Journal Final For WEB

1
Yield Estimation in Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) using Remote

Sensing*
MALLESWARI SADHINENI
1
and V. C. PATIL
2
Department of Agronomy, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad
ABSTRACT
Chilli yield estimation in Hubli taluk of Dharwad district, Karnataka was carried out using IRS ID LISS
III imagery. The acreage estimation was done by supervised MXL classification and yield estimation by
developing yield model using the relationship between crop cutting experiments yield data, NDVI and LAI of
chilli crop. The average yield of chilli crop was estimated to be 419 kg ha
-1
and the total production of dry chillies
in Hubli taluk was 5,960 tonnes.
Reliable and timely forecast of crop production is of crucial economic importance in
any region. Among the various applications of space technology, agricultural applications
have received greater attention in India and in agricultural applications crop production
forecasting is the most challenging and economically important one. Space borne remotely
sensed data, being repetitive and multispectral in nature, is an ideal choice for use in forecasting
crop production. Intrinsic ability of spectral reflectance data is to identify and discriminate
crops and estimate their acreages resulting in possibility of relating reflectance data of crops
in specific wavelength regions to canopy growth or vigour. The yield, therefore has attractive
propositions. In the traditional method, the average yield is obtained on the basis of crop
cutting experiments conducted on a number of randomly selected fields in a sample of
villages in a district. It is time consuming, requires more manpower and also may not be
accurate many times.
Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is an important spice cum vegetable crop of commercial
importance. Titillating pungency and fascinating natural colour of chillies form an indispensable
adjunct in every home all over the world. India is the leading country in the world in chilli
production with an area of 9, 08,400 ha and production of 9, 70,800 tonnes of dry chillies.
Recently, chilli is gaining greater importance in the global market because of its value-added
products and diverse uses. In this context, within season estimates of crop acreage, yield
and accurate forecast of most likely range of growth conditions help in organizing the inputs
like fertilizers and pesticides. Further, pre-harvest estimates of crop production guide the
decision makers in framing and implementing the policies, price fixation, arrangement of
storage facilities and export-import strategies.
* Part of M.Sc (Ag.) Thesis submitted by former author to the University of Agricultural Sciences,
Dharwad.
1. Professor and Head
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 1 - 11, 2007
2
Krishna Rao et al. (1997) estimated the chilli crop acreage by digital analysis of IRS
IC LISS III data covering five mandals of Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. The studies on
yield and production estimation in indeterminate commercial crops like chilli are meagre.
Therefore, a study was conducted in Hubli taluk of Dharwad district, Karnataka to estimate
the yield and production of chilli crop.
Materials and Methods
The study area comprising Hubli taluk of Dharwad district, Karnataka lies between
15
0
to 15
0
30' N latitude and 75
0
to 75
0
30' E longitudes. The total geographical area of Hubli
taluk is 73,707 ha. The average rainfall of the region ranges from 626 to 727 mm per annum.
The main crops of the study area in kharif season are chilli, cotton, redgram, groundnut and
onion. Chilli crop is mainly raised under rainfed conditions as a pure crop or a mixed crop
along with cotton. Chilli + cotton and chilli + cotton + onion mixed cropping are prevalent in
Hubli taluk.
A total of 26 ground truth sites for the collection of the observational data required
for the current investigations were selected after conducting a preliminary survey of the
study area and verification of the statistical data on the acreage under chilli crop. The GARMIN
12 GPS receiver in stand alone mode was used to collect the information regarding the
geographical location of the ground truth sites, which was used for marking of training sites.
The LAI 2000 plant canopy analyzer of LICOR was used to record the leaf area index in the
standing crop of chilli. Yield attributes and yield data were collected from the randomly
selected 10 m 10 m sampling unit from each ground truth site.
IRS ID LISS III digital data of Hubli taluk corresponding to path 97 and row 62
acquired on the 14
th
of November 2002, which coincides with the maximum vegetative growth
to fruit ripening stage of chilli crop was selected for the investigation.
Digital analysis of satellite data was carried out for deriving information on spatial
extent of chilli crop grown in the study area. The IBM RS workstation with ERDAS IMAGINE
8.5 software at National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad, was used for the analysis and
interpretation of remote sensing data. Geometric correction of the image was done using
SOI toposheets of 1:50,000 scale.
ESWARI and PATIL
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) proposed by Rouse et al. (1974)
was used in this study. This index is very sensitive to the presence of green vegetation. It
permits the prediction of agricultural crops and precipitation in semi arid areas. NDVI can
be defined by following equation
3
The training windows were defined for various crops and other land use classes
based on the ground truth information. Multiple training sites for each class were identified in
order to represent the variability within the same class. The image was classified using
maximum likelihood algorithm. The red and near infrared channel data pertaining to the IRS
ID LISS image were transformed into NDVI image in ERDAS IMAGINE Modeler panel by
running the NDVI model. The resultant NDVI image of the chilli crop was used for yield
estimation.
The correlation coefficients were worked out between the yield and independent
variables affecting the yield like NDVI, LAI during the crop growth period. Polynomial regression
analysis was run between the yield and NDVI, LAI and the regression equation developed
was used for the yield predictions. The average yield of the taluk obtained from this equation
multiplied with the acreage under chilli crop was used to estimate the production of chilli
crop.
Results and Discussion
Acreage estimation of chilli crop in Hubli taluk was done using IRS ID LISS III data
with the help of ERDAS IMAGINE 8.5 software. The classification was done using supervised
approach with MXL algorithm. The acreage under pure chilli crop was found to be 11,032 ha
and the chilli+cotton mixed cropping system accounted for 3076 ha.
The False Colour Composite (FCC) and NDVI images of the Hubli taluk are shown in
Figures 1 and 2. The yield attributes, LAI and NDVI values of chilli crop are presented in
Table 1. The NDVI values of chilli crop in Hubli taluk ranged from 0.1132 to 0.4559.
In the present study, highly variable yield levels were observed in the ground truth
sites. The yield ranged from 111 to 1544 kg ha
-1
. The number of fruits per plant and fruit
weight also showed wide variation. The main season for low and variable yields at different
places was due to lack of sufficient rainfall immediately after transplanting and low erratic
distribution of rainfall during crop growth period, which exposed the crop to moisture stress
leading to reduced flowering and fruit set and dropping of the flowers and fruits.
The results of the linear regression analysis between NDVI and agronomic variables
like LAI, number of fruits per plant, fruit weight per and yield per hectare are presented in
Table 2. Among all the variables studied, highly significant correlation was found between
NDVI and number of fruits per plant (r=0.957) followed by fruit weight per plant and yield per
ha (r=0.896) and leaf area index (r=0.887).
YIELD ESTIMATION IN CHILLI
R NIR
R NIR
NDVI
+
=
where,
NIR and R are the reflectance in the near infrared and red regions, respectively.
4
ESWARI and PATIL
5
S.No. NDVI LAI
No. of fruit
plant
Fruit weight
(g/plant)
Dry chilli
yield (kg/ha)
Table1: NDVI, LAI, Yeld attributes and Yield of Chilli crop in the selected ground truth
sites of Hubli taluk of Dharwad district, Karnataka
1 0.3835 1.41 45 67.45 1140
2 0.4308 0.97 32 43.31 732
3 0.4559 1.80 57 91.36 1544
4 0.1385 0.33 9 11.53 195
5 0.2419 0.72 18 20.88 353
6 0.1296 0.28 10 10.47 177
7 0.2397 0.62 35 37.51 634
8 0.2154 0.57 23 30.47 515
9 0.1355 0.33 6 8.52 144
10 0.1970 0.27 13 17.28 292
11 0.2000 0.36 36 36.27 613
12 0.1818 0.26 8 15.62 264
13 0.1186 0.33 5 6.71 111
14 0.1429 0.53 9 11.71 198
15 0.1826 0.51 12 13.96 236
16 0.1846 0.58 14 15.85 268
17 0.1852 0.37 11 13.02 220
18 0.1739 0.56 12 15.68 265
19 0.2366 0.58 25 33.67 569
20 0.1966 0.43 18 21.65 366
21 0.1532 0.31 7 10.06 170
22 0.2522 0.58 24 31.60 534
23 0.3058 0.71 22 29.82 504
24 0.3000 0.57 25 29.11 492
25 0.1132 0.19 8 9.11 154
26 0.1429 0.21 9 11.36 192
6
Table 2: Linear regression analysis between NDVI and agronomic variables of Chilli
Agronomic variable Correlation coefficient values
Leaf area index 0.887*
No. of fruits per plant 0.957**
Fruit weight per plant 0.896**
Yield per 100 m
2
0.896**
* - Significant at P = 0.05 ** - Significant at P = 0.01
Martin and Heilman (1986) and Sridevi (2002) also reported significant correlation between
NDVI and LAI, NDVI and yield components of rice crop. A simple regression analysis done
between yield and NDVI, LAI. NDVI has shown significant correlation with yield at 5 per cent
level (r=0.896). LAI was found to have highly significant correlation with yield at 1 per cent
level (r=0.920).
Yield prediction model
Y = -165.90 + 1333.5 NDVI + 532.99 LAI where,
NDVI : NDVI of chilli crop
LAI : LAI of chilli crop
R
2
: 0.877 SEE : 120.28 F ratio : 81.93
The yield prediction model was found to be significant (r
2
=0.877), which explains 87
per cent of the variability in yield estimation. Using this yield model, the average yield of dry
chilli in Hubli taluk was estimated to be 419 kg ha
-1-
.
The total production of chilli crop in Hubli taluk was calculated by using the relationship,
Production = Acreage (ha) yield (kg/ha)
The estimated production of chilli in Hubli taluk was 5,960 tonnes.
The chilli yield and production estimation at taluk level was done satisfactorily using
IRS ID LISS III data. The estimated acreage under chilli crop in Hubli taluk was 14,224 ha.
The estimated yield and production of chilli were 419 kg ha
-1-
and 5,960 tonnes, respectively.
This study has shown that the yield estimation and production forecasting can be made in
ESWARI and PATIL
7
indeterminate commercial crops like chilli through remote sensing technology with the
availability of high resolution data from IRS ID LISS III sensor.
References
KRISHNA RAO M V, HEBBAR K R and VENKATARATNAM L 1997 Chilli crop inventory
using IRS-IC LISS-III data. Scientific Note, NRSA, Hyderabad.
MARTIN R D and HEILMAN J L 1986 Spectral reflectance patterns of flooded rice.
Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 52: 1885-1890.
PARIHAR J S and NAVALGUND R R 1992 Crop production forecasting. In : Natural Resources
Management A New Perspective Ed. Karrle, R. L., NNRMS, Bangalore, pp. 91-107.
ROUSE J W, HAAS R W, SCHELL J A, DEERING D W and HARLAN J C 1974 Monitoring
the vernal advancement and retrogradation of natural vegetation. NASA/GSFCT Type III
final report, Greenbelt,MD,USA.
SRIDEVI B 2002 Rice production modelling using remote sensing and GIS techniques.
Ph. D. Thesis submitted to Institute of Post Graduate Studies and Research, Jawaharlal
Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad.
8
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 8 - 12 , 2007
Dissipation of Triazophos and Cypermethrin Residues on Chillies
(Capsicum annum L.)
P.B. MAHALINGAPPA
1
, K. DHARMA REDDY
2
, K.NARASIMHA REDDY
3
and
G.V.SUBBARATNAM
4
Department of Entomology College of Agriculture,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 30
ABSTRACT
Dissipation of triazophos 0.08 and cypermethrin 0.0012 per cent residues on chillies were studied
by spraying at 15 days interval, initiating from 45 days after transplanting. A total of four sprays were given.
The initial deposit of triazophos and cypermethrin after fourth spray recorded 0.39 and 0.16 mg kg
-1
, respectively.
The level of residues at 1,3,5,10, 15, 20 and 30 days after last spray in green chillies were 0.35, 0.26, 0.21,
0.18, 0.13, 0.09 and 0.04 mg kg
-1
for triazophos and 0.12, 0.08, 0.05, 0.03 mg kg
-1
for cypermethrin which was
observed below detectable (BDL) from 20
th
day onwards. The half life (RL
50
) values of 9.70 and 6.54 days and
waiting period (T
tol
) of 8.03 and one day was found for triazophos and cypermethrin respectively. The
residues in shade dried red chillies at 90 days after last spray was 0.06 and 0.01 mg kg
-1
, respectively for
triazophos and cypermethrin.
Chilli (Capsicum annum L.) is one of the important condiments having immense
commercial and therapeutic value. India contributes about one fourth of worlds production
of chillies. Andhra Pradesh alone accounts for 45 to 50 per cent production of chillies and
meets one third demand of the countrys need.
There is ample scope to export chillies to other countries and earn foreign exchange
provided that the produce is free of pesticide residues. The chilli farmers suffer due to
rejection of chilli consignments exported, due to presence of pesticide residues in it . Hence,
there is every need to prescribe the waiting period for safe consumption of the produce.
Keeping this in view, a study was under taken to test the dissipation pattern of triazophos
and cypermethrin residues in chilli fruits.
Materials and methods
An experiment was conducted in the field during 2004-05 with triazophos 0.08 and
cypermethrin 0.0012 per cent for controlling chilli pests. Each treatment was replicated thrice
in a randomized block design. Spraying was given at 15 days interval with hand compression
sprayer. Initiating from 45 days after transplanting, a total of four sprays were given. Composite
* Part of M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis submitted by the first author to Acharya N.G. Agricultural University,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
2. Associate Professor
3. Scientist, AINP on Pesticide Residue, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
4. Professor & University Head.
9
fruit samples were collected at 0 hours, 1,3,5,10, 15, 20 and 30 days after last spray and
analysed at All India Net Work Project on Pesticide Residues, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
Triazophos residues were analysed by following the method of Getz and Watts (1964) modified
by Jain et al. (1974). The composite chilli fruit sample (500 g) was cut into small pieces. A
representative portion of 50 g chopped sample was blended thrice with 100, 50, 50 ml of
acetone in a high speed blender, filtered and the extracts combined and concentrated to
about 50 ml using a Kunderna Danish Evaporator and then transferred to a one litre capacity
separatory funnel. The extract was diluted with 5 per cent aqueous sodium chloride solution
and partitioned thrice into 100, 50 and 50 ml of dichloromethane. The dichloromethane layer
was passed through anhydrous sodium sulphate. The combined dichloromethane fractions
were evaporated to near dryness. The complete removal of dichloromethane was ensured
by repeatedly adding acetone to the residues followed by evaporation under vacuum. The
residues thus obtained were dissolved in 5 ml of acetone (Luke et al., 1975 and Honda,
1994). The extracts were taken in Getz tube and solvent evaporated off under vacuum or by
dry air. To the residues 0.2 ml of 2 per cent 4 (p-nitrobenzyl)pyridine and 0.2 ml of 2 per cent
cyclohexylamine solution in acetone was added. The tube was fitted with an air condenser
and heated in an oil bath at 175 to 180
0
C for three minutes. After cooling the tube in an ice
bath, 3 ml of ethyl acetate was added and the absorbance recorded at 540 nm. The residues
of triazophos was extracted with acetone. Five ml of triazophos extract was taken in a glass
column containing adsorbent mixture of charcoal, celite and magnesium oxide (2:2:1). The
concentrated extract in the column was diluted with 150 ml of chloroform. The dilute was
finally dissolved in chloroform (20 ml) for determination of residues. Recovery of 89 per cent
with limit of detection of micro gram/gram was ensured.
Extraction and cleanup of cypermethrin was done as per the procedure suggested
by Awasthi (1994). Chilli fruit samples were chopped and blended. A representative sample
of 50 g was extracted with a solvent mixture of 100 ml of acetone : hexane (1:1 v/v). The
extracted solvent mixture was transferred to hexane layer by solvent partitioning in separatory
funnel and diluted with water to remove acetone. The upper hexane phase was collected
through anhydrous sodium sulphate and concentrated to about 5 ml . The concentrated
extract of cypermethrin was passed through a glass column containing 5 g of florisil, 5 g of
neutral alumina grade III overlaid with a 20 mm layer of anhydrous sodium sulphate. The
column was then diluted with solvent mixtures of n-hexane: acetone (9:1v/v) and the dilute
was concentrated to 5 ml for GC analysis. The residues of cypermethrin were determined
using Varian cp 3800 gas chromatograph with following parameters.
Detector : ECD (Ni
63
) (Electron capture detector)
Column : Factor four Varian 0.25 ID, 10 m.
DISSIPATION OF TRIAZOPHOS
10
Injector temperature (
0
C) : 270
Detector temperature (
0
C) : 300
Column (over) temperature (
0
C) : 240
Carrier gas flow (ml/min.) : 1.5 ml
Retention time (min.) :5.881 minutes
With above conditions, the recovery obtained was 94.5 per cent and limit of detection
was 0.01 ng. Based on the data, half life (RL50) and waiting period (Ttol) were calculated
(Gunther and Blimn, 1955 and Hoskin, 1961).
Results and Discussions
The initial deposit of 0.39 mg kg
-1
of triazophos 0.08 per cent was obtained on green
chillies. The subsequent residues at 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 days after fourth spray was
found to be 0.35, 0.26, 0.21, 0.18, 0.13, 0.09 and 0.04 mg kg
-1
(Table 1). The corresponding
dissipation was 10.25, 33.33, 46.15, 53.84, 66.66, 76.92 and 89.74 per cent respectively.
The half life of triazophos was found to be 9.70 days and waiting period of 8.03 days. Hence,
it was suggested to give the last spray of triazophos (0.08 %) nine days before harvest, from
consumer safety point of view. The present findings are in accordance with the reports of
Narasimha Reddy et al.(1997) and Phani kumar et al. (2000a). Residues of triazophos (0.08%)
in shade dried red chillies at 30, 60, and 90 days after the last spray were found to be 0.20
(48.71%), 0.14 (64.10%) and 0.06 mg kg
-1
(84.61%), respectively (Table 1).
Cypermethrin 0.0012 per cent after fourth spray left the initial deposit of
0.16 mg kg
-1
which was found to be far below maximum residue level (MRL) of 0.50 mg kg
-
1
(G.O.I.Gazette, 1990). The residues degraded to an extent of 0.14, 0.12, 0.08l, 0.05 and
0.03 mg kg
-1
at 1, 3, 5, 10 and 15 days respectively. However, residues were below detectable
level (BDL) at 20 and 30 days (Table 2) after the fourth spraying. The corresponding dissipation
percentage was found to be 12.5, 25, 50.0, 68.75, 81.25, 100 and 100 respectively. The
residues recorded at zero hour were far below MRL of 0.5 mg kg
-1
.

Hence, waiting period and
half life were worked out to be one and 6.54 days, respectively. The present dissipation
pattern concurred with the findings of Bhupinder Singh and Udeaan(1989) and Phanikumar et
al. (2000b). In shade dried red chillies, the residues recorded were 0.13 (18.75%), 0.02
(87.50%), and 0.01 mg kg
-1
(93.75%) at 30, 60 and 90 days after last spray, respectively
(Table 2).
MAHALINGAPPA et al.
11
DISSIPATION OF TRIAZOPHOS
Table 1: Dissipation of triazophos 0.08 per cent in chillies
Days after treatment Residues (mg/kg) Dissipation (%)
Green Chillies
0 hours 0.39 -
1 0.35 10.25
3 0.26 33.33
5 0.21 46.15
10 0.18 53.84
15 0.13 66.66
20 0.09 76.92
30 0.04 89.74
Red Chillies
30 0.20 48.71
60 0.14 64.10
90 0.06 84.61
Table 2: Dissipation of cypermethrin 0.0012 per cent in chillies
Days after treatment Residues (mg/kg) Dissipation (%)
Green Chillies
0 hour 0.16
1 0.14 12.50
3 0.12 25.00
5 0.08 50.00
10 0.05 68.75
15 0.03 81.25
20 BDL 100.00
30 BDL 100.00
Red chillies
30 0.13 18.75
60 0.02 87.50
90 0.01 93.75
BDL = Below detectable level
12
References
AWASTHI M D 1994 Studies on dissipation and persistence of pyrethroid residues on chilli
fruit for safety constants. Pesticide Research Journal 6: 80 83
BHUPINDER SINGH and UDEAAN A S 1989 Estimation of cypermethrin residues in the
fruits of okra Abelmoschus esculentus (Linn.) Moench. Journal of insect science 2: 49 52.
GETZ M E and WATTS R R 1964 Application of $ (p-nitrobenzyl) pyridine as a rapid
quantitative reagent for organophosphate pesticides. Association of official analytical
chemists journal 4: 1094 1096.
GUNTHER F A and BLIMN R C 1955 Analysis of insecticides and acaricides. Inter Science
Publishers, New York, pp: 696.
HONDA S K 1994 Protocol on residues of triazophos. All India Coordinated Research Project
on Pesticide Residues, New Delhi.
HOSKINS W M 1961 Mathematical treatments of loss of pesticide residues. Plant Protection
Bulletin, FAO, 9: 163 168.
JAIN H K, PANDEY S Y, AGNIHOTRI N P and DEWAN R S 1974 : Rapid estimation of
organophosphorus insecticides. Indian Journal of Entomology 36: 145 148.
LUKE A MILTORN, JERRY E FROBERG and HERBERT T MASUMOTO 1975 Extraction
and clean up of organochlorine, organophosphate, organonitrogen and hydrocarbon pesticides
in produce for determination by Gas Liquid Chromatography: Association of Official Analytical
Chemists Journal 58: 1020 1026.
NARASIMHA REDDY K, MIR AZAM SULTAN, JAGADISHWAR REDDY D and RAMESH
BABU T 1997 Dissipation and decontamination of triazophos and lindane in brinjal. National
Seminar on Plant Protection towards Sustainability, pp: 15
PHANIKUMAR K, JAGDISHWAR REDDY D, NARASIMHA REDDY K, RAMESH BABU T
and NARENDRANATH VV 2000 a Dissipation of cypermethrin residues in chilli. Pesticide
Research Journal 12: 130 132.
PHANIKUMAR K, JAGDISHWAAR REDDY D, NARASIMHA REDDY K, RAMESH BABU T
and NARENDRANATH V V 2000 of Dissipation and decontamination of triazophos and
acephate residues in chilli (Capsicum annuum Linn.). Pesticide Research Journal
12: 26 29.
MAHALINGAPPA et al.
13
Combining Ability Studies for Important Physico-Chemical Quality
Characteristics in Aromatic Rice
B. KRISHNA VENI
1
and N. SHOBHA RANI
2
Division of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Directorate of Rice Research,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad
ABSTRACT
Combining ability studies were undertaken for seven important physico-chemical quality traits in 25
hybrids derived from ten parents involving eight scented and two non-scented rice varieties/lines. The results
revealed that IR 62874-88-2-1, HBC 85 and PGB possessed desirable GCA for all three physical kernel
characters. For cooked kernel length and elongation ratio, PR 109, PK 1379-9-1-1 and PGB were the best
general combiners. Among crosses, PR 109/Basmati 6129 and IR62874-88-2-1/ Basmati 6129 were the best
specific combiners for all the three physical kernel quality traits studied while PK1379-9-1-1/PGB was the best
combiner for kernel length after cooking. Most of the crosses which showed high SCA effects for various
characters involved at least one parent with desirable GCA suggesting the major role of non-additive gene
action in association with additive gene effects in the expression of these traits.
The importance of rice grain quality is now instrumental and has become a valuable
tool for the acceptance of varieties to be released. Therefore in recent years, emphasis in
rice improvement programmes has been laid on selection of genotypes combining desirable
traits, particularly grain quality characters. Quality in rice is described by a combination of
many physico-chemical properties which show a complex nature of inheritance. Information
on the gene action for important quality traits is scanty. Combining ability studies are frequently
used to test the performance of parents in various cross combinations, besides elucidating
the nature and magnitude of gene action involved in the expression of quantitative traits.
Such information is required to design effective breeding programme for rapid improvement.
The ultimate objective of this analysis is to spot out best parents for general combining
ability and best hybrids for specific combining ability effects. In the present study, an
attempt was made to assess the combining ability for seven important physico-chemical
quality traits in 25 hybrids and their ten parents involving basmati and non basmati varieties.
Two non-scented popular high yielding rice varieties (IR64 and PR109) and three
aromatic rice lines viz., Gaurav, IR 62874-88-2-1 and PK 1379-9-1-1 were used as lines and
crossed with five basmati testers (HBC 85, Karnal local, Basmati 410, Basmati 6129 and
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 13 - 20 , 2007
1. Scientist, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Lam Guntur
2. Principal Scientist and Head.
14
PGB) in a line x tester mating design to obtain 25 crosses. All these F
1
s along with their ten
parents were evaluated in a randomized block design with two replications during 1999 wet
season at Directorate of Rice Research farm, Hyderabad. Each replication consisted of
three rows of 3.6 m length with 30 cm inter and intra row spacing. Standard agronomic
practices and need based plant protection measures were undertaken to raise the crop.
From each replication, ten randomly selected plants were harvested and threshed separately.
After six months of ageing, the seed samples were analysed for seven important physico-
chemical quality traits on individual plant basis. Hulling was done in a lab husker (THU005)
and small Kett polisher was used for milling the seed samples. Kernel length and kernel
breadth were determined by using dial micrometer as indicated by Murthy and Govindaswamy
(1967). Length/breadth ratio was calculated as the ratio of mean kernel length to mean kernel
breadth. Standard cooking procedure described by Juliano et al. (1965) was used for cooking
the sample and estimating kernel length after cooking. Elongation ratio was computed by
dividing the mean cooked kernel length by mean uncooked milled kernel length. Alkali
spreading value and amylose content were estimated by following the methods delineated
by Little et al. (1958) and Juliano (1971) respectively. The mean data was utilized for estimating
combining ability in line x tester model as per Kempthrone (1957).
The analysis of variance results for line x tester design indicated that the lines differed
significantly for kernel length, kernel breadth, length/breadth ratio, kernel length after cooking,
elongation ratio, alkali spreading value and amylose content (Table1). Among testers,
significant variation was observed for all traits except for elongation ratio and alkali spreading
value. The variance due to interaction between lines x testers was highly significant for all
seven physico-chemical quality traits indicating the presence of adequate variability in the
experimental material. The GCA to SCA variance ratio was less than unity for all the
characteristics studied suggesting the preponderance of non-additive gene action in the
expression of these traits. These results are in confirmation with the findings of Srivastava
et al. (1978), Sarathe et al. (1986), Paramasivan et al. (1996) and Sharma and Mani (1997).
The study of GCA effects revealed that Gaurav, IR 62874-88-2-1 among lines and
HBC 85 among testers possessed desirable GCA effects for kernel length and length/breadth
ratio indicating the possibility of simultaneous improvement in both the traits (Table 2).
Except the former line, all others also recorded significant negative GCA for kernel breadth
which was desirable. For kernel length after cooking and elongation ratio, PR 109, PK 1379-
9-1-1 and PGB manifested high GCA effects in the desirable directions. IR 64 was the best
general combiner for alkali spreading value while four parents viz., IR 64, PR 109, Karnal
VENI and RANI
15
Local and Basmati 410 exhibited favourable effects for amylose content. IR62874-88-2-
1and HBC85 were the best general combiners for all three physical kernel quality traits while
IR 64, showed positive GCA effects for both alkali spreading value and amylose content.
The cross combinations, PR 109/Basmati 6129, and IR 62874-88-2-1/Basmati 6129
exhibited significant SCA effects for all three physical kernel characteristics in the desirable
direction (Table3). These two crosses involved at least one parent with high/moderate GCA
for the above said traits. Bansal et al (2000) reported similar results in a combining ability
study. Four hybrids viz., PK 1379-9-1-1/PGB, IR 64/HBC 85, IR 64/Karnal Local and IR 64/
Basmati 410, were the best specific combiners for kernel length after cooking while Gaurav/
Basmati 6129, IR 62874-88-2-1/HBC 85 manifested positive and significant SCA effects for
elongation ratio in that order. None of the hybrids exhibited significant SCA effect for alkali
spreading value, while three crosses viz., Gaurav/Karnal Local, PR 109/PGB, IR 62874-88-
2-1/PGB manifested positive and significant SCA effects for amylose content. The cross
PK1379-9-1-1/PGB was the best specific combiner for kernel length after cooking which is
the most important quality characteristic of basmati rice. This cross was derived from both
GCA parents for kernel length after cooking. Earlier Sood et al. (1983) reported that crosses
involving high x low or high x moderate GCA exhibited significant SCA effects for kernel
length after cooking. The cross Gaurav/Karnal local exhibited best combining ability for
amylose content as well as alkali spreading value.
The mean values and SCA effects for seven physico-chemical quality traits in hybrids
revealed that every character required different combination of parents for their expression
in the desirable direction. No correspondence between per se performance and GCA/SCA
effects could be observed making it difficult to generalize the trend. When we consider both
the mean values and GCA/SCA ratio at a time, some parents/crosses were common, but
occupied different positions. Srivastava et al. (1978) and Sharma and Mani (1997) also
observed same results and suggested that selection of crosses should be made on the
basis of per se performance as well as SCA effects. It would be more useful if the crosses
showing high SCA effects involved parents with high GCA effects. Most of the promising
crosses giving high SCA effects for different characters involved at least one good general
combiner which suggests that direct selection could be made on the basis of per se
performance (Table 4). The per se performance of F
1
s indicate that either one or both the
parents were good combiners which demanded inclusion of at least one good combining
parent in producing superior hybrids.
COMBINING ABILITY STUDIES
16
VENI and RANI
17
18
VENI and RANI
19
20
The present investigation suggested the predominance of non-additive gene action
in addition to additive gene effects. In such cases, where non-additive gene effects played
a vital role in association with additive components, maximum gain could be attained by
maintaining considerable heterozygosity coupled with selection in early segregating
generations to provide opportunity to disassociate unworthy linkages, enhance the frequency
of genetic recombinants, provide transgressive segregants and create a broad genetic base
so that maximum number of potentially functional genes may be accumulated, reassembled
and expressed leading to isolation of stable and widely adapted genotypes.
References
BANSAL U K, SAINI R G and RANI N S 2000 Heterosis and combining ability for yield, its
components and quality traits in some scented rices (Oryza sativa L.). Tropical Agriculture
(Trinidad) 77: 180-187.
JULIANO B O 1971 A simplified assay for milled rice amylose.Cereal science today
16: 334-340.
JULIANO B O, ONATE L U and DELMUDO A M 1965 Relation of starch composition,
protein content and gelatinization temperature to cooking and eating qualities of milled rice.
Food Technology 19:1006-1011.
KEMPTHORNE O 1957 An Introduction to Genetic Statistics. John Wiley and Sons inc.
New York.
LITTLE R R HILDER G B and DAWSON E H 1958 Differential effect of dilute alkali on 25
varieties of milled white rice Cereal chemistry 35: 111-126.
MURTHY P S N and GOVINDASWAMI 1967. Inheritance of grain size and its correlation
with the hulling and cooking qualities. Oryza. 4: 12-21.
PARAMASIVAN K S GIRIDHARAN A P SOUNDARRAJ M K and PARTHASARATHY P
1996 Heterosis and combining ability for grain characters in rice. Madras Agricultural Journal
83: 110-114.
SARATHE M L , SINGH S P and PERARAJU P 1986 Heterosis and combining ability for
quality characters in rice. Indian Journal of Research in Agricultural Sciences 56: 749-753.
SHARMA R K and MANI S C 1997 Combining ability for cooking quality characters in
basmati rices. Crop Improvement 24: 93-96.
SHRIVASTAVA M N and SESHU D V 1983 Combining ability for yield and associated
characters in rice. Crop Science 23:741-744.
SRIVASTAVA R B, SINGH H G and CHANDRA V S 1978 Genetic architecture of some
quality traits in the F
2
population of rice. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 48 : 568-578.
SOOD B C, SIDDIQ E A and ZAMAN F U 1983. Genetic analysis of kernel elongation in
rice. Indian Journal of Genetics 43: 40-43.
VENI and RANI
21
Genetic Divergence Analysis in Grain Amaranth
(Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.)*
H. V. KALPANDE
1
, J. D. DESHMUKH
2
, I. A. MADRAP
3
and V. K.GITE
4
Department of Agricultural Botany, Marathwada Agricultural University,
Parbhani 431402
ABSTRACT
On the basis of D
2
analysis, 61 genotypes of grain amaranth were grouped into ten clusters. Cluster
I accompanied highest number of genotypes (23) followed by cluster II with 17 genotypes, cluster III with
seven genotypes, cluster IV with six genotypes, cluster V and VI with two genotypes each whereas, clusters
VII, VIII, IX, and X were with solitary genotype. Inter cluster distance was maximum between clusters III and
X followed by clusters III and IV, Clusters II and VII. While, minimum inter cluster distance was observed
between clusters V and X.
Grain amaranth is a multipurpose crop with good potential for grain, vegetable and
fodder. The grains are rich in protein (15.6%) with high lysine and other essential amino
acids. Being an excellent source of iron and - carotene, it can help in removing iron and
vitamin A deficiency. Presence of high amount of folic acid helps in increasing the blood
haemoglobin level. Besides having high nutritional quality and high tolerance to arid conditions
and sub soils, there are also other attributes to be looked for its future cultivation prospects.
To breed adaptable cultivars for wide agro climatic zones, selection of suitable parents is
important. The concept of D
2
statistic developed by Mahalanobis (1936) is useful in quantifying
the degree of divergence between the biological populations at genotypic level and to assess
the relative contribution of different components to the total divergence at both intra and inter
cluster levels. Such studies are very meagre in grain amaranth. Hence, the present study
was initiated to ascertain the magnitude of the genetic divergence using Mahalanobis
generalized divergence (D
2
) in grain amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.).
The present investigation comprised 61 genotypes of grain amaranth (Amaranthus
hypochondriacus L.). The experiment was conducted at Department of Agricultural Botany,
Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani during kharif-2004 in randomized block design
with two replications. The spacing of 45 cm between rows and 15 cm within the plants was
* Part of M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis submitted by the first author to Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani.
1. Assistant Professor
3. Professor
2 & 4. M.Sc. (Ag.) Students
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 21 - 26 , 2007
22
maintained. Observations were recorded on five randomly selected plants in each treatment
in each replication for the characters days to 50 percent flowering, days to maturity, plant
height (cm), number of spikelets / inflorescence, inflorescence length (cm), inflorescence
girth (cm), stem girth (cm), leaf area / plant (cm
2
), 50 ml volume seed weight (g), harvest
index (%) and grain yield/plant (g). The genetic diversity existed between genotypes with
respect to a set of eleven characters and was estimated using Mahalanobis D---
2
Statistics
(Mahalanobis,1936). Treating D
2
as a generalized statistical distance, the criteria used by
Tocher (Rao,1952) was applied for determining the group constellation. After establishing
the clusters, intra and inter cluster distances were worked out.
The analysis of variance indicated significant variation among the 61 genotypes for
all the characters studied, suggesting adequate variability among them. The analysis of
dispersion for the mean values based on Wilks criterion revealed the existence of significant
differences among the genotypes for pooled effect of eleven characters studied (660 df,
2
=
3783.05). The sixty one genotypes could be grouped in ten clusters depending upon the
genetic constitution (Table 1). Similary Kamble (2000) grouped 50 genotypes of grain amaranth
into 11 clusters, Shukla and Singh (2002) grouped 66 genotypes into 9 clusters and
Suryawanshi (2003) grouped 54 genotypes into 8 clusters. Cluster I was accommodated
with maximum number of 23 genotypes followed by cluster II with 17 genotypes, cluster III
with seven genotypes, cluster IV constituted six genotypes, cluster V and VI had two
genotypes each. However, clusters VII, VIII, IX and X were quite unique having
monogenotypic nature indicating their distinctness from other genotypes for most of the
characters. The genotypes selected showed greater diversity, due to factors like selection
under different environments, heterogeneity, genetic drift and history of selection, (Murthy
and Arunachalam, 1966). Hence, for hybridization, the selection of parents should be based
on genetic diversity besides per se performance and geographical origin.
The intra cluster values varied from 0.00 to 115.19. The maximum intracluster
distance of 115.19 was noticed in cluster III. It was 80.20 in cluster I, 73.11 in cluster II and
50.28 in cluster IV. The genotypes belonging to these clusters can be considered as parents
for hybridization programme since genotypes within these clusters with a high degree of
divergence would produce more desirable breeding material for achieving maximum genetic
advance with regard to per se. The maximum intracluster value exhibited by cluster V and VI
indicated that limited genetic diversity existed among the constituent genotypes. The rest of
the clusters had zero intracluster distance as they had only one genotype each. Similarly
Kamble (2000) and Suryawanshi (2003) reported intracluster D
2
values ranging from 0.00 to
15.39 and 0.00 to 34.43 respectively.
KALPANDE et al.
23
Table 1: Grouping of 61 genotypes of grain amaranthus into ten clusters
Cluster Genotypes
Number of
Genotypes
I 23 Mozri, IC-354545, IC-35410, Pedgaon local-6, MP-
commercial-9, TN-55, IC-35391, IC-35419, Lohgaon
Parbhani-, Khanapur-4, SKNA-7, SKNA-2, Pedgaon
local-7, IC-41998, IC-35404, MGA-2, IC-35402, IC-
35440, IC-35405, IC-35773, Jawala local-1, IC-35687,
Pedgoan local-3.
II 17 Jawala local-6, IC-35446, IC-35414, IC-35501, Sawna-
4, Khanapur-6, MP commercial-3, IC-35498, IC-32195,
RMA-4, IC-35494, Pedgoan local-13, IC-35439, BGA-
3, IC-35433, MP commercial-8, IC-35490.
III 7 Jawala local-2, Sindkhed raja, Jawala local-8, Suvarna,
GA-1, IC-120588, RMA-2
IV 6 RGAS-92-10-1, IC-35377, IC-35428, Pedgaon local-
1, MGA-1, IC-35449.
V 2 RMA-3, IC-35490
VI 2 IC-32696, IC-35713
VII 1 IC-95366
VIII 1 IC-35436
IX 1 IC-35450
X 1 Pedgaon local-6
The maximum inter cluster distance was observed between clusters III and X (432.37)
followed by clusters III and IV (382.28), clusters II and VII (380.95), clusters III and VII
(368.17), clusters III and VIII (338.87), clusters IV and V (335.70), clusters II and IX (329.08)
clusters I and III (306.13) indicating greater diversity among the genotypes included in those
clusters. Hence, the genotypes from these clusters could be selected for hybridization
programme as they are expected to produce highly heterotic crosses. Similarly, Kamble
(2000) reported maximum inter cluster distance between cluster VI and IX (121.48) followed
by cluster II and IX (107.53) and cluster V and VI (97.70). Suryawanshi also reported
maximum inter cluster distance between cluster III and VI (129.70) followed by IV and VI
(105.29), VI and VIII (102.28), II and III (93.21), VI and VIII (87.48).
GENETIC DIVERGENCE ANALYSIS
24
KALPANDE et al.
25
GENTIC DIVERGENCE ANALYSIS
26
The cluster means for the characters are presented in Table 3. The perusal of data
suggests that considerable differences existed for all the characters studied between the
clusters. Among the clusters, cluster V recorded the highest means for most of the characters
viz., plant height (166.50 cm), number of spikelets / inflorescence (59.00), inflorescence
length (55.17 cm) and stem girth (5.63 cm). The cluster III showed maximum values for
inflorescence girth (15.54 cm), 50 ml volume, seed weight (43.88 g) and grain yield / plant
(23.85 g). Cluster IX had highest mean for leaf area/ plant (1419.30 cm
2
). Further, it was
earliest in days to 50 percent flowering whereas, cluster VI was earliest in days to maturity
(93.00).
It can be concluded that all the characters studied contributed to the maximum
divergence indicating the utility of multivariate analysis in identifying useful parents with high
yield and other desirable characters.
References
KAMBLE A K 2000 Genetic divergence and path analysis in grain Amaranthus. M. Sc. (Ag.)
Thesis submitted to Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri.
MAHALANOBIS P C 1936 On the generalized distance in statistics. Proceeding in national
academy of sciences 12 : 49-55.
MURTHY B R and ARUNACHALAM V 1966 The nature of divergence in relation to breeding
systems in some crop plants. Indian Journal of Genetics. 26: 188-198.
RAO C R 1952 Advanced Statistical Method in Biometrical Research John Wiley and sons,
Inc., New York.
SHUKLA S and S P SINGH 2002 Genetic divergence in amaranth. Indian Journal of Genetics
62: 336 337.
SURYAWANSHI N V 2003 Path analysis and genetic diversity in grain Amaranthus. M. Sc.
(Ag.) Thesis submitted to Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri.
KALPANDE et al.
27
Heterosis for Grain Yield and its Components in Maize (Zea mays L.)
*
C. APPUNU and E. SATYANARAYANA
2
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture,
ABSTRACT
The ten parents of maize inbred were crossed in 10 10 diallel fashion (without reciprocals) and
raised in randomized block design to assess the extent of heterosis in 45 F-
1
- hybrids. The ten parents and
their 45 crosses were used to estimate the heterosis for 12 traits including grain yield. Based on heterosis and
per se performance, the superior crosses were identified for each trait. Heterosis for yield was generally
accompanied by heterosis for component traits. The cross P
1
P
3
, which showed superior performance in
yield and yield components namely days to 50 per cent silking and total biomass emerged out as the best
combination among the 45 crosses evaluated.
Maize is mainly utilized for direct human consumption in developing countries and
for livestock feed in developed countries. However, in recent years its utilization for diversified
value-added product has made it an important crop. Increased production of maize will not
only contribute greatly towards increasing food production in the country but also provide raw
material for various maize based industries. Hence, there is a continuous need to evolve
new hybrids which should be superior to the existing hybrids. The magnitude of heterosis
provides information on the extent of genetic diversity of parents involved in a cross and
helps to choose the parents in developing superior F
1
s, so as to exploit hybrid vigour. The
present investigation was carried out to know the direction and magnitude of heterosis for
components of grain yield in maize.
Ten maize inbreds viz., P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, P
4
, P
5
, P
6
, P
7
, P
8
, P
9
and P
10
were crossed in a
diallel fashion excluding reciprocals at Agricultural Research Station, Amberpet, Hyderbad
during kharif, 2001 and the resultant 45 hybrids along with the parents and checks were
raised in a randomized block design in three replications at College Farm, College of Agriculture,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad during rabi, 2001-2002. Data were recorded on ten randomly
selected plants as explained previously (Appunu et al., 2006) and averages were used for
statistical analysis.Estimates of heterosis of F
1
s over mid parent and better parent were
calculated by the methods of Turner (1953) and Liang et al. (1972).
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 27-30 , 2007
*. Part of M.Sc. Thesis by the former author to Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad.
2. Professor, Agricultural research station (Maize), Amberpet, Hyderabad (A.P), India.
28
The data on range of heterosis, number of superior crosses and their per se
performance are presented in Table 1. In the present study for grain yield per plot, heterosis
was significant in 23 and 14 crosses over mid parent and better parent, respectively. Cross
P
1
P
3
exhibited highest magnitude of heterobeltiosis. For leaf area index and anthesis-
silking interval, the range of heterosis varied from 23.00 to 33.33 per cent and -66.00 to
133.3 per cent over mid parent and -38.39 to 28.47 per cent and -78.35 to 123.10 per cent
over better parent, respectively. The range of heterosis for plant height and ear height characters
varied from -22.25 to 14.47 per cent and -11.47 to 66.48 per cent over mid parent and -30.41
to 12.76 per cent and -20.40 to 55.57 per cent over better parent, respectively. Similar
results for grain yield, leaf area index, anthesis-silking interval, plant height and ear height
were also reported by Beck and Vasal (1990). These hybrids are worthy to follow up as they
are likely to yield desirable segregants in subsequent generations.
Significant negative heterosis for days to 50 per cent tasselling, days to 50 per cent
silking, days to 50 per cent maturity and effective kernel filling period characters ranged from
-13.05 to 14.98 per cent, - 4.42 to 19.00 per cent, -6.42 to 4.10 per cent and -18.52 to 11.29
per cent over mid parent and -17.91 to 10.18 per cent, -9.38 to 8.23 per cent, -10.63 to 1.23
per cent and -30.89 to 9.73 per cent over better parent, respectively. This indicates an added
advantage of developing early maturing maize with physiological efficiency. Out of 45 crosses,
17 and 36 crosses showed significant positive heterosis and heterobeltiosis for the character
tassel length, in which heterosis ranged from -11.16 to 16.75 per cent and -22.56 to 15.98 per
cent, respectively. For chlorophyll content significant positive heterosis and heterobeltiosis
were observed in 20 and 41 crosses respectively. The heterosis magnitude range varied
from -17.84 to 17.43 per cent over mid parent and -25.79 to 18.45 per cent over better parent,
which was in concurrence with the findings of Fleming and Palmer (1975) and Krebs et al.
(1996). The range of heterosis for total biomass character varied from -16.61 to 32.20 per
cent over mid parent and -21.15 to 31.72 per cent over better parent. A desirable degree of
vegetative growth is essential for realising high yield as total biomass production is one of
the components for deciding high grain yield in many crops. Similar results of heterosis for
total biomass were also reported earlier by Djisbar and Gardner (1989).
From the foregoing discussion, it is suggested that yield is an important quantitative
trait and so there is no separate gene system for yield per se and the yield is an end product
of the multiplicative interactions between various yield components (Grafius, 1959). The
results of present investigation also revealed that the hybrid P
1
P
3
which recorded high
heterosis for yield also expressed high heterosis for yield components viz., days to 50 per
APPUNU and NARAYANA
29
HETEROSIS FOR GRAIN YIELD
30
cent silking and total biomass indicating the additive or synergistic effect of the component
characters on seed yield. This can be considered to be the best cross combination among
the 45 crosses evaluated in the study and can be used for the development of hybrid maize
in future crop improvement programmes.
References
APPUNU C, SATYANARAYANA E and NAGESHWAR RAO T 2006 Genetic architecture of
grain yield and physiological characters in maize (Zea mays L.). Research on crops
7: 181-186.
BECK D and VASAL L 1990 Heterosis and combining ability of CIMMYTS tropical early and
intermediate maize germplasm. Maydica 35 : 279-285.
DJISBAR A and GARDNER F P 1989 Heterosis for embryo size and source and sink
components of maize. Crop Science 29: 985-992.
FLEMING A A and PALMER J H 1975 Variation in chlorophyll content of maize lines and
hybrids. Crop Science 15: 617-620.
GRAFIUS J E 1959 Heterosis in barley. Agronomy Journal 51: 551-554.
KREBS D, SYNKOVA H, AVRATOUSCUKOVA N, KOCOVA M and SESTEK Z 1996
Chlorophyll fluorescence measurements for genetic analysis of maize cultivars.
Photosynthetica 32: 595-606.
LIANG C H, REDDY C R and DAYTON A D 1972 Heterosis, inbreeding depression and
heritability in a systematic series of grain sorghum genotypes. Crop Science 12: 409-411.
TURNER J H 1953 A study of heterosis in upland cotton. Agronomy Journal 45: 485-490.
APPUNU and NARAYANA
31
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 31-40 , 2007
Effect of Fly Ash and Farm Yard Manure on Soil Enzymatic Activities
in a Saturated Inceptisol under Incubated Conditions*
T. PRABHAKAR REDDY
1
, M.UMADEVI
2
, P. CHANDRASEKHAR RAO
3
and
V.B. BHANUMURTHY
4
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 500 030
ABSTRACT
An incubation experiment was conducted for 60 days with one kg soil (fine loamy, mixed hyperthermic
Typic Haplustept) at saturated moisture conditions. It was treated with 0, 5, 10 and 15 t fly ash ha
-1
soil with and
without FYM. Compared to the initial soil status all the enzyme activities viz., urease, dehydrogenase, acid and
alkaline phosphatase and cellulase increased by 7 DAI, which in general showed a decline thereafter. The
enzyme urease, dehydrogenase and cellulase were significantly influenced by fly ash, FYM and their interactions
at all the time intervals. The addition of fly ash @ 10 or 15 t ha
-1
along with FYM @ 10 t ha
-1
has recorded the
highest contents of urease (3.66, 2.80, 2.74 and 2.81 g NH
4
+
released g
-1
soil d
-1
), dehydrogenase (5.66, 4.36,
3.73 and 3.41 mg of TPF produced g
-1
soil d
-1
) and cellulase (4.00, 2.70, 2.54 and 2.16 mg of glucose released
g
-1
soil d
-1
) at 7, 15, 30 and 60 days after incubation, respectively. Acid and alkaline phosphate activities
decreased significantly with increase in levels of fly ash application. However, addition of FYM and their
interaction showed significant response on its activities.
Fly ash is a by-product of thermal power stations where electricity is produced by
firing finely powdered coal. In India, 12.21 million tons of fly ash is produced per year and for
storing 1 t fly ash 0.35 m
2
area is required. This huge quantity of fly ash produced is dumped
in ash disposal areas, which pose great threat to the environment. In an attempt to effectively
solve the disposal problem of this enormous solid industrial waste, some efforts have been
made to utilize it as an amendment to improve soil fertility and crop production.
The enzyme urease involves in the reactions related to breakdown of urea to CO
2
,
water and NH
4
+
. The enzyme dehydrogenase transfers electrons from one substance to
another and is involved in degradation of carbohydrates, liquids, etc. By involving water, the
enzyme phosphatase breaks humus-O-P-OH, bond to produce humus-OH and H
3
PO
4
, which
helps to decompose humus, making P available to plants. The enzyme cellulase breaks
celluloses, which are long chain of sugar units. It is important in organic matter decay.
* Part of M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis submitted by the first author to Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University,
1. Ph.D. Scholar
3. Professor
4. Associate Director of Research, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Jagtial, Karimnagar District,
Andhra Pradesh.
32
The enzyme urease, phosphatase and cellulase are the extra cellular enzymes secreted by
soil microorganisms, whereas dehydrogenase enzyme is exposed in intact cell. Thus, the
amount and activities of these enzymes indicate essentially the biological activity of the
soil. Hence, an experiment was conducted to study the effect of integrated use of fly ash
and FYM on soil enzymatic activities (urease, dehydrogenase, acid and alkaline phosphotase
and cellulase) of an inceptisol under incubated conditions.
An incubation experiment was conducted with one kg soil at saturated moisture
conditions. It was treated with 0, 5, 10 and 15 t fly ash ha
-1
soil with and without FYM for 60
days. The fly ash was collected from National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC),
Ramagundam, Andhra Pradesh. It contained the nutrients like N (27.5 mg/kg), P
2
O
5
(29.6
mg/kg), K
2
O (110.5 mg/kg), S (25.4 mg/kg), Ca (7.25 mg/kg), Mg (2.20 mg/kg), Fe (17.50
mg/kg), Mn (3.34 mg/kg), Cu (0.98 mg/kg) and Zn (1.83 mg/kg). The texture of fly ash was
silty loam with pH 8.1 and EC 0.37 dS m
-1
. The experimental soil was sandy clay loam in
texture, slightly alkaline in reaction (pH 7.9), non-saline (EC 0.29 dS m
-1
), low available N
(210 kg/ha), available phosphorus (8.7 kg P
2
O
5
/ha), medium in available potassium (180 kg
K
2
O/ha), low in available sulphur (8.3 mg/kg) and sufficient in micronutrient status (Fe 8.62
mg/kg, Mn 5.56 mg/kg, Cu 1.09 mg/kg and Zn 1.05 mg/kg). The samples were drawn
periodically on the 7
th
, 15
th
, 30
th
and expressed as 60
th
day after incubation (DAI) and were
analyzed for activities of enzymes urease, dehydrogenase, acid and alkaline phosphatase
and cellulase. Statistical analysis of data was worked out by applying the technique of
analysis of variance for factorial technique in randomized block design.
Urease activity was assayed by quantifying the rate of release of NH
4
+
from the
hydrolysis of urea as described by Tabatabai and Bremner (1972) with some modifications
as suggested by Sankara Rao (1989). Dehydrogenase activity was assayed by quantifying
the mg of TPF (2, 3, 5-triphenyl formazon) produced and expressed as g
-1
soil d
-1
as described
by Casida et al. (1964). The acid and alkaline phosphatase activity was assayed by quantifying
the amount of P-nitrophenol released and g of soil h
-1
as described by Tabatabai and Bremner
(1969). Cellulase activity as measured by monitoring the release of reducing sugar using
carboxymethyl cellulose as substrate following the procedure outlined by Poncholy and
Rice Elory (1973).
Results and discussion
Compared to the initial status (1.24 g of NH4
+
released/g soil/h) urease activity
increased by seven days after incubation which in general declined thereafter (Table 1). At
all the time intervals, either fly Ash @ 10 or 15 t ha
-1
recorded higher activity which was on
REDDY et al.
33
EFFECT OF FLY ASH
34
REDDY et al.
35
EFFECT OF FLY ASH
36
REDDY et al.
37
EFFECT OF FLY ASH
38
REDDY et al.
39
par to each other and was about 2 to 3 times higher when compared to the control. Among
the interactions, the highest activity was recorded in FA
10
FYM
10
(7 DAI) and FA
15
FYM
10
(15,
30 and 60 DAI) which was on par with each other. The treatments FA
10
FYM
0
and FA
15
FYM
0
were on par with each other and lowest was recorded by FA
0
FYM
0
. At 60 DAI, the treatments
FA
10
FYM
0
and FA
5
FYM
0
were on par with each other. Increase in urease activity due to
application of fly ash either in the presence or absence of FYM under incubation conditions
was reported by Lal et al. (1996a).
Compared to the initial status (2.98 mg of TPF produced/g soil/d) the dehydrogenase
activity increased by 7 DAI which in general showed decline thereafter. Similar to urease
activity, application of fly ash @ 10 or 15 t ha
-1
recorded higher dehydrogenase enzyme
activities which were on par to each other. Among the interactions, the highest was recorded
in FA
15
FYM
10
which was on par with FA
10
FYM
10
. At all the time intervals, the treatments
FA
10
FYM
0
and FA
15
FYM
0
were on par with each other and lowest activity was recorded by
FA
0
FYM
0
(Table 2).
Fly ash levels did not significantly influence the acid and alkaline phosphatase activity.
However, FYM application and its interaction with fly ash (Tables 3 and 4) significantly
influenced it. Compared to the initial status acid and alkaline phosphatase activity was
highest at 7 DAI, which later declined. Application of FYM @ 10 t ha
-1
recorded 69.7, 46.5,
64.3 and 91.4 percent increase in acid phosphatase activity compared to FYM application at
7, 15, 30 and 60 DAI, respectively. Similarly, the alkaline phosphatase activity was increased
nearly two times due to FYM application at all the time intervals. A reduced acid phosphatase
activity was observed due to application of fly ash as reported by Lal et al. (1996a).
The cellulase activity was significantly influenced by fly ash levels FYM and their
interactions. Compared to the initial status (1.02 mg of glucose released g
-1
soil d
-1
), the
cellulase activity increased by 7 DAI which in general showed a decline thereafter. Application
of fly ash @ 10 or 15 t ha
-1
along with FYM recorded higher cellulase activity at all the time
intervals which were on par with each other. Among the interactions, the highest activity was
recorded in FA
10
FYM
10
(7 DAI) and FA
15
FYM
10
(15, 30 and 60 DAI) which were on par with
each other. At all the time intervals, the treatments FA
10
FYM
0
and FA
15
FYM
0
were on par
with each other and the lowest was recorded by FA
0
FYM
0
(Table 5).
The urease enzyme activity was found to be significantly and positively correlated
(0.94) with available N status. The dehydrogenase and cellulase activities were found to be
highly significant and positively correlated with all the treatments under study (N, P, K, S,
Fe, Mn and Zn) except Cu. The activity of acid and alkaline phosphatase were found to be
not significantly and positively correlated with phosphorus in soil (Table 6).
EFFECT OF FLY ASH
40
References
CASIDA L E, KLEIN D A and SANTARO J 1964 Soil dehydrogenase activity. Soil Science
98:371-376.
LAL J K, MISHRA B, SARKAR A K and LAL S 1996a Effect of fly ash on soil microbial and
enzymatic activity. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science 44: 77-80.
PONCHOLY K and RICE L-ELORY 1973 Soil enzymes in relation to old field succession:
Amylase, cellulase, invertase, dehydrogenase and urease. Soil Science Society of American
Proceedings 37: 47-49.
SANKARA RAO V 1989 Distribution of kinetics and some interactions of urease and
phosphomonoesterase in soils. Ph. D. Thesis submitted to Andhra Pradesh Agricultural
University, Hyderabad.
TABATABAI M A and BREMNER J M 1969 use of p-nitrophenyl phosphate for assay of soil
phosphatase activity. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 1: 301-307.
TABATABAI MA and BREMNER J M 1972 Assay of urease activity in soils. Soil Biology
and Biochemistry 4: 479-489.
REDDY et al.
41
Growth Estimation of Sunflower using Spline Regression Function
K.ALIVELU
1
, B.S .KULKARNI
2
and G.RAMAKRISHNA RAO
3
Department of Statistics and Mathematics, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar
Hyderabad -500 030.
ABSTRACT
Log linear and linear trend models are frequently used for estimating the relative or absolute changes
in the dependent variable, over time. Measuring the decadal growth is a well known concept in agriculture for
studying the trend of the data. It assumes uniform growth rate in the respective decades. In the context of
agricultural data , this assumption may not be always valid. It may also lead to the estimates , which are
misleading. To overcome this situation , the applicability of piecewise regression approach is explored in the
context of measuring growth rate of sunflower yield. The approach involves identification of the points of
discontinuity, which leads to formation of sub periods of data. The time series data of 32 years from 1970-
71 to 2001-02 was divided into two optimum sub periods by applying the criteria of residual sum of squares and
R
2
by varying the k values, which represent the transitional period (year). The sunflower productivity exhibited
decreasing trend with annual growth of 4 per cent in the first period and 1 per cent in the second period. The
piecewise regression approach thus measured the growth in two different periods that represents the periods
of discontinuous growth, which is not possible in the conventional approach.
Estimating growth rate of time series data using linear or log linear equation is a
common practice. This assumes uniform growth rate throughout the period. In the context of
agricultural data such as area, production and productivity of crops recorded over the years,
this assumption is rarely satisfied. The agricultural data are frequently affected by changes
over the years such as introduction of new varieties and its adoption by the farmers of the
region. These changes disturb the uniformity in the year-to-year variations of the data. The
temporal changes in growth behavior can be calculated using spline regression function.
Spline regression model is a piecewise regression model that accounts for the change in
trend resulting out of discontinuity in the year to year variations.
The model which accounts for straight lines with two different slopes after k
th
year
and a jump from k to (k+1)
th
year can be described in semi log form as
Log Y
t
= a+
1
t
1 +

2
(t-k-1)d
t
+
3
d
t
d
t
=1 if t>k
=0 if t<k
1. Research Associate, Directorate of oil seeds research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
2. Head
3. Professor
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 41- 44 , 2007
42
ALIVELU et al.
t
1
= t if t<k
= k+1 if t>k
Where (
1
,

2
) are respectively the slopes of first and second line. a is the intercept of the
first line and for the second line, it is : a+
1
k
+

1
-
2
k.
The optimum sub division of time period can be achieved by comparing RSS estimated by
changing the values of k. The one with smallest RSS is the optimum division of time period.
The growth rates during first and second time periods are
(dY
t
/d
t
)/Y
t
=
1
for t <= k
=
2
for t > k+1
The compound growth rates are calculated by EXP(
1
)-1 and EXP(
2
)-1 respectively
for first and second periods.
Fitting of spline regression models (piecewise regression models) is another
convenient approach for studying the temporal changes, which are not uniform. (Draper and
Smith,1988). (Draper and Smith (1988) explained the way of using piecewise regression
equation using dummy variables. Narayanareddy et al. (1998) compared different methods
for estimating agricultural growth.
The above model was applied to sunflower yield data of A.P over 32 years from
1970-71 to 2001-02, collected from oil seeds situation, A statistical compendium(Damodaram
T and Hegde D M, 2002) . The overall average yield was 547.45 kg/ha. The yields for the
years up to 1988-89 were mostly below this average and the yields for the following years
were all above average. The parameters of the model are estimated by ordinary least squares
method. The equation was fitted by changing k values around the transitional period and
residual sum of squares and R
2
values are given in Table 1. The optimum time period was
obtained based on RSS and R
2
values. The RSS is minimum when k=10.
The fitted model identified on the basis of piecewise regression equation is
Log Y
t
= 77.39 - 0.03594 t
1
+ 0.01(t-k-1)d
t
+ 0.1d
t
(153.6) (10.49) (3.81) (5.14)
R
2
A
= 80.2%
43
Table1: R
2
and residual sum of Squares (RSS) values of fitted discontinuous piecewise
regression equation for sunflower time-series data on yield for different
transitional years (k).
K Actual transitional year RSS R
2
10 1979-80 0.05849 0.802
11 1980-81 0.06532 0.769
12 1981-82 0.06609 0.754
13 1982-83 0.08074 0.722
14 1983-84 0.09286 0.679
15 1984-85 0.13043 0.649
16 1985-86 0.1320 0.662
17 1986-87 0.13569 0.629
18 1987-88 0.1563 0.525
19 1988-89 0.2642 0.504
20 1989-90 0.35841 0.499
21 1990-91 0.4656 0.481
22 1991-92 0.5533 0.387
23 1992-93 0.5788 0.360
24 1993-94 0.6842 0.259
25 1994-95 0.7534 0.194
26 1995-96 0.8527 0.120
27 1996-97 0.8688 0.104
28 1997-98 0.8726 0.101
29 1998-99 0.9133 0.071
30 1999-2000 0.9157 0.069
31 2000-01 0.9263 0.056
32 2001-02 0.9452 0.050
GROWTH ESTIMATION
44
The piecewise regression model clearly indicates that the growth of productivity
during the two periods was different. In the first period, it was a declining growth of 4 per
cent, while in the second period, the productivity increased annually with the rate of 1 per
cent.
It is evident from the above model that the conventional assumption of uniformity in
the year to year variations may not be always valid. The discontinuous growth can be
conveniently accounted in the Piece wise regression approach.
Piece wise regression helps in identifying the temporal changes in the growth
behavior. In formulating agricultural policies, growth rate is a close indicator.
References
DAMODARAM T and HEGDE D M 2002 Oil seeds situation: A Statistical Compendium.
Directorate of oilseeds research, Hyderabad.
DRAPER N and SMITH H 1988 Applied Regression Analysis, Third edition , John Wiley and
sons, New York.
JEROMI P D and RAMANADHAN 1993 World pepper market in India: An Analysis of
growth instability. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics 48 No.1. January - March
pp. 88-97.
NARAYANA Reddy M, KATYAL J C, REDDY YV R and RAMANA RAO C A 1998 Estimating
agricultural growth A piecewise regression approach. Indian Journal of Agricultural economics
53: 155-162.
ALIVELU et al.
45
Enterpreneurial Behaviour of the Poultry Farmers
NARENDRA PAUL* and V.P.SHARMA**
Department of Extension Education,
Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur - 313001 ( Rajasthan)
* Field Assistant, Division of Extension Education, Faculty of Agriculture, Shere-Kashmir University of
Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu (SKUAST-J), Main campus, Jammu - 180009
(J&K).
1. Professor and Head
Research Note
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 45 -51 , 2007
ABSTRACT
The values of entrepreneurial behavioral index for peripheral and distant poultry farmers were 45.20
and 41.96 respectively. The respondents had excellent degrees of regularity and dedication in their enterprises
followed by market orientations, technical background, time management and coordinating ability. Very low
levels of goal setting ability, competitiveness, future orientation, challenge acceptance, tolerance to uncertainty/
failure and managerial ability was found among the respondents. It was observed that majority of the poultry
farmers had low level of entrepreneurial behaviour with respect to the major components studied.
Much of the success in poultry farming depends on the efficiency of use of various
management skills considering the vocation as a viable enterprise. Actually, enterprise is
not a new word to the Indian economy. Entrepreneurship promises better employment to the
youth of the country who currently constitute the bulk of the unemployed figures. The problem
of unemployment cannot be resolved unless the youth are particularly educated and trained
and involved in employment oriented vocations.
Entrepreneurship is the degree to which an entrepreneur strives to maximize his
profits by making a creative and innovative response to the environment through diversification
of the enterprise. This as a cosmopolite variable means that the person possessing
entrepreneurial behaviour has some specialized characteristics. Basically, an entrepreneur
is an innovator who introduces something new in the economy. He is the person who is
capable of taking investment decisions, calculated risks under conditions of uncertainty,
can plan and innovate, take prompt and wise decisions in selection of a product or product
mix, technology mix and marketing.
All round development of poultry industry is not possible without the effective utilization
of human and material resources. While rapid technological progress has made the production
process more knowledge or capital intensive, many of the potential poultry-preneurs are
showing their backs by closing the doors to this beneficial enterprise due to the lack of
professional know-how, skill and kind of orientation required to work in a competitive
46
environment Therefore, development of entrepreneurial skill in addition to the spread of
professional education in a growing economy like India assumes immense importance for
the present as well as future growth of enterprises in general and poultry in particular.
To be a successful entrepreneur, a person has to acquire certain entrepreneurial
qualities to modify his behavior in this direction. This paper aims to study the extent to which
poultry farmers possess these qualities so as to develop suitable entrepreneurship training
modules for them.
The present study was conducted in purposively selected Kathua district of Jammu
and Kashmir. Kathua district consists of eight blocks, of which four blocks viz; Kathua,
amoti, Hiranagar and Ghagwal were selected based on maximum number of poultry farms
functioning in these blocks. A comprehensive list of all the registered poultry farms in each
selected block of the proposed district was prepared with the help of poultry extension
officers of the concerned blocks. For recording un-registered poultry farmers, the feed supply
agents, chick supplying agents and middlemen involved in it were personally contacted and
a separate list of un-registered farms was prepared. To avoid duplication, both the lists were
merged as one. After preparations of the lists, the poultry farmers in each block were
categorized into two groups viz.; peripheral poultry farmers i.e. within the radius of 10 km
distance from the block poultry demonstration center of department of animal husbandry,
Jammu and Kashmir Government and distant poultry farmers i.e. those situated at the distance
of more than the radius of 10 km from the poultry demonstration center of the concerned
block. Further, from the separate lists so prepared, 30 poultry peripheral farmers and 30
distant poultry farmers from each of the selected blocks were randomly chosen. Thus, the
study sample consisted of 120 peripheral and 120 distant poultry keepers i.e. a total of 240
respondents.
The data were collected through standardized schedule and responses so obtained
were coded accordingly. In order to measure entrepreneurial behaviour of the poultry farmers,
a suitable scale was developed consisting of 18 components of entrepreneurship. The overall
scale was quantified for the responses always, sometimes and never by 2, 1 and 0 scores
respectively. Entrepreneurial behaviour index was calculated using the formula:
Obtained score for dimension of entrepreneurship
Maximum obtainable score
The respondents, were classified into three categories i.e., high, medium and low
levels of entrepreneurship on the basis of calculated mean and standard deviation of the
Entrepreneurial behaiour = X100 index (EBI)
PAUL and SHARMA
47
entrepreneurial behaviour scores obtained by the respondents.
The results showed that 54.58 per cent of the respondents possessed low -level of
entrepreneurship and 28.75 per cent respondents had medium level of entrepreneurship.
However, the respondents who fell in the category of high level of entrepreneurship were only
16.67 per cent. which is quite discouraging.
A further perusal of data revealed that 53.33 per cent of the peripheral and 55.83 per
cent ) distant poulty farmers had low level of entrepreneurship while, 28.34 per cent peripheral
and 29.17 per cent distant poultry farmers had medium level of entrepreneurship. However,
only 22 (18.33 per cent ) peripheral and 15.00 per cent distant poultry farmers had high level
of entrepreneurship.
These findings are in agreement with those of Mohammed and Storck (2001) and
Kumar et.al. (2003) who found that majority of the respondents had low level of entrepreneurial
behaviour.
The calculated entrepreneurial behavior index (EBI) for each component of
entrepreneurial behavior is presented in Table 2. It is clear that the overall entrepreneurial
behavior of the poultry farmers was 43.58. The values of EBI for peripheral and distant
poultry farmers were 45.20 and 41.96 respectively.
The respondents had excellent degrees of regularity and dedication (EBI 90.00) in
their enterprises followed by market orientation (EBI 81.88), technical background (EBI 77.72),
time management (EBI 76.88) and coordinating ability (EBI 73.34). Achievement motivation
with EBI 67.92 had been a fair component constituting the entrepreneurial behaviour of
poultry farmers with successor components as planning orientation (EBI 56.67) and risk
taking ability (EBI 55.84). Besides, the components with low EBI were cosmopoliteness
(EBI 35.63), initiative taking (EBI 26.25). However, the respondents had very low levels of
goal setting ability (EBI 17.92), competitiveness (EBI 16.25), future orientation (EBI 14.80),
challenge acceptance (EBI 12.50), tolerance to uncertainty/failure (EBI 0.42) and managerial
ability (EBI 9.17).
The peripheral poultry farmers got second rank for market orientation (EBI 84.59).
Whereas, for the same component distant poultry farmers got third rank (EBI 79.17). Likewise,
technical background obtained third rank in case of peripheral (EBI 83.75) and fourth rank in
case of distant poultry farmers (EBI 71.67), coordinating ability got fourth rank for peripheral
(EBI 81.25) and sixth rank for distant (EBI 65.42) farmers. Time management secured fifth
position in case of peripheral (EBI 74.17) and second position in case of distant (EBI 79.59),
risk taking ability obtained sixth rank for peripheral (EBI 69.59) and eight rank for distant
ENTREPRENERIAL BEHAVIOUR
48
PAUL and SHARMA
49
ENTREPRENERIAL BEHAVIOUR
50
(EBI 42.08), achievement motivation got seventh rank for peripheral (MPS 65.42) and fifth
rank for distant (EBI 70.42), planning orientation obtained eighth rank for peripheral (EBI
53.75) and seventh rank for distant (EBI 59.59) farmers respectively. Cosmopoliteness was
assigned ninth rank by the peripheral distant (EBI45.83) and eleventh rank by the distant
(EBI 25.42), decision taking ability was assigned eleventh rank by the peripheral (EBI 29.58)
and twelth rank by distant (EBI 22.92), innovativeness got twelth rank in case of peripheral
(EBI 26.25) and ninth rank in case of distant (EBI 34.58) poultry farmers respectively. Similarly,
challenge acceptance obtained thirteenth position in case of peripheral (EBI 15.42) and
seventeenth position in case of distant (EBI 9.58), goal setting got fourteenth position for
peripheral (EBI 13.75) and thirteenth position for distant (EBI 22.08), cosmopolite got fifteenth
rank for peripheral (EBI 12.08) and fourteenth rank for distant (EBI 20.41), future orientation
obtained sixteenth rank in peripheral (EBI 11.25) and fifteenth rank in distant (EBI 18.34),
management ability secured seventeenth position in case of peripheral (EBI 10.83) and
eighteenth position in case of distant (EBI 7.50) and tolerance to uncertainty / failure
obtained eighteenth rank for peripheral (EBI 8.75) and fifteenth rank for distant poultry farmers
(EBI 12.08). It can be observed that majority of the poultry farmers had low level of
entrepreneurial behaviour with respect to the major components deemed important.
These findings are in concordance with those of Prajapati and Patel (2000), Kumar
et al. (2003) and De (2003) who revealed that the respondents had fairly well to low levels of
entrepreneurial behaviour with regard to its various listed components. However, the findings
are in contrast to those of Patel and Patel (2000) who reported that majority of the respondents
possessed medium level of managerial ability.
References
KUMAR M, PATHAK C and SINGH A K 2003 Information sources of rural poor; A study
in U.S.Nagar district of Uttaranchal. IASSl Quarterly Journal XIX 3: 123-133.
MOHAMMED H and STORCK H 2001 Managerial behaviour of farmers as a factor influencing
farm performance in Ethiopia: The case of small holders in Eastern Hararghe. Rajasthan
Journal of Extension Education VIII & IX: 1-9.
PRAJAPATI M R and PATEL R J 1999-2000. Entrepreneurial behaviour of potato growers.
Gujarat Journal of Extension Education Vol. X & XI : 10-12.
PATEL A A and PATEL R K 1999-2000. Growers managerial ability for plant protection
measures in chilli crop. Gujarat Journal of Extension. Education Vol. X&XI: 1-4.
RAO M S and DE DEEPAK 2003 Entrepreneurial behaviour of vegetable growers. Journal
of Research ANGRAU 31: 101-104.
PAUL and SHARMA
51
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 51- 56 , 2007
Stress of Agricultural Officers
T.LAKSHMI
1
and P. VENKATARAMAIAH
2
Extension Education Institute, Rajendranagar,Hyderabad
ABSTRACT
* Part of Ph.D. Thesi s submi tted by the former author to Acharya N. G. Agri cul tural
University,Rajendranagar,Hyd- 30.
1. Associate Professor, Department of Extension Education, S.V. Agricultural College, Tirupati.
2. Professor and Head, Department of Extension Education, Agricultural College, Bapatla- 522 101.
Stress stems from many different sources and can involve virtually all aspects of our daily lives. The
present research was carried out to study the stress of agricultural officers and its effect on job performance.
All the agricultural officers (217) working in four districts of Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh constituted
the sample. It was observed that majority of agricultural officers had experienced moderate to low personal
stressors and moderate to high organizational and job stressors. Job performance showed significant and
negative relationship.
Stress is the spice of the life and one has to live with stress from womb to tomb.
Stress is common in the world of day to day activities and it affects all aspects of human
behaviour including work in which one is actively involved. The agricultural officers meant
for transfer of technology from the research to the farmers for adoption are not an exception
for this. Agricultural officers being the crucial Extensionists working at Mandal level with
technical background in the State Department of Agriculture, have to deal with different
types of people like superiors, farmers, administrative staff, supporting staff, subordinates
and so on. All these people expect the agricultural officers to behave in certain predictable
ways. Often, the expectations people have on agricultural officers are unclear or too high for
the personnel to meet within the time and other resources available. With a result one
experiences stress.
Stress was operationally defined as the inner reaction of the agricultural officer to
the things that happen in environment and to the demands that are placed on him or her.
With this background in view, the present investigation was undertaken to measure the
stress of Agricultural officers and to assess the effect of stress on job performance of
agricultural officers.
This study was conducted in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Four districts of Telangana
region viz., Warangal, Mahboobnagar, Rangareddy and Nalgonda were selected by random
sampling technique. All the agricultural officers (217) working in these four districts were
selected as respondents. A questionnaire was sent to all the agricultural officers working in
52
the four selected districts out of which only 150 respondents which form 69 per cent were
obtained.
Personal stressors were operationalised as those sources of stress that are related
to the ways in which the agricultural officers experience the world including their personality
structures, life experience, self concept, state of physical health and other issues that relate
to them.
Organizational stressors were operationalised as those sources of stress that relate
to the agricultural officers experiences in the world of work and career including his/her
feelings and experiences in job.
Job stressors were operationalised as the interaction of the agricultural officer with
job related factors which disrupt or enhance his or her psychological and physiological condition.
A number of stress items reflecting above said stressors were collected based on
the literature and discussion with experts and accordingly 72 items as personal stressors,
30 items as organizational stressors and 27 items as job stressors were identified. Quotients
were developed for the selected three stressors so as to estimate the stress of the
respondents. Then, the respondents were categorized into three groups namely low, moderate
and high based on mean and S.D. The data collected were subjected to statistical tests like
frequency, percentages, correlation and multiple linear regression and were used for analysis
and presentation of data.
The responses that were obtained were analysed for measuring the stress of
agricultural officers and shown in Table 1.
Table 1 : Distribution of agricultural officers according to their stressors
n= 150
A) Personal stressors
S.No. Category Frequency Percentage
1. Low 24 16.00
2. Moderate 105 70.00
3. High 21 14.00
Total 150 100.00
Mean = 9.62 S.D. = 1.82
LAKSHMI and RAMAIAH
53
It could be observed from Table 1 that about 70.00 per cent of the officers experienced
moderate level of personal stress. On the other hand, few officers (16.00%) had experienced
low level and only 14.00 per cent of the officers experienced high level of personal stress. It
could be inferred that a great majority of the agricultural officers had moderate to low level of
personal stress. The moderate level of personal stress indicates that in Indian context, the
average individual experiences an average of ten common stressful events in life time viz.,
family member unemployed, construction of house, death of close family member, financial
loss or problems, property damaged etc. The low level of personal stress might be due to
uncommon events viz., death of spouse, divorce, love failure, suspension etc which would
have not occurred or less frequently occurred in the respondents lives. The high level of
personal stress might be due to more frequency and intensity of the stressful events viz.,
illness of the family member, major purchase, change in residence, unfulfilled commitments,
going on vacation etc. that occurred in their lives. The findings are in line with Gray-toft and
Anderson (1981) and Jemmott et al. (1985).
The results on organizational stressors (Table 1 ) indicate that about 68.67 per
cent experienced moderate level while 16.67 per cent had high level of organizational
B) Organizational stressors
1. Low 22 14.67
2. Moderate 103 68.67
3. High 25 16.67
Total 150 100.00
Mean=63.05 S.D. = 9.24
C) Job stressors
1. Low 19 12.67
2. Moderate 77 51.33
3. High 54 36.00
Total 150 100.00
Mean=71.62 S.D. = 9.64
STRESS OF AGRICULTURAL OFFICERS
54
stressors. A few respondents (14.67%) belonged to low level category. It could be inferred
that majority of the agricultural officers were found to experience moderate level of
organizational stress viz., change in responsibilities at work, change in working hours, role
ambiguity, time deadlines, academic pressures, failure to meet targets, transfer, numerous
meetings etc. This might be due to the fact that the agricultural officers spent vast amount
of their time in work situations so there is every chance of getting stress. The high level may
be due to the multiple sources of stress in organizations which exerts direct control, pressures,
demands, absence of clear cut policies and procedures, hindrances in the attainment of
goals etc. The low level of organizational stressors might be due to too little participation at
work. This finding derived support from the findings of Harvey and Raider (1980) and
Kadushin (1985).
With regard to job stressors (Table 1) more than half (51.33%) of the officers
experienced moderate level of job stress. While 36.00 per cent and 12.67 per cent belonged
to high and low level categories respectively. It could be inferred that majority of the
agricultural officers had experienced moderate to high level of job stress viz., giving technical
guidance to VEOs, building professional competence of VEO, obtaining solutions to problems
from researchers, communicating solutions to farmers, discussing technical and practical
problems in fortnightly meeting, dealing with input supply, market analysis of input supply
etc. The moderate level might be due to nature of job of agricultural officers which is routine
and repetitive work in the organization. The high job stressors would have resulted due to
various job demands in terms of workload, responsibility, role conflicts and controllability
and also persons responsible for others experience higher levels of stress. The low level of
job stressors might be due to inadequate reinforcement by higher ups, low job satisfaction
and motivation to work. The findings are on par with those of Margolis et al. (1974) and
Karasek et al.(1981).
In order to understand the nature of relationship between job performance and
stressors, correlation coefficients were computed and presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Correlation coefficients between job performance and independent variables
n=150
S.No. Variable r Value
1. Personal stressors(X
1
) -0.7672**
2. Organisational stressors(X
2
) -0.4510**
3. Job stressors(X
3
) -0.6092**
LAKSHMI and RAMAIAH
55
It could be seen from the Table 2 that all the three variables exhibited highly
significant and negative correlation with the dependent variable, job performance.
The negative relationship indicates that as the levels of stress increases, job
performance would be decreased. In other words, the respondents who are highly stressful,
their job performance tends to decline because stress interferes with it and when the
respondents who experience low stress, job performance tends to increase. Beehr et al.
(1976) Goldstein and Dorfarman (1978) and Harris and John (1982) also reported similar
findings.
Table 3 : Multiple regression analysis of independent variables with job performance
n=150
S.No. Variable Regression Standard Error Computed t
coefficent value
1. Personal stressors 0.0121 0.0106 1.1379 NS
2. Organisational stressors 0.0773 0.0115 6.7379**
3. Job stressors 0.0796 0.0093 8.5696**
R
2
= 0.7086
Multiple regression analysis was taken up to find out the effect of different independent
variables on job performance and the results are presented in Table 3. It is vivid that the R
2
value was 0.7086 indicating that 70.86 per cent of the variation in job performance was
explained by the independent variables included in the study. The regression coefficient of
the variables, organizational stressors and job stressors were found to be significant at 0.01
level of probability. The analysis revealed that an increase in one unit in organizational
stressors would result in an increase of 0.0733 unit in the job performance and vice versa.
Job stressors were also found to increase the job performance. A unit increase in the job
stress would increase 0.0796 units in job performance and vice versa.
It could be concluded that majority of the agricultural officers had experienced
moderate to low level of personal stressors, moderate to high level of organizational stressors
and job stressors. This implies that the extension system must establish and maintain
consistent role clarification and performance feedback. Such organizational support helps
the faculty to cope with stressors.
STRESS OF AGRICULTURAL OFFICERS
56
References
BEEHR T A, WALSH J T and TABER T D 1976 Relationship of stress to individually and
organizationally valued strains. Higher order needs as a moderator. Journal of Applied
Psychology 61: 41-47.
GOLDSTEIN I L and DORFARMAN P W 1978 Speed and Load stress as determinant of
performance in a time shaking task. Human factors 20: 603-609.
GRAY-TOFT P and ANDERSON J G 1981 The nursing stress scale: Development of an
instrument. Journal of behavioural assessment 3: 11- 23.
HARRIS H D and JOHN B A 1982 Psychological stress and task performance. University of
Kentucky. Dissertation Abstracts International 42: 4173.
Harvey S H and RAIDER M C 1980 Administrator burnout. Administration in social work
No.8 pp: 81-89.
JEMMOTT J B, BORYSENKO M, MCCLELLAND D C, CHAPMAN R MEYER D and BENSON
H 1985 Academic stress, power motivation and decrease in salivary secretory Immunoglobulin.
A secretion rate. Lancet 1: pp: 1400-1402.
KADUSHIN A 1985 Supervision in social work (2
nd
ed). New York , Columbia, University
Press.
KARASEK R D, BAKER MARXER E, AHLBOM A and THEROELL TNTRA LAI EM NIEM
VUI KHI DUOC GAN BEN EM, TRA LAI EM LOI YEU THUONG EM DEM, 1981 Job Decision
latitude, job demands and cardiovascular disease. A prospective study of Swedish men.
American Journal of Public Health pp: 694-705.
MARGOLIS B L KROES W H and QUINN R P 1974 Job stress an unlisted occupational
hazard. Journal of occupational Medicine 16: pp: 654-666.
LAKSHMI and RAMAIAH
57
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 57-62, 2007
Stress of Researchers
T.LAKSHMI
1
and P.VENKATARAMAIAH
2
Extension Education Institute,Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-30.
ABSTRACT
Stress occurs when demands are placed on an organism to adjust or adapt. The study was
conducted in Andhra Pradesh and all researchers working in ICAR institutes were taken as sample. It was
observed that majority of the researchers had moderate to low personal stressors, moderate to high
organizational stressors and moderate to low job stressors.
Researchers have to identify the field based and realistic problems to conduct research
which will end up with some technology. In course of their job they deal with different people
like superiors, subordinates, supporting staff and administrative staff etc., Hence, dependency
on many people is unavoidable. One of the important situations which they face is of getting
inputs in time for conducting research, with the result the work may suffer. Sometimes the
research may be discouraging due to reasons beyond their control. With the result they may
take the situation to the heart. Thus, the researchers are time pressed in completing the
projects within the proposed time and also time pressure occurs when deadlines are fixed.
Extra work is added as a result he or she experiences stress. Hence, an attempt was made
with the following objective to estimate the quantum of stress of researchers.
This study was conducted in the state of Andhra Pradesh. An ex-post-facto research
design was adopted for the study. All the researchers(220) working in Central Research
Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Directorate of Oilseeds Research, Directorate of Rice Research,
National Research Centre for Sorghum, Agricultural Research Institute and National Seed
Project located at Hyderabad were selected as respondents. A questionnaire was sent to all
the researchers working in the above institutions. Out of which only 100 respondents which
form 45 per cent were obtained.
Stress is operationally defined as the inner reaction of the researcher to the things
that happen in environment and to the demands that are placed on him or her.A number of
stress items reflecting above said stressors were collected based on the literature and
discussion with experts and accordingly 72 as personal stressors, organizational stressors
* Part of Ph.D. Thesis submitted by former author to Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University,
2. Professor and Head, Department of Extension Education, Agricultural College, Bapatla- 522 101
58
The stress quotients were calculated as follows:
Personal stressors quotient (P.S.Q.) = ai x 100
ps
ai = Sum of the actual score obtained by the individual for all items
ps = Sum of maximum possible score which is 72 x2 = 144
Organisational stressors
a. Reputation of the institute (R.Q.) = ( + ve) ( ve) x 100
ps
+ ve = Sum of all positive levels of stress obtained by an individual
ve = Sum of all negative levels of stress obtained by an individual
ps =Total possible score is 7 x 5 =35
( + ve) ( ve) = Sum of positive and negative scores obtained
b. Facilities for technology development (T.D. F. Q.) = ai x 100
ps
ps = Sum of maximum possible score which is 21 x5=105
c. Pattern of influence quotient ( Pa. I.Q.) = os x 100
ps
os = Total score obtained by the respondent for all the items for the three types of persons
ps = Total score possible i.e. 108
d. Research climate (Re.C.Q.) = ( + ve) ( ve) x 100
ps
+ ve = Sum of all positive levels of stress obtained by an individual
ve = Sum of all negative levels of stress obtained by an individual
ps = Sum of total possible positive levels of stress
e. Facilities for technology dissemination (T.Dis.F.Q.) = ai x 100
ps
Job stressors Quotient (J.S.Q.) = ai x 100
ps
LAKSHMI and RAMAIAH
59
Stress of researchers = Personal stressors + Organisational stressors + Job stressors
(7 as reputation of the institute, 21 as facilities for technology development, 8 as pattern of
influence, 18 as research climate and 17 as facilities for technology dissemination) and 63
as job stressors. Quotients were developed for the selected three stressors so as to estimate
the stress of the respondents. Then the respondents were categorized into three groups
based on Mean and S.D.
The results thus obtained are presented and discussed here under.
Table 1: Distribution of researchers according to their Personal Stressors
n=100
1. Low 23 23.00
3. High 7 7.00
Total 100 100.00
Mean = 4.57 SD=3.80
Table 1 showed that the majority of the researchers were found to experience
moderate to low level of personal stressors. A great majority (70.00%) had experienced
moderate level of personal stressors. About 23.00 per cent of the researchers were found to
experience low level of personal stressors while 7 per cent of them belonged to high level of
personal stressors category. It could be inferred that the personal stressors viz., gain of new
family member, change in number of family functions, begin or end of any type of education,
sudden or serious impairment or hearing, change or expansion of business, robbery or theft,
broken engagement, death of spouse, divorce etc which are quite uncommon are experienced
by fewer number of researchers which had resulted in moderate to low level of personal
stressors. The high level of personal stressors of researchers might be due to the frequent
recurrence of common every day life events which are stressful to their lives. The findings
are in conformity with Holmes and Masuda (1974).
It could be seen from Table 2 that majority of the researchers perceived moderate to
high reputation of the institute. About 62.00 per cent of the researchers had moderate
reputation of the institute while 38.00 per cent had high reputation of the institute. None of
them belonged to low category. It could be inferred that the moderate to high reputation of
STRESS OF RESEARCHERS
60
Table 2: Distribution of researchers according to their organisational stressors(n=100)
a) Reputation of the institute
2 High 38 38.00
Total 100 100.00
Mean 21.86 S.D.= 14.58
b) Facilities for technology development
1. Low 25 25.00
3. High 24 24.00
Total 100 100.00
Mean 46.51 S.D.= 13.44
c) Pattern of influence
1. Low 28 28.00
Tota 100 100.00
Mean 35.97 S.D= 20.46
d) Research climate
1. Low 10 10.00
3. High 27 27.00
Total 100 100.00
Mean 32.12 S.D= 13.16
e) Facilities for technology dissemination
1 Low 18 18.00
3. High 30 30.00
Total 1 00 100.00
Mean 54.79 S.D=15.52
LAKSHMI and RAMAIAH
61
the institute might be due to the fact that most of the researchers perceived prestige of the
organization as more important for research productivity.
The moderate level might be due to the required facilities available in the institutes
for conducting research. The low level might be due to the inadequate physical facilities,
lack of labour, inevitability of library facilities for research etc.
A great majority (72.00%) of the Researchers had moderate pattern of influence and
rest (28.00%) belonged to low pattern of influence category. This trend might be due to
absolute freedom for researchers to choose their scientific problem or project work and
independence in his thought and action. Most of the researchers were highly individualistic
while others had little chance of influence.
With regard to research climate about 63.00 per cent of them had perceived moderate
research climate while 27.00 per cent had high research climate. About one-tenth (10.00%)
of them had low research climate. It could be inferred that most of the Researchers had
moderate to high research climate which might be due to the congenial atmosphere provided
for scientific productivity. Giving due recognition for the work done made the researchers
take sincere efforts to communicate his finding to the end users.
About 52.00 per cent of the researchers had moderate facilities for technology
dissemination, while 30.00 and 18.00 per cent belonged to high and low categories
respectively. Moderate to high level facilities for technology dissemination might be due to
the fact that researchers were making full use of the facilities available so that they can
disseminate their technologies to the end users. These findings are on par with those of Sen
and Ahmad (1980), Babu (1981), Busch & Lacy (1983) and Sabarathnam (1987).
Table 3 : Distribution of researchers according to their job stressors
n=100
1 Low 17 17.00
3 High 10 10.00
Total 100 100.00
Mean 67.31 S.D=13.70
STRESS OF RESEARCHERS
62
It could be observed from the Table 3 that a great majority of the researchers (73.00%)
had moderate job stressors while 17.00 per cent had low level of job stressors. About one-
tenth (10.00%) of the researchers had high level of job stressors.
Moderate level of job stressors might be due to the fact that most of the researchers
spent a sizable amount of their time and energy in developing and disseminating technologies
and constant engagement in research activities. The high level of job stressors might be due
to the complexity of work and divergent demands and time constraints for completion of the
project work by the researchers.
Majority of the researchers had experienced moderate to low level of personal
stressors. Regarding organizational stressors, most of the researchers had moderate to high
reputation of the institute, facilities for technology development, research climate, facilities
for technology dissemination and moderate to low level of job stressors.
References
BABU AKINENI RAMESH 1981 Determinants of Research Productivity : The Scientists
Perception. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
IARI, New Delhi pp: 95-101.
BUSH LAWARENCE and LACY WILLIAN B 1983 Science, Agriculture and the Politics of
Research West View Press Inc. Central Avenue, Boulder, Colorado.80301- USA pp: 37-247.
HOLMES T H and MASUDA M 1974 Life change and stress susceptibility. In B. S.
Dohrenwend and B.P. Dohrenwend (Eds) Stressful life events- Their nature and effects New
York Wiley.
SABARATHNAM V E 1987 A Study on the Process and Development and Dissemination of
Dryland Agricultural Technology. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Andhra Pradesh
Agriculture University, Hyderabad 150-200.
SEN FALGUNI and AHMAD AQUEIL 1980 Management of Human Resources in ICAR
Institutes Management of Agricultural Research. Problems and Perspectives(Ed.) Aqueil
Ahmad, Administrative Staff College of India, Hyderabad, India pp: 25-118.
LAKSHMI and RAMAIAH
63
Research Note
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 63 - 66 , 2007
* Part of M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis submitted by the former author to Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University,
2 Professor
Effect of Time of Sowing on the Performance of Guar
(Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.) Cultivars*
D.LAKSHMI KALYANI and P.MAHESWARA REDDY
2
Department of Agronomy, S.V.Agricultural College,
Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University, Tirupati-517502
Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.) is an important dryland crop of diversified
uses. Traditionally grown for cattle feed, fodder and vegetable, it has now assumed great
significance with increasing demand for high quality gum which is present in abundance in
its seeds. Guar gum finds a ready international market for its ever increasing demand in
various industries like textile, paper, food processing, cosmetics, mining, pharmaceutical,
explosives, petroleum, oil industries, photography refining, etc. Guar, being a leguminous
crop, also adds fertility to the soil by fixing atmospheric nitrogen.
In the wake of this, the cultivation of guar for seed production has been recently
introduced in arid and semi-arid regions. Despite its importance, very little attention has
been paid to study yield variations of guar cultivars due to different times of sowing. Keeping
this in view, the present investigation was undertaken.
A field experiment was conducted during kharif, 2005 on sandy loam soils of dryland
farm of S.V.Agricultural College, Tirupati (Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University) to
study the performance of rainfed guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.) under varied
time of sowing. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with factorial
concept, replicated thrice. The treatments consisted of four times of sowing viz., first (D
1
)
and second (D
2
) fortnight of July, first (D
3
) and second (D
4
) fortnight of August and four
cultivars viz., RGC 1003 (V
1
), HG 563 (V
2
), RGM 112 (V
3
) and GAUG 9703 (V
4
). These
varieties are recommended for arid and semi-arid tract of the country. The experimental
site was low in organic carbon (0.25%) and available N (240 kg/ha), medium in available
P
2
O
5
(22.7 kg/ha) and available K
2
O (206 kg/ha) and normal in pH (6.9). The entire
recommended dose of fertilizers (20 : 40 : 40 N, P
2
O
5
and K
2
O kg/ha) was applied as basal
dose at the time of sowing. Observations were recorded at 25, 50, 75 DAS and at harvest.
The yield characters of guar cultivars were significantly influenced by time of sowing.
Sowing of guar during first fortnight of July resulted in more number of clusters per plant and
number of pods per cluster
-
than the crop sown during other times (Table 1). This can be
attributed to higher biomass accumulation coupled with effective translocation and distribution
64
of photosynthates from source to sink, which in turn resulted in elevated stature of yield
attributes which was due to favourable weather conditions such as equal rainfall distribution
and temperature during the crop growth period. Relatively higher levels of yield parameters
of guar sown at first fortnight of July of sowing has been reported earlier by Sharma et al.
(1984), Bhadoria and Chauhan (1994) and Taneja et al. (1995). The crop sown during second
fortnight of August recorded the lowest yield attributes.
The highest seed yield of 951 kg ha
-1
(Table 1) was obtained with first fortnight of July
sowing and yield decreased significantly in other times of sowing. Higher seed yield with
first fortnight of July sowing was mainly due to enhanced yield attributes such as 70 per cent
more number of clusters per plant and 37 per cent more number of pods per cluster which
was due to equally distributed rainfall, optimum temperature during flowering and pod
development stage. The lowest seed yield obtained during second fortnight of August might
be due to reduced photosynthetic activity and translocation of assimilates as a result of high
rainfall and low temperature, which affected pod development and seed formation. The yield
increased with first fortnight of July over second fortnight of July, first fortnight of August and
second fortnight of August was to the tune of 42.0, 74.0 and 82.0 per cent, respectively. The
results are in agreement with those of Sharma et al. (1984), Taneja et al. (1984) and Taneja
et al. (1995).
The stalk yield was maximum when the crop was sown during first fortnight of July
compared to other times of sowing. This was due to better growth and development, resulting
in higher dry matter production(50%). The lowest stalk yield was recorded when the crop was
sown during second fortnight of August.
The crop sown during first fortnight of July recorded the highest crude gum yield due
to higher seed yield and gum content. Sowing beyond first fortnight of July resulted in lesser
crude gum yield due to lower yields.
Different cultivars of guar, having different genetic potentiality are known to respond
differently to similar management practices and the same was also noticed in the present
study. The cultivar RGM 112 produced the highest level of yield attributes such as number
of clusters per plant (23%) and number of pods per cluster (12%) which was on par with HG
563. This might be due to more assimilatory surface leading to higher dry matter production
coupled with effective translocation and distribution of photosynthates from source to sink.
Similar observations were also reported by Bhansali and Bhandri (2004). The lowest number
of yield attributes was recorded with the cultivar GAUG 9703.
The highest seed yield was recorded with RGM 112, which was on par with HG 563
and both were distinctly superior to RGC 1003 and GAUG 9703 (Table 1). The yield increase
KALYANI and REDDY
65
T
a
b
l
e

1
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EFFECT OF TIME OF SOWING
66
recorded with RGM 112 over RGC 1003 and GAUG 9703 was to the tune of 12.0 and 23.0 per
cent, respectively. This could be ascribed to higher number of clusters per plant and number
of pods per cluster
-1
. The superiority of RGM 112 over other cultivars with respect to yield
components and yield may be due to its genetic potentiality to utilize the growth resources
and translocate photosynthates from source to sink. The lowest seed yield was recorded
with GAUG 9703.
The dominance of vegetative growth with more number of leaves and higher plant
height evidenced by higher stalk yield of GAUG 9703 than other cultivars indicates suitability
of GAUG 9703 for forage production. The lowest stalk yield was observed with RGC 1003.
Higher crude gum yield was obtained with RGM 112, which was on par with HG 563
and significantly superior to RGC 1003 and GAUG 9703. Difference in crude gum yield
might be due to yield differences between the cultivars. The lowest crude gum yield was
recorded with the cultivar GAUG 9703 due to lower yields.
The cultivar RGM 112 sown during first fortnight of July, recorded more number of
clusters per plant, number of pods per cluster, seed and gum yield, which was on par with
HG 563 sown at the same time. This might be due to varietal difference and favourable
weather conditions during the crop growth period. The cultivar GAUG 9703 sown during
second fortnight of August resulted in the lower number of cluster plant
-1
, number of pods
per cluster, seed and gum yield. The highest stalk yield was obtained with GAUG 9703
sown during first fortnight of July whereas RGC 1003 sown during second fortnight of August
recorded the lowest stalk yield.
References
BHADORIA R B S and CHAUHAN V S 1994 Response of clusterbean (Cyamopsis
tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.) to dates of sowing and spacing. Indian Journal of agronomy
39: 156157.
BHANSALI A K and BHANDRI M M 2004 New clusterbean variety for arid and semi arid tract
of the country. National Symposium on arid legumes for sustainable agriculture and trade,
Jodhpur 5-7 November, 2004.
SHARMA B D, TANEJA K D, KAIRON M S and JAIN V 1984 Effect of dates of sowing and
row spacing on yield and quality of clusterbean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.). Indian
Journal of Agronomy 29 : 557558.
TANEJA K D, BISHNOI O P, RAO V U M and RAM NIWAS 1995 Effect of environment on
growth and yield of clusterbean. Crop research 9: 159162.
TANEJA K D, SAINI M L and SHARMA B D 1984 Effect of dates of sowing and row spacing
on the seed yield of guar. Forage research 10: 115117.
KALYANI and REDDY
67
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Requirement of NDLR-8 Variety of Rice
(Oryza sativa L.) in Southern Telangana Zone of Andhra Pradesh.*
P. SATISH
1
, V. RADHAKRISHNA MURTHY
2
and SHAIK MOHAMMAD
3
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture,
Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030
Andhra Pradesh is the rice bowl of India. It is cultivated in an area of 42.5 m ha
producing 88.2 mt grain with a productivity of 2077kg ha
-1
(CMIE, 2004). The crop is highly
responsive to the level of fertilizer application. The requirement of nutrients varies considerably
for different varieties, soil and environment variations. A new variety of rice NDLR-8 was
evolved in 2001. It has fine grain quality compared with presently predominant variety BPT-
5204. Its most tempting advantage to the farmer is that it matures early by 10-15 days with
no difference in yield and quality. Its fertilizer requirement is to be ascertained for high
production and profitability. The soils are mostly deficient in N and P. Hence, a field experiment
was conducted to find out the nitrogen and phosphorus requirement of this variety under the
agro ecological situations of Southern Telangana Zone of Andhra Pradesh.
A field experiment was conducted at students farm of the agricultural college,
Rajendranagar during kharif, 2004. The soil had a sandy loam texture with 5.5 pH and 1.19
dSm
-1
ECe. Its nutrient status was low in available nitrogen (207.2 kg N/ha) medium in
phosphorus (24.6 kg P
2
O
5
/ha) and rich in potassium (280.6 kg K/ha). The rice variety NDLR-
8 was raised in the nursery bed on 16 July, 2004 for 28 days and then transplanted. The
treatments were the combination of 0,50,100,150, kg N ha
-1
and 0,30,60,90 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
thus
there were a total of 16 treatments. The layout was a randomized block design. A uniform
dose of 40 kg K
2
O ha
-1
was applied as basal to all the plots along with treatment dose of
phosphorus. Nitrogenous fertilizer was applied in three equal splits i.e., 1/3 the treatment
dose was applied at the time of transplanting, tillering and panicle initiation. The data obtained
on biometric observations and yield of grain and straw were statistically analyzed by following
the two-factor analysis of variance for 4 x 4.
The results showed that the tillering of rice was profuse by the application of 50 kg
Nha
-1
. The crop produced significantly more number of 10.98 tillers hill
-1
compared to 8.28
* Part of M.sc (Ag.) Thesis submitted by the first author to the Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural
University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 5000301.
1. Ph.D scholar
3. Principal Scientist, AICRP on Cropping systems, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-30
Research Note
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 67 - 69 , 2007
68
tillers hill
-1
in control (Table 1). Maximum number 13.83 tillers hill
-1
were obtained by the
application of 100 kg N ha
-1
. Number of seeds per panicle were not influenced by different
levels of nitrogen fertilization. The seed yield increased significantly to 4824 kg ha
-1
by the
application of 50 kg N ha
-1
compared to 3357 kg ha
-1
in control. The yield of straw also
increased significantly by the application of 50 kg N ha
-1
. Further, increase in the level of
fertilizer to 100 or 150 kg ha
-1
had no significant influence over 50 kg ha
-1
. Maximum net profit
of Rs 29728 ha
-1
were recorded by the application of 100 kg N ha
-1
. Literature on nitrogen
requirement of rice crop shows extreme fluctuations from place to place, variety to variety
and variety within the season. Amarjit et al. (1995) reported that an increase in N level from
to 120 kg ha
-1
significantly increased the grain and straw yield. While Panda et al. (1995)
reported that it required 80 kg N ha
-1
.
Table 1: Influence of levels of nitrogen and phosphorus on the performance of rice
variety NDLR-8
Treatment Plant height
(cm)
No. of
tillers hill
-1
Seeds
panicle
-1
Yield (kg /ha)
Straw
Net returns
Rs ha
-1
Seed
N
0
80.27 8.28 104.3 3357 8641 16587
N
50
77.30 10.98 107.0 4824 9529 26511
N
100
78.79 13.83 110.7 5500 8852 29728
N
150
82.84 12.95 108.9 4922 5967 22586
SE 1.36 0.86 2.9 432 696
CD 5 % 3.93 1.72 NS 881 2010
P
0
80.02 9.24 108.3 4046 6985 18910
P
30
79.20 11.18 110.2 4641 7920 23612
P
60
81.57 12.59 104.8 4856 9183 25673
P
90
78.41 13.04 107.8 5060 8900 26116
SE 1.36 0.86 2.9 432 696
CD 5 % NS 1.72 NS 881 NS
N X P
SE 2.73 1.71 5.8 864.4 1392
CD 5 % NS NS 16.9 NS NS
SATISH et al.
69
The crop required 90 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
to produce significantly more number of 13.04
tillers per hill compared to 9.24 tillers hill
-1
without the application of this nutrient. Like nitrogen,
the application of phosphatic fertilizer did not influence the number of seeds per panicle. The
crop required 60 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
to produce significantly more yield of 4641 kg ha
-1
compared to
4046 kg ha
-1
in control. There were no significant differences in the production of straw due to
different levels of phosphorus. Raju and Reddy (1993) reported that rice responded to produce
significantly more yield by the application of 80 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
. Maximum net returns were of
Rs 26116 ha
-1
were realized by the application of 90 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
compared to Rs 18910 ha
-
1
without the application of this nutrient.
The results highlighted that the newly evolved rice variety NDLR-8 require 50 kg N
and 60 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
for dependable seed yield. But the maximum net returns were realized
by fertilizing the crop with 100 kg N and 90 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
.
References
AMARJIT S BALI, SIDDIQUE M, GANAI B A, KHAN H U, SINGH K N and BALI S 1995
Response of rice (Oryza sativa) genotypes to nitrogen level under transplanted condition in
Kashmir valley. Indian Journal of Agronomy 40: 35-37.
Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy 2004 Apple heritage, Mumbai.
PANDA S C, PANDA P C, and NANDA S S 1995 Effect of levels of nitrogen and phosphorus
on yield and nutrient uptake of rice. Oryza 32: 18-20.
RAJU R A and REDDY K A 1993 Response of winter rice ( Oryza sativa ) to nitrogen and
phosphorus fertilization on Godavari alluvials. Indian Journal of Agronomy 38: 637-638.
NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS REQUIREMENT
70
Research Note
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 70 - 71 , 2007
Rapid and Easy Method of Leaf Area Estimation in Toria
(Brassica compestris Var. Toria)
M. VIDYADHARI
1
and SHAIK MOHAMMAD
2
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, ANGRAU
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, 500 030.
Leaf area estimation is an important variable for assessing crop growth especially
under physiological studies (Agueguia, 1993). Electronic leaf area meters are available to
measure the leaf area, but they are expensive and not accessible to small research stations.
Portable leaf area meters also can be taken in the field for instant leaf area measurements.
But, this also takes considerable time at the expense of several other measurements to be
recorded. Francis et al. (1969), Musande et al. (1982), Rao et al. (1990) and Reddy et al.
(1999) successfully exploited the regression model to estimate the leaf area of crops. The
relationship between the product of leaf length and its maximum width with the actual leaf
area has become a common approach to estimate the leaf area. However, such a standard
method is not available for toria. Hence, an attempt was made to estimate the leaf area of
toria through rapid and simple method from destructive leaf samples.
Fifty leaves of toria cultivar Sangam were plucked from different plants, representing
different strata (height) from top to bottom of crop canopy at flowering stage. The actual
area of each leaf was measured through LA
3
100 leaf area meter. The leaf length, maximum
width and dry weight of corresponding leaf were measured to the nearest integer. Prediction
equations were developed through linear regression model by regressing four variables viz.,
leaf length (l), leaf width (w), apparent leaf area which is a product of leaf length and width
(lw) and leaf dry weight (wt) on the actual leaf area recorded by the leaf area meter.
The prediction models developed for the leaf area estimation are furnished below.
Leaf length vs area,
Y = -18.82 + 5291 L . R
2
= 0.92
Leaf width vs area,
Y = -13.91 + 9.22 w . R
2
= 0.92
Length x width vs area,
Y = 1.09 + 0.547 (Lw) .. R
2
= 0.99
1. Vidyadhari Agricultural officer, Andhra Bank, Hyderabad.
2. Principal Scientist, AICRP on Cropping Systems, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
71
Leaf weight vs area,
Y = 5.43 + 150.50 wt R
2
= 0.87
Where,
Y = estimated leaf area (cm
2
)
The result indicated that it is possible to estimate the leaf area of toria crop with a
high degree of accuracy through apparent leaf area estimation by multiplying the leaf length
and width and substituting in the regression equation. The results obtained through this
approach captured a high degree of 99 per cent variability. The estimation of leaf area was
also observed to be fairly accurate only through the leaf length or leaf width with high R
2
values of 0.92 each.
Another alternative was to estimate the leaf area through the leaf weight with a
coefficient of determination of 0.87. Although the accuracy is relatively less, the leaf area
estimation through dry weight saves considerable time to measure the leaves for their length
or width and yet is the most rapid and simple approach.
References
AGUEGUIA A 1993 Non Destructive Estimation of leaf area in Cocoyam (Xanthosoma
Sagittifolium (L) Schoot). Journal of agronomy and crop science 171: 138-141.
FRANCIS C A, RUTGER J N and PALMER AFE 1969 A rapid method for leaf area estimation
in maize. Crop Science 9: 537-539.
MUSANDE V G, SONDGE V D, CHAVAN B N and BORULKAR D N 1982 Leaf area
constants for cotton, greengram, blackgram and groudnut. Indian Journal of Agricultural
Sciences 52: 573-575.
RAO V P, SONDGE V D, CHAVAN D A, RAIKHELKAR S V and SHELKE V B 1990 Leaf
area estimation by non destructive method in sesame. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural
Universities 15: 271-272.
REDDY V C, BASAVARAJU H K and SHIVARAJ B 1999 Rapid and non destructive
methods for leaf area estimation in rice genotypes. Crop research 17: 427- 429.
RAPID AND EASY METHOD
72
* Part of Ph.D. Thesis submitted by former author to Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad-
30
1. Assistant professor, Mekelle University, P.O. Box 231, Mekelle, Ethiopia.
2. Professor
Research Note
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 72- 76, 2007
Biology of Sorghum Aphid (Melanaphis sacchari, zehntner)
(Homoptera:Aphididae), on Sorghum Genotypes*
IBRAHIM FITIWY
1
and T. V. K. SINGH
2
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 500 030
The sorghum aphid (Melanaphis sacchari) is the most important pest of sorghum
next only to shootfly causing severe economic losses in the far East- China (Wang, 1961)
and Japan (Setokuchi, 1973), Ethiopia (Megenasa, 1982), India (Young, 1970) and South
Africa (Van Rensburg, 1973). Since sorghum is grown by the small and marginal farmers,
investments on insecticides to check the pest is very difficult. Singh et al., (2004) proposed
that the identification of potential genotypes resistant to the pest is an effective component
of integrated pest management. Hence, this experiment was conducted to study the biology
of this pest on different genotypes of sorghum.
A laboratory experiment was conducted during rabi, 2006-07 in the Department of
Entomology at the College of agriculture, college Rajendranagar, ANGRAU, Hyderabad.
Sorghum leaf discs measuring 5 cm diameter

of 15 genotypes were inserted in a glass tube
of 3.5 cm diameter and 19 cm height. In each test tube five apterous adult sorghum aphids
were released for feeding. The tubes were covered with muslin cloth for free aeration. The
leaves of 15 sorghum genotypes as treatments were replicated thrice. The data on biological
events was subjected to analysis in a completely randomized design. A field test was also
conducted by growing these 15 genotypes of sorghum on 15 November, 2006 in randomized
block design with three replications. A score card was developed for the number of aphids
per plant as suggested by Balikai (2004) and the extent of damage to the leaves on a 1 to 9
scale following Sharma and Nwanze (1997 ). The leaf chlorophyll content of different genotypes
was estimated as per Hiscox and Israelstam (1979) at 50 per cent flowering stage. Brix
reading for total sugar in the plant was estimated by using refractometer. The pre-reproductive
period, reproductive period, fecundity and adult longevity periods were assessed on 15 adults.
Sorghum aphid had a very short pre-reproductive period of 1.3 to 4.3 mean days.
The feeding stuff of different sorghum genotypes did not influence the pre-reproductive period
of this pest significantly (Table 1). But they had a significant influence on the reproductive
period of the insect. The commercially cultivated improved genotype selection 3 was the
73
Aphid resistant lines
61526 3.3 7.3 31.0 4.4 10.7
61581 1.3 15.3 74.7 4.8 20.3
Shootfly resistant lines
RSV 161 4.3 4.7 57.7 12.6 10.0
RSV 807 3.0 5.0 55.3 11.2 9.7
Germplasm
IS 2312 2.3 8.7 53.0 6.1 11.3
R-Line
C-43 3.0 8.0 64.3 8.0 12.7
National/State genotypes
Selection3 4.3 3.7 46.7 12.3 9.3
Swati 4.0 7.7 53.3 6.4 13.3
CSV216 R 4.0 4.7 44.0 9.9 9.3
RSLG 262 3.3 13.7 55.3 4.1 19.3
Local genotypes
RSE 3 3.0 7.7 60.0 9.6 12.0
Lakadi 3.3 6.7 52.3 7.8 11.3
M 35-1 3.3 5.0 38.0 7.6 9.7
Sweet sorghum genotypes
SSV 84 2.0 5.7 32.7 5.5 10.0
RSSV 9 1.3 12.7 84.7 6.6 18.3
SE 1.3 1.4 22.4 3.9 2.9
CD 5% N S 2.9 N S N S 6.0
Genotype
Pre-
reproductive
period (days)
Reproductive
period(days)
Effective
fecundity(No. of
progenies /
female)
Effective
reproductive
rate
(progenies/
day)
Longevity(days)
Table 1: Biology of the sorghum aphid Melanaphis sacchari on sorghum genotypes
most non preferred host. The reproductive period was only for 3.7 days. Kishore (2000) also
identified this genotype as resistant to this pest and that the mechanism of resistance was
not known. The reproductive period of the aphid was on par when fed on RSV 161, RSV 807,
M 35-1, CSV 216 R, and SSV 84. The insect also had a very short life period of only 9.3 to
10 days when fed on the leaves of these six sorghum genotypes. A moderately longer
BIOLOGY OF SORGHUM APHID
74
reproductive period of 7.3 to 8.7 mean days was recorded on the leaves of sorghum genotypes
61526, RSE 3, Swati, C-43, and IS 2312. The longevity of the pest ranged from 10.7 to 13.3
days on these genotypes. The most preferential hosts were RSSV 9, RSLG 262 and 61581.
The pest had a very long reproductive period of 12.7, 13.7 and 15.3 days. Eventually, the
longevity of the pest extended to a maximum of 18.3, 19.3 and 20.3 days on these genotypes.
The effective fecundity and reproductive rates were not significantly influenced by different
Table 2: Aphid population and leaf damaging score, chlorophyll and sugar content in
leaves of sorghum genotypes in the field.
Genotype
Aphid populaiton
rating (1-9)
Plant damage
rating (1-9)
Chlorophyll
content (mg/g)
Sugar (%)
Aphid resistant lines
61526 1.4 1.5 2.9 9.5
61581 4.6 6.4 5.5 24.8
Shootfly resistant lines
RSV 161 1.1 1.5 3.2 9.5
RSV 807 1.4 1.8 3.1 8.7
R-line
C-43 1.2 1.4 3.2 7.5
Germplasm
IS 2312 1.3 2.0 3.3 8.3
Local genotypes
RSE 3 1.2 1.4 2.7 8.2
Lakadi 1.2 1.5 3.1 9.2
M 35-1 1.4 1.5 3.0 11.8
National/State genotypes
Selection 3 1.5 1.8 3.0 11.8
Swathi 1.2 2.1 2.9 9.0
CSV216 R 1.3 1.3 3.2 10.2
RSLG 262 4.4 6.2 4.9 10.0
Sweet sorghum
SSV 84 1.5 1.9 3.4 10.0
RSSV 9 5.0 6.2 5.9 26.2
SE 0.3 0.5 0.6 1.5
CD 5% 0.6 1.0 1.2 3.0
FITIWY and SINGH
75
sorghum genotypes. The results indicate that the sweet sorghum RSSV 9, commercially
cultivated genotype RSLG 262 and 61581 designated as aphid resistant line by International
Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) evaluation, are most preferred
for extended reproductive period and longevity of sorghum aphid.
The genotypes RSLG 262, RSSV 9 and 61581 recorded a high aphid population
score of 4.4 to 5.0 indicating that 21 to 50 aphids infested per leaf in the field (Table2). Rest
of the genotypes had a low aphid score of 1.1 to 1.5 implying that they are the non preferred
hosts harboring < 10 aphids/leaf. Higher the pest population, more was the damage. The
damaging score was 6.2 to 6.4 on the genotypes RSLG 262, RSSV 9 and 61581. This
indicates severe damage leaving behind 70 to 80 per cent of the leaf area dead. Rest of the
genotypes had a score of 1.4 to 2.1 indicating that the aphids could damage the leaves of
these genotypes to a maximum of only 30 per cent.
High chlorophyll content of 4.9 to 5.5 mg g
-1
and sugar content of 10 to 26.2 per cent
was recorded in the foliage of the heavily infested and damaged genotypes 61581, RSLG
262 and RSSV 9. Mote and Jadhav (1993) and Mote and Shahane (1994) also reported that
aphid population and leaf sugary exudation was more pronounced in sorghum genotypes
rich in chlorophyll content.
References
BALIKAI R A 2004 Ecobiology and management of the sugarcane aphid, Melanaphis sacchari
(Zehntner) in rabi sorghum. In: Proceedings of the brain storming sessions 2003 and 2004
Sholapur, Maharashtra pp: 5-10.
HISCOX and ISRAELSTAM 1979 A method for extraction of chlorophyll from leaf tissue
without maceration. Canadian Journal of Botany 57: 1332-1334.
KISHORE P 2000 Ecofriendly viable options for formulating management strategy for insect
pests of sorghum and pearl millet. Journal of Entomology Research 24: 63-72.
MEGENASA T 1982. Insect pests of sorghum in Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of the regional
workshop on sorghum improvement in Eastern Africa, October 17-21, 1982. Ethiopian Sorghum
Improvement Project, Nazareth, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia, pp: 54-64.
MOTE U N and JADHAV S S 1993 Seasonal occurrence of flea beetles, delphacids, leaf
sugary exudation and aphids on rabi sorghum. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities
18: 133-134.
MOTE U N and SHAHANE A K 1994 Biophysical and biochemical characters of sorghum
variety contributing resistance to delphacid, aphid, and leaf sugary exudation. Indian Journal
of Entomology 56: 113-122.
BIOLOGY OF SORGHUM APHID
76
SETOKUCHI O 1973 Ecology of Longiunguis sacchari infesting sorghum. I. Nymphal period
and fecundity of apterous viviparous females. Proceedings of association plant protection,
kyushu 19: 95-97.
SHARMA H C and NWANZE K F 1997 Mechanisms of resistance to insects in sorghum and
their usefulness in crop improvement. Information Bulletin No.45, International Crops Research
Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) Patancheru 502 324 Andhra Pradesh, India.
SINGH B U PADMAJA P G and SEETHARAMA N 2004 Biology and management of the
sugarcane aphid, Melanaphis sacchari (Zehntner), in sorghum: A review. Crop protection
23: 739-755.
VAN RENSBURG N 1 1973 Notes on the occurrence and biology of the sorghum aphid in
South Africa. Journal of Entomological Soceity, South Africa 36: 293-298.
WANG Y S 1961 Studies on the sorghum aphid. Aphis sacchari (Zehntner). Acta
entomological sciences 10: 363-380.
YOUNG W R 1970 Sorghum insects. In: Wall, J.S., Ross, W.M (Eds.), Sorghum Production
and Utilization. A VI Publishing Co Westport, CT, USA, pp: 235-287.
FITIWY and SINGH
77
Time Management by Agricultural Graduates
K.RAMAIAH
1
and T.LAKSHMI
2
Department of Extension Education, Agricultural College, Bapatla.
Many praise the value of time but only a few realize its value. It is vital to inculcate
in the minds of the students the time management attitude that will stand them in good stead
in blossoming into worldly wise men with a rich time sense. They are to be motivated to feel
the intrinsic worth of time so that they may put it to right use. Only proper planning, setting
goals, analyzing the situations and working the plans keeping the deadline in mind will help
the students invest time for better returns . Keeping this in view, the present study was
taken up to know the time management of agricultural graduates.
First year post-graduate students of Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University
from the faculty of agriculture of the three colleges viz., Rajendranagar, Bapatla and Tirupati
constituted the population of the study. Thus, 15 boys and 15 girl students were randomly
selected to be included as a sample for the study from each college. Thus, the total sample
for the study constituted 45 boys and 45 girl students from the three colleges.
Time management is operationally defined as utilization of time at ones disposal in
the best possible way to achieve the maximum advantage towards ones harmonious
development in terms of physical, social, emotional and intellectual levels (Kumar et al.,1998).
A number of time management activities were listed on how a student spends his/ her time
each week based on the literature and also discussion with experts. Then the total time
activities of students were divided into three broad categories i.e., academic, personal and
social time respectively. All the activities identified for the students were grouped under
these categories. A time management daily log sheet was developed for each day in a week
(i.e., from Monday to Sunday).
A comprehensive interview schedule covering all facets of the problem was developed
and pre-tested. This was administered to the respondents by direct personal investigation
method. Students were asked to fill-up this log sheet throughout the entire week. The activities
done by students were to be filled up in minutes. The total time per day should be equal to
1440 minutes (24 x 60). Statistical procedures like frequency and percentages, mean and
standard deviation were used to interpret the data.
* Part of M.Sc (Ag.) Thesis submitted by the former author to Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University,
Research Note
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 77- 80, 2007
78
The results thus obtained are presented and discussed in Tables1 and 2.
The figures in Table 1 indicated that nearly three- fourth (71.11%) of the girls had
moderate time management. About one-fifth (20.00%) had good and 8.89 per cent had
poor time management. Majority (62.22%) of the boys also belonged to moderate time
management followed by good(22.22%) and poor (15.56%). The results on pooled sample
also indicated similar trend as in the case of girls and boys. The calculated Z value 2.22
was found to be significant at 0.05 level of probability. Majority (66.67%) of the respondents
belonged to moderate time management followed by good (21.11%) and poor (12.22%)
time management groups. It might be due to the fact that in semester system of education,
students were forced to use their time effectively to cope up with higher credit hours per
S.No. Category
Table 1 : Distribution of respondents according to their time management
Respondents
Girls Boys Pooled sample
(n=45) (n=45) (n=90)
F % F % F %
1 Poor time management 4 8.89 7 15.56 11 12.22
2 Moderate time management 32 71.11 28 62.22 60 66.67
3 Good time management 9 20.00 10 22.22 19 21.11
Total 45 100.00 45 100.00 90 100.00
Mean 1112.82 1064.16 1087.89
SD 92.69 111.00 105.60
Z value 2.22 ; Significant at 0.05 level of probability;
Table 2 : Overall mean time spent on major activities
(min/week)
S.No. Activity Girls(n=45) Boys(n=45) Pooled Sample(n=90)
Mean time
spent
% of time
spent Rank
Mean
time
spent
% of time
spent
Rank
Mean time
spent
% of time
spent
Rank
1 Academic 3070.40 30.46 II 2990.00 29.65 II 3030.00 30.05 II
2 Personal 6524.00 64.73 I 6745.50 66.92 I 6634.75 65.83 I
3 Social 425.60 4.81 III 344.50 3.42 III 415.25 4.12 III
RAMAIAH and LAKSHMI
79
semester and continuous evaluation. The perception on evaluation pattern would have been
another reason for such results. It was found that boys and girls differed significantly in their
time management. It was also noticed that comparatively more percentage of girls were
found to be moderate and good time managers than poor managers. Motivational forces
admission, high level of aspirations of girls could be attributed for this trend. Similar findings
were reported by Demiray (1988) and Kumar et al. (1998).
A cursory examination of Table 2 revealed that on an average girl students spent
6524 min/week on personal activities followed by 3070.4 minutes /week on academic activities
and social activities (425.6 min/week). It could be seen from the Table 2 that boys spent
6745.5 min/week on personal activities followed by academic activities (2990 min/week) and
social activities (344.5 min/week). It is clear from the Table 2 that the respondents in pooled
sample indicated that they have spent 6634.75 min/week on personal activities followed by
academic activities (3030 min/week) and social activities (415.25 min/week).
Most of the girl and boy students were spending their time on personal activities
followed by academic and social activities. Regarding personal activities, the average student
seems to require about eight hours of sleep for the best mental work. This seems necessary
in order to keep the entire body mechanism in good working order. It is said to assist in
releasing the cerebral arteries in such a way that brain circulation is improved and recovery
from fatigue is facilitated.
Regarding academic activities, the semester system of education there was a
compulsion to attend classes and in get minimum of 75 per cent attendance to appear for
final exams as well as for internal and practical exams. Therefore, the students were forced
to attend classes to avoid shortage of attendance.
Regarding social activities, man is social animal and interaction with others in terms
of chitchatting will help in knowing the outside world . Excess chitchatting leads to wastage
of time. Being students, they were busy in academic activities, finding less time at their
disposal for attending social functions elsewhere. Similar findings were reported by Khanna
and Singh (2000).
It could be observed from the study that boys and girls significantly differed with their
time management and majority of the agricultural graduates belonged to medium time managers
category followed by good and poor time managers. Majority of them were spending their
time on personal activities followed by academic and social activities.
TIME MANAGEMENT
80
References
DEMIRAY U 1988 Findings of research on students use of time : A case study of Anadolu
University open education faculty in Turkey, Anadolu University. Open University Education
Faculty, Eskis enhir, Turkey.
GILL D K and KABLON S P K 2000 study habits of college going girls. Asian Journal of
Psychology and Education 33: 23-28.
KHANNA N and JOGINDER SINGH 2000 A Study of leisure time utilization by students in
Delhi. Journal of Educational Research and Extension 37: 1-11.
KUMAR M S, REDDY K M and GOPALAM A 1998 Strategies for time management of
students and teachers in educational institutions. Faculty Development Programme in
Educational Technology Capsule 7: 77-84, National Academy of Agricultural Research
Management, Hyderabad.
SANDHU P and MALHOTRA N 1999 Time pattern of female students with special reference
to leisure time activities. Indian Journal of Social Research 40 : 285- 296.
RAMAIAH and LAKSHMI
81
Effect of Plant Growth Substances on Rooting in Root cuttings of
Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. Ex Kurz) *
P. PONKUMAR
1
, M. PADMA
2
, M. RAJ KUMAR
3
and T. Y. MADULETY
4
Department of Horticulture,
College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-30
Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentine, Family: Apocynaceae) is one of the most
important medicinal plants of India. Its roots are the main source of the drug. They are
sedative, specific in insanity, reduce blood pressure and useful in bowel movements. The
main active ingredient in root is reserpine. The crops of this species are mostly raised using
seeds. Since, this is a cross pollinated crop, the seedlings are highly variable in growth. The
germination of seeds is slow and irregular. To get homogeneous plants with similar active
principle(s) content and uniform multiplication, it is essential to grow clonal crops. It
necessitates the development of adequate methodology of vegetative propagation for rapid
mass multiplication. Hence, the investigation was undertaken to study the response of root
cuttings of sarpagandha with different concentrations and combinations of plant growth
substances.
The experiment was conducted with semi-hard wood cuttings of sarpagandha during
August, 2005 to December, 2005 using the experimental design RBD, replicated thrice at
Herbal Garden, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. In this trial, three years old sarpagandha
plants were uprooted from herbal garden and root portion was separated. The roots were cut
into pieces of five centimeter length with straight cut at bottom and slant cut at top of
cuttings. The basal tips of cuttings were dipped in 3000, 4000 and 5000 ppm concentrations
each of IBA and NAA solutions alone and in their combinations for ten seconds. These
treated cuttings were planted in nursery beds of one meter width and convenient length
under 50 per cent shade. Observations were recorded on the time taken for rooting, per cent
sprouting, number of roots per cutting and plant height. The data on per cent sprouting were
transformed into arcsin values.
* Part of M.Sc. (Horti.) Thesis submitted by the first author to Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University,
1. Research scholar,
3. Senior Scientist, College of Horticulture, Mojerla.
4. Principal Scientist & Head, AICRP on floriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
Research Note
J.Res. ANGRAU 35(3) 81- 84, 2007
82
KUMAR et al.
83
EFFECT OF PLANT GROWTH SUBSTANCIES
84
The data on the effect of plant growth substances on rooting and growth of root
cuttings of sarpagandha are presented in Table 1. It was observed that 19 to 26 days were
taken for root initiation in root cuttings of sarpagandha. The cuttings treated with IBA 3000
ppm alone, initiated the rooting earliest in 19.33 days. The root cuttings treated with IBA @
4000 ppm and 5000 ppm also initiated the rooting early in 19.66 and 20.33 days respectively.
The root cuttings treated with IBA 5000 ppm recorded maximum sprouting of 75.33
per cent (Table 2). This was on par with 74.0 per cent and 72.33 per cent sprouting by
relatively low concentrations of 4000 and 3000 ppm of this growth regulator. The sprouting
was less than 60 per cent in most of the treatments.
Maximum number of 27 roots per cutting was recorded due to the treatment of IBA
5000 ppm (Table 3). This was on par with 26.66 and 24.33 roots attained with 4000 and 3000
ppm of this chemical. The combined treatment of IBA 5000 ppm + NAA 4000 ppm and IBA
3000 ppm + NAA 4000 ppm was also beneficial to induce 23.00 and 22.33 roots on par with
IBA 5000 ppm.
IBA @ 4000 ppm recorded maximum plant height (18.00 cm) which was on par with
5000 ppm (17.83 cm) (Table 4).
Similar positive effects of IBA were also reported by Thimann and Went (1934).
They discovered that the auxins exerted a primary control over root formation. The formation
of root primordia from meristem cells was influenced by high proportion of auxin to cytokinin
where as low proportion caused shoot formation (Skoog and Tsui, 1948). External application
of auxin might have increased the auxin: cytokinin ratio and the increased ratio of auxin
treated cuttings could hasten the early root initiation. The increase in number of roots by
IBA treated cuttings might be due to two reasons. First, the slow mobility character of IBA
might have caused accumulation of IBA at applied place and improved the root generation.
Secondly, the IBA destroying enzymes might be absent and NAA destroying enzyme
(Weaver, 1972).
The results of this investigation revealed that only sole concentrations of IBA showed
superior results on rooting and growth of root cuttings of Sarpagandha, compared to NAA
treatments and their combination treatments. Since, IBA recorded superior results in most
of parameters in Sarpagandha, it will be better to go for future investigations on various
concentrations of IBA with different sizes of cuttings as well as seasons.
References
SKOOG F and TSUI C 1948 Chemical control of growth and bud formation in tobacco stem
segments and callus cultured in vitro. American Journal of Botany 35: 782-787.
THIMMANN K V and WENT F W 1934 On the chemical nature of the root farming hormone.
Proceedings of the Florida State Horticulture Society 37: 456-459.
WEAVER R J 1972 Plant growth substances in agriculture. Freeman W H and Company,
San Francisco pp : 128.
KUMAR et al.

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