EUSTATIC CONTROLS ON CLASTIC DEPOSITION ICONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

H. W. POSAMENTIER
1
Exxon Production Research Company, P.O. Box 2189, Houston, Texas 77252-2189;
M. T. JERVEY,
Canadian Hunter Exploration Ltd., 700, 435 4th Avenue SW, Calgary, Alberta TIP 3A8
AND
P. R. VAIL
2
Exxon Production Research Company, P.O. Box 2189, Houston, Texas 77252-2189
AB STRAC T: A conceptual framework for understanding the effects of eustatic control on depositional stratal patterns is presented.
Eustatic changes result in a succession of systems tracts that combine to form sequences deposited between eustatic-fall inflection
points. Two types of sequences have been recognized: (1) a type 1 sequence, which is bounded at the base by a type 1 unconformity
and at the top by either a type 1 or type 2 unconformity and has lowstand deposits at its base, and (2) a type 2 sequence, which is
bounded at the base by a type 2 unconformity and at the top by either a type 1 or type 2 unconformity and has no lowstand deposits.
Each sequence is composed of three systems tracts; the type 1 sequence is composed of lowstand, transgressive-, and highstand systems
tracts, and the type 2 sequence is composed of shelf-margin, transgressive-, and highstand systems tracts. The type 1 sequence is
associated with stream rejuvenation and incision at its base, whereas the type 2 sequence is not.
Eustacy and subsidence combine to make the space available for sediment to fill. The results of this changing accommodation are
the onlapping and offlapping depositional stratal patterns observed on basin margins. Locally, conditions of subsidence and/or uplift
and sediment supply may overprint but usually will not mask the effects of global sea level. Any eustatic variation, however, (e.g.,
irregular eustatic rise or fall, asymmetric fall, slow or rapid rise or fall, and so on) will be globally effective. The significance of
eustatic fall-and-rise inflection points is considered with regard to the occurrence of unconformities and condensed sections, respectively.
Type 1 unconformities are related to rapid eustatic falls, and type 2 unconformities are related to slow eustatic falls.
INTRODUC TION
The objective of this paper is to provide a conceptual
framework for understanding the relationship between rel-
ative sea-level changes and clastic depositional stratal pat-
terns on basin margins. An awareness of this relationship
will provide the geologist with a tool to understand better
the relationship between depositional sequences and the
distribution of lithofacies within these sequences. Key terms
used in this paper are defined in Table 1. See Van Wagoner
and others (this volume) for additional definitions.
This study builds on previous studies by Vail and others
(1977); Vail and Todd (1981); Vail and others (1984); and
Jervey (this volume), which established that a relationship
exists between relative sea-level change and depositional
stratal patterns. This paper analyzes the mechanics of this
stratigraphic relationship in the context of sequence, sys-
tems tract, and types of unconformity discussed. The paper
by Posamentier and Vail (this volume) addresses the se-
quence and systems-tract models as well as variations on
the model.
C onceptual models presented in this report represent an
analysis of the effects of accommodation change on clastic
sediment deposition and suggest how sedimentary basins
will fill. It must be emphasized that the models are gen-
erally applicable. The effects of local factors such as cli-
mate, sediment supply, and tectonics must be incorporated
into the models before these models can be applied to a
particular basin. Once these considerations have been taken
into account, the refined models can then be used predic-
tively to simulate local conditions in order to predict lith-
ologic succession better.
'Present addresses: Esso Resources C anada Ltd., 237 4th Avenue SW,
C algary, Alberta T2P OH6 (HWP).
Department of Geology, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77251 (PRV).
ASSUMPTIONS
Geologic and seismic observations of accommodation and
deposition show that a predictable succession of as many
as four systems tracts can be generated by varying global
sea level. These are highstand, lowstand (including low-
stand fan and lowstand wedge), transgressive-, and shelf-
margin systems tracts, and are shown in block diagrams in
Figures 1-6. Each systems tract is composed of one or more
depositional systems (B rown and Fisher, 1977) and each is
characterized by a set of lithofacies. The timing of uncon-
formites or surfaces of nondeposition bounding these sys-
tems tracts can also be predicted from the sea-level curve.
Locally, however, the models should first be refined by
the incorporation of subsidence and sediment supply infor-
mation before predictions are made. Each systems tract will
be considered in greater detail by Posamentier and Vail (this
volume).
In order to develop generally applicable depositional
models, it was assumed that the following conditions would
be present:
The rate of seafloor subsidence an any single location on
a profile was held constant. Seafloor subsidence is pri-
marily a function of lithospheric cooling and sediment
loading (together they compose total subsidence). Geo-
history analyses from a variety of sedimentary basins
suggest that eustatic variations occur with greater fre-
quency than subsidence variations. Thus, over a limited
interval, the assumption of constant subsidence rate seems
acceptable. Nonetheless, when the general model is
modified to account for local conditions, nonuniform
subsidence can be accommodated.
Total subsidence increases in a basin ward direction. This
seems to characterize most divergent basin margins.
Deposition was occurring along a divergent continental
margin characterized by a shelf, slope, and basin, where
Sea-Level C hangesAn Integrated Approach, SEPM Special Publication No. 42
C opyright 1988, The Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, ISB N 0-918985-74-9
110 H. W. POSAMENTIER, M. T. JERVEY AND P. R. VAIL
TAB LE 1.DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
Sequence Stratigraphy:
The study of rock relationships within a chronostratigraphic framework wherein
the succession of rocks is cyclic and is composed of genetically related stratal
units (sequences and systems tracts).
Depositional System:
A three-dimensional assemblage of lithofacies, genetically linked by active
(modern) or inferred (ancient) processes and environments (delta, river, barrier
island, and so on) (B rown and Fisher, 1977).
Systems Tract:
A linkage of contemporaneous depositional systems (B rown and Fisher, 1977).
Each is defined objectively by stratal geometries at bounding surfaces, position
within the sequence, and internal parasequence stacking patterns. Each is
interpreted to be associated with a specific segment of the eustatic curve (i.e.,
eustatic lowstandlowstand wedge; eustatic risetransgressive; rapid eustatic
falllowstand fan, and so on), although not defined on the basis of this
association.
Sequence:
A relatively conformable succession of genetically related strata bounded at its
top and base by unconformities and their correlative conformities (Vail and
others, 1977). It is composed of a succession of systems tracts and is interpreted
to be deposited between eustatic-fall inflection points.
Parasequence:
A relatively comformable succession of genetically related beds or bedsets
bounded by marine-flooding surfaces and their correlative surfaces (Van
Wagoner, 1985).
Unconformity:
A surface separating younger from older strata, along which there is evidence of
subaerial erosional truncation (and, in some areas, correlative submarine erosion)
or subaerial exposure, with a significant hiatus indicated.
Condensed Section:
A thin marine stratigraphic interval characterized by very slow depositional rates
<1-10 mm/1000 yr) (Vail and others, 1984). It consists of hemipelagic and
pelagic sediments, starved of terrigenous materals, deposited on the middle to
outer shelf, slope, and basin floor during a period of maximum relative sea-level
rise and maximum transgression of the shoreline (Loutit, and others, this
volume).
Accommodation:
The space made available for potential sediment accumulation (Jervey, this
volume).
Equilibrium Point:
The point along a depositional profile where the rate of eustatic change equals
the rate of subsidence/uplift. It separates zones of rising and falling relative sea
level.
Equilibrium Profile:
The longitudinal profile of a graded stream or of one whose smooth gradient at
every point is just sufficient to enable the stream to transport the load of
sediment made available to it. It is generally regarded as a smooth, parabolic
curve, gently concave to the sky, practically flat at the mouth and steepening
toward the source (Gary and others, 1974).
sediment supply remains constant. In the real world, dif-
fering rates of sediment supply affect primarily the sea-
ward extent of deposition. In the landward direction, stratal
patterns will usually show onlap and aggradation as the
space between sea floor and base level is filled, whereas
the basinward limit of progradation is a function of sed-
iment supply and basin margin geometry. Thus, in the'
landward direction, where base level (sea level or graded-
stream profile) is the controlling factor, the stratal pat-
terns on the landward side of identical basins will be the
same regardless of the sediment supply. When local sed-
iment supply parameters are incorporated into the model,
the effect will be observed primarily at the seaward limit
of deposition.
The trend of eustatic change is curvilinear, approaching
sinusoidal. Although the actual trend of eustatic change
is clearly not sinusoidal, the eustatic curve may none-
theless be resolved by a series of sine curves. It will be
shown that depositional stratal patterns are directly re-
lated to inflection points on this curve.
Again, it must be emphasized that, although these models
are generally applicable, the overprint of local factors must
be considered in order to utilize them in a predictive mode
for a particular basin. B y incorporating local factors, one
can readily refine the models to simulate local conditions.
RELATIVE SEA-LEVEL C HANGE AS A FUNC TION OF EUSTASY
AND SUBSIDENCE AND ITS EFFECT ON DEPOSITIONAL
STRATAL PATTERNS
Stratal patterns and facies distribution depend in part upon
(1) the amount of space available for the sediment and (2)
the rate of change of new space added. Sediment is de-
posited in the space between the sea floor and base level
(sea level in a marine environment or graded-stream profile
in a nonmarine fluvial environment). The space available
is referred to as accommodation, defined by Jervey (this
volume) as "the space made available for potential sedi-
ment accumulation, [which] is a function of both sea-level
fluctuation and subsidence." In this paper the terms accom-
modation and new space added are used. Accommodation
refers to all the space available for sediment to fill, includ-
ing old space (leftover space not filled during an earlier
time) plus new space added, whereas new space added re-
fers only to space contemporaneously being made avail-
able. Accommodation may vary as both the upper and lower
boundaries of this space move up or down. The result is
an accommodation envelope, which defines the space avail-
able for sediment to fill (Fig. 7).
Relative sea-level change, rather than eustatic change only,
controls accommodation change. Eustacy (global sea level)
refers only to the position of the sea surface with reference
to a fixed datum, such as the center of the earth, and is
therefore independent of local factors. Relative sea level
incorporates local subsidence and/or uplift by referring to
the position of the sea surface with respect to the position
of a datum (e.g., basement) at or near the sea floor (Fig.
8). Thus, relative sea-level change observed along a profile
varies with local subsidence or uplift. A relative rise or fall
of sea level determines whether or not new space is being
made available for sediment to fill. A relative rise adds space,
whereas a relative fall takes space away. Consequently, even
during a eustatic stillstand or slow eustatic fall, relative sea
level may continue to rise and add new space as a result of
local subsidence. This parameter is independent of sedi-
ment accumulating above the datum plane and should not
be confused with water depth.
Water depth involves the integration of a third parame-
tersediment supplywith eustacy and tectonics. Water
depth may be described as relative sea level less accumu-
lated sediment, as illustrated in Figure 8. Thus, relative sea
level may continue to rise and add new space to accom-
modate sediment, whereas water depth may nonetheless si-
multaneously decrease if sediment is accumulating faster
than relative sea level is rising.
EUSTAT1C CONTROLS ON CLASTIC DEPOSITION I 111
FIG. 1.Highstand systems tract, I.
Significance of the inflection point.
Eustatic change is a curvilinear function punctuated by
inflection points. These are points on the curve where ab-
solute slope or rate of change is greatest. Figure 9 illustrates
a hypothetical sea-level curve with two inflection points.
The one on the falling limb will be referred to as the F
inflection point, and the one on the rising limb will be re-
ferred to as the R inflection point.
B asin-margin depositional stratal patterns depend in large
part on eustacy and seafloor subsidence. Sedimentation on
the shelf involves filling the wedge-shaped space between
the sea surface and the seaward-dipping sea floor. The stra-
tal pattern which results will depend on the rate at which
space has been added and how sediment responds to this
addition of space. If the sediment supply is sufficient to
allow continued aggradation to base level, then, as the rate
of addition of new shelf space slows, the rate of aggrada-
tion will gradually decrease. As a result of the decreased
rate of aggradation, progressively less sediment will be re-
quired to keep up with slower-rising base level and, con-
sequently, progressively more sediment will be available
for progradation.
Figure 10 illustrates how the rate of accommodation change
(i.e., dA/dt or rate of new space added) varies with eus-
tacy. At F inflection points, the rate at which new shelf
space is added is least; at R inflection points, the rate is
greatest (Fig. 10). Little or no new shelf space is being
added at F inflection points, so relatively little new sedi-
ment can be accommodated there (assuming that sediment
112 H. W. POSAMENTIER, M. T. JERVEY AND P. R. VAIL
FIG. 2.Lowstand systems tractlowstand fan.
FIG. 3.Lowstand systems tractlowstand wedge.
EUSTATIC CONTROLS ON CLASTIC DEPOSITION I 113
FIG. 4.Transgressive-systems tract.
FIG. 5.Highstand systems tract, II.
114 H. W. POSAMENTIER, M. T. JERVEY AND P. R. VAIL
FIG. 6.Shelf-margin systems tract.
FIG. 7.Accommodation envelope as a function of eustacy and subsidence.
EUSTATIC CONTROLS ON CLASTIC DEPOSITION I
115
FIG. 8.Eustacy, relative sea level, and water depth as a function of sea surface, water bottom, and datum position.
builds to base level). Hence, at F inflection points, the rate
of aggradation will be least and that of progradation will
be greatest. At R inflection points, the opposite occurs. The
thinnest topset beds (per unit time) occur at the F inflection
point (T6, Fig. 11) and, conversely, the thickest topset beds
(per unit time) occur at R inflection points. Thus, with con-
stant sediment supply, rates of aggradation and prograda-
tion are inversely related. As a result, within successive
parasequences, shoreline regression tends to be progres-
sively more rapid approaching the F inflection point and
gradually less rapid thereafter (Fig. 11). Maximal rate of
addition of new space at R inflection points commonly re-
HIGH
TIME
LOW
FALLING LIMB \ RISING LIMB
FIG. 9.Elements of eustatic change.
suits in transgression and the development of starved or
condensed sections.
The maximum landward encroachment of the condensed
action or maximum flooding usually occurs sometime after
the R inflection point during the eustatic rise (Fig. 12). Note
that topset (i.e., shelf) beds approach maximum thickness
(per unit time) at the eustatic-rise inflection point, and at
the same time, approach their minimum areal extent. As
these layers onlap progressively farther landward, the po-
sition of the basinward pinchout of each layer also migrates
landward until T9 is reached. This marks the time of max-
imum flooding (TMF). After time T9, the seaward limit of
each time slice migrates progressively basinward as regres-
sion resumes.
A basinward shift of coastal onlap characterizes F in-
flection points. Coastal onlap may be defined as the land-
ward limit on the shelf or upper slope of sediment distri-
butionmarine or nonmarine. It has been observed that
initiation of fluvial erosion resulting in globally synchro-
nous subaerial unconformities is associated with these ba-
sinward shifts and apparently is controlled by sea-level
change (Vail and others, 1977). This will be considered in
Posamentier and Vail (this volume).
One-dimensional model.
At any point on a continental margin, the rate at which
new space is made available for sediment to fill is deter-
mined by the rate of relative sea-level change and is equal
to the rate of eustatic change minus the rate of subsidence
(Fig. 10). For example, if global sea level is falling at a
certain rate and the sea floor is subsiding at the same rate,
relative sea level remains unchanged and no new space is
being made available. If global sea level is falling, but more
slowly than the sea floor is subsiding, the net effect will
116
H. W. POSAMENTIER, M. T. JERVEY AND P. R. VAIL
FIG. 10.Relative sea level as a function of eustacy and subsidence.
be relative sea level rise, and consequently, new space will
be added.
In the example shown in Figure 10, most of the interval
is characterized by a relative rise of sea level since the rate
of subsidence exceeds the rate of eustatic change most of
the time. Thus, new space is being added throughout most
of the interval. The actual accommodation at any given time
is the sum of the new space added plus the left-over unfilled
space and occurs between base level and the sea floor.
Two-dimensional model.
On passive continental margins, subsidence-gradually in-
creases from shelf to basin, resulting in a basin ward in-
crease in the rate of addition of new space. The effect of
this differential subsidence is illustrated in Figure 13, where
the rate of addition of new space is shown for outer, mid-
dle, and inner shelf-edge positions. Note that greatest ac-
commodation occurs on the outer shelf where subsidence
is greatest. C onversely, on the inner shelf, where subsi-
dence is least, there are intervals when no new shelf space
is being added.
A continental shelf profile may be subdivided into two
zones separated by the equilibrium point. This point is de-
fined as the point along a profile where the rate of eustatic
change equals the rate of subsidence. Seaward of this point,
the rate of subsidence is greater than the rate of eustatic
fall, resulting in the addition of new space, whereas land-
ward the opposite occurs. Alternatively, the equilibrium point
defines two zones: (1) a zone of relative sea-level rise that
is seaward of the equilibrium point and, (2) a zone of rel-
ative sea-level fall that is landward of the equilibrium point.
Figure 14 illustrates the seaward migration of the equilib-
rium point in response to an increasing rate of eustatic fall.
The addition of new space over the whole shelf profile is
EUSTATIC CONTROLS ON CLASTIC DEPOSITION I 117
FIG. 11.Response of topset bed thickness to eustatic fall.
least when the rate of eustatic fall is greatest (at the F in-
flection point). At this time (T4), the equilibrium point has
reached its maximum seaward position. C onversely, the
equilibrium point reaches its maximum landward position
at the R inflection point.
Figure 15 illustrates the effect of different subsidence rates
on the zones where new space is being added. Longitudinal
profiles are shown for two basins differing only in their
subsidence rates. Given the same eustatic change, basin A,
with a high subsidence rate, is characterized by a greater
addition of new shelf space than basin B , where subsidence
rate is low. All else being equal, relatively greater aggra-
dation will occur in basin A than in basin B , whereas the
latter basin will be characterized by a higher rate of pro-
gradation.
The response of sedimentation to an interval of slow eus-
tatic fall is shown in Figure 16. A type 2 unconformity is
illustrated in this figure. From TI to T4, the rate of eustatic
FIG. 12.Response of topset bed thickness and timing of maximum flooding to eustatic rise.
118 H. W. POSAMENT1ER, M. T. JERVEY AND P. R. VAIL
FIG. 13.Response of relative sea level to differential tectonic thermal subsidence.
fall gradually increases and the equilibrium point migrates
basinward. Prior to T4, the bay line, defined as the demar-
cation line between fluvial
1
and paralic/delta plain envi-
ronments, migrates landward in response to slowly rising
relative sea level. The bay line is differentiated from the
shoreline, which is the demarcation line between paralic/
deltaic and marine environments. Under certain circum-
stances, the bay line can be in the same position as the
'Fluvial deposition as used in this report refers to sedimentation above
sea level only and does not include fluvial deposits on the delta plain/
coastal plain.
shoreline (e.g., if no bay or lagoon is present). The term
bayline, rather than shoreline, is used extensively in this
paper because the points to which stream profiles are ad-
justed lie on the bayline rather than on the shoreline. Thus,
it is the position and migration direction of the bayline that
is significant when fluvial deposition is considered.
Figure 17 illustrates the landward translation of the bay-
line because of this rise of relative sea level. The rate of
this landward migration is a function of the rate of relative
sea-level rise and the slope of the land over which the bay-
line travels (e.g., a high rate of relative sea-level rise cou-
pled with a low slope will result in rapid migration). As
sediment fills the wedge-shaped area on the shelf between
EUSTATIC CONTROLS ON CLASTIC DEPOSITION I 119
FIG. 14.Relative sea level as a function of eustacy and differential subsidence.
the sea floor and the sea surface basinward of the bay line,
the resulting stratal pattern will show a gradual landward
shift of coastal onlap. The rate of landward shift of the bay-
line, and hence coastal onlap, also decreases as the rate of
relative sea-level rise at the bayline gradually decreases ap-
proaching T4. Simultaneously, the shoreline/delta front may
migrate either landward or seaward depending on sediment
supply. (Fig. 16 illustrates basinward migration of the
shoreline.)
After the equilibrium point reaches the bayline at T4, the
bayline reverses migration direction and shifts basinward in
conjunction with the equilibrium point. The points (at the
bayline) to which streams in equilibrium are graded move
basinward, causing a subsequent basinward shift of steady-
state stream equilibrium profiles (T4 to T6, Fig. 16). Flu-
vial deposition occurs as streams attempt to maintain steady-
state profiles. At this time, the bayline is the line of de-
marcation between zones characterized by subaerial and
marine accommodation. Subaerial accommodation may be
defined as the space available for sediment to fill between
the old stream equilibrium profile and a new, higher stream
equilibrium profile. C onsequently, the accommodation en-
velope in this setting is bounded by the old equilibrium pro-
file below and the new one above. Only when the bayline
migrates basinward across a surface of low relief is subaer-
ial new space being added. Sediment deposited there is flu-
vial.
The equilibrium point reaches its basinward-most posi-
tion at the F inflection point and then gradually moves land-
ward again. Widespread fluvial deposition ceases at this time
as the bayline reverses its migration direction and resumes
its landward movement (T6 to T7, Fig. 16). Although in-
stantaneous cessation of fluvial deposition is suggested here,
this will occur if fluvial deposition has been able to keep
up with the basinward-shifting stream equilibrium profile.
In most cases, however, there is more likely to be an in-
determinate lag between the time the equilibrium profile
ceases moving basinward (at the F inflection point) and the
time that fluvial deposition catches up with the equilibrium
profile, filling space previously made available. Local con-
ditions, including sediment supply and climate, will affect
this response time. Nonetheless, once fluvial deposition
120
H. W. POSAMENTIER, M. T. JERVEY AND P. R. VAIL
FIG. 15.New space added as a function of subsidence rate.
ceases, the point of coastal onlap abruptly shifts basinward,
occurring again at the bay line (see Posamentier and Vail,
this volume). At this time, deposition in the absence of the
fluvial component is once more restricted to the wedge-
shaped space between the sea floor and the sea surface (T6
to T8, Fig. 16). It should be noted again that a type 2 un-
conformity is shown here. With a rapid eustatic fall gen-
erating a type 1 unconformity, cessation of widespread flu-
vial deposition is marked by stream rejuvenation and incision.
Subsequently, when relative sea-level rise resumes, these
incised valleys (which may be quite extensive) fill with flu-
vial and/or estuarine deposits. Thus, incised-valley fill will
overlie the type 1 unconformity in places.
ELEMENTS OF THE COASTAL ONLAP CURVE
The general shape of the coastal onlap curve on the global-
cycle chart is based on a set of observations from many
sedimentary basins (Vail and others, 1977). It represents
the maximum landward limit of terrigenous deposition and
comprises either nonmarine or marine sediment. Its specific
shape is inferred from models of accommodation and de-
position. Figure 18 illustrates a hypothetical coastal onlap
curve with two type 2 unconformities. From .the F inflec-
tion point to the R inflection point, the rate of addition of
new space steadily increases (Fig. 10). As a result, the rate
of landward migration of the bayline and thus, coastal on-
lap, increases. At R inflection point time, the rates of rel-
ative sea-level rise at the bayline and the rate of landward
bayline migration are greatest. Thereafter, until the equi-
librium point reaches the bayline, the rate of relative sea-
level rise decreases at the bayline. In addition, the rate of
landward migration of the bayline decreases as well. Be-
cause the point of coastal onlap is at the bayline during this
time, the rate of landward shift of coastal onlap thus also
appears to decrease. When the equilibrium point reaches
the bayline, the rate of relative sea-level rise there is zero.
From this time until F inflection point time, the equilibrium
point and the bayline move basinward together. The mi-
gration rate of the equilibrium point, and hence the bayline,
decreases as the equilibrium point gradually reaches its most
basinward position.
C oncomitant fluvial deposition results in a continued
landward shift of coastal onlap until F inflection point time.
The rate of this landward shift of coastal onlap gradually
decreases in response to the decelerating landward shift of
stream equilibrium profiles as the F inflection point is
reached. At this time, the equilibrium point and the bayline
change migration direction and once again move landward,
resulting in the cessation of widespread fluvial deposition.
This, in turn, results in an apparent abrupt basinward shift
of coastal onlap back to the bayline. Again, it should be
noted that a type 2 unconformity is described here. Type 1
unconformities are often characterized by extensive in-
cised-valley fluvial deposits overlying the unconformity
(Posamentier and Vail, this volume).
The chronostratigraphic distribution of the condensed
section is also shown in Figure 18. The maximum landward
EUSTATIC CONTROLS ON CLASTIC DEPOSITION I
121
FIG. 16.Response of sedimentation to an interval of slow eustatic fall.
extent of the condensed section is shown as a dashed line,
because the seaward limit of terrigenous deposition may vary
significantly as sediment supply varies from basin to basin.
The maximum seaward limit of significant terrigenous sed-
iment distribution occurs at the F inflection point. At this
time, the rate of new shelf space added is at a minimum.
The time of maximum regression, however, occurs some-
what later when, with continued increase in rate of new
shelf space added, progradation finally gives way to retro-
gradation. The time represented by the condensed section
decreases in a landward direction, with the condensed sec-
tion reaching its maximum landward position at the time of
maximum flooding sometime after the R inflection point
(see Fig, 12). The surface corresponding to the time of
maximum flooding is called the downlap surface (DLS) (Vail
and others, 1984) or maximum flooding surface (MPS). In
general, downlap surface is used where seismic data are
involved and the downlapping toes of clinoforms can be
observed. Maximum flooding surface is more commonly
used when only outcrop or well-log data are involved.
STRATAL PATTERNS (PARASEQUENC E SC ALE) ASSOCIATED WITH
VARYING RATES OF EUSTATIC RISE OR FALL
This discussion addresses perturbations, or "bumps," on
the eustatic curve, rather than true higher frequency cycles
superimposed upon a lower frequency eustatic curve. The
model predicts that all eustatic cycles, regardless of fre-
quency, will result in the deposition of sequences composed
of a predictable succession of systems tracts. (Sequence type,
i.e., type 1 or 2, will be a function of local subsidence
rate.) Unconformities associated with such high-frequency
eustatic cycles superimposed on general eustatic rises and
falls may correspond to fourth or fifth order (in the sense
122 H. W. POSAMENTIER, M. T. JERVEY AND P.R. VAIL
FIG. 17.Effect of relative sea-level rise on coastline position.
of Vail and others, 1977). Higher frequency eustatic cycles
may be associated with parasequence sets or parsequences
(Van Wagoner, 1985). Simple perturbations on the eustatic
curve, however, where there is no change in eustatic ten-
dency, (i.e., fall to rise or vice versa) generate a different
stratal response.
When perturbations in overall eustatic rises or falls oc-
cur, additional inflection points are generated. If the rate
of eustatic fall changes from decreasing to again increasing
following an F inflection point on the falling limb of a eus-
tatic curve, another inflection point is generated (Fig. 19).
This will be referred to as an F' inflection point. Similarly,
on the rising limb of a eustatic curve, another inflection
point is generated if the rate of eustatic rise changes from
decreasing to again increasing after an R inflection point.
This will be referred to as an R' inflection point. R' in-
flection points are similar to F inflection points since both
are associated with times of farthest basinward position of
the equilibrium point. Similarly, F' inflection points are as-
sociated with times of farthest landward position of the
equilibrium point and are therefore similar to R inflection
points (Fig. 19).
The effects of perturbations on a eustatic rise may be
observed primarily at the seaward limit of terrigenous de-
position. Subaerial unconformities, with concomitant ba-
sinward shifts of coastal onlap, typical of type 1 or type 2
unconformities, do not occur in association with either R
or R' inflection points. Rather, an uneven eustatic rise is
characterized by recurrent condensed sections correspond-
ing to successive intervals of maximum flooding associated
FIG. 18.Elements of the coastal-onlap curve.
EUSTATIC CONTROLS ON CLASTIC DEPOSITION I 123
LHS - LATE HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT
EHS EARLY HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT
LSW - LOWSTAND WEDGE
LSF - LOWSTAND FAN
TRANS - TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT
SM - SHELF MARGIN SYSTEMS TRACT
FIG. 19.Effect of varying rates of eustatic rise and fall.
with each R inflection point. Figure 19 shows two R in-
flection points and two condensed sections on each of the
general eustatic rises shown. Each condensed section is as-
sociated with an R inflection point when the rate of addition
of new space is greatest. Note that the second condensed
section extends farther landward in each case, even though
the rate of relative sea-level rise is the same. (This diagram
is drawn so that the slope at each R inflection point is the
same.) During the overall eustatic rise, the equilibrium point
remains landward of the tectonic hinge point, never reach-
ing the bayline (Fig. 19). This assumes that the bayline is
located seaward of the hinge point. C onsequently, the bay-
line lies in the zone of relative sea-level rise and migrates
landward throughout this interval. No fluvial aggradation
will occur at this time and, therefore, no subaerial uncon-
formity or basinward shift of coastal onlap characterizes
124 H. W. POSAMENTIER, M. T. JERVEY AND P. R. VAIL
R' inflection points. Rather, these points are characterized
only by an increased basinward encroachment of terrigen-
ous deposition.
Perturbations on a sea-level fall usually generate the more
familiar pattern of a succession of type 1 (or 2) unconform-
ities and condensed sections (Fig. 19). An uneven or stepped
sea-level fall is characterized by a succession of F and F'
inflection points. Each F inflection point will generate a
type 1 (or 2) unconformity, provided the equilibrium point
reaches the bayline prior to that time so as to initiate fluvial
deposition. F' inflection points, similar to R inflection points,
are associated with condensed sections. At these inflection
points, the equilibrium point is at a maximum landward
position, generating conditions analogous to those which
generate condensed sections associated with R inflection
points. The first basinward shift of coastal onlap occurs at
the first F inflection point and separates the highstand sys-
tems tract into early and late sections.
The early section of the highstand systems tract is char-
acterized by alternating transgressions and regressions cor-
responding to R and R' inflection points, respectively. It is
capped by fluvial deposits associated with the first F in-
flection point. The late section of the highstand systems
tract is characterized by recurrent basinward shifts of coastal
onlap with associated subaerial exposure surfaces that cor-
respond to successive F inflection points (see Fig. 1). B e-
cause the rate of new space added generally decreases
throughout the highstand systems tract, the early section of
this systems tract is usually characterized more by aggra-
dation than progradation, whereas the opposite usually ap-
plies to the late section of the systems tract. The maximum
landward position of coastal onlap steps basinward with each
successive F inflection point. Each F' inflection point re-
sults in a condensed section. The maximum landward en-
croachment of the condensed section also steps basinward
with each successive F' inflection point. The dominant F
inflection point during an overall eustatic fall is usually
characterized by the most pronounced unconformity.
CONCLUSIONS
The observation that similar stratal patterns develop at
the same time in widely varied sedimentary basins suggests
a globally effective control such as eustatic change. The
interaction of eustacy with local tectonics and sediment
supply determines local depositional stratal patterns. The
concepts discussed here and in Jervey (this volume) serve
as the foundation or framework upon which the sequence
and systems tract depositional models discussed in the pa-
per by Posamentier and Vail (this volume) are based. Cer-
tain simplifying assumptions have been made for the pur-
pose of presenting this model in a straightforward and
coherent fashion, but it should be emphasized that these
assumptions can and should be modified to conform to the
conditions observed in specific basins before the models
can be applied.
AC KNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support and con-
tributions from their many co-workers at Exxon Production
Research C ompany who contributed to the development of
these concepts. We especially thank J. C . Van Wagoner,
J. F. Sarg, R. M. Mitchum, and R. A. Hoover for their
helpful suggestions and constructive critiques of this manu-
script at various stages of its evolution. In addition, we thank
G. J. Moir, W. A. B urgis, R. D. Erskine, G. Mirkin, V.
Kolla, G. R. B aum, C . G. St. C . Kendall, and T. R. Nar-
din for their helpful suggestions and comments. Ultimate
responsibility for the material presented herein, however,
rests with the authors.
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