PRE-TREATMENT

PROCESSES IN
TEXTILE
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 2 of 46




CLASS
Assignment


SUBMITTED TO:
DR. SALMA FAROOQ


FOR THE SUBJECT OF:
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1
(TE-316)


DEPARTMENT OF TEXTILE ENGINEERING

NED UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 3 of 46

TABLE OF CONTENTS

WET PROCESSING IN TEXTILE .......................................................................................... 5
INTRODUCTION: ............................................................................................................... 6
DIVISION OF WET PROCESSING: ................................................................................ 6
Pre-Treatment: .............................................................................................................. 6
Dyeing & Printing: ........................................................................................................ 6
Finishing: ...................................................................................................................... 6
PRE-TREATMENT PROCESSES IN TEXTILE ..................................................................... 7
INTRODUCTION: ............................................................................................................... 8
STEPS OF PRE-TREATMENT PROCESSES: ................................................................. 8
SINGEING ..................................................................................................................... 9
WHAT IS SINGEING? ................................................................................................... 10
SINGEING OBJECTIVES & ADVANTAGE: ................................................................ 10
TYPES OF SINGEING MACHINES .............................................................................. 10
Plate Singeing Machine ............................................................................................... 10
Rotary-Cylinder Singeing Machine.............................................................................. 11
Gas Singeing Machine ................................................................................................. 11
TESTING SINGEING EFFECTIVENESS ...................................................................... 17
DESIZING ................................................................................................................... 18
WHAT IS DESIZING? ................................................................................................... 19
WHY DESIZING IS NECESSARY? .............................................................................. 19
OBJECTIVES OF DESIZING ........................................................................................ 19
FACTORS ON WHICH DESIZING DEPENDS: ............................................................ 19
WHAT TO KNOW BEFORE DESIZING? ..................................................................... 19
METHODS OF DESIZING: ........................................................................................... 20
ROT STEEPING: ........................................................................................................ 20
ACID DESIZING: ....................................................................................................... 21
ENZYMATIC DESIZING: ......................................................................................... 21
OXIDATIVE DESIZING: ........................................................................................... 21
COMPARISON: ............................................................................................................. 22
TYPES OF DESIZING MACHINES: ............................................................................. 22
Scouring .................................................................................................................. 23
WHAT IS SCOURING? ................................................................................................. 24
WHY TO SCOUR? ......................................................................................................... 24
OBJECTIVE OF SCOURING:........................................................................................ 24
HOW IT IS DONE? ........................................................................................................ 24
CLASSIFICATION OF SCOURING AGENTS: ............................................................. 25
USES OF SCOURING AGENTS:................................................................................... 25
SEQUESTERING AGENT/CHELATING AGENT .................................................... 25
SURFACTANTS ........................................................................................................ 26
IMPURITIES AND THEIR REMOVAL: ....................................................................... 26
FORMS OF SCOURING: ............................................................................................... 27
Yarn scouring .............................................................................................................. 27
Fabric scouring: ........................................................................................................... 27
METHODS OF COTTON SCOURING: ......................................................................... 28
STANDARD RECIPE: ................................................................................................... 28
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 4 of 46

THE SCOURING PROCESS DEPENDS ON: ................................................................ 28
BLEACHING ............................................................................................................... 29
WHAT IS BLEACHING? ............................................................................................... 30
WHAT ARE BLEACHING AGENTS? .......................................................................... 30
TYPES OF BLEACHINGS IN TEXTILE W.R.T BLEACHING AGENTS: ................... 30
Oxidative bleaching: .................................................................................................... 30
Reductive bleaching: ................................................................................................... 30
AUXILLARIES FOR BLEACHING:.............................................................................. 31
ADVANTAGES OF BLEACHING: ............................................................................... 31
MACHINERIES FOR BLEACHING THROUGH DIFFERENT METHODS: ................ 31
BATCH BLEACHING PROCESS MACHINERIES [KIERS]: ....................................... 31
SEMI-CONTINUOUS BLEACHING PROCESS MACHINERIES [PAD-
BATCH/PAD-ROLL]: ................................................................................................ 32
CONTINUOUS BLEACHING PROCESS MACHINERIES .......................................... 33
BENNINGERS BEN-BLEACH SYSTEM: ................................................................... 34
Bleaching Unit of BENNINGERS BEN-BLEACH: ................................................ 34
MERCERIZATION ...................................................................................................... 36
WHAT IS MERCERIZATION? ...................................................................................... 37
CONDITIONS FOR MERCERIZATION ....................................................................... 37
FACTORS AFFECTING MERCERIZATION ................................................................ 37
Concentration & Temperature: .................................................................................... 37
Tension: ...................................................................................................................... 39
Time of impregnation: ................................................................................................. 39
TYPES OF MERCERIZATION ...................................................................................... 40
Cold Mercerization: ..................................................................................................... 40
Hot Mercerization: ...................................................................................................... 40
MACHINERY OF MERCERIZATION .......................................................................... 41
CHAIN AND CHAINLESS MERCERIZATION ............................................................ 42
Chain mercerization: ................................................................................................... 42
Chainless Mercerization .............................................................................................. 42
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 43
FORE WORDS: .................................................................................................................. 44
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 46

















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WET
PROCESSING
IN TEXTILE

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INTRODUCTION:
Wet processing is a value-added process. The process by which the
textile materials are treated associated with water is called wet processing.
In Textile wet processing the chemical treatments are given to the fabric
after being manufactured. Actually the fabric coming from the loom is not
having properties like absorbency, softness, etc. and the most important is
that the appearance of the fabric is dirty or pale yellow; we cannot use it
directly for making apparels or clothing. So, it is necessary to go for
chemical processing of the material to make it wearable.
DIVISION OF WET PROCESSING:
There are 3 division of wet processing:


Pre-Treatment:
Pretreatment means any treatment, which is done before actual
(dyeing and printing) process. Textile pretreatment is the series of cleaning
operations. All impurities which cause adverse effect during dyeing and
printing are removed in pre- treatment process.
Dyeing & Printing:
The process by which the textile materials are colored by different
types of dye or pigments, related chemicals, required water is called dyeing.
Localized application of dyestuff or pigments on fabric according to the
predetermined design is called printing.
Finishing:
The process by which the textile materials are made suitable for
marketing to satisfaction/attraction of buyer are called finishing i.e.
calendaring, leveling, anti-creasing, mercerizing, packaging etc.



WET
PROCESSING
Pre-treatment
Dyeing &
Printing
Finishing
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 7 of 46








PRE-TREATMENT
PROCESSES IN
TEXTILE




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INTRODUCTION:
Natural fibers and synthetic fibers contain primary impurities that are
contained naturally, and secondary impurities that are added during
spinning, knitting and weaving processes. Textile pretreatment is the series
of cleaning operations. All impurities which cause adverse effect during
dyeing and printing are removed in pretreatment process.



Pretreatment processes include singeing, de-sizing, scouring, bleaching
and mercerization which make subsequent dyeing and softening processes
easy. Uneven pretreatment processes might cause drastic deterioration in
the quality of processed products, such as uneven dyeing and decrease in
fastness.

OBJECTIVE OF PRETREATMENT:
To remove dust, dirt etc from the fabric.
To convert fabric from hydrophobic to hydrophilic state.
To achieve the degree of desire whiteness.
STEPS OF PRE-TREATMENT PROCESSES:
Major steps involved in textile pretreatment processes are:
Singeing
Desizing
Scouring
Mercerization
Bleaching
PRE-
TREATMENT
Singeing Desizing Scouring Bleaching
Mercerizati-
on
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 9 of 46



SINGEING












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WHAT IS SINGEING?
The verb singe literally means to burn superficially. Technically, singeing
refers to the burning-off of:
Loose fibers not firmly bound into the yarn and/or fabric structure.
Loose yarns not firmly bound into the fabric structure.
Protruding fiber ends sticking out of the textile yarns and/or fabrics.

Textiles materials are most commonly singed in woven or knitted fabric
form or in yarn form.
SINGEING OBJECTIVES & ADVANTAGE:
Singeing of a fabric is done in order to obtain a clean fabric surface
which allows the structure of the fabric to be clearly seen.
Fabrics, which have been singed, soil less easily than un-singed
fabrics.
The risk of pilling, especially with synthetics and their blends, is
reduced in case of singed fabrics.
Singed fabrics allow printing of fine intricate patterns with high clarity
and detail.
The risk of skitter dyeing with singed articles dyed in dark shades is
considerably reduced, as randomly protruding fibers are removed in
singeing which could cause diffused reflection of light.
TYPES OF SINGEING MACHINES
There are three main types of singeing machines:
Plate singeing machine
Rotary-cylinder singeing machine
Gas singeing machine
Plate Singeing Machine
In this type of singeing machine, the cloth passes over and in contact
with one or two heated curved copper plates. The thickness of the plates
ranges from 1 to 2 inches. The heating of the plates is done by a suitable
burning arrangement of gas mixed with air. The plates are heated to bright
redness and the cloth passes over and in contact with these plates at a
speed ranging from 150 to 250 yards per minute
The passage of the cloth can be arranged in such a manner that one or both
sides of the fabric may pass over and in contact with the heated plates, in
order to accomplish singeing of one or both sides of the fabric in a single
passage.
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In order to avoid local cooling of a certain part of the plates by
constant passage of cloth over it, an automatic traversing mechanism is
fitted to the machine. This mechanism brings the cloth into contact with a
constantly changing part of the plate(s), not only to avoid local cooling but
also local wearing of the plate(s).






Rotary-Cylinder Singeing Machine
In this type of singeing machine, the cloth passes over and in contact
with a heated rotary cylinder made of copper or cast iron. The rotary
cylinder has internal firing and revolves slowly so that constantly a fresh
surface of the roller comes in contact with the cloth. The direction of
rotation of the cylinder is opposite to the direction of the fabric so that the
protruding fibers or nap of the fabric is raised.
This type of machine is particularly suitable for the singeing of velvets
and other pile fabrics.
If the singeing of both sides of the fabric is required, then two cylinder
are employed, one for each side of the fabric.


Gas Singeing Machine
In this type of singeing machine, the fabric passes over a burning gas
flame at such a speed that only the protruding fibers burn and the main
body of the fabric is not damaged by the flame. This is the most common
type of machine used for singeing fabrics as well yarns.

TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 12 of 46


Fundamentals of Gas Singeing
The main purpose of singeing is to burn the protruding fibers from the
yarn and/or fabric surface. In order to burn the protruding fibers, energy
must be supplied. The supplied energy must be just enough to burn only
the protruding fibers, while keeping the firmly bound fibers intact. This is
achieved by allowing time of contact between the singeing flame and the
fabric to practically a fraction of a second. As the temperature of the flame is
too high (around 1300C), any regulation of this temperature is out of the
question. However, metering and control of thermal energy of the flame is
essential for the safe but effective burning off process.
Main components of a Gas Singeing Machine
The figure illustrates main components of a gas singeing machine. The
dotted line in the figure represents the movement of fabric from the left to
the right.

Line Diagram of Gas Singeing Machine for Woven Fabrics by Swastik









TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 13 of 46

At the start, the fabric passes through a tension unit with guide
rollers and bars, which ensure crease-free entry of the fabric into the
machine. Then, there are (optional) pre-drying cylinders which even out any
variations in the fabric moisture-content and temperature.
Next, the fabric passes through pre-brushing unit which, in addition
to removing dirt/dust, lint and loose fibers from the fabric, causes the fibers
sticking to the fabric surface to stand out for easy subsequent burning. A
dust collection system, provided just below the brush rollers, is connected to
a powerful suction unit.


After pre-brushing, the fabric enters into the singeing chamber, where
it passes over the burning flames, which are positioned on both sides of the
fabric. The cloth can be threaded so as to allow singeing of either one or
both sides of the fabric. Burner body is specially designed to provide gas
flow at uniform pressure/velocity throughout the fabric width. Burner is
termed as the heart of singeing and should generate homogenous, stable,
uniform and highly concentrated flame rich in energy by ideal combustion of
the gas: air mixture. Good singeing machines offer adjustable flame
intensity, flame width and distance between the flame and the fabric.
Gas outlet section of the burner is provided with water jacket to keep
the burner cool. Adjustable water-cooled rollers are used to obtain different
fabric/flame positions, which permit desired degree of singeing effect on
different quality of fabrics by adjusting the guide roller position with respect
to the flame. A Carburetor or air/gas mixer allows automatic mixing of gas
with air to control the intensity of the singeing flame.
After passing over the flames, the fabric passes through (optional)
steam quenching unit to put off any sparks and/or through post-brushing
section for clean-up/removal of burnt fibers. The after-brushing keeps the
subsequent impregnation-liquor cleaner and reduces the amount of dust
entering in the following process steps. Then, the fabric passes though a
saturator, which contains the desizing agent along with the auxiliary
chemicals. After saturation with the desizing liquor, the fabric is squeezed
by squeezing mangles and is wound on a batcher.
Important GAS singeing parameters
Following are the important gas singeing parameters:
Flame intensity
Fabric speed
Singeing position
Distance between flame burner and fabric
Flame Width
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a) Flame Intensity
The flame intensity of the singeing burners is based on the amount and
the outlet speed of the gas-air mixture leaving the burner slots. Besides
having high thermal energy, flame also has considerable mechanical energy.
All the thermal and mechanical energy of the flame is directed onto the
fabric during singeing. The temperature of the flame at the mouth of the
burner is in the range of 1250 to 1300C. The speed of the flame at the
burner outlet may be between 15 and 35 meter per second. The flame
intensity usually lies between 5 and 20 mbars.
b) Fabric Speed
The fabric speed in the singeing machine is usually in the range of 50-
160 m/min depending on fabric (gram per square meter) weight and fiber
blend. For heavier fabrics, the speed is kept slower as compared to lighter
weight fabrics.
c) Singeing Position
Singeing onto free-guided fabric:
This is the most intensive singeing position with highest efficiency. In
this position, the flame bounces onto the free-guided fabric at right angles.
This position is usually recommended for singeing of fabrics with all natural
fibers, regenerated fibers and blended fabrics, which have been tightly
woven and have weights over 125 g/m
2
.



Singeing onto water-cooled roller
In this position, the flame bounces at right angles onto the fabric
while the fabric passes onto water-cooled guide roller. This position avoids
the penetration of the flame into the fabric. The flame does not pass through
the fabric, and because of the fabric passing onto water-cooled roller, any
thermal damage of temperature-sensitive synthetic fabrics is avoided. This
position is usually recommended for all blended and synthetic fabrics as
well as for fabrics having weights less than 125 g/m
2
and fabrics with open
structure.


TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 15 of 46


Tangential Singeing
In this position, the singeing flame falls on the fabric tangentially. The
flame touches only the protruding fibers without having any significant
contact with the main fabric body. This position is usually recommended for
very light weight and sensitive fabrics as well as fabrics with broken
filaments.


d) Distance between Flame Burner and Fabric
As the energy content of the flame is lower the farther it is from the
burner, the singeing efficiency is consequently decreased by increasing the
burner-fabric distance. The distance between the burner and the fabric is
usually in the range of 6-8mm but it can be adjusted in a range from 6-
20mm.
e) Flame Width
All good singeing machines come with a provision of flame width
adjustment according to the width of the fabric. This is essential to optimize
the gas economy.
Essential conditions for good GAS singeing
Following are essential conditions for good singeing:
A homogeneous flame with high and uniform mechanical &
thermal energy to result in uniform singeing
An optimal flame/fabric contact time to neither result in
incomplete not over-singeing

GAS singeing process monitoring & control
An indicator of the singeing effect is the fabric temperature just after its
passing over the singeing flame. The fabric temperature can be continuously
monitored by a radiation pyrometer and indicated by a thermometer. Hence,
the fabric temperature may take over the singeing control and regulating
function. When the fabric temperature increases to a pre-set value, the
machine intensity would automatically reduce, while when the fabric
temperature goes down, the flame intensity would automatically increase.
Hairiness Tester provides another possibility to control the singeing
effect objectively. The fabric surface is monitored by means of a laser beam
and the hairiness of the fabric is displayed on a computer screen. The
measured information can be used as a set value for the control of the
singer in order to achieve the programmed effect.
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 16 of 46







Important considerations during GAS singeing
Make sure that the flame is more bluish (less yellowish) to give the
maximum temperature.
Control and maintain the recommended flame length and angle of
contact, depending on the fabric construction, thickness, weight,
heat sensitivity, etc.
Regulate the fabric speed according to the fabric
construction/thickness/weight etc.
Make sure that all the burner nozzles are free from choking.
Choking of nozzles may result in the appearance of haziness,
patchy appearance or faint lines, which become apparent after
dyeing.
Make sure that the width of the flame is set to cover just a little
more than the fabric width.
Make sure that the exhaust blowers over the burners are in proper
operation. If not, it can lead to re-deposition of the burnt out fibers
on the fabric causing black specks.
Ensure appropriate quenching into water/desize bath after
singeing. Otherwise, the entrapped smoldering particles may lead
to fabric getting burnt (holes).
Common problems in GAS singeing and their causes
Incomplete Singeing
The most common causes of incomplete singeing are as follows:
1) Too low flame intensity
2) Too fast fabric speed
3) Too far distance between the fabric and the burner
4) Inappropriate (i.e. less severe) singeing position
5) Too much moisture in the fabric incoming for singeing.



Uneven Singeing Across the Fabric Width
The most common causes of width ways uneven singeing are as
follows:
1) Non-uniform moisture content across the fabric width
2) Non-uniform flame intensity (uneven flame height) across
the fabric width
3) Uneven distance between the burner and the fabric
4) Uneven smoke evacuation over the burners
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Uneven Singeing Along the Fabric Length
The most common causes of lengthways uneven singeing are as
follows:
1) Non-uniform moisture content along the fabric length
2) Non-uniform flame intensity along the fabric length
3) Change in fabric speed during singeing
4) Change in the distance between the fabric and the burner
along the length
Horizontal Singeing Stripes
The most common causes of horizontal singeing stripes are as
follows:
1. Rollers with an un-centered rolling action
2. Sudden fabric tension increase

Vertical Singeing Stripes
This may be caused by Total or partial blockage of flame outlet

Over-singing or Thermal Damage of the Fabric
The most common causes of over-singeing or thermal damage of the
fabric are as follows:
1) Too high flame intensity
2) Too slow fabric speed or too long contact time between fabric
and flame
3) Too close distance between the fabric and the burner or too
deep penetration of the singeing flame into the fabric
4) Inappropriate (i.e. too severe) singeing position.
TESTING SINGEING EFFECTIVENESS
The effectiveness of singeing process can be checked by one or more of
the following:
By looking at the singed fabric with magnifying glass and comparing
its hairiness with that of the un-singed fabric. A well-singed fabric
shows less hairiness.
By testing the singed fabric for pilling performance and comparing it
with that of the un-singed fabric. A well-singed fabric gives less
pilling.
By sticking and removing a sticking tape on the singed fabric and
observing the number of fibers attached to the sticking side of the
tape. A well-singed fabric results in less number of fibers sticking
on the tape.
Noticing the feel or handle of the singed fabric. An over-singed
fabric may give a harsher feeling.



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DESIZING









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WHAT IS DESIZING?
Desizing is the process in which the size applied to the warp yarn
before weaving is removed to facilitate the penetration of dyes and chemicals
in the subsequent wet processing operations.
The purpose of sizing is to form coating of sufficiently strong and
Elastic films around the cotton warp yams so as to stand the tension
during weaving and reduce the breakage.
The surface coating of sizes are stiff, hard, smooth and less absorbent to
water.
About 75% of the sizing agents used throughout the world today
consists of starch and its derivatives because of its low cost. Chemically
starch is composed of amylose and amylopectin. Amylose molecule is in the
form of helix with six glucose units per turn.
WHY DESIZING IS NECESSARY?
It is necessary to facilitate printing and dyeing. If desizing is not done
it will affect printing and Dyeing and so causes problems like Dye spots and
streaks on fabrics.
OBJECTIVES OF DESIZING
To eliminate the water repellent nature of sized cloth.
To increase the absorbency.
To reduce the consumption of chemicals in subsequent process.
FACTORS ON WHICH DESIZING DEPENDS:
The factors, on which the efficiency of size removal depends, are as
follows:
Type and amount of size applied
Viscosity of the size in solution
Ease of dissolution of the size film on the yarn
Nature and the amount of the plasticizers
Fabric construction
Method of desizing, and
Method of washing-off
WHAT TO KNOW BEFORE DESIZING?

Knowledge of Size material is important i.e. either it is Natural or
Synthetic (Water soluble or insoluble).
Natural sizes include Starch (from potato or corn) and other cellulose
derivatives.
Synthetic sizes include PVA, Acrilates, Acrile amides and polyester
resins (from Petroleum) Or CMC (Carboxy-methyl Cellulose).
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 20 of 46

METHODS OF DESIZING:
Desizing of cotton fabric can be accomplished by physical, chemical or
combination of physical and chemical mechanism, namely rot steeping, acid
steeping, treatment with enzyme and oxidizing agents. In desizing, the
starches and polymers that are applied which are insoluble are converted
into water soluble corn pound to ease their removal. This is accomplished
by transferring the starch into their simple sugars or simple water soluble
polymers. The synthetic sizes used for man-made fibers are generally water
soluble and they are removed during the scouring operation.
ROT STEEPING:
This is the oldest and cheapest method of desizing.
Here no special chemical is used.
The cloth is first passed through warm water at 40C in padding
where the cloth is squeezed to about 100% expression.
The cloth is then allowed to stand for 24 hours.
The microorganisms, naturally present in water, multiply and secrete
starch-liquefying (hydrolyzing) enzymes, which break down the starch
present in the size to water-soluble products.
The cloth is then washed to remove these products.

DESIZING METHODS
Hydrolytic
methods
Rot
steep
Enzymatic
Acid
steep
Oxidative
methods
Chlorine
Chlorite
Bromite
Novel
methods
Solvent
Plasma
treatment
Desizing
2000
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 21 of 46

ACID DESIZING:
Dilute sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid may be used to hydrolyze
the starch from the sized fabric.
A 0.25% - 0.5 % solution of the acid at room temperature (30o C) is
suitable for this process.
The cloth is impregnated with the dilute acid solution in a two-bowl or
three-bowl padding mangle and then stored for 8-12 hours in a closed
concrete pit.
ENZYMATIC DESIZING:
In enzyme desizing, specific enzymes are used to liquefy the starch in
the fabric and make them soluble.
Enzyme desizing is a very rapid and thorough method of desizing
provided that the proper conditions of temperature and pH are
maintained. The optimum temperature and pH of the different
enzymes are given below.

ENZYMES
CONCENTRATION TEMPERATURE pH
MALT EXTRACT 3-20 (g/l) 50-60 C 6-7.5
PANCREATIC 1-3 (g/l) 50-60 6.5-7.5
BACTERIAL 0.5-1 (g/l) 60-70 5.5-7.5
OXIDATIVE DESIZING:
Though the use of oxidants for desizing of cotton fabric is widely
accepted but their large scale industrial application is yet to be exploited.
The most important aspects of oxidizing agents are that they can be
applicable to wide range of fabrics, the size content of which is often not
known. Table below summarizes the necessary conditions for desizing
starch in presence of some important oxidizing agents.


TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 22 of 46

COMPARISON:



TYPES OF DESIZING MACHINES:
There are three types of desizing machineries:
Pad batch desizing machine
Semi continuous desizing machine
Continuous sizing machine





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Scouring





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WHAT IS SCOURING?
It is mostly a cleaning process in which the foreign matters and
impurities are removed. These impurities may be of natural origin, such as
fats and waxes, or synthetic chemicals deliberately applied to the fibers to
facilitate processes such as carding, spinning or knitting. Due to removal of
impurities the cotton becomes absorbent. Scouring is also called alkaline
cracking involving a strong alkali.
WHY TO SCOUR?
The next step after desizing is scouring. Scouring is probably the
single most important process in the wet processing of textile materials.
Effective scouring is essential for the subsequent processing of any textile
substrate.
OBJECTIVE OF SCOURING:
Scouring is a purifying treatment of textiles. The objective of scouring is
to reduce the amount of impurities sufficiently to obtain level and
reproducible results in dyeing and finishing operations. If the impurities are
not removed from the substrate it will inevitably lead to problems such as
patch, uneven dyeing or bleaching, or failure of shrink resistance.
To make the fabric highly hydrophilic.
To remove impurities such as oils, waxes, gum, husks, as nearly as
possible.
To produce a clean material by adding alkali.
To make the fabric ready for next process.
To remove non-cellulosic substance in case of cotton.







HOW IT IS DONE?
In the scouring process the cotton cellulose material is treated with a
solution containing alkali (soda ash and caustic soda), an anionic and/or
non-ionic detergent, a wetting agent, a complex agent and sequestering for
the removal of metal ions and poly-acrylates or poly-phosphonates as
special surfactant free dispersing agents, at high temperature.

TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 25 of 46

CLASSIFICATION OF SCOURING AGENTS:
Scouring agents can be generally classified into different groups. The
appropriate type of scouring agent generally depends on the kind of fiber;
fabric type i.e. woven or knitted, thick or thin; texturized or non-texturized
and the extent of impurities present in the fiber. Types of scouring agents:
Alkaline agents
Surfactants
Emulsion scouring
Organic solvent
There are three important components in a cotton scouring bath:
caustic to swell and dissolve the motes and to saponify oils and waxes,
surfactant, to lower the baths surface tension so it can wet out the fabric
faster and to emulsify oils and waxes and chelating agent to form water
dispersible complexes with heavy metals.
USES OF SCOURING AGENTS:

MAIN CHEMICAL USES
Caustic Soda Neutralize acidic material and
saponify glycerides (waxes etc)
Surfactants Reduces surface tension and
minimize interfacial tension.
Detergents Emulsify oil, fats and waxes and
remove oil-borne stains
Chelating agent Deactivate metal ions
Sodium silicate Penetrate and breakdown lignin
Soda ash Maintains pH
Solvent Assist emulsification by dissolving
oily materials
SEQUESTERING AGENT/CHELATING AGENT
They are negatively charged and capable of forming strong ring
structures with metal ions present in hard water and on cotton pectin.

Sequestering agent + Ca
+2
or Mg
+2
Complexes
FUNCTIONS OF CHELATING AGENT DURING SCOURING:
Prevention of film or scum formation
Avoids clogging of liquid dispersions
Prevention of precipitate formation
Prevents haze turbidity on liquid solution
WHY SEQUESTERING AGENTS ARE NECESSARY FOR SCOURING?
If calcium and magnesium are not sequestered, there is the strong
possibility of their combining with natural soaps which have been
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 26 of 46

generated during the alkaline scouring process, to form waxy substance.
These have been referred to as Lime soap deposits they can deposit not
only on the substrate itself but also on the surface of machinery.
COMMON ORGANIC SEQUESTRANT USED IN SCOURING:
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Diaminopropanoltriacetic acid
Diethyltriamine Pentaacetic acid and salts
SURFACTANTS
A surfactant may be defined as a substance which, when applied in
low concentration, markedly reduces the surface tension between two
liquids or between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants may act as detergents,
wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents, and dispersants.
The concentration at which no further reduction in surface tension occurs is
known as critical micelle concentration
WORKING OF A SURFACTANT
Chemically, the surfactants are long chain organic compounds
containing both a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic component. The
hydrophobic character in the surfactant molecule is associated with the
hydrocarbon chain, usually quite long in its length. Although lowering of
surface tension is an essential requirement of a good surfactant, the
compound should have proper hydrophobic lyophilic balance (HLB) to have
balanced water solubility and water insolubility.
CHEMICAL CLASSES OF A SURFACTANT
Cationic surfactant
Anionic surfactant
Non- ionic surfactant
Amphoteric surfactant
IMPURITIES AND THEIR REMOVAL:

IMPURITIES METHOD OF REMOVAL
Fats and waxes Fats can be broken down by NaOH to form soap. The
soap formed can be used as emulsifier for the
emulsification of waxes.
Pectin and related
substances
Solubilised by the action of alkali, usually caustic soda,
this also acts as a swelling agent to facilitate removal.
Minerals and heavy
metals
(a) By producing more soluble salts e.g. acid
demineralization (b) By use of sequestering agents.
Amino acids Solubilised by producing corresponding sodium salt.
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 27 of 46

Lubricants/Knitting
oils
Modem mineral oil formulation usually contains their
own self-emulsification system.
Mote/seed coats Due to swelling of fibres they get removed in washing.

Natural fats, oils and lubricants (tallow) are mostly esters usually in
the form of triglycerides. Being triglycerides, the lubricants can be almost
hydrolyzed by lipases, yielding glycerol, fatty acids and mono-and
diglycerides as the reaction product. Glycerol is completely water soluble,
fatty acid is removed during scouring and mono and diglycerides are known
to be efficient surfactants or emulsifiers. Thus, a lipase treatment improves
not only desizing but also the scouring processes. The esters react with
sodium hydroxide to form soap and glycerin. The soap thus form can serve
as an effective detergent and promote scouring.
CH2OCOR' CH2OH
| Saponification |
CHOCOR'' CHOH + 3RCO2H
| |
CH2OCOR''' CH2OH
Triglycerides glycerol

In natural fats and oils, the glycerol is usually esterified with a
mixture of fatty acids. Hydrolysis of fats in hot alkaline solution produces
glycerol and a mixture of the alkali salts of the fatty acids. This hydrolysis
reaction is called saponification because, when these fatty acid salts have
about 1220 carbon atoms, the alkali metal salts are soaps.
FORMS OF SCOURING:
Yarn scouring
hank form
package form
continuous sheet warp form
Fabric scouring:
Open width form
Jigger
Pad batch
Progressive jig
Rope form
Kier
Washer

TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 28 of 46

METHODS OF COTTON SCOURING:
Batch /Discontinuous scouring process (Kier boiling process, jigger or
winch dyeing machine)
Continuous scouring process (Scoring in J or L box)
The scouring operation was conventionally done in kier machines and
hence the process was called kier boiling, but now days the scouring is done
mostly in the dyeing machines itself as a part of combined or single
operation such as scouring and bleaching.
STANDARD RECIPE:
The detailed recipes for caustic boiling for various qualities of cotton
materials on the basis of industrial experience are given below (% on the
weight of fabric or o.w.f.):
Caustic soda (strong) 2-5 %
Soda ash (mild) 0.3-0.5 %
Sequestering agent 0.05-0.5 %
Wetting agent 0.25-0.1 %
Temperature 100-120 C
Time 12-4 hrs.
Conventionally, scouring is done in a hot aqueous solution of NaOH to
remove hydrophobic components from the primary wall (e.g. pectin, protein
and organic acids) and the cuticle (waxes and fats). However, alkaline
scouring is a nonspecific process. The use of high concentrations of NaOH
also requires neutralization of wastewater. Even though alkaline scouring is
effective and the costs of NaOH are low, the scouring process is rather
inefficient because it consumes large quantities of water and energy. As far
as scouring and bleaching is concerned, in earlier times this was supposed
to be a two bath process, but currently majority of process houses do a one
bath scouring and bleaching process.
THE SCOURING PROCESS DEPENDS ON:
The type of cotton
The color of cotton
The cleanliness of cotton
The twist and count of the yarn
The construction of the fabric
The shade % and the type of shade of the finished product.








TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 29 of 46








BLEACHING





TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 30 of 46

WHAT IS BLEACHING?
All raw textile materials, when they are in natural form, (known as
'greige' material) will have its natural color that is not suitable for clothing
materials. The removal of these natural coloring matters is called bleaching.
OR
Bleaching process can be defined as the destruction of natural
coloring matter from the textile material in order to achieve a clean white
end product.
When the material has to be dyed in dark colors it can be directly
dyed without need of bleaching. On the contrary, bleaching is an obligatory
step when the fabric has to be dyed in pastel colors or when it will need to
be subsequently printed.
WHAT ARE BLEACHING AGENTS?
A bleaching agent is a substance that can whiten or decolorize other
substances.
Bleaching agents essentially destroy chromophores (thereby removing
the color), via the oxidation or reduction of these absorbing groups. Thus,
bleaches can be classified as either oxidizing agents or reducing agents.
TYPES OF BLEACHINGS IN TEXTILE W.R.T BLEACHING
AGENTS:
Bleaching of textiles can be classified as:

Oxidative bleaching
Reductive bleaching.
Oxidative bleaching:
Oxidizing bleach works by breaking the chemical bonds that make up
the chromophore. This changes the molecule into a different substance that
either does not contain a chromophore, or contains a chromophore that
does not absorb visible light.
Generally oxidative bleaching is carried out using sodium
hypochlorite, sodium chlorite or hydrogen peroxide
If a textile is natural, such as cotton, ramie, jute, bamboo or wool, it is
bleached with oxidative bleach. This strips the textile of the additives and
destroys chromophores, the molecular elements that add color to the textile.
Oxidative bleach pushes oxygen into the textile to perform this task.
Reductive bleaching:
Reducing bleach works by converting double bonds in the
chromophore into single bonds. This eliminates the ability of the
chromophore to absorb visible light.
Reductive bleaching is done with sodium hydro sulfite, a powerful
reducing agent. Fibers made of synthetic materials, such as poly-
amides, poly-acrylics and poly-acetates can be bleached using reductive
bleaching technology. In this textile bleaching method, the reductive bleach
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 31 of 46

reduces the amount of oxygen in the textile. While the opposite of oxidative
bleaching, reductive bleach performs the same task.
AUXILLARIES FOR BLEACHING:
Auxiliaries used for bleaching:
Stabilizers
Activators
Wetting agents/detergents
Sequestering agents
Anti-corrosion agent
ADVANTAGES OF BLEACHING:

Removal of colored impurities.
Removal of the seed coats.
Minimum tendering of fiber.
Technically reliable
Increasing the degree of whiteness.
MACHINERIES FOR BLEACHING THROUGH
DIFFERENT METHODS:
Textiles can be bleached in loose form, yarn form and fabric (woven
and knitted) form.
Woven fabrics can be bleached in three different ways, such as batch
process (kiers), semi continuous process and continuous process. In the
semi-continuous process, pad batch and pad-roll systems and in
continuous process, rope or open-width J-Boxes are popular. Over the past
few years, there have been new open-width continuous machineries
designed, developed and installed in the modern bleach house and have
made efficient impression in the industry.

BATCH METHODS:
Kiers
SEMI-CONTINUOUS METHODS:
Pad-batch
Pad-roll

CONTINUOUS METHODS:
J Boxes
Rope type J-box
Open type J-box
Open width continuous machines
BATCH BLEACHING PROCESS MACHINERIES [KIERS]:
In the earlier days bleaching of woven piece goods was usually carried
out by piling the material into tile lined tanks containing hypochlorite
solutions. The cloth is allowed to dwell there until the bleaching is complete.
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 32 of 46

Bleaching of cotton, linen, rayon, man-made fibers etc. in the form of woven
or knitted fabrics, can be carried out in kiers. The bleaching tanks can be
fully enclosed or open type equipped with automatic temperature control
and the entire process can be programmed control. The capacity of the
machine may be 200-2000 kg goods. The temperature is raised to the
required temperature, the bleach liquor is sprayed from the top and the
liquor percolates through the batch continuously. After bleaching, the goods
may be washed.

KIERS (Universal HT dyeing and bleaching machine)

SEMI-CONTINUOUS BLEACHING PROCESS MACHINERIES
[PAD-BATCH/PAD-ROLL]:
Both peroxide and sodium chlorite can be used for bleaching of cotton
and polyester/cotton goods by semi-continuous open-width form. In the
pad-batch (or pad-stack) process the padded goods are batched and then
covered with plastic sheet to prevent evaporation of bleaching agent or gas
and then allowed to lie for 24 h. In the pad-roll process, the goods after
padding with bleaching solution are then heated in a steam chest and
rolled-up in a mobile batch chamber for 4-12 h. The chamber can be sealed
so that no gas can evolve during bleaching.



However, machineries with easy and automatic batching and un-
batching systems are developed with special features for the various pre-
treatment and bleaching plants.

TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 33 of 46

CONTINUOUS BLEACHING PROCESS MACHINERIES
The main purpose of the continuous bleaching system, whether in the
rope form or in open-width form, is to reduce the time of bleaching and the
cost of labor involved.
Continuous Bleaching by J-Box Systems:
The heart of the process is the J-Box storage unit and the shape is like
the English letter 'J'. In rope bleaching the fabric is pulled together to form a
somewhat circular mass, which is loose enough for penetration and
resembles a large rope; in open-width form the fabric is under tension and is
flat and smooth. J- Boxes whether open (Becco type) or closed (Du Pont
type) can both be used for pre-treatment.
In the Becco type, the cloth is piled cold into the top and is heated as it
passes down through the box by steam and passed through the perforated
plates around the box, just below the top of the pile. In the Du Pont type of
J-Box units, the fabric passes through the long entering box which enables
the fabric rope to reach the desired temperature before piling down into the
top of the J-Box itself.


J-box system

Continuous Open-Width Bleaching Machineries:
Some fabrics such as heavy drill, corded fabrics, satins and other
sensitive weaves are liable to be damaged if they are bleached in rope form.
These necessitated the development of new types of open-width bleaching
machineries for fabrics. Generally, a continuous open-width bleaching range
consists of 2 to 3 units with maximum speed of 100 to 150 m/min and
reaction time of about 2-7 min per treatment unit. Different types of
steamers can be combined in various ways to form a large number of
different ranges.

TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 34 of 46

BENNINGERS BEN-BLEACH SYSTEM:
For chemical pre-treatment of woven cotton and polyester/cotton
blended fabrics. Benninger has developed the "Ben Bleach system" for
desizing, scouring and bleaching in one operation.


Bleaching Unit of BENNINGERS BEN-BLEACH:


TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 35 of 46

BEN-BLEACH System:















TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 36 of 46




MERCERIZATION




















TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 37 of 46

WHAT IS MERCERIZATION?
Mercerization is defined as the treatment of cotton textiles with
concentrated solution of alkali to bring out certain properties. It is to be
noted that immersing fibers such as cotton and linen in a caustic soda bath
would increase their strength and also allow them to take dye more readily


CONDITIONS FOR MERCERIZATION
Application of caustic soda solution at a temperature of 15 to 18~
A dwell period of 55 sec on an average, so as to permit diffusion of
alkali into the fiber.
Warp tension during alkali treatment and stretching the weft (width)
of the fabric during washing are necessary to prevent shrinkage.
Finally, washing-off of the traces of alkali from the treated fibres.
FACTORS AFFECTING MERCERIZATION
Tension
Temperature and concentration
Time of treatment
Concentration & Temperature:
The swelling action depends on the concentration of caustic
soda. As the concentration of alkali increases, the extent of swelling
passes through a maximum and then decreases. Alkali is preferentially
absorbed by the cellulose from the solution when heat is liberated. So the
extent of swelling decreases with an increase in the temperature of the
solution.
Swelling depends on hydration of alkali ion. Greater degree of
hydration will give greater increase in swelling. Degree of hydration
increases with concentration of alkali but decreases with temperature. Thus
degree of hydration influences swelling which further influence tensile
strength.
The reaction between the cellulose fiber and the alkaline solution is an
exothermic reaction, and any increase in the treatment temperature reduces
the absorption of the alkali, thus reducing the effectiveness of the
mercerization. Furthermore, increasing the concentration of the alkaline
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 38 of 46

solution to counteract the reduced absorption in order to achieve the same
effects from the mercerization will not necessarily be successful.
Sisson analyzed a cotton yarn treated with a wide range of alkaline
concentrations and processing temperatures with X-ray diffraction, divided
the results into the three divisions of complete mercerization, partial
mercerization and un-mercerized and created a chart showing the
relationship between the alkaline concentration and the temperature. The
result is shown in Figure.

The temperature and concentration for the mercerization of cotton

According to these results, regardless of the increase in the
concentration of the alkali, above about 60C, complete mercerization does
not take place. The concentration of around 30B in mercerization at room
temperature, that is, around 20C, is in the middle of the chart for complete
mercerization, and this, interestingly, is fairly consistent with stable
conditions determined by experience in practical mercerization and with the
results of all researchers.
Similarly, the results of Birtwell, Chblenens et al show that temperature has
its greatest influence on the shrinkage of cotton yarn at concentrations of
3N NaOH, (approx. 16B), and above 4N (approx. 20B), that influence
diminishes.



TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 39 of 46

Tension:
Mercerization, both slack & with tension , increase strength
uniformity along the fiber length , but mercerized fiber with tension shows
greater gain in strength than that of without tension. Internal pressures
caused by the swelling, are much less during tensionless processing than
when cotton is processed using high tension. Changes in the interior
portions of the fiber are the direct result of internal osmotic pressure
causing changes in the molecular configuration of the cotton fiber.
When warp and filling tensions are applied, shrinkage tends to be
reduced, internal pressures are increased causing the changes to be more
profound both on the morphological structure.
The tension introduced after the swelling of the yarn or the fabric is a
mechanical tension exerted to resist the force of the shrinkage of the shrunk
yarn or fabric and, by stretching, it fixes the dimensions as required. At this
time, the problem in the processing is not the degree of tension required but
the amount of stretching. For the generation of a good luster, stretching to
the original length before the processing is usually the norm, but stretching
beyond the original length will enhance the luster even more. However,
stretching is not often beyond the original length of the yarn or the fabric
due to the mechanical difficulties and the negative effects on hand and
strength. In so-called tensionless mercerization, which is totally without
stretching, the improvement to luster is extremely slight.
The results of investigations into the relationship between the degree
of stretching and the luster of a cotton hair are shown in Table.


The increase in luster is due to the cellulose hair, swollen with the
alkali, becoming more circular (it becomes, in fact, elliptical), which
stretching enhances, and the surface of the hair becoming smoother. The
luster of cotton fibers is decided by the ratio between the long and short
axes of the cross section of the cellulose air, and it improves as the cross
section becomes more circular.
Time of impregnation:
Provided minimum time for maximum swelling to take place is given, the
increase in time of contact of material with alkali does not seem to affect the
tensile strength. Usually, cloth is treated for 30 sec & yarn for 50 sec.
Hot mercerization time varies from 25 to 30 sec.
Cold Mercerization time varies from 45 to 60 sec.



TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 40 of 46

TYPES OF MERCERIZATION
Cold Mercerization:
Cold mercerization process is normally carried out by treating yarn or
fabric with 20-25% caustic soda solution for 30-180 sec at a temperature
between 15 and 20C after treatment, the materials is washed to remove
excess caustic soda. The material, which is then in a relaxed state, is further
washed and finally washed with dilute acid to remove the remaining alkali.
The mercerization conditions, i.e. concentration, temperature, dwell time in
alkali, etc., are varied in accordance with the particular effect required on
the processed fabric. Normal mercerizing leads to an improvement in luster,
tensile strength, dye absorption, coverage of dead cotton and dimensional
stability.
Hot Mercerization:
In the hot mercerizing penetration of caustic soda into the textile
structure & fiber self is extremely rapid, thorough, and uniform in effect.
The fiber and textile structure become more pliable and less elastic then
when saturated with cold concentrated caustic solution. Shrinkage of the
fabric is much less then that occurring in the cold process. If necessary the
fabric can be considerably overstretched to get improved luster, tensile
strength, dimensional stability. The process sequence of two step hot
mercerization is as follows:
Saturation of cotton material with sodium hydroxide
solution of mercerizing strength preferably under relaxed
condition at temperature between 60~ and boiling point
with an impregnation time ranging from 4 to 60 sec.
Controlled hot stretching following the saturation. The
material being stretched 2-20% of its original dimensions.
Cooling the stretched material to a temperature less than
25~ which completes the swelling effect.
Tension controlled washing to NaOH solution of 6%
(stabilization).
Final washing or neutralization under normal condition
without tension being applied to the fabric.
Hot mercerizing produces better luster, high tensile strength
and improved dimensional stability then cold mercerization for two
main reasons. Firstly owing to thorough of the hot caustic soda into
the fabric and fiber structure a far greater proportion of the cellulose is
modified. Secondly in the presence of concentrated caustic soda solution at
an elevated temperature, the fabric becomes highly plastic and less elastic
and so is capable of being readily stretched, leading to improvement of the
properties of the fabric being considered. Extent of the change of these
properties depending of the degree of stretch. For example greater than
normal stretch will lower the affinity of dyes, because this is
affected by the degree of internal orientation of molecular structure.
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 41 of 46

MACHINERY OF MERCERIZATION
Generally a mercerizing machine consists of four sections which will have
different tasks according to the process technique:
mercerizing section : impregnation with caustic soda;

1. Liquor supply
2. Impregnating trough
3. Preparation tank with temperature and concentration

Intermediary squeezing aggregate: dividing off the mercerizing section
against the stabilizing section.

stabilizing section : water treatment and thinning down concentration
of the lye;




TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 42 of 46

Intermediary squeezing aggregate : dividing off the stabilizing section
against the washing section;
Washing section: washing-off the alkali and neutralization (if
necessary).


CHAIN AND CHAINLESS MERCERIZATION
Chain mercerization:
Better tension control
Better Luster
Maintenance cost is high
Chainless Mercerization
Lower Capital cost per unit production.
Minimum damage to delicate material.
Higher productivity
Loss of width





TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 43 of 46














Conclusion



















TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 44 of 46

Wet processing is the most significant division in the textile
preparation and processing. It is a major stream in textile engineering which
is under the section of textile chemical processing engineering. Textile
manufacturing covers everything from fiber to apparel; covering with yarn,
fabric, fabric dyeing, printing, finishing, garments or apparel manufacturing.
There are many variable processes available at the spinning and fabric-
forming stages coupled with the complexities of the finishing and coloration
processes to the production of wide ranges of products.

The textile manufacturing is a major industry. In this industry, wet
processing plays a vital role in the area of pre-treatment, dyeing, printing
and finishing of both fabrics and apparels. But coloration in fiber stage or
yarn stage is also included in the wet processing division.
FORE WORDS:
In textile focus should be on
Processes, environment and products
Products with enhanced functionality are important to survive
the competition
New Processing concepts have to be adapted in order to be able
to produce short batches
New processes offer the opportunity to fulfil the needs of the
customers
Reducing environmental impact will help textiles processors
save resources
Reduces water and energy use versus conventional high-
temperature processes.
Adequate steps must be taken by the textile industries for the
optimum utilization of energy and water resources. The textile industry is
expected to play an ever-more-progressive role in developing
TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 45 of 46

environmentally friendly technologies and processes. Training the employees
and creating awareness among them regarding the importance of water and
energy conservation is also essential. There is a lot of potential for savings.
By saving on the energy and water resources, textile industries can not only
save on the costs, but can also help to slow down the climate change. The
textile industry is aware of the decrease in water sources and they are
developing new technology and new chemical alternatives, but the challenge
will lay in converting the technology in current textile facilities into the new
technology that uses less water. Another challenge lays in changing the
mindset of the current generations in the textile industry to use the new
chemical alternatives instead of the chemicals they have used in the past
decades. This will be a slow process, but one that will need to happen in
order for the textile industry to maintain current production and grow in the
future.

TEXTILE CHEMICAL PROCESSES-1 Page 46 of 46

REFERENCES

http://www.osthoff-senge.com/
http://www.swastiktextile.com/
http://www.lindauer-dornier.com/english/index.htm
http://www.menzelus.com
http://www.menzel.net
http://susiram.in
http://www.gayatri-engg.com
http://www.jfletcher.co.uk
http://www.ssm.ch
http://www.ritespa.it.
http://textilefashionstudy.com/scouring-definition-objectives-effects-
and-methods-of-scouring/
http://www.slideshare.net/mainulrony/scouring-13515271
http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2013/03/an-overview-of-textile-
scouring-process.html
http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2012/02/sequestering-agents-
functions-of.html
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-textile-bleaching.htm
http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2011/03/textile-bleaching-
process_5937.html
http://www.ineris.fr/ippc/sites/default/interactive/bref_text/breftext
/anglais/bref/BREF_tex_gb8.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_bleaching
http://www.benningergroup.com/uploads/tx_userdownloads/BEN-
BLEACH_English.pdf
CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE PRE-TREATMENT PROCESSES OF
TEXTILE BY S.R KARMAKAR (book)
Chemicals of the textile industry by C. Carr (book)
Textile preparation and dyeing by A.K Choudhry (book)
Basic Principles of Textiles coloration by Arthur D Broadbent (book)