Typical
Flexural Strength and Flexural Modulus of Polymers
Allowable Strength - Safety Factors, Shear Stresses, Thermal Stresses, Material Properties,
Buckling Stress, Oscillating Stresses, Impact Strength
Structural Joints - Fastener Quality Standards, Fastener Assembly, Welded Joints, Shear
Loads(bolted joints), Screw Joints, Fastener Locking etc
Analysis of Stress - State of Stress at a Point, Principal Stresses and Directions, Maximum
Shear Stresses and Directions, Mohr's Circles, The Maximum Normal Stress Theory, The
Maximum Shear Stress Theory etc
Strength Of Materials - A to Z - Alphabetical listing of terminologiesused in SOM
Shear Strength - Shear strength Laboratory tests
Plane Shear Flow of Cohesive Granular Materials - Article
Principal Stress Calculator - Calculator Introduction, Equations behind the Calculator. The
same page has links to Plane Strain Transform Calculator, Elastic Constant Converter and
Plane Stress Transform Calculator
Materials for young's modulus - Young's modulus formula for most of the materials
Strength of Materials Video - Learning strengths has never been easier than with streaming
video.
Strength of Materials Basic - Modules of elasticity, Yield Strength, Bending stress etc
Calculationof young's modulus - Online calculator to calculateyoung's modulus
Materials and Formulae Page - Formulae, tables, converters specific to materials
Poisson's Ratio - Poisson's ratio is a measure of the simultaneous change in elongation and in
cross-sectional area within the elastic range during a tensile or compressive test.
How Force, Power, Torque and Energy Work - How Force, Power, Torque and Energy Work
Torque - Units, Moment arm formula, Static equilibrium, Force at an angle, Relationship
between torque and power
Eformulae - Strength of Materials - Stress, Strain, Hooke's Law, Piosson's Ratio, Unit Volume
Change, Elongation due to its weight, Thin Rings, Strain Energy, Mohr's Circle for Biaxial
Stress, Torsion formula for Thin walled tubes, Torsion formula for Circular Shafts, Flexure
Formula, Shear Stress In Bending, Thin-Walled Hollow Members (Tubes), Stress
Concentration, Curved Beam in Pure Bending
Angle of Twist - Torsion: Deformation - Angle of Twist
Machine Elements:
Design and Manufacturing of Machine Elements - Notes, Tutorials
Introduction toDesign Considerations, Stresses in Machine Elements, Deflection, Stiffness,
and Stability, Critical Material Properties for Machine Parts, Static Stress Failure Theories,
VariableLoading: Fatigue Failure, Introduction to Fracture Mechanics, Springs
Design and Manufacturing of Machine Elements Books
Fundamentals of Machine Elements - by BernardJ. Hamrock, Bo O. Jacobson, Steven R.
Schmid
-- Provides undergraduates and praticing engineers with a clear understanding of the theory
and applicationsbehind the fundamental conceptsof machine elements.
Schaum's Outline of Machine Design- by Hall, Holowenko, Laughlin, Holowenko, Laughlin
-- Master machine design with Schaum's--the high-performance study guide. It will help you
cut studytime, hone problem-solving skills, and achieve your personal best on exams!
Machine Design : An Integrated Approach - by Robert L. Norton
-- Machine Design presents the subject matter in an up-to-date and thorough manner with a
strong design emphasis. This textbookemphasizes both failure theory and analysis as well as
emphasizing the synthesis and design aspects of machine elements.
Standard Handbook of Machine Design - by Joseph Shigley, Charles Mischke, Thomas H.
Brown
-- The definitive machine design handbook for mechanical engineers, product designers,
project engineers, design engineers, and manufacturing engineers covers every aspect of
machine construction and operation.
Machine Elements
Design of Machine Elements I Syllabus
Design of Machine Elements II Syllabus
Machine Learning
Tolerances and Fits
3-D Stress State in Mechanical Design
Curved Steel - Practical Applications
Contact Stresses, Castigliano's Theorem
Machine Elements : Fundamentals Presentation
Fatigue Design Criteria
Preface - Fundamentals of Machine Elements
MD Notes
Design and Analysis of Machine Elements
Design of Mechanical Springs
Design Of Shafts for Deflections
Shear and bending moment diagrams
Mohr's circle
3-D Mohr's circle
Stresses due to tension, bending, torsion
Octahedral Stresses
Solid Materials
Combined Stresses and Strains - Crank
Von Mises Stresses
Deflection with singularity functions
Three-support beam deflection problem
Superposition
Design for Deflection
Castigliano's energy method
How to Predict Failure
Stress concentration
Welded Joints
Gears
Gear Failure and Design
Preliminarydesign of gearbox
Tolerance
Beam Cantil
Bolts
Bearings
Shaft 1
Shaft 2
Rivets
Simply Supported Beam
Overhung Beams
Design and Manufacturing of Machine Elements - Notes, Tutorials
Introduction toDesign Considerations, Stresses in Machine Elements, Deflection, Stiffness,
and Stability, Critical Material Properties for Machine Parts, Static Stress Failure Theories,
VariableLoading: Fatigue Failure, Introduction to Fracture Mechanics, Springs
Design and Manufacturing of Machine Elements Books
Fundamentals of Machine Elements - by BernardJ. Hamrock, Bo O. Jacobson, StevenR.
Schmid
-- Provides undergraduates and praticing engineers with a clear understanding of the theory
and applicationsbehind the fundamental conceptsof machine elements.
Schaum's Outline of Machine Design- by Hall, Holowenko, Laughlin, Holowenko, Laughlin
-- Master machine design with Schaum's--the high-performance study guide. It will help you
cut study time, hone problem-solving skills, and achieve your personal best on exams!
Machine Design : An Integrated Approach - by Robert L. Norton
-- Machine Design presents the subject matter in an up-to-date and thorough manner with a
strong design emphasis. This textbookemphasizes both failure theory and analysis as well as
emphasizing the synthesis and design aspects of machine elements.
Standard Handbook of Machine Design - by Joseph Shigley, Charles Mischke, Thomas H.
Brown
-- The definitive machine design handbook for mechanical engineers, product designers,
project engineers, design engineers, and manufacturing engineers covers every aspect of
machine construction and operation.
Machine Elements
Design of Machine Elements I Syllabus
Design of Machine Elements II Syllabus
Machine Learning
Tolerances and Fits
3-D Stress State in Mechanical Design
Curved Steel - Practical Applications
Contact Stresses, Castigliano's Theorem
Machine Elements : Fundamentals Presentation
Fatigue Design Criteria
Preface - Fundamentals of Machine Elements
MD Notes
Design and Analysis of Machine Elements
Design of Mechanical Springs
Design Of Shafts for Deflections
Shear and bending moment diagrams
Mohr's circle
3-D Mohr's circle
Stresses due to tension, bending, torsion
Octahedral Stresses
Solid Materials
Combined Stresses and Strains - Crank
Von Mises Stresses
Deflection with singularity functions
Three-support beam deflection problem
Superposition
Design for Deflection
Castigliano's energy method
How to Predict Failure
Stress concentration
Welded Joints
Gears
Gear Failure and Design
Preliminarydesign of gearbox
Tolerance
Beam Cantil
Bolts
Bearings
Shaft 1
Shaft 2
Rivets
Simply Supported Beam
Overhung Beams
Machine Design:
Machine Design (MD)- Notes, Tutorials
Stress-strain analysis: Stress: Definition and notationfor stress; transformation of stress;
principal stresses, Strain: Definition and notation for strain; transformation of strain; principal
strains,Stress-strain relations for linear elastic materials: Generalized Hookes Law, Design
criteria, Maximumprincipal stress theory, Maximum shear stress theory, Maximum distortion
energy theory, Truss finite element, 1-D, 2-D, 3-d truss element, Beam finite element, Total
potential energy, Finite element approximation, Principle of minimum total potential energy,
Calculationof element moments, shear forces and stresses, Finite element analysis using I-
DEAS, Two-dimensional elasticity, Constant strain triangular element, Four node rectangular
element, Four node iso-parametric quadrilateral element, Design optimization, Optimality
condition, Convex problem, Numerical method
Machine Design Resources
Machine Design Free Subscription
Design Analysis of Machine Elements
Mechanics of Materials Software (MD Solids)
Mechanisms and Mechanical Devices Sourcebook
Section modulus calculator- beam analysis
Case Studies in Engineering Design
Aspect Oriented Programming with Spring
Engineering Statics
Building Confidence in the Design
An Ontology of Mechanical Devices
Integrating safety during the machine design stage
References On Machine Design
Machine Design Problem
Textbook for Machine Design
Introduction of Precision Machine
Principle of Measurement
Principle of Precision Design
Error Formulation and Error Budget(1)
Design of Thermomechanical System
Vibration of Precision Machine
Complinance and Residual Vibration
Friction and Accuracy
Positioning Control
Flexure Spring, Traction Drive
Optical measuring system
Nano-measuring systems
Nano-positioning systems
Machine Design (MD)- Notes, Tutorials
Stress-strain analysis: Stress: Definition and notationfor stress; transformation of stress;
principal stresses, Strain: Definition and notation for strain; transformation of strain; principal
strains,Stress-strain relations for linear elastic materials: Generalized Hookes Law, Design
criteria, Maximumprincipal stress theory, Maximum shear stress theory, Maximum distortion
energy theory, Truss finite element, 1-D, 2-D, 3-d truss element, Beam finite element, Total
potential energy, Finite element approximation, Principle of minimum total potential energy,
Calculationof element moments, shear forces and stresses, Finite element analysis using I-
DEAS, Two-dimensional elasticity, Constant strain triangular element, Four node rectangular
element, Four node iso-parametric quadrilateral element, Design optimization, Optimality
condition, Convex problem, Numerical method
Machine Design Resources
Machine Design Free Subscription
Design Analysis of Machine Elements
Mechanics of Materials Software(MD Solids)
Mechanisms and Mechanical Devices Sourcebook
Section modulus calculator- beam analysis
Case Studies in Engineering Design
Aspect Oriented Programming with Spring
Engineering Statics
Building Confidence in the Design
An Ontology of Mechanical Devices
Integrating safety during the machine design stage
References On Machine Design
Machine Design Problem
Textbook for Machine Design
Introduction of Precision Machine
Principle of Measurement
Principle of Precision Design
Design of Thermomechanical System
Vibration of Precision Machine
Complinance and Residual Vibration
Friction and Accuracy
Positioning Control
Flexure Spring, Traction Drive
Optical measuring system
Nano-measuring systems
Nano-positioning systems
Finite Elements:
Finite Element Analysis FEA, Finite Element Methods FEM Notes Tutorials
Finite Element Analysis FEA, Finite Element Methods FEM Books
Matlab Guide to Finite Elements: An Interactive Approach - byPeter Issa Kattan
-- This bookexplores the numerical implementationof Finite Element Analysisusing the
computer program MATLAB, which is very popular today in engineering and engineering
education. The book contains a short tutorial on MATLAB as well as a systematic strategyfor
the treatment of finite element methods.
Schaum's Outline of Finite Element Analysis - by George R. Buchanan
-- If you want top grades and thorough understanding of finite element analysis, this
powerful study tool is the best tutor you can have! It takes you step-by-step through the
subject and gives you accompanying related problems with fully worked solutions.
Finite Elements for Electrical Engineers- by Peter P. Silvester, Ronald L. Ferrari
-- This third edition of the principal text on the finite element method for electrical engineers
and electronics specialists presents the method in a mathematically undemanding style,
accessible to undergraduates who may be encountering it for the first time. Like the earlier
editions, it begins by deriving finite elements for the simplest familiar potential fields, and
then formulates finite elements for a wide range of applied electromagnetics problems.
The Finite Element Method in Electromagnetics - by Jianming Jin
-- A comprehensive collection of the methods for the discretization of electromagnetic
problems. A systematic treatment of the finite element method
Matrix Algebra -- Review of Matrix Algebra for FEM, Eigenvalues and eigenvectors, Inverse
Matrices
Nonlinear FEA of piezoelectric transducers -- Finite Element Analysis of Piezoelectric
Materials, The limitations of FEA packages with respect to piezoelectric materials, General
FEA questions
Introduction to Finite Element Methods FEM -- FEM in different fields of applications, History
of FEM, FEM and other numerical methods
FEM Accuracy -- Finite Element Method - Accuracy Improvement by Using Both E and H
Formulations with Applications to Waveguide Discontinuity Problems
The open Finite Element Project -- Finite element stress analysis (FEM) is a standard tool for
engineers to check mechanical properties of parts they construct. The theory behind (linear)
FEM is known since many years, and these algorithms need only a modest amount of
processing power
A New Finite Element Formulation for Electromechanics -- A new finite element formulation
for the solution of electromechanical boundary value problems is presented. As opposed to
the standard formulation that utilizes a scalar electric potential as nodal variables, this new
formulation implements a vector potential from which components of electric displacement
are derived.
Applying FEA to Perform Heat Transfer Calculations -- Applying FEA to Perform Heat Transfer
Calculations to Increase the Utility of IR Thermography
FEA Applications -- Heat Transfer Analysis by FEA, Thermal-Stress Analysis by FEA
Syllabus : Introduction to FEM, Review of Matrix Algebra, Stiffness Matrix for Spring
Element; Finite Elements Equations, Assembly of Stiffness Matrices, Bar and Beam
Elements. Linear Static Analysis, Linear Static Analysis; Bar Element, Distributed Load;
Transformation of Coordinate Systems; Element Stress, Beam Elements, Distributed Load,
Frame Analysis, Two-Dimensional Problems, Review of the Basic Theory in 2-D Elasticity,
Stiffness Matrices for 2-D Problems; Distributed Loads; Stress Calculation; FE Modeling and
Solution Techniques, Plate and Shell Elements, Plate Theory, Shell Theory and Shell
Elements, 3-D Elasticity; FE Formulation, Element Formulation; Solids of Revolution;
Axisymmetric Elements; Structural Vibration and Dynamics, Dynamic, Equations, Free
Vibration Analysis, Damping; Modal Equations; Frequency Response Analysis, Transient
Response Analysis
Mathematics:
Matrix Algebra: Introduction
Matrices and Determinants were discovered and developed in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. Initially, their development dealt with transformation of geometric objects and
solution of systems of linear equations. Historically, the early emphasis was on the
determinant, not the matrix. In modern treatments of linear algebra, matrices are considered
first. We will not speculate much on this issue. Matrices provide a theoretically and
practically useful way of approaching many types of problems including:
Solution of Systems of Linear Equations,
Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies (in physics),
Graph Theory,
Theory of Games,
Leontief EconomicsModel,
Forest Management,
Computer Graphics, and Computed Tomography,
Genetics,
Cryptography,
Electrical Networks,
Fractals.
Matrix Algebra: Introduction:
Graph Theory,
Theory of Games,
Forest Management,
Genetics,
Cryptography,
Fractals.
Graph Theory,
Theory of Games,
Forest Management,
Genetics,
Cryptography,
Fractals.
Introduction and Basic Operations:
Matrices, though they may appear weird objects at first, are a very important tool in
expressing and discussing problems which arise from real life cases.
Our first example deals with economics. Indeed, consider two families A and B (though we
may easily take more than two). Every month, the two families have expenses such as:
utilities, health, entertainment, food, etc... Let us restrict ourselves to: food, utilities, and
health. How would one represent the data collected? Many ways are available but one of them
has an advantage of combining the data so that it is easy to manipulate them. Indeed, we will
write the data as follows:
If we have no problem confusing the names and what the expenses are, then we may write
This is what we call a Matrix. The size of the matrix, as a block, is defined by the number of
Rows and the number of Columns. In this case, the above matrix has 2 rows and 3 columns.
You may easily come up with a matrix which has m rows and n columns. In this case, we say
that the matrix is a (mxn) matrix (pronounce m-by-n matrix). Keep in mind that the first
entry (meaning m) is the number of rows while the second entry (n) is the number of
columns. Our above matrix is a (2x3) matrix.
When the numbers of rows and columns are equal, we call the matrix a square matrix. A
square matrix of order n, is a (nxn) matrix.
Back to our example, let us assume, for example, that the matrices for the months of J anuary,
February, and March are
To make sure that the reader knows what these numbers mean, you should be able to give the
Health-expenses for family A and Food-expenses for family B during the month of February.
The answers are 250 and 600. The next question may sound easy to answer, but requires a
new concept in the matrix context. Indeed, what is the matrix-expense for the two families for
the first quarter? The idea isto add the three matrices above. It is easy to determine the total
expenses for each family and each item, then the answer is
So how do we add matrices? An approach is given by the above example. The answer is to
add entries one by one. For example, we have
Clearly, if you want to double a matrix, it is enough to add the matrix to itself. So we have
we get
which implies
This suggests the following rule
and for any number , we will have
Let us summarize these two rules about matrices.
Addition of Matrices: In order to add two matrices, we add the entries one by one.
Note: Matrices involved in the addition operation must have the same size.
Multiplication of a Matrix by a Number: In order to multiply a matrix by a number,
you multiply every entry by the given number.
Keep in mind that we always write numbers to the left and matrices to the right (in the case of
multiplication).
What about subtracting two matrices? It is easy, since subtraction is a combination of the two
above rules. Indeed, if M and N are two matrices, then we will write
M-N =M+(-1)N
So first, you multiply the matrix N by -1, and then add the result to the matrix M.
Example. Consider the three matrices J, F, and M from above. Evaluate
Answer. We have
and since
we get
To compute J-M, we note first that
Since J-M =J +(-1)M, we get
And finally, for J-F+2M, we have a choice. Here we would like to emphasize the fact that
addition of matrices may involve more than one matrix. In this case, you may perform the
calculations in any order. This is called associativity of the operations. So first we will take
careof -F and 2Mto get
Since J-F+2M=J +(-1)F +2M, we get
So first we will evaluate J-F to get
to which we add 2M, to finally obtain
For the addition of matrices, one special matrix plays a role similar to the number zero.
Indeed, if we consider the matrix with all its entries equal to 0, then it is easy to check that
this matrix has behavior similar to the number zero. For example, we have
and
What about multiplying two matrices? Such operation exists but the calculations involved are
complicated.
Application of Invertible Matrices: Coding
There are many ways to encrypt a message. And the use of coding has becomeparticularly
significant in recent years (due to the explosion of the internet for example). One way to
encrypt or code a message uses matrices and their inverse. Indeed, consider a fixed invertible
matrix A. Convert the message into a matrix B such that AB is possible to perform. Send the
message generated by AB. At the other end, they will need to know A
-1
in order to decrypt or
decode the message sent. Indeed, we have
whichis the original message. Keep in mind that whenever an undesired intruder finds A, we
must be able to change it. So we should have a mechanical way of generating simple matrices
A which are invertible and have simple inverse matrices. Note that, in general, the inverse of a
matrix involves fractions which are not easy to send in an electronic form. The best is to have
both A and its inverse with integers as their entries. In fact, we can use our previous
knowledge to generate such class of matrices.
Indeed, if A is a matrix such that its determinant is and all its entries are integers, then A
-1
will have entries which are integers. So how do we generate such class of matrices? One
practical way is to start with an upper triangular matrix with on the diagonal and integer-
entries. Then we use the elementary row operations to change the matrix while keeping the
determinant unchanged. Do not multiply rows with non-integers while doing elementary row
operations. Let us illustrate this on an example.
Example. Consider the matrix
First we keep the first row and add it to the second as well as to the third rows. We obtain
Next we keep the first row again, we add the second to the third, and finally add the last one
to the first multiplied by -2. We obtain
This is our matrix A. Easy calculationswill give det(A) =-1, which we knew since the above
elementary operations did not change the determinant from the original triangular matrix
which obviously has -1 as its determinant. We leave the details of the calculations to the
reader. The inverse of A is
Back to our original problem. Consider the message
To every letter we will associatea number. The easiest wayto do that is to associate 0 to a
blank or space, 1 to A, 2 to B, etc... Another way is to associate 0 to a blank or space, 1 to A, -
1 to B, 2 to C, -2 to D, etc... Let us use the second choice. So our message is given by the
string
Now we rearrange these numbersinto a matrix B. For example, we have
Then we perform the product AB, where A is the matrix found above. We get
The encrypted message to be sent is
System of Equations: An Introduction
Many books on linear algebrawill introducematrices via systemsof linear equations. We
tried a different approach. We hope this way you will appreciate matrices as a powerful tool
useful not only to solve linear systems of equations. Basically, the problem of findingsome
unknownslinked to each others via equations is called a system of equations.
For example,
and
are systems of two equations with two unknowns (x and y), while
Introduction to Determinants
For anysquare matrix of order 2, we have found a necessary and sufficient condition for
invertibility. Indeed, consider the matrix
The matrix A is invertible if and only if . We called this number the
determinant of A. It is clear from this, that we would liketo have a similar result for bigger
matrices (meaning higher orders). So is there a similar notion of determinant for any square
matrix, which determines whether a square matrix is invertible or not?
In order to generalize such notion to higher orders, we will need to study the determinant and
see what kind of properties it satisfies. First let us use the following notationfor the
determinant
Properties of the Determinant :
1. Any matrix Aand its transpose have the same determinant, meaning
This is interesting since it implies that whenever we use rows, a similar behavior will result if
we use columns. In particular we will see how row elementary operations are helpful in
finding the determinant. Therefore, we have similar conclusions for elementary column
operations.
2. The determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of the entries on the diagonal, that is
3. If we interchange two rows, the determinant of the new matrix is the opposite of the old
one, that is
4. If we multiply one row with a constant, the determinant of the new matrix is the
determinant of the old one multiplied by the constant, that is
In particular, if all the entries in one row are zero, then the determinant is zero.
5. If we add one row to another one multiplied by a constant, the determinant of the new
matrix is the same as the old one, that is
Note that whenever you want to replace a row by something (through elementary operations),
do not multiply the row itself by a constant. Otherwise, you will easily make errors (due to
Property 4).
6. We have
In particular, if A is invertible (which happens if and only if ), then
If A and B are similar, then .
Let us look at an example, to see how these properties work.
Example. Evaluate
Let us transformthis matrix into a triangular one through elementary operations. We will
keep the first row and add to the second one the first multiplied by . We get
Using the Property 2, we get
Therefore, we have
which one may check easily.
is a system of two equations with three unknowns (x, y, and z).
These systems of equations occur naturally in many real life problems. For example, consider
a nutritious drink which consists of whole egg, milk, and orange juice. The food energy and
protein for each of the ingredients are given by the table:
A natural question to ask is how much of each ingredient do we need to produce a drink of
540 calories and 25 grams of protein. In order to answer that, let x be the number of eggs, y
the amount of milk (in cups), and z the amount of orange of juice (in cups). Then we need to
have
The task of Solving a system consists of finding the unknowns, here: x, y and z. A solution is
a set of numbers once substituted for the unknowns will satisfy the equations of the system.
For example, (2,1,2) and (0.325, 2.25, 1.4) are solutions tothe system above.
The fundamental problem associated to any system is to find all the solutions. One way is to
study the structure of its set of solutions which, in some cases, may help finding the solutions.
Indeed, for example, in order to find the solutions to a linear system, it is enough to find just a
few of them. This is possible because of the richstructure of the set of solutions.
Determinant and Inverse of Matrices:
Findingthe inverse of a matrix is very important in many areas of science. For example,
decrypting a coded message uses the inverse of a matrix. Determinant may be used to answer
this problem. Indeed, let A be a square matrix. We know that A is invertible if and only if
. Also if A has order n, then the cofactor A
i,j
is defined as the determinant of the
square matrix of order (n-1) obtained from A by removing the row number i and the column
number j multiplied by (-1)
i+j
. Recall
for any fixed i, and
for anyfixed j. Define the adjoint of A, denoted adj(A), to be the transpose of the matrix
whose ij
th
entry is A
ij
.
Example. Let
We have
Let us evaluate . We have
Note that . Therefore, we have
Is this formula only true for this matrix, or does a similar formula exist for any square matrix?
In fact, we do have a similar formula.
Theorem. For any square matrix A of order n, we have
In particular, if , then
For a square matrix of order 2, we have
which gives
Strength of Materials:
Engineering and Applications Factor of
Safety Review:
Factor of safety for structural applications is the ratio of the allowable working unit stress,
allowable stress or working stress. The term was originated for determining allowable stress.
The ultimate strength of a given material divided by an arbitrary factor of safety, dependant
on material and the use to which it is to be put, gives the allowable stress.
Where:
S
m
=Allowable working unit stress
s
w
=Working stress (Allowable stress)
f
s
=Factor of Safety
In present design and engineering practice, it is customary to use allowable stress as specified
by recognized industry standards or authorities as applicable rather than to use an arbitrary
factor of safety. One reason for this is that the factor of safety is misleading, in that it implies
a greater degree of safety than may actually exists. For example, a factor of safety of 4 does
not mean that a component or assembly application can carry a load four times as great as that
for which it was designed. It should also be clearly understood that, even though each part of
a machine may be designed with the same factor of safety, the machine as a whole does not
have that factor of safety. In the event that one part is stressed beyond the proportional limit,
or particularly the yield point, the load or stress distribution may be completely changed
throughout the entire machine or structure, and its ability to function at rated load may be
changed, even though no part has failed or ruptured.
The following should be considered when designing and analyzing a structural or machine
component or assembly:
Effects of associated assemblies or components.
Thermal cycling and operating or extreme temperature effects.
Intensity of stress concentrations.
Effects of wear
Likely ness of structural or machine abuse. Controls may not be in place to prevent an
overstress condition. Classic example is the general public exceeding automotive
(truck) rated towing capacity. Such events particularly when repeated, tend accelerate
wear and failure of critical mechanical drive train components and assemblies.
Quality or likeness of scheduled maintenance.
Dimensional control and effects on quality of assembly. Excessive internal stresses
can never be properly estimated. Material stresses induced by non-perfect geometry
are difficult to model. Stresses can also be introduced by assembly misalignment
between components.
Influence of fatigue loading over the life cycle of the machine or structure.
Although no definite or universal rules can be given , if a factor of safety needs to be
determined or established, the following circumstances should be taken into account in its
selection:
1. When the ultimate strength of the material is known within narrow limits, as for
structural steel for which tests of samples have been made, when the load is entirely a
steady one of a known value a factor of safety should be adopted is 3.
2. When circumstances of (1) are modified by a portion of the load being variable, as in,
gear boxes, floors or warehouse operations, the factor of safety should not be less than
4.
3. When the whole load , or nearly the whole, is likely to be alternately put on and taken
off, as in suspension rods as used with suspension floors or bridges, the factor should
be 5 or 6.
4. When the stresses are reversed in direction from tension to compression, as in some
structural load bearing diagonals and parts of machines, the factor should be not less
than 6.
5. When the components are subjected to repeated shock loading the factor should not be
less than 10.
6. When the structure or component is subjected to deterioration from corrosion the
components or structure factor of safety should be sufficiently increased to allow for a
definite amount of material reduction before the system is weakened by the process.
7. When the strength of the material or the amount of the load or both are uncertain the
factor of safety should be increased by an allowance sufficient to cover the amount of
the uncertainty.
8. When the stress and strains are complex and of uncertain amount, such as those in the
crankshaft of a reversing engine, a very high factor is necessary, possibly even as high
as 40 or more.
9. If property loss caused by failure of the part or system may be large or if loss of life
may result, the factor of safety should be large and the structure or machine
performance should be verified by functional static or fatigue testing.
Von Mises Criterion:
This criterion is based on the determination of the distortion energy in a given material, i.e.,
of the energy associated with changes in the shapein that material ( as opposed to the energy
associated with the changes in volume in the same material ).
According to this criterion, named after German-American applied mathematicianRichard
von Mises (1883-1953), a given structural material is safe as long as the maximumvalue of
the distortion energy per unit volume in that material remains smaller than the distortion
energy per unit volume required to cause yield in a tensile-test specified of the same material.
Cold and Hot Working:
Plastic deformation which is carried out in a temperature region and over
a time interval such that the strain hardening is not relieved is called cold
work. Considerable knowledge on the structure of the cold-worked state
has been obtained. In the early stages of plastic deformation, slip is
essentially on primary glide planes and the dislocations form coplanar
arrays. As deformation proceeds, cross slip takes place. The cold-worked
structure forms high dislocation density regions that soon develop into
networks. The grain size decreases with strain at low deformation but
soon reaches a fixed size. Cold working will decrease ductility.
Hot working refers to the process where metals are deformed above their
recrystallization temperature and strain hardening does not occur. Hot
working is usually performed at elevated temperatures. Lead, however, is
hot-worked at room temperature because of its low melting temperature.
At the other extreme, molybdenum is cold-worked when deformed even at
red heat because of its high recrystallization temperature.
The resistance of metals to plastic deformation generally falls with
temperature. For this reason, larger massive sections are always worked
hot by forging, rolling, or extrusion. Metals display distinctly viscous
characteristics at sufficiently high temperatures, and their resistance to
flow increases at high forming rates. This occurs not only because it is a
characteristic of viscous substances, but because the rate of
recrystallization may not be fast enough.
Heat Treatment:
During manufacture, by varying the rate of cooling (quenching) of the metal, grain size and
grain patterns are controlled. Grain characteristics are controlled to produce different levels of
hardness and tensile strength. Generally, the faster a metal is cooled, the smaller the grain
sizes will be. This will make the metal harder. As hardness and tensile strength increase in
heat-treated steel, toughness and ductility decrease.
The cooling rate used in quenching depends on the method of cooling and the size of the
metal. Uniform cooling is important to prevent distortion. Typically, steel components are
quenched in oil or water.
Welding can induce internal stresses that will remain in the material after the welding is
completed. In stainless steels, such as type 304, the crystal lattice is face-centered cubic
(austenite). During high temperature welding, some surrounding metal may be elevated to
between 500F and 1000F. In this temperature region, the austenite is transformed into a
bodycentered cubic lattice structure (bainite). When the metal has cooled, regions surrounding
the weld contain some original austenite and some newly formed bainite. A problem arises
because the "packing factor" (PF =volume of atoms/volume of unit cell) is not the same for
FCC crystals as for BCC crysta
The bainite that has been formed occupies more space than the original austenite lattice. This
elongation of the material causes residual compressive and tensile stresses in the material.
Welding stresses can be minimized by using heat sink welding, which results in lower metal
temperatures, and by annealing.
Annealing is another common heat treating process for carbon steel components. During
annealing, the component is heated slowly to an elevated temperature and held there for a
long period of time, then cooled. The annealing process is done to obtain the following
effects.
a. tosoften the steel and improve ductility
b. to relieve internal stresses caused by previous processes such as heat treatment, welding, or
machining
c. to refine the grain structure

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