A coupled analysis of nutrient stocks and fire thresholds in central brazil. Effects of fire ensure large areas of the seasonal tropics are maintained as savannas. Forest species require a larger nutrient supply to resist fires, but a lower supply to attain closed canopies and suppress fires.
A coupled analysis of nutrient stocks and fire thresholds in central brazil. Effects of fire ensure large areas of the seasonal tropics are maintained as savannas. Forest species require a larger nutrient supply to resist fires, but a lower supply to attain closed canopies and suppress fires.
A coupled analysis of nutrient stocks and fire thresholds in central brazil. Effects of fire ensure large areas of the seasonal tropics are maintained as savannas. Forest species require a larger nutrient supply to resist fires, but a lower supply to attain closed canopies and suppress fires.
Can savannas become forests? A coupled analysis of nutrient
stocks and fire thresholds in central Brazil Lucas C. R. Silva & William A. Hoffmann & Davi R. Rossatto & Mundayatan Haridasan & Augusto C. Franco & William R. Horwath Received: 18 March 2013 / Accepted: 17 June 2013 / Published online: 27 July 2013 #Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013 Abstract Aims The effects of fire ensure that large areas of the seasonal tropics are maintained as savannas. The ad- vance of forests into these areas depends on shifts in species composition and the presence of sufficient nutrients. Predicting such transitions, however, is dif- ficult due to a poor understanding of the nutrient stocks required for different combinations of species to resist and suppress fires. Methods We compare the amounts of nutrients re- quired by congeneric savanna and forest trees to reach two thresholds of establishment and maintenance: that of fire resistance, after which individual trees are large enough to survive fires, and that of fire suppression, after which the collective tree canopy is dense enough to minimize understory growth, thereby arresting the spread of fire. We further calculate the arboreal and soil nutrient stocks of savannas, to determine if these are sufficient to support the expansion of forests fol- lowing initial establishment. Results Forest species require a larger nutrient supply to resist fires than savanna species, which are better able to reach a fire-resistant size under nutrient limi- tation. However, forest species require a lower nutrient supply to attain closed canopies and suppress fires; therefore, the ingression of forest trees into savannas facilitates the transition to forest. Savannas have suf- ficient N, K, and Mg, but require additional P and Ca to build high-biomass forests and allow full forest expansion following establishment. Conclusions Tradeoffs between nutrient requirements and adaptations to fire reinforce savanna and forest as alternate stable states, explaining the long-term persis- tence of vegetation mosaics in the seasonal tropics. Low-fertility limits the advance of forests into savan- nas, but the ingression of forest species favors the formation of non-flammable states, increasing fertility and promoting forest expansion. Plant Soil (2013) 373:829842 DOI 10.1007/s11104-013-1822-x Responsible Editor: Michael Denis Cramer. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11104-013-1822-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. L. C. R. Silva (*) : W. R. Horwath Department of Land, Air and Water Resources, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA e-mail: lcsilva@ucdavis.edu W. A. Hoffmann Department of Plant Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA D. R. Rossatto Departamento de Biologia Aplicada, FCAV, Universidade Estadual Paulista Jlio de Mesquita Filho-UNESP, 14884-900 Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil M. Haridasan Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade de Braslia, 70910-900 Braslia, DF, Brazil A. C. Franco Departamento de Botnica, Universidade de Braslia, 70910-900 Braslia, DF, Brazil Keywords Cerrado . Ecosystem dynamics . Fire . Forest expansion . Nutrient cycling . Soil-plant interactions . Succession . Tradeoffs . Tropics Introduction Over the past few thousand years, expansion of forests into savannas and grasslands has occurred in many parts of South America, a phenomenon that has been generally attributed to climate fluctuations (Behling et al. 2005; Silva et al. 2008, 2011; Dumig et al. 2008; Silva and Anand 2011). Savannas, however, continue to persist over large areas where climatic conditions are adequate to support forests (Lehmann et al. 2011). In some of these areas, transitions to forest depend upon shifts in tree species composition (Geiger et al. 2011; Ratnam et al. 2011; Silva and Anand 2011), but predicting these is complicated by interacting effects of fire and soil nutrients on forest and savanna species. In dry tropical regions, climate alone prevents the development of forests (Sankaran et al. 2005), but throughout mesic savannas (i.e., regions where annual precipitation >800 mm), gradual forest expansion may occur upon fire suppression (Hopkins 1965; Durigan and Ratter 2006; Pinheiro et al. 2010), and vegetation mosaics commonly coincide with edaphic gradients (Furley et al. 1992; Silva et al. 2008, 2010a, b). In central Brazil, for example, savanna vegetation is typ- ically found over nutrient-poor oxisols, dominating the landscape, while disjunct forests are found in areas of high soil fertility, such as riverbeds and limestone outcrops (Guido et al. 2002; Gottsberger and Silberbauer-Gottsberger 2006; Furley 2007). Despite these associations, the extent to which soil nutrients and fire limit forest development is not well resolved. Nutrient-poor soils may support savanna because available pools of essential nutrients are simply insuf- ficient to construct high tree biomass or, alternatively, nutrient pools may be sufficient to construct forest biomass (Bond 2010), but savannas persists because growth rates are too low to overcome rates of biomass loss caused by fire (Lehmann et al. 2011; Hoffmann et al. 2012a, b). In either case, to determine how fire interacts with nutrient availability to govern the distribution of forest and savanna, it is important to consider two thresh- olds. The first threshold marks the point at which an individual tree becomes large enough to reliably avoid fire damage and topkill (i.e., stem death), which we refer to as the fire-resistance threshold. The second threshold marks the point beyond which the vegeta- tion achieves sufficient foliage to exclude shade- intolerant understory vegetation (Hoffmann et al. 2012a). The absence of savanna understory vegetation (mostly grasses) greatly reduces ecosystem flamma- bility (Hoffmann et al. 2012b), so we refer to this as the fire-suppression threshold. The ability of trees to reach these thresholds is regulated by their growth rate, which is at least in part dependent on resource availability. Moreover, the accumulation of biomass necessary to surpass these thresholds requires substan- tial uptake of nutrients from soils and if the required stocks are large relative to availabilities in the envi- ronment, transitions to forest would be unlikely. It has long been hypothesized that vegetation of dystrophic soils are inherently more fire-prone than vegetation of fertile soils, because of the slow rates on which trees establish under limiting conditions (Kellman 1984). To determine whether this hypothesis holds, we must consider savanna and forest tree spe- cies as separate functional types, evaluating whether nutrient stocks needed to resist or suppress fires de- pend on intrinsic species traits. Savanna species pro- duce thick bark, which allows stems to become fire resistant at a smaller size (Hoffmann et al. 2012a). Forest species, on the other hand, produce greater leaf area (Rossatto et al. 2009), and are more effective at generating a closed fire-suppressing canopy. If these contrasting traits translate into differences in nutrients requirements for reaching the fire-resistance and fire- suppression thresholds, interacting effects of species composition and soil fertility would be the key to predict forest expansion/contraction. To test for such differences, here we: (i) compare the nutritional requirement of forest and savanna trees growing under similar (nutrient-poor) conditions at fire-resistance and -suppression thresholds; and (ii) estimate total arboreal (stem and crown) and soil nu- trient stocks of savannas and four different types of interspersed forests that co-exist in central Brazil, to determine whether nutrient stocks in savanna ecosys- tems are sufficient to support a transition to forest. We address these objectives describing how nutrient requirements and adaptations to fire disturbance inter- act, elaborating on whether nutrient availability impo- ses a definite constraint on forest distribution in mesic savanna regions. 830 Plant Soil (2013) 373:829842 Material and methods Study sites The present study combines some of our previously published and unpublished data from forests and sav- annas of central Brazil. Our sites are located within 20 km from the urban limits of Brasilia, in the Brazilian Federal District at altitudes of ca. 1,100 m above the sea level. At all sites, the average annual temperature and rainfall are about 22.5 C and 1,400 mm, with most of the precipitation occurring during the (southern) sum- mer. Despite similar climatic conditions, our study sites encompass vegetation gradients fromopen grasslands to dense forests. We focused on typical savannas and ad- jacent forests, delimited by sharp (few meters wide) boundaries, where structural parameters (Fig. 1) and species composition have been well described. Our datasets were obtained at fire-protected areas that include three savanna and four forest sites. The selected savannas represent the regionally dominant (cerrado sensu stricto) vegetation, with 2030 % tree cover and a continuous grass layer, established over deep dystro- phic oxisols (Furley 1999). These savannas have per- sisted for several thousands of years in close proximity to forests (Silva et al. 2008, 2010a) with no apparent limitation imposed by soil physical properties (e.g. tex- ture, density, depth of water table, etc.). The selected forest sites represent two riparian, one xeromorphic and one deciduous forest. Riparian forests, adjacent to two of the savanna sites, are located at the Ecological Reserve of the Institute of Geography and Statistics RECOR-IBGE (1556S and 4756W). These forests will be referred to as dry and wet riparian forests, as they occur along a well-drained and a seasonally flooded riverbed respectively. The xeromorphic forest (locally known as cerrado), adjacent to our third sa- vanna site, is located at the EMBRAPA Research Reserve (1536S and 4742 W). The deciduous forest is located at the preservation area of CIPLAN Mining Company (1533S and 4751W). Savannas are present at this last site but are associated with unusually shallow soils and abundant calcareous concretions and, for this reason, were not included in our analysis. Sampling design To compare the nutritional requirements of savanna and forest trees under the same environmental conditions, we sampled 18 pairs of tree species, each consisting of one forest and one savanna species of the same genus. To classify each species into forest or savanna types, we followed the same criteria used by Hoffmann et al. Fig. 1 Leaf area index (Silva et al. 2008, 2010a), tree density, number of tree species and total basal area (Fonseca and Silva Junior 2004; Silva Jnior 2004, 2005; Ribeiro and Haridasan 1984; Haidar 2008) at each studied site. These parameters represent ecosystem-wide estimates and therefore have no asso- ciated errors Plant Soil (2013) 373:829842 831 (2005) and Rossatto et al. (2013), based on morpholog- ical attributes, herbarium comparisons and previously published floristic surveys (Mendona et al. 2008). Generally, the evolutionary history of each species in- fluence trait variability (Hendry et al. 2011) and phylo- genetic differences often appear correlated with resource use strategies and biomass allocation (e.g. Burns and Strauss 2012) in plant communities. Here, all 18 conge- neric pairs (Supplementary information) were sampled under nutrient-poor (savanna) conditions. Each of these pairs belongs to a different botanical family, ensuring phylogenetic independence when comparing species attributes and nutrient stocks in relation to their ecosys- tem of origin (forest or savanna). Additionally, we sampled species that occur in both forest and savanna environments, to compare nutrient requirements of these species across ecosystems. Most of these species were the same forest species sampled in savannas for the congeneric comparison described above, but we also sampled five additional species that could be found in both ecosystem types, namely: Agonandra brasiliensis, Copaifera langsdorfii, Qualea grandiflora, Kielmeyera coriacea, and Myrcia tomen- tosa; sampling a total of 17 species common to forests and savannas (Supplementary information) for this comparison. These two sets of data permitted the analysis of differences between savanna and forest trees growing in a common environment (savanna), as well as bet- ween different forests and savanna environments using tree species common to both ecosystems. Plant collection and analysis During May and June of 2007, we collected leaf and wood samples from three to five individual trees per species at each site where a species was present. All sampled trees had stem diameters great- er than 10 cm. From every individual we collected fully expanded mature leaves from the outer (sunlit) portion of the crown and wood cores at approxi- mately 1.3 m above the ground level. We deter- mined the specific leaf area (SLA), wood density, leaf and wood N, P, K, Ca, Mg concentrations, of all sampled trees. Prior to analyses, plant samples were washed with distilled water, dried at 80 C, and milled to a particle size of <1.5 mm. N con- centration was determined by the micro-Kjeldahl method (Allen et al. 1974). We used a mixture of sulphuric, nitric, and perchloric acids (1:10:2) to digest plant samples, and determined P content colorimetrically, whereas K, Ca, and Mg were de- termined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Allen et al. 1974). To calculate SLA, leaf disks from at least five leaves per individual tree were measured and dried to constant mass at 60 C. To determine wood density, the ratio of dry mass to fresh volume of radial sections was calculated for each wood core sampled. Comparisons between savanna and forest trees We combined information on SLA, allometry, and nutrient concentration in the leaf and wood tissue to estimate total above-ground nutrient stocks of savanna and forest tree species at their fire- suppression (Fig. 2a) and fire-resistance (Fig. 2b) thresholds. Following a compilation of field data we deter- mined that the fire-resistance threshold is achieved at bark thickness of 5.9 mm (Hoffmann et al. 2012a). This bark thickness ensures a 50 % chance of trees avoiding topkill in a low-intensity fire characteristic of Brazilian savannas. For a typical savanna tree species, this corresponds to a stem diameter of 4.7 cm, while for forest species this corresponds to a stem diameter of 10.1 cm (Fig. 2b). Stem biomass at these diameters was estimated using an allometric equation for forest trees (Chambers 2001). Although allometric relation- ships have been published for savanna trees, we use the same relationship to yield conservative compari- sons between functional types. Leaf areas at these threshold sizes were estimated from the relationships in Fig. 2a. Crown biomass, here represented by foliage mass, was estimated by dividing leaf area by the SLA of each tree. Total nutrient content of the above- ground biomass (stem and crown) for savanna and forest species was calculated at the individual level, as the product of estimated biomass and measured nutrient concentrations. We used an analogous approach to compare the above-ground nutrient stocks needed by savanna or forest tree species to attain a closed-canopy state corresponding to the fire-suppression threshold. We previously showed that grasses are eliminated when overstory leaf area index (LAI) exceeds 3.0, so we used this value as a reference point for an ecosystem that has reached a relatively non-flammable state 832 Plant Soil (2013) 373:829842 (Hoffmann et al. 2012a, b). We estimated the vege- tation nutrient pools at this threshold using the arbi- trary condition in which all trees have a stem diam- eter of 10 cm. According to intrinsic differences in stem vs. crown biomass allocations between forest and savanna trees (Fig. 2a), the corresponding leaf areas (5.57 m 2 for savanna and 16.61 m 2 for forest) determine the estimated tree density (5,400 and 1,800 ha 1 ) necessary to attain the fire-suppression threshold (LAI of 3 or 30,000 m 2 ha 1 ). Comparisons of savanna and forest environments For each of our study sites, we estimated total above-ground nutrient stocks, scaling from individ- ual trees to the ecosystem level, by combining estimates of wood and canopy biomass. Due to inherent variations in the structure of predominant trees, different allometric equations are typically used to quantify wood biomass of forest and savan- na ecosystems. Forest-calibrated equations generally underestimate savanna biomass, while savanna- calibrated equations tend to overestimate forest bio- mass. To address this issue and yield comparable values, we used two different allometric equations, one calibrated to savanna and another to forest trees (Brown et al. 1989; Delitti et al. 2006), reporting the average values of these calculations: WBexp 3:114 0:972ln D 2 H
WB28:77D 2 H=1000 where WB (kg ha 1 ) represents wood biomass, giv- en the average stand height H (m) and diameter D (cm), calculated from total basal area and tree den- sity at each ecosystem (Fig. 1). Ecosystem level canopy biomass and nutrient stocks were estimated using measurements of total leaf area index (LAI) at each site (Fig. 1). Because LAI is a dimensionless ratio of leaf area covering a unit of ground area (m 2 /m 2 ), we used SLA measurements to estimate total leaf biomass. Since SLA represents total area per mass of leaf (cm 2 g 1 ), the ratio between LAI and SLA provides an integrated estimate of total leaf mass per unit of ground area. Based on biomass esti- mates and measurements of leaf nutrient concentration we calculated whole canopy nutrient stocks, presen- ting results as average values obtained using data from all studied species. Wood and canopy biomass are expressed as total mass of carbon per hectare, accounting for variations in wood density and SLA, and assuming carbon con- tent to be 50 % of the total dry mass. We did not use herbaceous strata in these calculations. Soil collection and analysis We used 15 composite soil samples (five subsamples each), collected at the top 020 cm depth, to charac- terize the surface soil fertility at each site (three savan- nas and four forest sites). We also characterized deep soils by pressing 100 cm 3 tubes into 10 cm layers of sequentially dug soil pits, up to 100 cm depth, in soil profiles evenly distributed across forest-savanna Fig. 2 Allometric relationships between tree diameter leaf area and bark thickness, measured in forest and savanna species naturally occurring in savannas. a Fire-suppression threshold, defined by total leaf area, determined using data compiled from seedlings saplings, and adults (Gotsch et al. 2010) of forest and savanna species. b Fire-resistance threshold, defined by diameters at which bark thickness prevents tree mortality (Hoff- mann et al. 2009, 2012a) at high and low fire intensity scenarios. In both panels each point represents a single individual tree and regression lines represent significant relationships (Pearsons correlation; p<0.01) Plant Soil (2013) 373:829842 833 transitions. Tubes were inserted so that pressure was only exerted on the tube walls, thereby preventing soil compaction and overestimation of soil bulk density. Ten such profiles were sampled at each transition, totaling 15 profiles in savannas and five at each forest ecosystem. We analyzed soil samples for density using the dry mass of soil samples, and estimated total stocks of carbon and nutrient in mass per hectare. We deter- mined total N concentration in soils using the Kjeldahl method (Bremner and Mulvaney 1982). Levels of P, K, Ca and Mg were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry using extraction meth- ods (Mehlich and KCl) that allow the measurement of concentration of nutrients available to plants. Total organic carbon content was analyzed by wet oxidation (Walkley and Black 1934). Carbon levels and nutrient stocks are expressed on a mass basis, after accounting for variation in soil density, in the surface soil layer (020 cm depth) and integrated to 100 cm depth in soil profiles. The amount of a given nutrient existing (or miss- ing) for building a forest was determined by the dif- ference between savanna biomass and soil stocks up to 100 cm depth, and in the above-ground biomass of each forest ecosystems. Nutrients contained in the understory vegetation or root biomass were not inclu- ded in our calculations, but their potential relevance is discussed. Results Savanna: Leaf and wood nutrients as determined by species origin When growing in the same environment (savanna), leaves of forest tree species have significantly higher concentrations of N (23 %), P (25 %), and K (47 %), but lower levels of Ca (18 %), than savanna species (Table 1). Leaf levels of Mg do not differ significantly according to species origin. Forest trees have signifi- cantly greater SLA (27 %), but wood density does not differ in relation to species origin. Similarly, most wood nutrients (P, K, Ca and Mg) show no significant differences between forest and savanna trees. Significant differences only occur in wood N concen- trations, which are higher in savanna than in forest trees (Table 1). Savanna: Nutrient stocks at fire-resistance and -suppression thresholds Our calculations show that, forest species require a much greater nutrient supply than savanna species to reach a size at which they can resist fires. Stem stocks of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg are approximately 5-fold greater, while crown (foliar) stocks are about one order of magnitude higher in forest than in savanna species at the fire-resistance threshold (Fig. 3). To reach the canopy cover necessary to suppress fires, however, stands composed entirely of savanna species require greater nutrient stocks than those composed of forest species. Due to intrinsically higher allocation to stem biomass relative to leaves (Gotsch et al. 2010), wood stocks of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg would be much higher in savanna than in forest trees at the fire-suppression threshold. At this threshold, crown stocks would be similar between forests and savannas, with the excep- tions of Ca levels, which are higher in savanna trees (Fig. 3). In short, compared to forest species, savanna trees require significantly lower nutrient stocks to become fire resistant, but need significantly higher nutrient stock to create a closed canopy that can sup- press fires. These effects are quite large despite sub- stantial interspecific variation. Forests vs. Savanna: Leaf and wood nutrients of individual trees When the same species are analyzed across different ecosystems, leaf N, P, K, Ca and Mg concentrations vary significantly, with the lowest and highest leaf nu- trient levels (and SLA) observed in savannas and ripar- ian forests, respectively (Table 2). Nutrient concentra- tions are less variable in wood than in leaves. Wood Ca and Mg content, as well as wood density, do not vary significantly among ecosystems. Wood N and P con- centrations, on the other hand, are higher in savanna than in riparian forest trees, while K concentration is highest in the dry riparian forest and no differences are observed among the other ecosystems (Table 2). Forests vs. Savanna: Total biomass and nutrient stocks at the ecosystem level Above-ground biomass varies widely across eco- systems. Total carbon stocks in the biomass of xero- morphic and deciduous forests (>24 Mg ha 1 ) is more 834 Plant Soil (2013) 373:829842 than 4 times greater than in savannas (<6 Mg ha 1 ) (Fig. 4). However, soils in these forests have approx- imately half of the carbon stored in savanna soils (170 and 210 vs. 380 Mg ha 1 ). Among all studied ecosys- tems, the largest carbon stocks are observed in riparian forests, where the high and low ends of the spectrum are represented by wet and dry forests, with between 78 and 92 Mg C ha 1 stored above-ground and 600 to 1,600 Mg C ha 1 in soils (100 cm depth). In all ecosystems, the amount of carbon stored in soils is much higher than in the vegetation. In forests and savannas, above-ground N stocks match changes in biomass and increase progressively across the spectrum: savanna < xeromorphic < deci- duous < riparian forests. Total N and available K and Mg stocks are always higher in soils than in the above- ground biomass of savannas and forests (Fig. 4). Stocks of P, on the other hand, are higher in the above-ground biomass of all ecosystems, with the greatest difference observed in the xeromorphic forest, where the amount of P stored in the vegetation is about 7 times higher than available levels measured in soils. Similarly, Ca stocks are higher in the above-ground biomass than in soils of savannas and most forest ecosystems. The only excep- tion is the deciduous forest, where available soil pools are over 10 times higher than total Ca measured in the vegetation (Fig. 4). Savanna soils have sufficient nutrients (Fig. 4) to support a transition to a non-flammable state (Fig. 3b), when comparing total stocks, we find that savannas have sufficient N, K, and Mg, but require additional P and Ca, to support a full transition to forest (Table 3). The amount of addi- tional P required to build a xeromorphic forest over savannas is relatively small (3 kg ha 1 ). However, Ca deficits to build this same relatively low-biomass forest are substantial (46 kg ha 1 ), representing two thirds of the existing soil stock in savannas. To build a deciduous forest, this deficit would increase about five times, while to Table 1 Average values ( standard deviation) of specific leaf area (SLA), wood density, and macronutrient concentrations, in leaves and wood of savanna and forest trees co-occurring in savanna environments. Between 3 and 5 individual trees of 36 species (18 congeneric pairs; Supplementary information) were analyzed and p-values represent differences (t-test) between means according to species origin Savanna species Forest species pvalue Leaf N (mg g 1 ) 11.690.62 14.450.73 <0.01 P (mg g 1 ) 0.690.04 0.860.04 <0.01 K (mg g 1 ) 4.600.37 6.770.58 <0.001 Ca (mg g 1 ) 7.460.51 6.050.39 0.03 Mg (mg g 1 ) 1.760.14 1.880.14 0.5 SLA (cm 2 g 1 ) 54.641.83 69.481.88 <0.001 Wood N (mg g 1 ) 3.610.20 2.820.20 <0.01 P (mg g 1 ) 0.550.05 0.550.02 0.9 K (mg g 1 ) 1.800.17 1.740.14 0.7 Ca (mg g 1 ) 6.240.69 5.750.49 0.5 Mg (mg g 1 ) 0.570.07 0.570.07 0.9 Density (g cm 3 ) 0.740.02 0.760.02 0.5 Fig. 3 Box plots of total crown (foliar) and stem nutrient stocks measured averaged over 36 forest and savanna tree species (Table 1) at the fire resistance and suppression thresholds (Fig. 2). The boxes correspond to the 25th and 75th percentiles, the line inside the box represents the median and error bars show the minimum and maximum values. The asterisk (*) shows signif- icant differences (ANOVA, p<0.05) between forest and savanna species Plant Soil (2013) 373:829842 835 develop high-biomass riparian forests additional P and Ca inputs (>40 and 600 kg ha 1 respectively), would have to be several fold higher than what is currently found in savannas. Discussion Savanna: Nutrient requirements at fire-resistance and -suppression thresholds Our results show that differences in nutritional requirements affect the ability of forest and savanna trees to resist and suppress fires. Confirming previous studies (Hoffmann et al. 2005; Rossatto et al. 2013), we found that forest species have higher nutrient content per mass of leaf than their congeneric sa- vanna counterparts, even when growing under nutrient-limiting conditions (Table 1). Stem nutrient concentrations are similar between forest and savan- na trees, but savanna species allocate more biomass to stem relative to leaves, requiring a lower nutrient supply to reach a fire resistant size (Fig. 3). However, stands composed entirely of savanna spe- cies would require over three times more nutrient capital than those composed of forest species to produce sufficient leaf area to exclude grasses and suppress fires. Forest species are able to generate a closed canopy with lower nutrient capital than sa- vanna species, because of a greater leaf area per unit of stem biomass (Gotsch et al. 2010). Consequently, the establishment of forest species into savannas would favor canopy closure, facilita- ting a transition to a non-flammable state. This result corroborates observations that succession of mesic savanna to forest is associated with the pre- sence of forest species (Geiger et al. 2011; Ratnam et al. 2011; Silva and Anand 2011), a pattern that has been previously explained by the higher shade tolerance of forest trees (Rossatto et al. 2009), but here receives an alternative explanation. While the ingression of forest trees may permit savannas to attain a non-flammable state with lower nutrient capital than would be required by savanna trees, reaching this state would also require long inter- vals without fire. Since fire is common in savannas, transition to forest is typically interrupted while still in early stages of succession, when tree cover is suscep- tible to fire because of high mortality of small stems. To avoid severe fire damage, trees must reach a fire- resistant size, which is more easily attained by savanna species not only because of their relatively lower nutri- ent requirements, but also because they have thicker bark than forest species and become fire-resistant at a smaller stem size (Hoffmann et al. 2009, 2012a). Differences in species nutrient requirements and Table 2 Average values of specific leaf area (SLA), wood density, and macronutrient levels in leaves and wood of tree species (3 to 5 individuals of 17 species; Supplementary information) sampled in savannas and at least one forest eco- system. Letters represent significant differences (Tukeys HSD, p<0.05) between ecosystems Savanna Xeromorphic Deciduous Dry riparian Wet riparian Forest Forest Forest Forest Leaf N (mg g 1 ) 13.41 B 16.14 A 15.72 AB 13.10 B 14.35 AB P (mg g 1 ) 0.81 B 1.15 A 0.97 AB 0.83 B 1.19 A K (mg g 1 ) 6.61 C 11.87 A 10.13 AB 6.30 C 7.03 B Ca (mg g 1 ) 6.81 C 7.60 BC 19.57 A 7.61 BC 10.89 B Mg (mg g 1 ) 1.91 B 2.70 AB 2.56 B 3.66 A 2.74 AB SLA (cm 2 g 1 ) 69.97 C 96.57 AB 101.60 AB 90.65 B 111.13 A Wood N (mg g 1 ) 2.66 AB 2.89 A 3.36 A 2.69 AB 1.92 B P (mg g 1 ) 0.53 A 0.45 B 0.51 A 0.43 B 0.45 B K (mg g 1 ) 1.62 B 1.61 B 1.33 B 2.30 A 0.88 B Ca (mg g 1 ) 6.38 A 5.15 A 6.01 A 5.21 A 4.48 A Mg (mg g 1 ) 2.29 A 0.73 A 0.45 A 0.96 A 0.51 A Density (g cm 3 ) 0.79 A 0.83 A 0.84 A 0.76 A 0.76 A 836 Plant Soil (2013) 373:829842 Fig. 4 Carbon and nutrient stocks at each studied eco- system. Above-ground esti- mates were based on vege- tation structure (Fig. 1) and allometric equations and ac- count for interspecific varia- tion in nutrient concentra- tion, wood density, and spe- cific leaf area (Table 2). Soil stocks account for variation in density, carbon and nutri- ent content, of superficial (020 cm) and deep (20100 cm) soil layers. Bars repre- sent average values and er- ror bars show standard de- viation of the average Plant Soil (2013) 373:829842 837 biomass allocation probably reflect evolutionary adap- tations to resource availability and disturbance regimes characteristic of their original environments (Haridasan 2008; Hendry et al. 2011). Here, these differences define savanna and forest trees as separate functional types, supporting the notion that trait divergence decreases phylogenetic signals (interspecific differences) when competition for resources regulates community assem- bly (Burns and Strauss 2012). After becoming able to resist or suppress fires, the ability of trees to modify soil properties may be the key to explain the very slow, but ongoing, process of forest expansion identified in some ecotonal regions of South America (Silva et al 2008, 2011; Silva and Anand 2011). In dystrophic savannas and grasslands, colonizing trees alter patterns of nutrient cycling and accumulation, trig- gering biogeochemical feedback loops that increase fer- tility and lead to further changes in ecosystem structure and composition (Dahlgren et al. 2003; Rice et al. 1996; Saha et al. 2009; Silva et al. 2013). Under fire suppres- sion, this effect should be maximized, as forest species grow faster than their savanna counterparts (Hoffmann et al. 2005; Rossatto et al. 2009, 2013). Furthermore, forest species enhancing soil fertility by means of increas- ing litter quality and quantity (Silva and Anand 2011). Thus, despite large demand for nutrients, soil fertility would likely increase following the establishment of forest communities. In addition, the exclusion of the grass layer would simultaneously reduce competition for limiting nutrients and loss from burning. Savanna fires result in significant losses of nutrients by volatilization or particle transport, even though part of it returns as dry and wet deposition (Kauffman et al. 1994). Forests vs. Savanna: Nutrient stocks and limitations to forest expansion Based on what we have seen, differences in soil fertility commonly found across forest-savanna transitions (Furley et al. 1992; Silva et al. 2008, 2010a, b), could be a result of biotic processes that create fertility gra- dients and facilitate establishment of forest trees, rather than determined solely by pre-existing edaphic condi- tions. When the same species are compared across vege- tation types, wood density and nutrient concentrations are fairly consistent, but leaf nutrient concentration and SLA are always higher in forest sites (Table 2). While differences in leaf nutrient concentration contribute to the higher nutrient stocks in forest habitats, this effect is not large because stem biomass accounts for most (>70 %) of the above-ground stocks of all nutrients (Fig. 4). At the ecosystem level, the larger stock of nutrients in forests compared to savannas is, therefore, mostly due to wood biomass and we found no relationships between Table 3 Comparison of savanna nutrient stocks with the amount needed to build each of the forest types. Top: Measured stocks in soils (0100 cm depth) and above-ground biomass of savannas, and above-ground biomass of four forest ecosystems. Bottom: The difference between total savanna pools and forest aboveground pools, which represents the excess (or deficit) of nutrients after building each forest type on savanna sites Savanna Forest biomass Soils Biomass Xeromorphic Deciduous Dry riparian Wet riparian Total stock (kg.ha 1 ) C 383320 5420 24506 33049 78387 94196 N 15696 62 172 248 463 400 P 9.3 10 23 35 68 86 K 165.4 36 103 106 269 186 Ca 77.8 121 245 426 826 863 Mg 72.7 43 39 34 161 102 Stock difference (kg.ha 1 ) Savanna (soil + biomass) Excess after building forests (savanna-forest) N 15758 15586 15510 15295 15358 P 20 3 15 48 67 K 201 98 95 68 15 Ca 199 46 227 627 664 Mg 116 76 81 46 13 838 Plant Soil (2013) 373:829842 soil fertility and leaf or wood nutrient concentrations. These results emphasize the role of intrinsic species traits and vegetation structure in generating and rein- forcing gradients of resource accumulation, as a result of a slow redistribution from deep to surface soils through organic matter deposition. Our calculations show that savanna soils have enough nutrients to allow tree communities to attain fire-resistant and -suppression thresholds (Figs. 3 and 4). However, savannas require additional nutrients to allow a full forest expansion following initial estab- lishment. Comparing soils and vegetation stocks, we find that total N in savanna soils is orders of magni- tude larger than the amount needed to develop a forest, supporting the notion that nutrients other than N limit the distribution of tropical forests (Reich and Oleksyn 2004; Cleveland et al. 2011). Even though this assess- ment is based on total soil N rather than available forms, given the high potential for organic N mineral- ization and symbiotic fixation of tropical soils (Cleveland et al. 2011), we conclude that soil N would not impose an absolute constraint on forest develop- ment at our study sites. Savannas also have sufficient K and Mg to develop low-biomass xeromorphic for- ests. However, additional P and Ca inputs would be required to support a transition to any forested state. The amount of additional P required to build a xeromorphic forest is relatively small and could perhaps be attained if understory vegetation stocks were also considered. Previous studies (Castro and Kauffman 1998) have shown that the above-ground biomass in open grasslands near our study sites is about 5.5 Mg ha 1 (ca. 2.8 Mg C ha 1 ), which repre- sents roughly half of the arboreal biomass of savannas. The concentration of P in native and exotic grasses that occur in the region, range from 0.04 to 0.07 % (Silva and Haridasan 2007), which falls within the range found in savanna trees (Table 1). At these con- centrations, grasses could provide up to 3.9 kg P ha 1 , which would only be sufficient to build a xeromorphic forest (Table 3). The average concentration of Ca in grasses (0.2 %; Silva and Haridasan 2007) is, howev- er, much lower than that found in the wood of savanna trees (>0.6 %; Table 1) and is not sufficient to cover the deficit of Ca to build a low-biomass forest. Further Ca inputs, of over one third of the existing stock in the arboreal biomass of savannas, would be necessary from atmospheric and erosional deposition, or soil depths greater than 100 cm, to build a xeromorphic forest. These inputs would, have to be, however, over one order of magnitude larger to attain high-biomass states, such as riparian forests. Stocks of Ca should pose a strong constraint par- ticularly because mineral sources of this element are present in negligible amounts in the acidic soils that predominate in the region. Based on our calculations, only a landscape-level process of Ca redistribution could explain the ongoing expansion of riparian for- ests over savannas (Silva et al. 2008). Among other essential nutrients, Ca occupies a unique position in regulating growth from individual trees to entire eco- systems, controlling cell wall synthesis, biomass pro- duction and structure of woody tissues (Lautner and Fromm 2010). Savannas and most forest ecosystems studied here have larger Ca stocks in the above-ground biomass than in soil pools, indicating that any inter- ruption on Ca recycling would favor the formation of less productive (i.e., open) stable states. Stocks of P show similar distribution and, in contrast with less limiting nutrients, Ca and P are both found in higher concentrations at the surface (020 cm) than in deeper soil layers (Fig. 4), suggesting a continuous and rapid recycling process following litter deposition. The decid- uous forest is the only ecosystem where we observed greater nutrient stocks in soils than in the above-ground biomass. Its unusual soil fertility originates from the weathering of shallow parent materials (entisols) and calcareous concretions often found within less than 0.5 m from the soil surface. Such soils are rare in central Brazil, where its occurrence is typically characterized by the presence of deciduous trees (Moura et al. 2010; Haidar 2008), which under high fertility conditions are able to outcompete evergreen species that dominate other forest ecosystems. Final considerations We show that interactions between species composi- tion, disturbance, and resource availability favor the long-term persistence of forest-savanna mosaics. At our study sites, and probably elsewhere, savanna and forest trees represent different functional types. Tradeoffs between nutrient requirements and adapta- tions to resist fires reinforce savanna and forest as alternate stable states, with low fertility hindering forest expansion. Forest species require a larger amount of nutrients to become fire-resistant, so the combined Plant Soil (2013) 373:829842 839 effect of fire and nutrient limitation should favor the persistence of savanna communities.When only savan- na species are present, the transition to a forested state requires a larger nutrient supply than is available in the soil. Canopy closure in this case depends upon the ingression of forest species, which can facilitate forest expansion by increasing soil fertility. The above-ground biomass of savannas and forests at our sites is lower than measured in other tropical ecosys- tems. Above-ground carbon stocks of forests in the Amazon region, for example, range from 155 to 217 Mg C ha 1 (Kauffman et al. 1995), whereas the largest value we observed in any of our forest sites was 95 Mg C ha 1 (ca. 20 times more carbon than stored in savannas). Across all ecosystems, soil carbon stocks are larger than in the above-ground biomass (Fig. 4), illustrating the potential for long-term carbon storage in the absence of fire. Developing non-flammable forested states is depen- dent upon adequate nutrient availability and even though savannas may occur under high fertility conditions (e.g. Moura et al. 2010; Haidar 2008; Silva et al. 2010b;), our results show that the indigenous fertility typical of Brazilian savannas will not allow widespread forest ex- pansion unless external inputs of P and Ca occur. Roots were not included in our calculations, but we know that root biomass increases over three-fold (ca. 8 to 26 Mg C ha 1 ) from open grasslands to tree- dominated savannas near our study sites (Castro and Kauffman 1998). The exclusion of root nutrient pools in our study, thus, probably underestimates nutritional limitations to develop forests. The next phase of un- derstanding will come from manipulations of limiting resources in fertilization experiments using traceable nutrients, coupled with quantitative assessments of changes in vegetation structure and composition. Differences in plant-soil water relations should also be assessed under multiple nutritional constraints. Variations in tree structure and phenology (Rossatto et al. 2009, 2012), physiological adjustments to changes in water availability, evaporative demand (Bucci et al. 2008), and alternative water sources (e.g., shoot uptake; Oliveira et al. 2005), have been indicated as important factors controlling vegetation distribution in mesic savannas, but their interactions with fire disturbance and nutrient limitation remain to be investigated. Acknowledgments We thank the staff of RECOR-IBGE, CIPLAN, and Embrapa Cerrados, for the research infrastructure and logistic support. We also thank Ricardo Haidar, Gabriel Damasco, Daniel Marra, Gabriel Ribeiro, and Artur Paiva, for help with field work and species identification, and Timothy Doane and three anonimous reviewers for valuable comments on the manuscript. This research is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Grant No. DEB-0542912 (W. H.), AW Mellon Foundation (W. 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