Helen Kember (2001)

A study of metal contamination of
sediments within Lake Ullswater and

the Glenridding Beck catchment
Helen M. Kember
This thesis is submitted in part fulfilment of the
requirements for the B.Sc. degree in
Environmental Science at the University of
Lancaster.
Helen M Kember 23/01/01
1
Abstract
Greenside Lead and Silver Mine is located 2.5km west of Lake Ullswater, in the
northern part of the 2292km
2
Lake District National Park. Following over a
decade and a half of activity, the mine was closed in 1962, when it was cleared of
most of its buildings and workings and the adits sealed off. Several attempts were
made to vegetate the substantial tailings dams that remain on the site, but were
mostly unsuccessful, a fact highlighted by the collapse of the western dam in
1988. The study of the metal contamination of sediments within Lake Ullswater
and the Glenridding Beck catchment was aimed at determining the overall impact
of the mining remains on the sediment chemistry of the catchment. Samples of
sediment were collected from the becks and lake, and analysed for the three
principal lead mining contaminants, copper, lead and zinc plus 15 other minor
elements. To establish the long-term fluctuations in metal concentrations, two
cores were extracted from the shore of the lake, close to the mouth of Glenridding
Beck, separated into discrete sections and analysed for minor element
concentrations, organic matter content and particle size distribution. Although a
significant decay in metal concentrations is seen with distance from the mine area
and contamination reaching the lake appears to be decreasing with time,
contamination is still substantial and due to the use of the lake for water supplies,
is cause for concern. In order to protect the future heath of the lake, steps should
be taken to ensure the stability of the tailings dams, prevent any worsening of the
current eutrophication problem by reducing the nutrient input to the lake and
counteracting any significant reduction in pH. This will require regular, long-term
monitoring of water and sediments within the becks and lake.
2
Contents
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................... 1
CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................... 2
FIGURES................................................................................................................................... 3
1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................. 5
1.1 LOCATION .................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 GEOLOGY ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.3 MINE HISTORY.............................................................................................................. 9
1.4 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES................................................................................................ 14
1.5 EXPECTATIONS ........................................................................................................... 14
1.6 REPORT STRUCTURE.................................................................................................... 15
2 HYDROLOGY................................................................................................................. 16
2.1 CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS................................................................................... 16
2.2 MINE DRAINAGE ......................................................................................................... 17
2.3 WATER CHEMISTRY .................................................................................................... 17
3 METHODS....................................................................................................................... 20
3.1 SAMPLE LOCATIONS.......................................................................................................... 20
3.2 SAMPLE METHODS....................................................................................................... 27
3.3 BECK SEDIMENT ANALYSIS .......................................................................................... 28
3.3.1 X-ray fluorescence 29
3.4 CORE SEDIMENT ANALYSIS .......................................................................................... 29
3.4.1 XRF analysis 30
3.4.2 Organic matter content analysis 30
3.4.3 Grain size analysis 30
4 FINDINGS........................................................................................................................ 33
4.1 SURFACE SEDIMENT SAMPLES...................................................................................... 33
4.1.1 Metal content 33
4.2 SEDIMENT CORE SAMPLES ........................................................................................... 37
4.2.1 Sample location 37
4.2.2 Core structure 37
4.2.3 Metal content 38
4.2.4 Organic matter content 44
4.2.5 Particle size results 44
5 DISCUSSION................................................................................................................... 47
5.1 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS...................................................................................... 47
5.1.1 Beck and Lake sediments 47
5.1.2 Sediment cores 49
5.2 EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS.............................................................................................. 52
5.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS ................................................................................. 53
5.3.1 Sediment contamination 53
5.3.2 Sediment-water interactions 54
5.3.3 Tailings dams 58
6 CONCLUSIONS.............................................................................................................. 60
6.1 SUMMATION OF REPORT .............................................................................................. 60
6.2 FUTURE MANAGEMENT................................................................................................ 61
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 63
GLOSSARY............................................................................................................................. 65
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................... 68
APPENDIX A RAINFALL READINGS ....................................................................................... 68
APPENDIX B - WATER ANALYSIS RESULTS............................................................................... 71
APPENDIX C CALIBRATION RANGES ..................................................................................... 71
APPENDIX D - ELEMENT ANALYSIS RESULTS FOR BECK AND LAKE SEDIMENT SAMPLES.............. 72
APPENDIX E - ELEMENT ANALYSIS RESULTS FOR LAKE SHORE CORE SEDIMENT SAMPLES........... 73
APPENDIX F - ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT OF CORES A1 AND A4 ............................................ 75
APPENDIX G - GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS DATA FOR CORES A1 AND A4.......................................... 76
APPENDIX H - TAILINGS DAM MATERIAL ANALYSIS ................................................................. 78
3
List of Figures
Figure 1 Greenside Lead and Silver Mine. ................................................................................... 5
Figure 2 The upper Swart Beck spoil heaps (looking south-east). ................................................. 6
Figure 3 An extract from the 1:25 000 Ordnance Survey map (Outdoor Leisure 5) of the area, ..... 7
Figure 4 A map of the mine area showing the locations of the mineral veins................................. 9
Figure 5 South-easterly view of the western tailings dam as it was in 1954 (Murphy, 1996). ....... 11
Figure 6 the scar on the southern flank of the west tailings dam following the 1982 collapse. ..... 13
Figure 7 Schematic diagram of the tailings dam drainage systems.............................................. 19
Figure 8: Location 1 Glenridding Beck above the hydro dam, facing west .............................. 21
Figure 9: Location 2 West tailings dam, looking east .............................................................. 21
Figure 10: Location 3 High Horse Level spoil stream looking south ........................................ 22
Figure 11: Location 4 Swart Beck above Low Horse Level adit .............................................. 22
Figure 12: Location 5 Swart Beck below Low Horse Level adit ............................................... 23
Figure 13: Location 6 Swart Beck at confluence with Glenridding Beck .................................. 23
Figure 14: Location 7 East tailings dam drain trough ............................................................ 24
Figure 15: Location 8 Roadside stream, facing north ............................................................. 24
Figure 16: Location 9 Glenridding Beck downstream from Swart Beck, looking south ............. 25
Figure 17: Location 10 Glenridding Beck at wooden footbridge ............................................. 25
Figure 18: Location 11 Glenridding Beck at the campsite........................................................ 26
Figure 19: Location 12 - Glenridding Beck mouth, facing north-north west ............................... 27
Figure 20: Location 13 - Lake Ullswater shore, looking east ..................................................... 27
Figure 21 The extraction mechanism being used to remove the corer from the ground. ............... 28
Figure 22 The Makita Percussion drill in use. ............................................................................ 28
Figure 23 Photograph of core section A1, ................................................................................. 31
Figure 24 (left): Core section A1.1............................................................................................. 31
Figure 25 (above): The upper section of core A4. ...................................................................... 32
Figure 26 (left): Core section A4.1, the lower section of core ..................................................... 32
Figure 27 A map of the mine area showing sample locations, ..................................................... 34
Figure 28 Concentration of lead measured in sediment samples from each location.................... 35
Figure 29 Concentration of zinc measured in sediment samples from each location. ................... 35
Figure 30 Concentration of copper measured in sediment samples from each location................ 36
Figure 31 Total metal content of sediment samples taken at each location. ................................. 36
Figure 32 Locations from which the sediment cores were taken. ................................................. 37
Figure 33 Concentration of lead measured in sections of core A1.
Figure 34 Concentration of lead measured in sections of core A4............................................... 40
Figure 35 Concentration of zinc measured in core A1.
Figure 36 Concentration of zinc measured in core A4. ............................................................... 41
Figure 37 Concentration of copper measured in core A1
Figure 38 Concentration of copper measured in core A4. ........................................................... 42
Figure 39 Total metal content measured in core A1.
Figure 40 Total metal content measured in core A4.................................................................... 43
Figure 41 Percentages of organic material andf particles <63um in the layers of core A1. ......... 50
Figure 42 Percentage of organic material and particle <63um in layers of core A4.................... 51
Figure 43. Lead concentrations measured in water samples from the becks and lake. ................. 55
Figure 44 Concentration of lead in sediments at sampled locations. ........................................... 55
Figure 45 Concentration of zinc measured in water samples from the becks and lake. ................ 56
Figure 46 Zinc concentrations measured in sediments from the becks and lake. ......................... 56
4
List of Tables
Table 1 Sample location number and name. ............................................................................... 20
Table 2 Description of the composition of the individual layers within cores A1 and A4.............. 38
Table 3 Weight and percentage of organic material in each layer of cores A1 and A4. ................ 44
Table 4 Percentage of each particle size found in the layers of core A1....................................... 45
Table 5 Percentage of each particle size found in the layers of core A4 ...................................... 46
Table 6 Extract of the screening quick reference table for Inorganics in Solids. .......................... 53
Table 7 Concentrations of lead, copper and zinc in the east tailings dam. ................................... 59
Table 8 1994 rainfall readings taken at Grizedale Bridge........................................................... 68
Table 9 1995 rainfall readings taken at Grizedale Bridge........................................................... 69
Table 10 1996 rainfall readings taken at Grizedale Bridge. ........................................................ 70
Table 11 Mean values of pH, conductivity, lead and zinc in water from the becks and lake ......... 71
Table 12 Calibration ranges used in the xray fluorescence process............................................. 71
Table 13 Results of the minor element analysis performed on the surface sediment samples. ....... 72
Table 14 Results of the minor element analysis performed on core A1. ....................................... 73
Table 15 Results of the minor element analysis performed on A4. ............................................... 74
Table 16 Weights and percentages of organic matter in each core layer. .................................... 75
Table 17 Grain size analysis data for the sections of core A1...................................................... 76
Table 18 Grain size analysis for the sections of core A4. ............................................................ 77
Table 19 Tailings dam material and control site descriptions and organic matter content. .......... 78
Table 20 Minor element analysis results for samples collected from the control sites .................. 79
Table 21 Minor element analysis results for samples collected from the west tailings dam.......... 80
Table 22 Minor element analysis results for samples collected from the east tailings dam........... 81
5
1 Introduction
1.1 Location
The outstanding beauty and ecological variety of the Lake District National Park
make it one of the most prized and protected areas in the British Isles. Established
as a national park in 1951, the 2292 square kilometres that make up the park are
owned and maintained by various organisations including the National Park
Authority, Forest Enterprises, North West Water and the National Trust, as well as
a large number of private landowners (Lake District National Park Authority,
01/12/2000).
Lake Ullswater is located in the north of the park and at 7 miles in length is the
second largest of the lakes, with a maximum depth of 62.5 metres. In addition to
being a valued recreational area, the lake is also used for water supplies by North
West Water and is home to a rare and protected fish, the Schelly (Environment
Agency, 2000). It is for these reasons that the impacts of Greenside lead and
silver mine, 2.5km west of the lake, are of such concern.
Figure 1 Greenside Lead and Silver Mine. Swart Beck is in the centre of the
photograph, flowing in a southerly direction down the hillside, bordered by the
derelist remains of the mine. Several converted mine buildings can be seen in the
foreground.
The mine, abandoned in 1962, is situated at the southern end of the lake, in the
Glenridding valley, at National Grid Reference: NY 364 174. The tailings dams,
spoil heaps and derelict workings lie parallel to Swart Beck (see figure 1), which
6
flows down Greenside Fell from Sticks Pass to Glenridding Beck below the mine.
Glenridding Beck then flows down the valley and enters Lake Ullswater. An
extract of the Ordnance survey map of the area is shown in figure 2.
The lake and shore are owned and maintained by the National Trust, with the
remaining area, including Greenside Fell and the mine being maintained by
National Parks. With the exception of the mine workings and tailings dams, the
area is classed as a Site of Special Scientific Interest and is currently being
considered as a possible Special Area of Conservation because it contains habitat
types and/or species which are rare or threatened under the European context
(Scott Doherty Associates, 1999). Additionally, the mine itself is a Scheduled
Ancient Monument and as such is considered to be of national importance.
1.2 Geology
Superficial deposits, both natural and man-made, dominate the surface geology of
the mine area. The natural deposits consist of glacial till in the valley, scree on the
hill slopes and fluvial sediments within the beck channels. Large areas of spoil
and made ground are evident along the length of Swart Beck as can be seen in
figure 2, and two tailings dams flank the beck above the confluence with
Glenridding Beck.
Figure 2 The upper Swart Beck spoil heaps (looking south-east).
7
Gillowers Level
Tailings dams
Middle Level
Chimney ending
on the Stang

17
18
Top Level
35 36 37 38
High Horse Level
Low Horse Level
Lucy Level
Swart Beck
Glenridding Beck
39
Figure 3 An extract from the 1:25 000 Ordnance Survey map (Outdoor Leisure 5) of the area, showing the mine, tailings dams and the
collapse holes which mark the sites of the early levels. Reproduced from Ordnance Survey maps by permission of Ordnance Survey on
behalf of Her Magestys Stationary Office, Crown Copyright NC/00/1125
8
The bedrock is of the Birker Fell Formation, which is part of the Borrowdale
Volcanics Group. This is a fine-grained volcanic rock of the Ordovician Age,
formed roughly 460 to 450 million years ago. The rock consists of basalt and
basaltic andesite, normal andesite, dacite and rhyolite. Lavas and pyroclastic
rocks in the form of sills, volcaniclastic sediments and lapilli tuffs are represented
within the rock (Moseley, 1990). The volcanic ashes and lavas were consolidated
by heat and pressure to form the hard greenish coloured rock found today.
Below the bedrock are the blue/black metasediments known as the Skiddaw
Slates. These consist of siltstone, mudstone and subsidiary greywacke sandstone,
which were deposited by turbidity currents on the continental slopes of the former
Iapetus Ocean (Moseley, 1990).
The effects of two mountain building events, the Caledonian and the Hercynian
Orogenies, can be identified in the Greenside Fell area. The folding, fracturing
and shearing of the rocks by these events created faults and fissures which later
became the focus of mining activity in the area. Under the correct conditions
dissolved minerals are deposited by water percolating through the cracks in the
rock, eventually forming veins rich in various minerals (Murphy, 1996).
The Caledonian Orogeny created several east-west faults known as the Clay Vein,
the Johnson Cross-Course and the North Fault, all of which were unmineralised
(Murphy, 1996). An intrusive dike of quartz porphyry lies between the Cross-
course and North Fault, forced up by volcanic activity. During the Hercynian
Orogeny the original faults were cut and displaced by a second set, these being the
Lucy Tongue Vein and the ore-rich Greenside Vein. The Greenside lode has a
north-south course and hades east at roughly one in three (Adams, 1988). It has a
total length of roughly 1000 metres and a width of between 3 and 20 metres (Scott
Doherty Associates, 1999). The mineral vein consists of galena, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite and quartz (Tyler, 1992). On the surface, the vein runs south from
Glencoynedale down the southern slope of Greenside Fell. Although the vein was
barren beneath Glencoynedale, on Greenside Fell it became a 300 metre long ore-
rich shoot, which extended in depth from the surface of the highest ridge to well
below the valley floor (Murphy, 1996). Farther down the valley, the vein split
9
into three further shoots, separated by barren ground. Much later, a fourth shoot
was discovered deep in the mine beneath Glencoynedale to the north. Figure 4
shows the locations of the veins in relation to Swart Beck and Glenridding Beck.
Glenridding Mine
Vein Plan
Reservoir
Sticks Gill
Glencoyne Head
Johnsons
Ross Vein
Lucy Tongue
Vein
Glenridding Beck
Chimney
Chimney
Marshalls
Vein
Greenside Lode
North Cross Course (dead)
*
*
- Level mouths
/// - Processing areas
---- - Approx course of
Lucy Level
*
*
Clay
Vein
Swart Beck
Glenridding
Screes
N
Figure 4 A map of the mine area showing the locations of the mineral veins,
processing areas and mine adits (Adapted from Adams, 1995). Not to scale.
1.3 Mine History
Although there is no documentary evidence concerning Greenside Mine before
1799, there are a number of historians who believe that the area was being worked
during the 17
th
century. For example, Shaw (1970) suggests that mining began in
the middle of the 17
th
century and that by 1690 it was in the hands of Dutch
adventurers, who are credited with driving the Top and Middle Levels. Tyler
(1992), however, states that the earliest workings were around 1690 and that four
levels were driven before 1825. Murphy (1996) states that the first documentary
evidence at Greenside indicates that the mine was being worked in 1799 by a Mr
Thompson, under a lease from the Duke of Norfolk.
However there is evidence of early mining activities in the form of hushing, close
to the summit of Greenside Fell at 570m OD, where the vein outcropped. These
areas are marked by v-shaped notches in the ground where the topsoil has been
removed by a stream of water to expose the vein. It is thought that these activities
and the driving of the three highest levels took place in the latter half of the 17
th
century.
10
Available records identify six levels (see figure 2) from which ore was extracted
(Scott Doherty Associates, 1999):
Top level at 658.6m OD marked by the highest collapse hole shown on
figure 2 NGR NY 358 186
Middle level at 631.0m OD marked by the second collapse area (figure 2)
NGR NY 358 185
Gillowers Level at 581.5m OD NGR NY 358 183
High Horse Level driven at 550.1m OD NGR NY 358 182
Low Horse Level at 486.1m OD (1835) NGR NY 362 178
Lucy Level at 336.1m OD (1853) NGR NY 364 175
The Greenside Mining Syndicate are thought to have begun driving the High
Horse Level in the late 17
th
century and are likely to have constructed the early
dressing floor alongside Sticks Pass at 550m OD (Murphy, 1996). At this time the
ore would have been gained by hand-picking directly from the vein and then
dressed and washed by hand in the stream (Scott Doherty Associates, 1999).
Around 1815, the mine was abandoned until the Greenside Mining Company,
established in 1822 by William Cant and associates, gained a 14-year lease from
Henry Howard and William Marshall in 1827 (Murphy, 1996). The company
rapidly developed the mine during the following years, continuing the driving of
Gillowers and High Horse Levels and constructing a water driven crushing mill
and a smelt mill alongside Swart Beck (Murphy, 1996). Dynamite was used to
blast the ore free of the vein, and the loose material was then carted out of the
mine to the crushing mill.
In 1835, the driving of the Low Horse Level began and was worked for six years
until it reached the Greenside lode in 1841. As the Low Horse Level was being
completed, work had begun on the construction of the smelter chimney flue,
which eventually carried the toxic smoke and fumes 1.5km up the mountain to a
chimney stack on the Stang (see figure 4). Prior to this, the smoke, containing
large quantities of lead oxides and sulphates, fine particles of galena and sulphur
dioxide, was released into the air around the mine and would have settled on the
ground rendering it acidic and sterile (Murphy, 1996).
11
In 1853, the company began driving a new level along the Lucy Tongue Vein,
which ran parallel to the Greenside lode. The level was driven along the Clay
Vein until, after numerous setbacks, it met the Greenside vein 16 years after
commencement.
When Captain William Henry Borlase became mine manager in 1890, he
convinced the company that due to the falling lead prices, modernisation was
required in order for the mine to survive. As a result, the machinery was replaced
and a hydroelectric plant and an electric locomotive were installed. Around the
time of the First World War, smelting at the mine ceased due to economic reasons
and the ore was taken by steam locomotive to Troutbeck Station where it was
transported by rail to Newcastle upon Tyne (Shaw, 1970).
Figure 5 South-easterly view of the western tailings dam as it was in 1954 (Murphy,
1996).
Over the next few years, the upper level workings at the High and Low Horse
Levels were abandoned and a large spoil tip adjacent to the Low Horse Level was
formed. A further spoil tip was formed adjacent to the Lucy Level and these later
became the sites of the tailings dams in the 1940s. Figure 5 shows the western
tailings dam in the final stages of construction in 1954 (Murphy, 1996). The mill
can be seen just below the dam, with Glenridding Beck on the right. Following
12
complaints from local residents over contamination of Glenridding Beck and Lake
Ullswater with slimes (suspended solids) from the washing mills, a slurry
pumping system was installed to take the waste water from the mills to the top of
the spoil heaps. The waste was pumped into tailings ponds and the solids allowed
to settle out, before the clean water was decanted off and released into the beck
(Scott Doherty, 1999). According to Murphy (1996), by 1941 less than 1% of the
milled waste was ending up in the beck compared to the 44% recorded by the
company during the late 1920s and early 1930s.
In 1936, the company was taken over by the Basinghall Mining Syndicate Ltd of
London, who increased production at the mine and installed national grid
electricity. When a shaft sunk below the Lucy Level hit Skiddaw Slates during
World War 2, it was apparent that the ore vein was exhausted and in 1962, the
mine finally closed. At this point, the workings extended 430m below the Lucy
Tongue Level and 910m below the summit of Greenside Fell (Scott Doherty
Associates, 1999).
Before the abandonment of the mine, the area was cleared of most of the buildings
and workings, the equipment was sold off and the adit mouths sealed. With the
exception of a few converted buildings, what remains of the mine is now derelict,
including the miles of leats that can be seen meandering across the fellside from
the dams at Red Tarn, Brown Cove, Kepple Cove, High Dam and Glencoyne
(Matheson and Jones, 1992). Many attempts have been made to grass over the
tailings dams that dominate the hillside, but were only successful after the addition
of manure to the surface of the heaps.
At least three floods have occurred during the lifetime of the mine. The first was
on Wednesday August 5
th
1846, when according to the Carlisle Journal, Metal of
the value of more than 200 was washed away by the flood of Wednesday night
last, from Greenside Lead Mines, where other damage to a great extent was
sustained (Murphy, 1996). The second incident was in 1851 on New Years Day,
when the Old Swart Beck dam (built during the early years of the mine) failed,
causing a flood that damaged both the smelter and the mill. A further storm
caused Kepple Cove Dam to fail on 29
th
October 1927, resulting in little damage
13
to the mine, but considerable destruction to Glenridding Village bellow. The
company paid dearly in compensation for this disaster, almost resulting in its
demise.
Figure 6 the scar on the southern flank of the west tailings dam following the 1982
collapse.
A further incident occurred in the late 1980s, when a section of the west tailings
dam collapsed depositing a large quantity of material into Swart Beck. The
collapsed area is shown in the photograph in figure 6. Much of this material
would have been transported down the valley and deposited in Lake Ullswater by
Glenridding Beck.
14
1.4 Aims and Objectives
The aims of this investigation are as follows:
To ascertain the metal composition of sediments in Glenridding Beck, Swart
Beck and Lake Ullswater, concentrating on lead, copper, zinc and total metal
content.
To determine the changes in sediment metal content with distance from the
mine remains.
To identify the principle sources and sinks of metals within the catchment.
The identification of changes in metal composition of sediments with depth, to
give an indication of changes over time.
The project objectives are the collection and analysis of sediment samples from
Glenridding Beck, Swart Beck and Lake Ullswater and the extraction of two
sediment cores from the lakeshore. Stream sediments by their accumulating
nature are especially suitable as dynamic monitors of heavy-mineral
concentrations (Merefield, 1995). As they also retain records of past incidents,
examination of sediment profiles can be used to unravel historical events
(Merefield, 1995). Using the information gathered and the conclusions reached as
a result, the overall impact of the mining remains on the catchment will be
assessed with a view to predicting future problems and formulating possible
management strategies.
1.5 Expectations
The results of the beck and lake sediment analysis are expected to show a
reduction in metal concentration with distance from the mine area, due to the
movement of metal cations from the aquatic phase to the solid phase. Bradley
(1995) details the major causes of metal concentration decline with distance from
a mine as follows:
Hydraulic sorting according to differential particle density.
Chemical dispersal through solution or biological uptake.
15
Mixing with extra clean sediment, especially as a contribution from a
tributary channel that is not mineralised.
Loss to, or exchange with, stored floodplain sediments.
Increases in metal concentrations are expected in areas of sediment deposition,
such as the lower reach of Glenridding Beck and the lake. The highest
concentrations are likely to be found in streams close to the dressing floors,
tailings dams and mine adits.
The results of the core analysis are expected to show a reduction in metal
concentration with decreasing depth, due to the closure and abandonment of the
mine in 1962. It is hoped that the results will reflect the flood events and tailings
dam collapse described in section 1.3, in the form of elevated metal concentrations
and the existence of tailings material within the sediment. A relationship between
the finer sediment fraction and metal concentrations is also anticipated, as metals
tend to adsorb to finer particles more readily than they do coarse grains.
1.6 Report structure
The following report begins with a description of the hydrology of the area,
principally the catchment conditions and the drainage pattern within the tailings
dams. Chapter 3 describes the sample locations, followed by an outline of the
sampling methods and analysis techniques used. Chapter 4 contains the results of
the study, concentrating on lead, zinc, copper and total metal content, due to the
large amount of data gathered. The results and the associated environmental
implications are discussed in chapter 5. Chapter 6 contains the report summary
and conclusions, together with suggestions for further research and possible
management strategies.
16
2 Hydrology
2.1 Catchment characteristics
The Glenridding Beck is approximately 6km in length from the source to the lake
and has a catchment area of 8.37km
2
(Scott Doherty Associates, 1999). The beck
has two main tributaries, Swart Beck and Red Tarn Beck, and a small number of
minor, unnamed tributaries. In the upper valley, the streams are narrow and fast
flowing, over beds of glacial deposits and bedrock. Lower in the valley,
Glenridding Beck slows and widens as the gradients decrease, and fluvial deposits
on the beds and along the banks become more prominent. As the beck reaches the
lake, it widens into a delta with banks of gravel and sands within the flow. This
area is periodically dredged to prevent the build of sediments in the beck mouth.
The climate in the area is harsh, with low temperatures and high winds throughout
much of the year. Rainfall is high, averaging 2400mm annually and heavy frosts
and snowfalls are common during the winter months. Rainfall readings taken at
Grizedale Bridge for the years 1994 to 1996 show that rainfall levels are
extremely variable, with a maximum of 426mm during December 1994 and a
minimum of 9.5mm during August 1995 (Scott Doherty Associates, 1999). Flood
estimation data provided by the Institute of Hydrology shows that Glenridding
Beck and Swart Beck are susceptible to mean annual floods of 8.20 cumecs and
3.06 cumecs respectively (Scott Doherty Associates, 1999). Rainfall readings are
given in appendix A.
The impermeable nature of the underlying rocks, coupled with the steep valley
sides and thin soils, restrict infiltration capacity causing high surface runoff rates.
As contribution from ground water is limited due to the absence of major aquifers
in the area, the majority of runoff is likely to be due to rainfall.
17
Vegetation in the valley is characteristic of upland areas, consisting mostly of
unimproved grassland. The poor quality and quantity of this vegetation restricts
loss of moisture by evapotranspiration, particularly during the winter months
when rainfall levels are high and temperatures are low.
2.2 Mine drainage
There are a number of inputs to the streams from the mine remains, in the form of
drainage systems installed whilst the mine was in operation. They are too
numerous to mention here, but most notable are the tailings dams and mine shaft
systems.
The tailings dams contain a network of pipes and channels that drain water from
the top of the dams and prevent water logging of the unstable spoil. Although
most are predominantly dry, several do contain water, particularly during rainfall.
Two stone-lined channels emerge from the spoil at the base of the east dam and
empty into a roadside culvert. Both flow continuously and are likely to be natural
springs from the underlying bedrock (Scott Doherty, 1999). The west dam is also
drained by two natural streams and both dams have a ditch running along the
upper edge to collect water from the scree slopes above (see figure 7 for schematic
diagram of drainage systems).
Drainage of the Lucy Tongue Level Mine is provided by a pipe that emerges from
a concrete terrace above Swart Beck. Flow from the pipe is heavy and continuous
and empties directly into the beck below. The Low Horse Level Mine adit also
drains into Swart Beck, although flow is much lighter than the Lucy Level drain.
2.3 Water Chemistry
Maxwell (2000) performed an analysis of the water chemistry, during the same
period as the sediment analysis. Measurements were made of the zinc and lead
content, pH and conductivity of the water at 16 locations within the catchment,
from above the mine workings on Swart Beck and Glenridding Beck to the lake.
The results are given in appendix B.
18
In general, the pH of the catchment is moderately to slightly acidic, ranging on
average from 5.18 to 6.63. The maximum-recorded value of 7.31 occurred at the
Lucy Level Mine drainage pipe, and the minimum value of 4.36 was taken at
Glenridding Beck upstream of the mine area.
The average conductivity ranged from 39 s cm
-1
to 107 s cm
-1
, with a maximum
value of 300 s cm
-1
and a minimum value of 30s cm
-1
. The maximum and
minimum values occurred at the Lucy Level Mine drain and upstream Glenridding
Beck respectively.
The catchment is classed as a salmonid watercourse with breeding trout and as
such has an environmental quality standard of 2 g l
-1
lead and 8 g l
-1
zinc
(Environment Agency, 2000). With the exception of upstream Glenridding Beck,
each of the 16 locations tested contained concentrations of lead and zinc that
exceeded the environmental quality standards. The lead content of the water
ranged from 28.84g l
-1
to 80.61 g l
-1
, excluding the lowest value of 1.41 g l
-1
.
Zinc ranged from 56.26 g l
-1
to 565.6 g l
-1
, again excluding the lowest value of
3.72 g l
-1
19
Figure 7 Schematic diagram of the tailings dam drainage systems. (Adapted from Scott Doherty Associates, 1999).
Lucy Tongue
Level
West tailings
dam
East tailings
dam
Glenridding Beck
Swart Beck
Stone drainage channel
Stream
Dam and mine drainage
discharge point
Lower
Swart Beck
20
3 Methods
3.1 Sample locations
Sediment samples were taken from 13 locations within the Glenridding Beck
catchment. Five were collected from Glenridding Beck itself, three from Swart
Beck and one from Lake Ullswater. The remaining samples were taken from the
numerous spoil drainage streams within the mine area. The individual sample
locations are listed below, with a short description of the site, the grid reference
and a photograph. Each of the 13 sample locations was chosen for specific
reasons according to proximity to the mine remains and the likelihood of
contamination from the spoil. These reasons are detailed in table 1 below.
Table 1 gives the sample location number and name, and describes the reasons for
the choice of location.
Location name Reason for choice
1 Glenridding above the hydro dam Above mining remains, therefore uncontaminated
by the mine.
2 West spoil drain First major source of contamination to Glenridding
Beck from the mine remains.
3 High Horse Level dressing floor
stream
First major source of contamination to Swart Beck
from the mine remains.
4 Swart Beck above the Low Horse
Level adit
To establish metal content before the adit drainage
enters Swart Beck.
5 Swart Beck below the Low Horse
Level adit
To identify the changes in metal content caused by
the adit drainage.
6 Swart Beck above the confluence
with Glenridding Beck
To provide final values for Swart Beck after the
Lucy Level drainage pipe and before the confluence.
7 Glenridding Beck downstream of
confluence with Swart Beck
To use as a comparison with location 1, after the
input from Swart Beck.
8 East spoil drain trough (natural
stream)
To establish the level of contamination carried out
of the spoil by the stream.
9 Roadside drainage ditch below
east tailings dam
To establish the metal content of sediments within
the ditch before it enters the beck.
10 Glenridding Beck at the
footbridge
11 Glenridding Beck at the campsite
12 Glenridding Beck upstream of
Lake Ullswater
Locations 10, 11 and 12 were chosen in order to
discover if and how the metal levels decayed with
distance from the mine remains. Also to identify
any sinks within the deposition areas of the lower
valley.
13 Lake Ullswater To establish the level of metal contamination
reaching the lake.
21
Figure 8: Location 1 Glenridding Beck above the hydro dam, facing west NGR
363 173
Location 1 (figure 8) is above the mining remains and therefore should be free
from metal contamination.
Figure 9: Location 2 West tailings dam, looking east NGR 364 174
The drainage streams from the west tailings dam are the first major source of
contamination to Glenridding Beck from the mine (figure 9). Although they are
often dry, during periods of rainfall, these areas channel runoff from the spoil
heaps into the beck.
22
Figure 10: Location 3 High Horse Level spoil stream looking south NGR 358 182
The stream (in the channel on the left of figure 10) runs through the old High
Horse Level spoil heaps and dressing floors, and into Swart Beck. The spoil is
fine and sandy, with little vegetation to prevent erosion.
Figure 11: Location 4 Swart Beck above Low Horse Level adit NGR 362 179
Location 4 (figure 11) was sampled in order to gain a comparison between metal
content before and after water from the Low Horse Level adit enters Swart Beck.
23
Figure 12: Location 5 Swart Beck below Low Horse Level adit - NGR 363 178
The Low Horse Level adit (figure 12), situated in the ravine face, expels a
constant trickle of mine water into the beck below. Although the bed of the beck
is strewn with large rocks, a deep pool at the base of the slope provided a source
of fine sediment for sampling.
Figure 13: Location 6 Swart Beck at confluence with Glenridding Beck, looking
south west NGR 366 174
After flowing down the steep ravine from the Low Horse Level, Swart Beck joins
the larger Glenridding Beck at approximately 300m OD (figure 13). A sample of
24
the sediment at the base of Swart Beck was collected to compare against metal
levels downstream.
Figure 14: Location 7 East tailings dam drain trough NGR 367 173
A large metal trough is situated at the base of the eastern tailings dam (figure 14),
which collects water from a drainage channel running down the dam. A sample of
the sediment contained within the trough was collected.
Figure 15: Location 8 Roadside stream, facing north NGR 368 173
25
A sample was collected from a drainage ditch that runs alongside the track to
Glenridding (figure 15). The ditch carries the water draining from the east tailings
dam.
Figure 16: Location 9 Glenridding Beck downstream from Swart Beck, looking
south NGR 366 174
A sample was taken from Glenridding Beck downstream of the confluence (figure
16) in order to establish any changes in metal content following the input from
Swart Beck.
Figure 17: Location 10 Glenridding Beck at wooden footbridge NGR 374 172
26
Location 10 (figure 17) is the site of a small deposition area on the nearside of the
beck, with a vertical rock face on the far side. The beck flows deeper and more
slowly here, with numerous deep pools.
Figure 18: Location 11 Glenridding Beck at the campsite NGR 378 170
By the time the beck reaches this lower elevation, it is much wider and deeper
than further upstream (figure 18). An area of erosion can be seen on the inside of
the bend with a corresponding deposition zone on the outside. A sample was
taken from a pool in the middle of the beck.
27
Figure 19: Location 12 - Glenridding Beck mouth, facing north-north west NGR
390 172
The mouth of the beck is wide and shallow, with several raised areas consisting of
gravel and larger rock fragments (figure 19).
Figure 20: Location 13 - Lake Ullswater shore, looking east NGR 390 172
The lakeshore (figure 20) is exposed and heavily eroded by wind and water. The
beach consists of mostly gravel with some sands and finer material. A sample was
taken from the lakeshore approximately 20 metres from the mouth of the beck.
The sediment cores were taken from an area of deposition close to the mouth of
the beck.
3.2 Sample methods
The surface sediment samples were collected using a plastic trowel and put
through a 5mm plastic sieve to remove the larger material. The remaining finer
sediment was placed in large sample bags, labelled and returned to the laboratory
for analysis. All samples were placed, undisturbed, in cold storage until required.
Two sediment cores were extracted from the ground in four sections, using a
Makita Percussion drill. A Perspex tube, 1m in length and 50mm in diameter was
inserted into a metal corer, which in turn was attached to the drill. A core catcher
device was inserted into the open end of the corer in order to prevent loss of
material upon removal from the ground. The open end of the corer was then
placed flush with the ground and the generator-powered drill started up. Applying
downward pressure and a slow rotation caused the corer to sink into the sediment
28
until a depth of 1m was reached (see figure 22). The drill was then detached and
the extraction mechanism used to remove the core from the ground, as shown in
figure 21. The Perspex holding tube was removed, capped at both ends and
labelled.
Figure 21 The extraction mechanism being used to
remove the corer from the ground.
Figure 22 The Makita Percussion drill in use.
The first attempt at both sites failed to yield a full 1-metre core, due either to
compaction or the loss of material upon removal from the ground. To recover the
remaining sediment, an extension rod was fitted between the drill and the corer,
and a second core was extracted from the existing holes.
3.3 Beck sediment analysis
Before analysis, the samples were laid out in plastic trays and left to air dry for
several days. Once dry the 200m fraction was removed using a plastic sieve,
ground down to 100m with a pestle and mortar and formed into briquettes for X-
ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis.
To form the briquettes, 2-3 drops of PVA solution was added to 5grams of the
sample. A metal die was placed into the base of the mould and a metal tube
placed on top. The sample and PVA mixture was poured into the tube and tamped
down with a Perspex cylinder to form a small round brick. The metal tube was
removed and roughly 15 grams of orthoboric acid granules poured into the mould.
A second die was inserted and a cylindrical metal weight was placed on top. The
29
entire mould was then pressed at 551600 Pascal for one minute to form the
briquette.
3.3.1 X-ray fluorescence
Minor elemental analysis of the sediment samples was performed using a
Rhodium tube X-ray spectrometer. The process works by irradiating the sample
with continuous and characteristic radiation. The wavelengths contained in the
secondary fluorescent radiation emitted by the sample are qualitatively and
quantitatively characteristic of individual elements within the sample (Philips,
1990).
The secondary radiation is directed onto an analysing crystal, which diffracts it
into discrete wavelengths. The detected angle of diffraction can then be used to
determine the wavelength of the secondary radiation. A scan performed through
an angular range detects the presence of X-ray wavelengths that are characteristic
of each element present. This provides the qualitative analysis. As the
concentration of each element in the sample is proportional to the intensity of the
detected radiation, the quantity of each element can also be ascertained (Philips,
1990).
Calibration of the spectrometer is based on basaltic rock standards of known
element concentrations. If the concentration of the measured element is outside
the calibration range, the instrument will extrapolate from the calibration curve to
give an approximate result. The extrapolated result takes the form of a minimum
value if the concentration is above the calibration range or a maximum value if it
is below. Calibration ranges are given in appendix C.
3.4 Core sediment analysis
Upon return to the laboratory, the Perspex tubes were cut open lengthways and the
top half removed to allow the sediment to dry. The two cores, labelled A1 (+
A1.1) and A4 (+ A4.1) in figures 23 & 24 and figures 25 & 26 below, were then
photographed before being divided into sections according to colour and grain
size. Each section was then split into three parts and placed in separate labelled
bags ready for preparation for grain size, XRF and organic matter content
analysis.
30
3.4.1 XRF analysis
One sample from each section of the cores was prepared in the same manner as
the beck samples and the resulting briquettes analysed by X-ray fluorescence.
3.4.2 Organic matter content analysis
Approximately 2grams of each sample were placed in separate crucibles, weighed
and then heated in a furnace at 500 degrees centigrade for two hours to allow the
organic matter to burn away. After removal from the oven, the crucibles were
allowed to cool before being weighed again. The weight after baking was
subtracted from the initial weight to give the weight of organic matter in each
sample.
3.4.3 Grain size analysis
A sample from each section was put through a series of 13 sieves, ranging from
4mm to 63m. The quantity of sample retained in each sieve was placed into a
sample bag and weighed. After subtracting the weight of the empty bag from the
total weight, the proportions of the different grain sizes in each sample was
ascertained by dividing the weight of each grain size by the total sample weight
and multiplying by 100 to give a percentage.
Due to the necessarily small core size the individual samples were not large
enough to follow the recommended method of particle size analysis as detailed by
Brady and Weil (1999). However, attempts were made to follow the standard
procedure as closely as possible, using all remaining material following the
removal of sub-samples for metal analysis and organic matter content analysis.
31
Figure 23 (above): Photograph of core section A1, showing the differences in the grain size and colour of the layers.
Figure 24 (left): Core section A1.1, completing the
lower part of core A1.
32
Figure 25 (above): The upper section of core A4. The dark, organic layer (7) can clearly be seen at the lower end.
Figure 26 (left): Core section A4.1, the lower
section of core
33
4 Findings
4.1 Surface sediment samples
Although the samples were analysed for 18 minor metal elements, this report will
concentrate on lead, zinc, copper and total metal content of each location, with the
full results given in appendix D. Lead, zinc and copper were chosen as these are
the principle metal contaminants from the lead mine industry. To give an
indication of the overall metal contamination, the sum of the individual metal
concentrations are given as total metal content. The results for arsenic were
thought to be unreliable due to interference from the high lead content and were
discarded.
4.1.1 Metal content
As many of the concentrations measured in the samples were outside the
calibration range (see appendix C for ranges), the values given here are computer
extrapolations and may not be exact. The results do, however, give an impression
of the level of contamination in the sediments and indicate the patterns of decay in
metal concentrations with distance from the mine.
The concentrations of lead, copper and zinc and the total metal content measured
at each location are shown on the map in figure 27. The values for each metal are
shown as bar charts of concentration against sample location, allowing
comparisons between locations to be made. Figure 28 contains the lead analysis
results and shows a marked decay in metal concentrations between the mine and
the lake. The zinc results, shown in figure 29, clearly identify location 3, the
dressing floor stream and location 5, the Low Horse Level adit, as major sources
of contamination to the catchment. Figure 30 shows concentrations of copper at
each location and identifies locations 3 and 5 as sources of contamination, with
little input from the tailings dam drainage streams. In addition, it can be seen that
location 10, Glenridding Beck at the footbridge, acts as a sink containing almost
as much copper as the lake itself. The chart in figure 31 shows the total metal
content of the samples and identifies the upper dressing floor stream (location 3)
as the most highly contaminated area in the catchment. The results also give an
impression of the extent of metal contamination in the lake sediments.
34
HHLM High Horse Level Mine
LHLM Low Horse Level Mine
LTLM Lucy Tongue Level Mine
Tailings dams shown by hatched areas
Copper 49
Lead 1019
Zinc 187
Tot metal 3554
Copper 103
Lead 30871
Zinc 187
Tot metals 32398
Copper 560
Lead 58687
Zinc 12358
Tot metals 98855
Copper 270
Lead 41994
Zinc 5282
Tot metals 70551
Copper 502
Lead 36068
Zinc 12452
Tot metals 77309
Copper 268
Lead 27201
Zinc 3978
Tot metals 43603
Copper 267
Lead 23612
Zinc 3774
Tot metals 78388
Copper 98
Lead 11106
Zinc 1329
Tot metals 14658
Copper 86
Lead 7798
Zinc 1348
Tot metals 11700
Copper 416
Lead 10928
Zinc 3618
Tot metals 27910
Copper 236
Lead 13191
Zinc 2172
Tot metals 30071
Copper 181
Lead 5896
Zinc 1192
Tot metals 17896
Copper 533
Lead 6412
Zinc 2580
Tot metals 31149
Not to scale
Lake
Ullswater
N
Glenridding Beck
Swart Beck
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
HHLM
LHLM
13
LTLM
Figure 27 A map of the mine area showing sample locations, concentrations in parts per million of lead, zinc, copper and total metals. Also shown
are the tailings dams and main mine adits
35
Figure 28 shows the concentration of lead measured in sediment samples from each
location.
Figure 29 shows the concentration of zinc measured in sediment samples from each
location.
Lead concentration in beck and lake sediments
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
1

-

G
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4

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B
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a
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a
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5

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B
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7

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Sample location
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
p
p
m
)
Zinc concentration in beck and lake sediments
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
1

-

G
l
e
n
r
i
d
d
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B
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3

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f
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s
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a
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4

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S
w
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B
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c
k

a
b
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L
H
L

a
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5

-

S
w
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t

B
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c
k

b
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l
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w

L
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a
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6

-

S
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B
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c
k

b
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f
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7

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B
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8

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9

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Sample location
C
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c
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r
a
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n

(
p
p
m
)
36
Figure 30 shows the concentration of copper measured in sediment samples from
each location.
Figure 31 shows the total metal content of sediment samples taken at each location.
Copper concentration in beck and lake sediments
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
1

-

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4

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B
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1
3

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Sample location
C
o
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c
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n
t
r
a
t
i
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n

(
p
p
m
)
Total metal concentration in beck and lake sediments
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
1

-

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H
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d
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f
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4

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S
w
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t

B
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k

a
b
o
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L
H
L

a
d
i
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5

-

S
w
a
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t

B
e
c
k

b
e
l
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L
H
L

a
d
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6

-

S
w
a
r
t

B
e
c
k

b
e
f
o
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c
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f
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7

-

G
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g

B
e
c
k

a
f
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8

-

E
a
s
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t
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s

d
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m

d
r
a
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9

-

R
o
a
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s
t
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a
m

b
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l
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e
a
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a
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s
1
0

-

G
l
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r
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d
d
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B
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c
k

a
t
f
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1
1

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l
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2

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l
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3

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r
Sample locations
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
p
p
m
)
37
4.2 Sediment core samples
4.2.1 Sample location
The two sediment cores were extracted, roughly 5 metres apart, from an area of
the lakeshore close to the mouth of Glenridding Beck, as indicated in figure 32
below. These locations were chosen because this part of the shore is frequently
flooded during periods of heavy rainfall, and is likely to receive material carried
from the mine remains at these times.
Figure 32 shows the locations from which the sediment cores were taken.
4.2.2 Core structure
Each core revealed a number of discrete layers along its length, each layer
differing in grain size, colour and organic matter content. Core A1 measured
122cm in total and contained 13 layers. Core A4 measured 114cm in total and
contained 10 layers. A number of layers contained light coloured, angular grains
of quartz and feldspar, which possibly originated from the tailings dams. The
composition of individual layers is detailed in table 2.
A1
A4
Lake
Ullswater
Glenridding Beck
Tree
38
Table 2 Description of the composition of the individual layers within cores A1 and
A4.
Core
A1
Depth (cm) Composition Core
A4
Depth (cm) Composition
1 0 12 Fine gravel and sand,
plant roots
1 0 14 Coarse gravel and sand,
plant roots
2 12 17 Mixed gravel and sand 2 14 26 Fine sand and gravel
3 17 25 Fine, dark brown sand
and silt, organic matter
4 25 28 Light coloured sand
and clay
4 38 46 Coarse gravel and sand
and silt
6 29 41 Coarse and fine gravel
and sand
6 52 58 Fine gravel and sand
7 41 54 Dark brown sand and
clay, organic matter
8 54 66 Coarse and fine gravel 8 67 85 Angular, light coloured
gravel
9 66 71 Dark coloured sand
and clay
9 85 94 Fine gravel and dark
brown sand
10 71 81 Coarse and fine gravel 10 94 114 Angular, light coloured
gravel
12 91 113 Coarse to fine gravel
and sand
4.2.3 Metal content
The minor element analysis results for the sediment cores are presented as bar
charts, with the concentration of each metal plotted against depth. To show the
comparisons between the individual metal content of the cores, the charts are
presented in pairs, beginning with lead in figures 33 and 34, followed by zinc in
figures 35 and 36, copper in figures 37 and 38 and total metal content in figures 39
and 40. The full minor element analysis results are given in appendix E.
The lead content of core A1 ranges between 24000 ppm at roughly 60 cm depth
and 6500 ppm at 15 cm depth. Core A4 contained lower concentrations of lead
throughout, ranging from 16000 ppm at 70 cm to 7000 ppm at 10 cm depth.
Concentrations of zinc measured in core A1 increased gradually with increasing
depth, until 120 cm where a sudden rise to 16500 ppm was observed. Core A4
39
failed to reveal the expected pattern of increasing zinc concentration with depth
peaking at just 3500 ppm at roughly 60 cm depth. The copper content of core A1
increased gradually from 375 ppm at the surface to 1750 ppm at 120 cm. The
copper content of core A4 was much less defined, although the highest
concentration was found at 100cm indicating a general trend of increasing
concentrations with depth. The total metal content of both cores was found to
increase gradually with depth, although core A4 contained lower levels of metals
in comparison to core A1. This difference is to be expected given the lower
concentrations of lead, zinc and copper measured in core A4.
40
Figure 33 Concentration of lead measured in sections of core A1. Figure 34 Concentration of lead measured in sections of core A4.
Concentration of lead in core A4
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
120
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
25
20
15
10
D
e
p
t
h

(
c
m
)
Concentration (ppm)
Concentration of lead in core A1
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
120
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
25
20
15
10
D
e
p
t
h

(
c
m
)
Concentration (ppm)
41
Figure 35 Concentration of zinc measured in core A1. Figure 36 Concentration of zinc measured in core A4.
Concentration of zinc in core A4
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
120
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
25
20
15
10
D
e
p
t
h

(
c
m
)
Concentration (ppm)
Concentration of zinc in core A1
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
120
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
25
20
15
10
D
e
p
t
h

(
c
m
)
Concentration (ppm)
42
Figure 37 Concentration of copper measured in core A1 Figure 38 Concentration of copper measured in core A4.
Concentration of copper in core A1
0 500 1000 1500 2000
120
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
25
20
15
10
M
e
a
n

d
e
p
t
h

o
f

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
c
m
)
Concentration (ppm)
Concentration of copper in core A4
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
120
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
25
20
15
10
D
e
p
t
h

(
c
m
)
Concentration (ppm)
43
Figure 39 shows the total metal content measured in core A1. Figure 40 shows the total metal content measured in core A4.
Total metal content of core A1
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
120
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
25
20
15
10
D
e
p
t
h

(
c
m
)
Concemtration (ppm)
Total metal content of core A4
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
120
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
25
20
15
10
D
e
p
t
h

(
c
m
)
Concentration (ppm)
44
4.2.4 Organic matter content
The weight of organic matter in each sample was divided by the initial sample
weight and multiplied by 100 to give the quantity of organic matter as a
percentage of the initial sample. Table 3 gives the weight and percentage of
organic matter in each sample. Full results are shown in appendix F.
Table 3 contains the weight and percentage of organic material in each layer of cores
A1 and A4.
Core
number Depth
Organic
matter
weight
Organic
matter
CORE
NUMBE
R
Depth
Organic
matter
weight
Organic
matter
A1 (cm) (g) % A4 (cm) (g) %
1 0 12 0.055 2.74 1 0 14 0.04 1.97
2 12 17 0.071 3.64 2 14 26 0.042 2.08
3 17 25 0.2 9.91 3 26 38 0.277 13.68
4 25 28 0.059 3.02 4 38 46 0.05 2.51
5 28 29 0.089 4.37 5 46 52 0.227 11.05
6 29 41 0.045 2.28 6 52 58 0.091 4.46
7 41 54 0.217 10.31 7 58 67 0.461 22.73
8 54 66 0.048 2.38 8 67 85 0.042 2.07
9 66 71 0.046 2.55 9 85 94 0.056 2.82
10 71 81 0.047 1.90 10 94 114 0.036 1.58
11 81 91 0.025 1.42
12 91 113 0.028 1.42
13 113 122 0.035 1.71
The average organic matter content of core A1 is roughly 4%, with a maximum in
section 7 of just over 10%. Core A4 contains an average content of 6.5%, with a
maximum of 22.7% in section 7. The higher organic matter content of these
sections may indicate the presence of a large piece of organic debris buried within
the sediment. The material from these sections was dark coloured, very fine and
soft to the touch and was observed to have a noticeable odour of rotting wood.
4.2.5 Particle size results
The results for the particle size analysis are given in tables 4 and 5 as percentages
of the sub-sample weight. The weights of each fraction are given in appendix G,
together with the total sub-sample weight. It should be noted that the samples
used for particle size analysis were undisturbed sections of the core and as such,
contained organic material. The results therefore, describe both the organic and
inorganic particles in the samples.
45
Table 4 gives the percentage of each particle size found in the layers of core A1, with the median range shown in the grey cell.
Core A1
1
0-12cm
2
12-17cm
3
17-25cm
4
25-28cm
5
28-29cm
6
29-41cm
7
41-54cm
8
54-66cm
9
66-71cm
10
71-81cm
11
81-91cm
12
91-113cm
13
113-122cm
m % % % % % % % % % % % % %
4000 10.49 14.92 1.90 1.81 0.83 42.63 3.02 32.78 15.31 55.12 18.06 53.58 47.75
2000-4000 12.18 7.47 1.57 5.37 2.72 11.74 3.35 13.17 8.07 11.48 12.70 13.82 18.11
1400-2000 6.68 5.32 3.25 8.29 3.55 8.11 3.06 7.81 1.75 5.64 10.84 3.67 6.27
1000-1400 7.55 4.82 2.25 11.28 4.21 7.50 3.64 7.93 6.08 4.07 10.42 3.37 4.21
850-1000 5.33 3.11 2.83 7.04 3.11 4.00 2.15 4.29 9.58 2.18 7.38 2.03 2.24
500-850 17.20 10.53 5.40 25.34 16.21 11.39 10.05 13.52 14.06 6.48 21.26 7.33 6.95
300-500 18.07 14.03 11.51 21.32 24.80 7.25 17.66 7.95 13.91 6.47 10.81 5.49 6.57
210-300 8.14 8.84 12.41 8.50 16.25 2.31 13.59 3.52 8.71 3.16 4.29 2.99 2.71
150-210 6.52 8.95 22.28 4.40 13.12 1.80 15.65 3.18 6.50 2.41 2.16 2.23 2.01
105-150 3.44 8.75 15.75 2.46 5.89 1.22 8.84 1.72 4.82 1.53 0.70 1.65 0.99
90-105 1.20 4.39 4.21 1.00 3.34 0.80 4.83 1.03 2.21 0.20 0.28 0.96 0.32
63-90 0.94 3.61 5.77 1.46 1.93 0.63 5.48 0.65 3.89 0.37 0.32 0.81 0.32
<63 2.26 5.25 10.87 1.73 4.04 0.62 8.70 2.45 5.14 0.89 0.79 2.07 1.55
46
Table 5 gives the percentage of each particle size found in the layers of core A4, with the median range shown in the grey cell.
Core A4
1
0-14cm
2
14-26cm
3
26-38cm
4
38-46cm
5
46-52cm
6
52-58cm
7
58-67cm
8
67-85cm
9
85-94cm
10
94-114cm
m % % % % % % % % % %
4000 39.30 13.15 0.29 57.79 12.47 25.94 10.77 41.37 69.92 31.45
2000-4000 14.38 13.65 0.49 11.54 10.17 14.31 10.20 12.08 8.21 22.37
1400-2000 7.77 11.56 2.95 5.28 7.68 7.54 8.41 6.72 2.52 10.39
1000-1400 5.84 10.05 3.64 4.20 6.17 7.37 5.01 5.16 1.91 8.48
850-1000 3.70 6.54 1.59 1.98 4.28 4.78 2.29 2.99 0.92 4.09
500-850 14.08 18.12 4.01 6.33 12.15 17.38 13.58 9.44 3.34 10.21
300-500 11.12 12.91 7.31 4.17 10.87 11.24 12.98 7.19 2.84 5.93
210-300 2.04 6.45 8.66 2.23 5.72 4.55 9.29 4.18 2.07 2.45
150-210 0.64 3.47 15.87 1.56 5.62 2.39 8.75 3.43 1.95 1.63
105-150 0.34 1.97 19.23 1.62 5.94 1.41 6.17 2.86 1.73 1.04
90-105 0.10 0.44 10.88 0.75 3.17 0.42 2.72 1.12 0.85 0.30
63-90 0.11 0.71 7.87 0.76 3.43 0.60 3.18 0.61 1.07 0.38
<63 0.57 0.98 17.21 1.78 12.32 2.08 6.67 2.85 2.66 1.28
47
5 Discussion
5.1 Interpretation of results
The following section of the report is divided into two parts, the first describing the
beck and lake sediment results and the second discussing the core results.
5.1.1 Beck and Lake sediments
Analysis of the sediment samples collected from the lake and streams revealed
abnormally high concentrations of lead, copper and zinc, with total metal content
ranging between 1% and 10% mass per unit mass of sediment. The lowest metal
concentrations were found in the sediments of Glenridding Beck, upstream of the
mine workings (location 1), which contained 1019 ppm lead, 187 ppm zinc, 48 ppm
copper and a total metal content of 3554 ppm. However, these concentrations are
higher than the background levels anticipated, indicating that contamination is
reaching the beck from the smaller mining operations higher in the valley.
Sediments from the western tailings dam drainage stream were found to contain
high levels of all metals, particularly lead measuring 30871ppm. The sample
contained over 3% metals, indicating that this is a substantial source of
contamination to Glenridding Beck.
The main contribution of metals to Glenridding Beck is likely to be from the smaller
Swart Beck, which flows directly through the mine area. As described in chapter 2,
Swart Beck receives input from several small streams and drainage pipes, and it was
the uppermost of these, the High Horse Level dressing floor stream, which revealed
the highest concentrations of metals recorded. The total metal content was found to
be 98854 ppm, over half of which was lead. As the stream flows over fine, sandy
mine tailings, high metal levels were expected, although not of the magnitude
found.
Sediments collected from Swart Beck above the Low Horse Level adit (location 4)
contained lower concentrations than those of the dressing floor stream, indicating
that a large proportion of dissolved metals settle out of the water and become
immobilised in the sediments close to the source. The addition of mine water from
48
the Low Horse Level adit to Swart Beck (location 5) causes an increase in copper,
zinc and total metal content, although lead decreases further from 41994 ppm at
location 4, to 36068 ppm.
Due to the lack of suitable sample sites, the impact on Swart Beck from the Lucy
Level Mine drainage could not be identified. However, analysis of sediments from
Swart Beck, upstream of the confluence with Glenridding Beck and downstream of
the drainage pipe, revealed a substantial decay in lead, copper and zinc, with overall
metal content measuring 43603 ppm compared to 77309 ppm at location 5. This
suggests that the mine water does not contain enough metals to significantly
increase the sediment metal concentrations of Swart Beck.
The combined input of Swart Beck and the west tailings dam stream, however, has a
considerable effect on the sediment chemistry of Glenridding Beck, causing the lead
concentration to increase from 1019 ppm at location 1 to 23612 ppm downstream of
the confluence with Swart Beck. Overall metal content also shows a large increase
from 3554 ppm to 46337 ppm.
A further input to Glenridding Beck is from the roadside stream, which receives
flow from two streams issuing from the east tailings dam. Considering the origin of
these streams, analysis of the sediments revealed surprisingly low metal
concentrations in comparison with other locations. Material collected from the
stone trough, over which the upper stream flows, contained 11106 ppm of lead,
3774 ppm of zinc, 98 ppm of copper and an overall metal content of 14658 ppm. A
further sample, taken from the roadside ditch below the second stream, contained
7798 ppm lead, 1348 ppm zinc, 86 ppm copper and 11699 ppm total metals. The
marked difference between the two samples suggests that the trough may be acting
as a filter, effectively removing metals from the water and retaining them in the
sediments.
A sample taken from beneath the footbridge on Glenridding Beck revealed the
expected decay in metal concentrations, with the exception of copper, which
increased to 416 ppm from 267 ppm at location 7. Further downstream at location
11, sediment contained lower concentrations of copper and zinc, but increased
49
levels of lead and total metal content. As the sediments in this part of the beck
contained a greater quantity of fine particles and organic material than those
upstream, it is probable that there is increased potential for adsorption of metals to
organic and inorganic particles. In addition, the sample was taken from a deep pool,
which is likely to collect metal laden particulates from the flow of water.
Sediment collected from the mouth of Glenridding Beck revealed a substantial
reduction in all metal concentrations, continuing the decay pattern seen further
upstream. With the exception of location 1, above the mine area, the concentration
of lead is lower here than at any other location. The lack of fine particles in this
area may be responsible for the drop in metal levels. The sample taken from the
shore of Lake Ullswater indicated that despite the decay in metal levels along the
Glenridding Beck, a substantial quantity of contamination is still reaching the lake.
5.1.2 Sediment cores
Analysis of the two sediment cores produced quite different results, indicating that
the two extraction locations are subject to different conditions. As expected, the
metal analysis of core A1 revealed a general trend of increasing metal concentration
with increasing depth. The individual metals followed varying patterns, but on
average higher concentrations of copper, zinc, lead and total metal content were
contained within the lower end of the core. The second layer (12 to 17 cm) was
found to contain the lowest concentrations of all three metals and also of total metal
content, whilst layer 13 (113 to 122 cm) contained the highest concentrations of
copper, zinc and total metals. The lead content was highest in layer 8 (54 66 cm)
at 21796 ppm, with layer 13 containing the second highest of 20423 ppm.
The organic matter content of core A1 decreased with depth, as would be expected
in any soil or sediment profile due to natural decomposition processes, and as a
result, no correlation between organic matter content and metal concentrations was
found. It was hoped that the particle size analysis would indicate a relationship
between the percentage of particles of a size <63m and the concentration of metals
in each sample, due to the affinity of heavy metals to clay and silt sized particles.
No relationship was found to exist however, and as can be seen in figure 37, the
percentage of particles <63m actually decreased with depth in a similar manner to
50
organic matter content. When the two are plotted together (see figure 41), it
becomes apparent that the percentage of particles <63m in each layer is related to
the amount of organic matter present. This is to be expected, as organic material
below the surface tends to be well decomposed and colloidal in size. An abundance
of such material in the subsurface sediments would therefore contribute to the
percentage of material that is less than 63m in size.
F
Figure 41 shows the percentages of organic material and of particles <63um in size
contained in the layers of core A1.
A similar trend of increasing metal concentrations with depth existed in core A4,
although not as pronounced as seen in core A1. Section 8 (67 85 cm) contained
the highest concentrations of lead and total metals, and the second highest
concentrations of copper and zinc. Section 1 (0 14 cm) revealed the lowest
concentrations of lead and total metals, and the third lowest concentrations of
copper and zinc.
Again, some correlation was found between organic matter content and the <63m
fraction as illustrated in figure 42 below, and none between these and metal content.
Elevated levels of organic matter can be seen in sections 3 (26 38 cm), 5 (48 52
Percentage of organic matter and particles <63um in core A1
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
0

-

1
2
1
2

-

1
7
1
7

-

2
5
2
5

-

2
8
2
8

-

2
9
2
9

-

4
1
4
1

-

5
4
5
4

-

6
6
6
6

-

7
1
7
1

-

8
1
8
1

-

9
1
9
1

-

1
1
3
1
1
3

-

1
2
2
Core section (cm)
O
r
g
a
n
i
c

m
a
t
t
e
r

(
%
)
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
<
6
3
u
m

(
%
)
Organic matter %
% of sample <63um
51
cm) and 7 (58 67 cm), which may indicate the presence of tree roots due to the
proximity of the core location to the tree.
Figure 42 shows the percentage of organic material and particle sizes of <63um in size
contained in layers of core A4.
In comparison, it would appear that core A4 shows a more random distribution of
metal concentrations, organic matter and <63m particle size content, than core A1.
This is possibly due to the closer proximity of location A4 to the lake. Core A1
contained more than twice the concentration of metals as core A4, indicating that a
reduction in metal content may occur with distance from the Glenridding Beck
mouth. During periods of high rainfall and flooding, location A1 would receive the
sediment-loaded water from the beck first and would therefore receive the larger
proportion of contamination. In addition, the location of A4 is more prone to wave
action from the lake, causing the sediments to be more uniformly distributed.
Therefore, the sediment chemistry of core A1 is likely to be predominantly
influenced by the beck and that of core A4 influenced by the lake.
Percentage of organic matter and particles <63um in core A4
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
0

-

1
4
1
4

-

2
6
2
6

-

3
8
3
8

-

4
6
4
6

-

5
2
5
2

-

5
8
5
8

-

6
7
6
7

-

8
5
8
5

-

9
4
9
4

-

1
1
5
Core section (cm)
O
r
g
a
n
i
c

m
a
t
t
e
r

(
%
)
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
18.00
20.00
<
6
3
u
m

(
%
)
Organic matter %
% of sample <63um
52
5.2 Experimental Errors
The possible errors associated with this investigation are numerous and difficult to
quantify, due to the potential for sample contamination and the fact that many of the
minor element analysis results obtained were outside the calibration range. As
described in chapter 3.3.1, many of the results were extrapolations from the
minimum and maximum calibration values and may not be entirely accurate. In
addition, the calibration of the x-ray spectrometer is based upon basaltic rock
standards, which may not be suitable for sediment analysis. The use of riverine
sediment standards would remove this source of error. The instrumental systematic
errors are limited to the balance calibration error of +/- 0.001g and the spectrometer
error of approximately +/- 3%.
As plastics contain minute quantities of metals, it is possible that the samples could
have been contaminated by the trowel used to collect the sediment, the sample bags
used for storage and the other plastic apparatus used during sample preparation.
The Perspex tubes, metal corer and core catcher used to obtain the sediment cores
may also have been a source of contamination. A further source of contamination is
from the steel moulds and dies used to form the samples into briquettes. Metal
contamination from the substances used to form the briquettes is likely to have been
minimal, as the metal content of orthoboric acid is quoted to be <0.001%. The
metal content of the PVA glue is not known, but is likely to be of a similar value.
Cross contamination could have occurred at numerous stages of the sample
preparation and analysis. The process of grinding and sieving the sediments created
large amounts of dust, which may have settled on clean equipment and previously
prepared samples. A small quantity of particles retained on the plastic film used to
cover the briquettes during XRF analysis was found to distort the results
significantly, making it imperative that all equipment was thoroughly cleaned
between samples. In addition, disturbance of the core samples during the coring and
extraction processes could cause mixing of the sediment before analysis, which
would also create error in the results.
53
5.3 Environmental Implications
5.3.1 Sediment contamination
The severity of metal contamination in the Glenridding Beck catchment and Lake
Ullswater can only be realised when the concentrations measured are compared
against expected background levels and existing data collected from similar areas.
Information regarding background metal concentrations in freshwater sediments is
limited, although Nriagu (1978) conducted a survey of rivers and streams in various
parts of the world and calculated the average lead abundances for riverine sediments
to be 23 ppm. In a similar survey of world lakes, including Windermere and
Estwaite, the average lead content was found to be 16 ppm in pre-industrial
sediments and 95 ppm in surficial sediments (Nriagu, 1978). The lead content of
surficial sediments from Lake Ullswater at the mouth of Glenridding Beck (6412
ppm) is comparable to the 5000 ppm lead content of the most contaminated lake
surveyed, Lake Coeur DAlene in Idaho, which also receives massive discharges of
mine waste (Nriagu, 1978). It should be recognised, however, that due to the
variability of the natural geochemical background, natural levels of metals might be
as high or higher than man-made sources of pollution (Plant et al, 1997). It is
therefore important to discover the background metal concentrations of the area in
order to eliminate the remote possibility that the metal concentrations measured in
the sediment samples are natural.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (USA) have produced a
series of 12 screening quick reference tables for pollutants in sediments, water and
soils and it is from these that the contents of table 6 were taken.
Table 6: Extract of the screening quick reference table for Inorganics in Solids
(NOAA, 2000).
Background
concentration (ppm)
TEL - Threshold
Effects Level (ppm)
PEL - Probable Effects
Level (ppm)
Copper 10-25 37.5 86
Lead 4-17 35 127
Zinc 7-38 91.3 520
TEL concentration below which adverse effects on benthic organisms are not expected to occur.
PEL concentration above which adverse effects will frequently occur.
TEL/PELs are based on benthic community metrics and toxicity test results.
Based on the background concentrations quoted, it can be seen that the impact of
Greenside mine on the sediment chemistry of the catchment and lake is extensive,
54
raising lead concentrations up to three and a half thousand times the anticipated
natural level. Given that the metal concentrations measured in sediments at each
location were several orders of magnitude higher than the probable effects levels
quoted in table 6, it is unsurprising that no evidence of biota was observed in either
of the two becks within the mine area or along the shore of Lake Ullswater.
5.3.2 Sediment-water interactions
The data obtained for the lead and zinc content of the water indicates considerable
contamination, with levels raised to well above the Environmental Quality
Standards quoted in chapter 2.3. Figures 43 and 44 show the concentrations of lead
in water and sediments with the concentration of zinc in sediments and water shown
in figures 45 and 46. The values plotted for the metal content of the water are the
mean of three individual sample results and therefore give an indication of the
average metal content at each location. Copper and the total metal content of the
water were not measured. It is apparent from figures 43 and 44, that the
concentrations of lead in water and sediments follow a similar pattern, despite being
of different magnitudes. This indicates that the lower sediment concentrations in
the low part of the catchment are not due to increased dissolved lead, but rather the
result of particles settling out of the water closer to the source. Zinc concentrations
also follow similar patterns in sediments and water, with the exception of location 8,
where the concentration of zinc in the water rises to 565.6 ppb. This could be due to
analysis error or the result of sediment disturbance during sample collection.
The conductivity of the water at all sample locations fell in the range 100s cm
-1
to
800s cm
-1
, which is considered normal for tap water. As conductivity represents
the concentration of dissolved solids, it is not surprising that increases in
conductivity were found to correspond with increases in the lead and zinc content of
the water. It was also found that at locations where conductivity is high, the total
metal content of the sediments is reduced. This suggests that at certain locations,
the reduction in the concentration of total metals does perhaps signify the
mobilisation of metals into the water, although comprehensive metal analysis of the
water would be required to investigate this possibility further.
55
Figure 43. Lead concentrations measured in water samples from the becks and lake.
Figure 44 Concentration of lead in sediments at sampled locations.
Lead content of the water at sampled locations
0
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90
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(
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)
Lead concentration in beck and lake sediments
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(
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)
56
Figure 45 Concentration of zinc measured in water samples from the becks and lake.
Figure 46 Zinc concentrations measured in sediments from the becks and lake.
Zinc content of water at sampled locations
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(
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)
57
In the aquatic environment, heavy metals will be found in four main phases: in ion
exchange sites, incorporated into or onto the surface of inorganic precipitates or
incorporated into organic compounds (Dowdy & Volk, 1992). The pH of the water
determines the solubility of a metal; a low pH will cause many metals to become
increasingly soluble, and hence, more mobile and bioavailable than at higher pH
levels (Alloway and Ayres, 1993). When the pH increases, the ionic concentration
of the metal in solution decreases due to the occurrence of precipitation, thereby
reducing the mobility of the metal (Dowdy & Volk, 1992). At present, the minor
changes in pH along the catchment appear to have little effect on the water or
sediment chemistry. However, the slight to moderate acidity of the water means
that the metal cations will be bound less strongly to the sediments and any major
reduction in pH will cause an increase in mobilisation of metals from the solid to the
aquatic phase. This in turn will cause the metals to travel further in solution,
thereby increasing the extent of contamination from the mine. In addition, the
increased mobility and bioavailability of metals in acid conditions causes the
associated toxicity to be more severe than at higher pHs (Alloway and Ayres,
1993).
A further cause of metal release from the sediments is that of eutrophication, a
problem that appears to be increasing in Lake Ullswater (Environment Agency,
2000). Due to the intensive farming methods adopted during recent years, the
nutrient input to aquatic systems is rising, often resulting in the eutrophication of the
water. This can cause the development of anoxic conditions at the sediment-water
interface, under which iron and manganese oxides are reduced (Stumm, 1992). As
these oxides have unusually high sorption affinities for metal cations, their
reduction will cause the release of the metals into solution (Bidoglio & Stumm,
1994). Under normal conditions, this process is part of a balanced cycle, but if
severe eutrophication occurs, reduction will exceed oxidation and metal enrichment
of the lake will follow.
In addition to the influence of chemical conditions on metal mobility, the physical
transportation by surface water must also be considered to play an important part in
the dispersal of mine waste. The transportation of ore-minerals with country rock
has the effect of diluting the associated heavy metals within the water column. The
58
sorting of heavy minerals according to their relative densities then counteracts this
dilution (Merefield, 1995). When the velocity of a stream slows, the large heavy
minerals will settle out first, followed by the smaller heavy minerals and then the
light minerals according to size and density (Merefield, 1995). The highest
concentrations are therefore likely to found on the insides of meanders, at the
confluence of a swift tributary with a slower main channel and in natural riffles
caused by imbedded rocks and other large objects. Concentrations of metals stored
in the sediments will also change according to the time of year, due to the changes
in the pattern and volume of rainfall with the seasons (Bradley, 1995).
5.3.3 Tailings dams
Ghosh (2000) performed analysis of the metal content of the tailings dam material,
again during the same period as the sediment analysis. A number of shallow (50 to
60 cm) cores were extracted from the top of each dam, separated into discrete
sections according to grain size and colour, and the minor element composition
analysed using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. The organic matter content of the
samples was also determined and the results of the metal analysis and the organic
matter content are given in appendix H.
Although a number of the samples revealed very high metal concentrations, in
general the material was found to contain lower concentrations than the stream
sediments, possibly due to the effects of leaching by rainwater over time. It is also
known that the material on the top of the dams was deposited during the final
working period of the mine, when processing techniques had reached a greater
efficiency than in earlier years. It is possible therefore, that material from deeper
within the dams would contain higher concentrations than those on the surface.
The highest metal concentrations were found in the topsoil and clay layers, and in a
thin red coloured layer found at 43 cm depth in the east dam. Of all the samples
taken from the dams, the red layer contained the greatest concentration of metals,
with a total metal content of 83 000 ppm and zinc concentrations of 58 000 ppm.
Table 7, below, contains the data for one core extracted from the east dam, together
with the expected background concentrations for soil.
59
Table 7 Concentrations of lead, copper and zinc measured in layers of core E,
extracted from the east tailings dam (Ghosh, 2000).
Although leachates from the dams are probably diminishing with time, as indicated
by the decreasing sediment metal content with decreasing depth seen in the lake
core results, the slump of the west dam in 1988 identified the most serious threat to
the catchment and lake. It was hoped that the effects of the collapse would be
evident in the lake sediment cores, but unfortunately, this was not the case. What is
evident is the magnitude of contamination reaching the lake by natural hydrological
processes, which together with the data in table 7, gives an idea of the damage that
would be caused by a further slippage of tailings material into one of the becks.
Depth
(cm) Description
Pb
(ppm)
Cu
(ppm)
Zn
(ppm)
Total
metals
(ppm)
1-3
Root layer
4106 579.4 272.1 7030.5
4-6
Dark brown layer
4169 621.4 325.2 7533
6-17
Grey/brown layer
1993 85.4 1084.1 5013.6
25-27
Cream coloured clay layer
28949 565.1 16807 50749
37-38
Brown clay layer
13117 258 4975.8 22901
42-43
Ferrous red coloured layer
18602 1796.6 57936 83458
52-53
Grey clay layer
21115 578.9 12871 36722
60
6 Conclusions
6.1 Summation of report
Metal contamination from the abandoned Greenside lead and silver mine was found
to be extensive, ranging from the headwaters of Swart Beck to Lake Ullswater in the
valley below. The principle sources of metals to the catchment were found to be the
High Horse Level dressing floors, the mine drainage waters and the two large
tailings dams above the confluence of Swart Beck with Glenridding Beck.
Analysis of sediment samples taken from numerous locations along the length of
Glenridding Beck revealed the expected decay in metal concentrations with distance
from the mine remains. However, despite this decay the lake still receives sufficient
contamination to cause elevated concentrations of metals in both the sediments and
the water. Concentrations of lead and zinc in the water were found to exceed the
Environmental Quality Standards required of salmonid watercourses such as
Glenridding Beck and Lake Ullswater.
The slight to moderate acidity of the water within the catchment means that any
substantial reduction in pH would cause the mobilisation of metals from the
sediments to the water, leading to a more widespread contamination problem. The
additional problem of increasing eutrophication of the lake implies that the balance
between the sediment and water chemistry is precarious and will require regular
monitoring and maintenance to ensure the future quality of the lake water.
The results of the core sediment analysis revealed a probable reduction in leachates
from the mine over time, and those of the beck sediments revealed that the highest
concentrations of metals are found close to the source. However, the action of the
streams and rainwater percolating through the site means that, despite these
discoveries, the ultimate sink for much of the metal contamination is likely to be the
lake. As these metals are persistent in the environment, they will continue to
accumulate in the lake sediments unless the quantity of leachates from the mine is
reduced. Due to the usage of the lake for public water supplies and its popularity as
a recreation and tourist location, further increases in the metal content of the water
could have serious repercussions on human health and the economic security of the
surrounding villages. In addition, the lake provides a habitat for a diverse
61
population of biota, including the Schelly, which is rarely found in the United
Kingdom.
6.2 Future management
In light of the results obtained during this study and the issues discussed in the
previous chapters, it is apparent that the greatest threat to the water quality of the
Glenridding Beck catchment and Lake Ullswater is from the metal-laden tailings
dam material. In order to mitigate this threat, steps must be taken to, a) reduce the
angle of repose of the dams in order to lessen the potential for collapse, b) cap the
tops of the dams to reduce the quantity of rainwater penetrating the material, and c)
encourage the growth of vegetation on the lower slopes of the dams to provide
stability. A further possible measure is the installation of troughs below the
drainage system outputs. The analysis results of sediments contained within the
trough at the base of the east dam suggest that this may be an efficient method of
removing particulate matter from the drainage water as it leaves the dams.
Management of the water quality within the lake requires regular monitoring of pH
and nutrient levels, to prevent the release of metals from the sediments due to acidic
or eutrophic conditions. Acidic conditions can be lessened by the application of
lime to the water until a neutral pH is reached. The control of the eutrophication
problem is more complicated and would require the monitoring and if possible, the
control of nutrient input from surrounding farmland. The installation of sediment
traps within the lower reaches of Glenridding Beck would facilitate the regular
monitoring of the quantity and quality of sediments being transported to the lake.
The monitoring of sediment in preference to water samples has the advantage of
being less susceptible to contamination and errors during analysis, due to the higher
concentrations of metals held within the sediment. As sediments may act as
integrators of environmental fluctuations in heavy metal concentrations their
analysis will give results that are more representative of average conditions over a
period of time than those obtained from analysis of water samples (Jones, 1978).
Additionally, sediment and water samples should be taken from the becks at
locations well above the mine workings, in order to provide accurate background
metal concentrations in the area.
62
In conclusion, the severity of metal contamination revealed in this investigation
gives rise to concerns over the future health of the lake, and further investigation
and regular monitoring is recommended to assess the stability of the entire system.
Before the solutions can be proposed and implemented, the problem domain must
be fully understood.
63
References
Adams, J., 1988. Mines of the Lake District fells, Dalesman, Clapham, p128.
Alloway, B.J., and Ayres, D.C., 1993. Chemical Principles of Environmental
Pollution, Blackie Academic and Professional, p154.
Bidoglio, G., and Stumm, W., 1994. Chemistry of Aquatic Systems: Local and
Global Perspectives, Kluwer Academic Publishers, the Netherlands, p343.
Brady, N.C., and Weil, R.R., 1999, The nature and Properties of Soils, Prentice-
Hall, 127-128.
Bradley, S.B., 1995. Long-term Dispersal of Metals in Mineralised Catchments by
Fluvial Processes, In: Foster, I.D.L., Gurnell, A.M., and Webb, B.W. (eds.),
Sediment and Water Quality in River Catchments, John Wiley & Sons Ltd,
Chichester, p164-165.
Buchman, M.F., 1999. NOAA Screening Quick Reference Tables, NOAA
HAZMAT Report 99-1, Seattle WA, Coastal Protection and Restoration
Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 12 pages.
Dowdy, R.H., and Volk, V.V., 1992. Chemical Mobility and Reactivity in Soil
Systems, p230.
Environment Agency, 2000. A Report on the Impact of Discharge and Spoil Heaps
into Surrounding Watercourses and Ullswater, Greenside Mine Task Team,
pp 7-8, 17-20.
Ghosh, A., 2000. An Investigation of Contamination Risk at Greenside Lead Mine,
Cumbria, Unpublished.
Jones, R.E., 1978. Heavy metals in the estuarine environment, Water Research
Centre, Stevenage, p22.
Lake District National Park Authority, 2000. http://www.lake-district.gov.uk/
Matheson, I., and Jones, C., 1992. Beneath the Lakeland Fells, Cumbrias mining
Heritage, Red Earth Publications, pp120-121.
Maxwell, J.R., 2000. A hydrochemical study of the Glenridding Beck Catchment in
order to address chemical fluxes entering the system as a result of past
mining activity, Unpublished
Merefield, 1995. Sediment Mineralogy and the Environmental Impact of Mining,
In: Foster, I.D.L., Gurnell, A.M., and Webb, B.W. (eds.), Sediment and
Water Quality in River Catchments, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester,
p145-147.
64
Moseley, F., 1990. The Lake District. Geologists' Association guides, Geologists'
Association, pp 11-14.
Murphy, S., 1996. Grey Gold: men, mining and metallurgy at the Greenside lead
mine in Cumbria, England, 1825 to 1962, Moiety Publishing, pp 6-8, 14-16,
28, 62, 69, 80, 387 & 437.
Nriagu, J.O., 1978. Biochemistry of Lead in the Environment, Vol. 1, Elsevier
Biomedical Press, Holland, pp55-60.
Ordnance Survey, 1997. Section of outdoor Leisure Map 5 reproduced by
permission of Ordnance Survey on behalf of The Controller of Her Majesty's
Stationery Office, Crown Copyright NC/00/1125.
Philips. 1990. Introduction to X-ray Spectrometry, Customer Support Training
Booklet, Ch 2, pp 1-16 & Ch 4, pp 1-9.
Plant, J.A., Klaver, G., Locutura, J., Salminen, R., Vriana, K., and Fordyce, F.M.,
1997. The Forum of European Geological Surveys Geochemistry Task
Group Inventory 1994 1996, Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Vol.
59, pp123-146.
Scott Doherty Associates, 1999. Greenside Mine, Glenridding Geo-environmental
and Structural assessment, Vol. 1, pp 6-11, 13-14, 21-22, 38-47 and Vol. 2,
Appendix K.
Shaw, W.T., 1970. Mining in the Lake Counties, Dalesman, pp 77-80.
Stumm, W., 1992. Chemistry of the solid-water interface, Wiley & Sons Inc, New
York, pp380-383
Tyler, I., 1992. Greenside: A Tale of Lakeland Miners, Red Earth Publications,
Ulverston, p 11, 174-176.
65
Acknowledgements
Many thanks to the Environment Agency and the Lake District Nation Park
Association for providing invaluable information, and to Mr Guy Weller for his
time and assistance.
Thanks also Dr Andrew Binley for his time, guidance and patience, to Anita Ghosh
and Robert Maxwell for allowing the use of their data, and to Vicky Burnett and
Anne Wilkinson for their help during the sample analysis.
Finally, a very big thank-you to my family, especially to my husband for his endless
support and encouragement.
66
Glossary
adit mine entrance
andesite a light-coloured volcanic rock, with identifiable crystals
anoxic deficiency or absence of oxygen
basalt a dark, fine grained, mafic igneous rock
bioavailable availability of substance for uptake by organisms
briquettes circular cakes of finely ground material used in x-ray fluorescence
analysis
chalcopyrite brass-yellow coloured mineral similar to pyrite, often found in
clumps
characteristic radiation when high energy electrons strike the target and orbital
electrons are removed from some of the target atoms, causing the movement
of electrons between electron shells and the emission an X-ray photon, the
energy of which is equivalent to the difference in energy levels between the
two shells involved
continuous radiation caused by the deceleration of the bombarding electrons as
they collide with electrons in the target (anode) material
dacite a course-grained plutonic rock with salt and pepper colouring
dressing floor area where ore was washed and dressed prior to transport
dike a tabular intrusive body of greater length and breadth than thickness
eutrophication the process of nutrient enrichment of aquatic bodies, usually by
nitrates and phosphates
evapotranspiration a term describing the combined water loss due to evaporation
from the earths surface and transpiration from the surfaces of a plant
faults a fracture dividing a rock into two sections that have visibly moved relative
to each other
fluvial deposits sediments deposited by water
galena lead sulphide
glacial till rock debris deposited by a glacier
hades the direction in which a vein of rock runs
hushing the removal of top-soil and vegetation with the use of water
infiltration capacity the limiting rate of the soils ability to soak up water, where
the maximum permissible infiltration rate decreases with increasing time
67
ion exchange the exchange of positively charged cations on a negatively charged
inorganic particle, i.e. a clay mineral
leachates materials in solution removed by the action of water
made ground areas of land that have been reformed by the action of man
metasediments sedimentary rock that has undergone regional metamorphism
mudstone a fine grained, sedimentary rock
orogeny mountain building event
oxidation the loss of electrons by a substance
pyroclastic rocks fragments of volcanic material ejected during an eruption
qualitative involving quality or kind
quantitative involving the measurement of quantity or amount
porphyry an igneous rock containing some large grains within a smaller-grained
matrix
reduction the gain of electrons by a substance
riverine sediments sediments from within a river or stream
rhyolite light-brown to grey, fine grained extrusive rock
scree debris formed by the weathering of rock
secondary fluorescent radiation radiation emitted from a sample following its
bombardment with continuous and characteristic radiation
sills horizontal, tabular igneous intrusions running between parallel layers of
bedded country rock
siltstone a clastic rock containing mostly silt-sized material
sorption the removal of an ion or molecule from the soil solution by adsorption
and absorption
sphalerite zinc sulphide
subsidiary greywacke sandstone
tuff a solid rock formed from the consolidation and cementing together of tephra
turbidity current a mass of water and sediment that flows downhill along the
floor of an ocean or lake because it is denser than the surrounding water
68
Appendices
Appendix A Rainfall readings
Table 8 1994 rainfall readings taken at Grizedale Bridge NY391163 Altitude 146m
(Scott Doherty Associates, 2000).
Date Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1 13 37.5 3.5 2 0.5 0.5 3 3.5 0.5
2 9 23 3 0.5 17 7 14.5 13.5 11.5
3 27 7.5 4 22.5 17.5 12.5 30 4.5 8.5 16.5
4 3 0.5 35 5.5 15 0.5 5 4 12.5 13.5
5 6.5 11 6 8 2.5 1.5 3.5 0.5 17.5
6 0.5 10 12 21 1 2 4.5 23.5 20.5
7 3.5 7.5 6 0.5 7.5 0.5 63
8 9 25 22.5 26.5 0.5 3.5 7 24 3.5
9 12 0.5 1.5 8 2 3.5 21.5 6.5 7.5
10 1.5 9 0.5 15 45.5 1 16
11 24 6 2.5 23.5 0.5 3 39
12 23.5 39.5 1 16 20 1
13 22.5 9 1 48.5 6.5
14 13.5 0.5 0.5 16.5 0.5
15 5.5 0.5 8 2 2.5 2.5 3.5 5.5
16 1 3 1.5 8 0.5 6.5 4
17 0.5 1.5 1 16 33
18 11 2.5 0.5 2.5 3 1 17.5 11.5
19 5 1 9 0.5 3 3 12.5 13.5 1.5
20 1.5 1.5 0.5 4 0.5 5 2
21 2 0.5 13 36 1.5 2.5 1.5 12.5 1
22 27.5 14 7 14 18.5 21.5 2 0.5
23 0.5 30.5 11.5 4 9 9 1.5
24 12.5 0.5 7 5 5 4 17.5 10.5 3
25 21 18.5 4 14.5 8.5 3 0.5 11.5 0.5 13.5
26 31 5.5 0.5 12 11.5 9.5 10.5 0.5 29.5
27 11.5 28.5 26 0.5 7.5 0.5 7 21.5
28 1 3 6 0.5 0.5 11 1 32
29 7.5 3 3 28
30 4.5 23.5 1.5 1 1.5 22.5 28.5
31 42.5 22 19.5 9 16 0.5
TOTAL 329 153.5 354.5 193 65.5 70 75.5 144 178.5 156 220 426
MAX
DAY
42.5 37.5 39.5 36 17.5 17 19.5 30 45.5 22.5 48.5 63
69
1 1 4 1.5 9 1.5
2 30.5 8 2 1.5 3 1
3 2 1 2 2.5 0.5 3 6.5
4 18.5 14 0.5 3.5 2 0.5
5 9 0.5 12.5 0.5 2
6 1 2 1 0.5 0.5 8.5 2.5 0.5 3.5
7 2.5 2.5 9.5 2.5 3.5 0.5
8 2.5 18 4.5
9 7.5 3 12.5 1
10 19 13.5 0.5 7 7
11 35 2 6.5 1 0.5 38 0.5
12 1 17 6 3.5
13 2.5 17 4
14 3.5 20 2.5 0.5 1.5 9.5 30
15 2.5 27 4.5 1.5 44.5 0.5
16 21.5 4.5 20 1.5 8.5 2 7.5
17 15 4 25.5 10.5 1 12
18 14.5 49.5 11.5 2 7.5 0.5 1 0.5
19 21 13.5 1 0.5 3 12.5 0.5
20 15.5 35 1.5 1 5.5 11.5
21 45 32.5 0.5 11 12.5
22 19 29.5 3.5 0.5 0.5 4.5 9
23 3.5 0.5 1.5 5 25.5 6.5 38 37
24 1 23 0.5 6 1 0.5 7.5
25 6.5 14.5 19.5 20.5 4.5
26 2.5 18.5 26 1 8.5 0.5
27 17.5 6 0.5 13 2 10 2
28 14.5 24.5 5 8 0.5 1 1
29 1 1.5 0.5 0.5
30 55.5 1 1 7 9 1
31 33.5 2
TOTAL 354 359.5 229 31 132.5 22.5 68.5 9.5 111.5 12 205 37.5
MAX
DAY
55.5 49.5 25.5 10.5 26 12.5 12 3.5 38 9 44.5 12.5
70
1 0.5 12 0.5 5.5 2 1.5 7 9.8
2 0.5 31 10 10.8
3 4 17 17.5 16 25 16.5
4 13 1.5 7 1.5 23.5 4
5 5.5 1.5 1 46.5
6 17 0.5 2 5.5 7 15 0.5
7 7.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
8 29.5 0.5 4 0.5 6 19
9 10 52 0.5 9.5 12.5 0.5 3
10 16.5 2 0.5 6 2 0.5
11 18.5 27 28 0.5 14.5 2.5 2.5 28 16.5
12 41 5 0.5 3 0.5
13 21 1.5 0.5 2 0.5
14 1 2.5 2.5 22.5 3.5
15 3 2 0.5 29.5 2.5
16 7 6 22.5 19.5 4.5
17 0.5 34.5 24 0.5 11 0.5 1
18 2 11.5 2.5 18.5 20.5
19 0.5 1 12 2 0.5 0.5 1.5 4.5
20 0.5 0.5 0.5 4.5 13.5 10.5 0.5
21 1.5 8 4 1.5 0.5 5.5
22 0.5 9.5 29.5 2 14.5 0.5 2
23 26.5 10 3 3 5 3.5 1
24 23 9 0.5 6 11.5 13 13.5 23.5
25 2 4.5 0.5 1 4.5 60 0.5
26 3 3 9 3.5 17.5 25.5 1
27 0.5 0.5 1 12 21.5
28 0.5 0.5 1 2 18.5 1.5 71.5 16.5 24
29 1 1.5 0.5 8.5 0.5 10.5
30 18.5 3 1 2.5 13.5
31 2.5 13
TOTAL 169.5 200 51 131 89.5 69 93.5 85.5 127 326.5 242 76.6
MAX
DAY
41 52 28 24 29.5 17 31 14.5 71.5 60 46.5 20.5
71
Appendix B - Water analysis results
Table 11 Mean values of pH, conductivity, lead and zinc in water from the becks and
lake (Maxwell, 2000).
Sample site
pH
Conductivity
( s cm
-1
)
Lead
(ppb)
Zinc
(ppb)
1 Glenridding Beck above hydro dam 1.41 3.72 33.80 5.70
2 West tailings drain NM NM NM NM
3 HHL dressing floor stream 80.61 56.26 43.67 NM
4 Swart Beck above LHL adit 55.73 77.81 46.97 NM
5 Swart Beck below LHL adit 70.83 131.96 47.60 5.18
6 Swart Beck before confluence 32.88 130.32 94.53 6.31
7 Glenridding Beck after confluence 33.99 66.64 68.27 6.63
8 East tailings drain trough 35.5 565.6 107.19 6.27
9 Roadside stream below east tailings NM NM NM NM
10 Glenridding Beck at footbridge 51.27 76.01 52.39 5.42
11 Glenridding Beck at campsite 47.21 73.36 55.54 5.85
12 Glenridding Beck upstream of Lake Ullswater 28.84 60.52 51.21 5.81
13 Lake Ullswater 47.92 124.44 58.12 6.01
N.B. NM indicates locations where no measurements were
Appendix C Calibration ranges
Table 12 Calibration ranges used in the xray fluorescence process (based on basaltic
rock standards).
Element Minimum Maximum
Barium 100 400
Cerium 24 150
Chromium 10 390
Copper 13 140
Lanthanum 10 85
Niobium 3 116
Nickel 10 270
Lead 4 58
Rubidium 5 50
Strontium 140 1700
Vanadium 80 525
Yttrium 14 38
Zinc 66 190
Zirconium 20 270
Arsenic 5 68
Tungsten 26 450
Neodymium 14 70
Thorium 2 66
72
Appendix D - Minor element analysis results for beck and lake
surface sediment samples
Table 13 contains the results of the minor element analysis performed on the surface
sediment samples collected from the becks and Lake.
Sample
site
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Element
Glenridding
Beck above
hydro dam
West
tailings
dam drain
HHL
dressing
floor
stream
Swart
Beck
above
LHL adit
Swart
Beck
below
LHL adit
Swart Beck
before
confluence
Glenridding
Beck after
confluence
Barium 941.9 <LLD 25945.6> 22044.0> 26910.2> 11301.2> 17646.7>
Cerium 80 <LLD <LLD <LLD 4.1< 34.7 29.2
Chromium 207 37 <LLD 31 31 84 108
Copper 48.8 102.9 560.0> 270.6> 502.2> 268.1> 266.8>
Lanthanum 39.1 <LLD <LLD 3.1< 8.2< 21.2 19.4
Niobium 50.1 0.1< 0.7< 5.5 5.3 12.3 12.8
Nickel 47.3 22 475.1> 213.7 494.1> 185.8 179.4
Lead 1019> 30871> 58687> 41994> 36068> 27201> 23612>
Rubidium 108.6> <LLD 6.4 42 47 77.1> 71.9>
Strontium 40.9< <LLD 275.9 199 333.5 38.4< 180.7
Vanadium 258.6 266.3 435.7 349.8 376.9 277.5 301.1
Yttrium 31.4 <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD
Zinc 187.1 677.3> 12358.3> 5282.0> 12451.5> 3978.1> 3774.2>
Zirconium 431.3> <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD 42.1 59
Tungsten 6.1< 259.3 45.2 20.1< 24.6< 14.5< 14.0<
Neodymium 39.4 <LLD 5.4< 13.4< 18.3 24.2 23.6
Thorium 17.2 162.5> 59.5 82.8> 33.9 42.5 38.1
Sample site 8 9 10 11 12 13
Element
East
tailings
drain
trough
Roadside
stream
below east
tailings
Glenridding
Beck at
footbridge
Glenridding
Beck at
campsite
Glenridding
Beck upstream
of Lake
Ullswater
Lake
Ullswater
Barium 1466.8> 1545.8> 11960.4> 13468.4> 9486.6> 20327.3>
Cerium 48.4 29.8 54.7 40.9 67.7 56.7
Chromium 17 17 100 115 114 139
Copper 97.7 85.9 415.8> 235.8> 180.7> 532.7>
Lanthanum 29.4 16.8 30.7 24.4 36 30.8
Niobium 17.9 9.9 15 19 30.7 26.9
Nickel 62.5 66.4 184.9 122 84.2 145.9
Lead 11106> 7798> 10928> 13191> 5896> 6412>
Rubidium 111.2> 56.5> 110.3> 91.0> 107.9> 98.0>
Strontium <LLD 426.7 77.3< 121.3< 107.7> 259.8
Vanadium 216.7 210.3 240.1 269.2 250.6 271.8
Yttrium <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD 6 2.8
Zinc 1329.1> 1348.1> 3618.2> 2172.3> 1191.5> 2579.8>
Zirconium 97.5 63.5 117.6 135 270.4> 208.3
Tungsten 9.2< 1.3< 5.6< 12.1< 7.9< 5.8<
Neodymium 24 15.8 31.3 27.4 34.8 35
Thorium 24.7 7.9 20 26.1 23.5 16
N.B. <LLD represents levels below detection limits.
73
Appendix E Minor element analysis results for lake shore core sediment samples
Table 14contains the results of the minor element analysis performed on the sections within core A1.
Core number A1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Depth 0-
12cm
12-
17cm
17-
25cm
25-
28cm
28-
29cm
29-
41cm
41-
54cm
54-
66cm
66-
71cm
71-
81cm
81-
91cm
91-
113cm
113-
122cm
Element ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm Ppm ppm ppm ppm
Lead 7996 6514 10452 9967 10766 15086 18992 21796 14390 13748 16775 18282 20423
Barium 3505.8 4797.1 9209.1 5296.2 3191.5 4451.7 2069.3 3314 3275 4356.3 5605.6 8751.2 14489.5
Cerium 72.7 53.1 74.8 78.4 69.4 54.6 54.9 47.1 66.8 51.3 49.2 30.4 21.5
Chromium 87 48 134 129 122 136 97 90 88 73 63 92 83
Copper 277.4 145.6 290.3 299.3 320.3 536.2 264.1 476 342.8 440.9 691 1252.7 1769.7
Lanthanum 38.6 29.1 40.1 41.9 38.2 32.5 33.4 30 39.8 32.2 30.3 21.5 16.5
Niobium 24.5 21.6 29.7 25.6 26.9 17.9 21.5 16.5 21.2 20.2 15.3 9.9 8.6
Nickel 136.3 72.6 126.5 136.3 149.7 180.6 150.9 194.7 151 160.3 210.6 353 708
Rubidium 115.9 112.6 114.4 113.3 108.2 92 96.9 91.7 106.3 103.7 101.9 78.3 63.8
Strontium <LLD <LLD 31.8 <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD 140
Vanadium 216.6 225.6 234.1 220.6 228.8 223.6 227.3 223.3 221.5 228.5 228.9 229.9 256
Yttrium <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD
Zinc 2502.6 1219.5 2132.1 2196.2 2429.8 3050.6 2918.1 3826.2 2759.6 3233 4327.5 7190.4 16228
Zirconium 240.2 193.2 312 230.1 273.7 147.7 188.9 121.9 191.1 156 95.3 46.4 25.8
Tungsten 4.2 6.5 214 <LLD 8.3 12.4 13.9 16.3 10.2 10.3 9.7 4.5 12.4
Neodymium 33.4 28.9 8 40.2 35 30.5 30.4 23.6 30.4 27.7 25.1 19.4 19.4
Thorium 25.8 22 39.3 29.7 22.2 35.1 29.6 38.9 33.3 29.3 29.4 50.1 41.8
74
Table 15 contains the results of the minor element analysis performed on the sections of core A4.
Core number A4 1
0-14cm
2
14-26cm
3
26-38cm
4
38-46cm
5
46-52cm
6
52-58cm
7
58-67cm
8
67-85cm
9
85-94cm
10
94-114cm
Element Ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm Ppm ppm
Lead 7023 8967 9092 11497 12651 10426 12831 17892 14633 13531
Barium 1595.7 5293.8 5806.4 6068 4039.7 3289.6 1980.9 2843.4 3182 4362.7
Cerium 54.6 54.5 80.4 79 67.4 60.9 60.4 70.2 64.1 45.5
Chromium 78 90 118 133 95 75 101 93 100 83
Copper 278.3 365.1 199.5 403.9 385 364.6 259.3 499.8 394.9 1081.9
Lanthanum 31.1 32 44.4 43.6 38.6 35.2 35.2 39.9 36.8 29.1
Niobium 21 21.7 31.7 26 23.4 23.3 23.6 18.7 20.8 14.8
Nickel 121.6 142.2 98.9 111.3 169.6 128.2 181 175.4 161.4 186.2
Rubidium 118.8 116.7 123.2 105.4 109.5 109 107.8 100.9 113.5 94.9
Strontium <LLD <LLD 2.3 6.5 <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD
Vanadium 223.7 229.7 233.9 218.8 230.8 231.5 226.2 212.4 221.4 225
Yttrium <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD
Zinc 2217 2631.6 1478.3 1651.9 3057.2 2296.7 3564.8 3408.8 2963.4 3137.1
Zirconium 163.9 192.2 327.9 279.4 224.2 179 206.3 153.9 192.2 86.2
Tungsten 5.6 5.9 10.7 8.6 9.7 5.7 11.7 13.4 10.3 4.9
Neodymium 27.7 28 38.7 38.7 31.8 27.2 31 35.7 33.1 22.6
Thorium 20.2 23.3 26.3 31 24.8 25.1 25 32.9 31.1 26
75
Appendix F Organic matter content of cores A1 and A4
Table 16 contains the weights and percentages of organic matter in each core layer, together with the measurements used for calculation and the
original section lengths.
Core
number
Depth of
section
Section
length
Crucible
weight
Initial sample
weight
Initial total
weight
Final total
weight
Organic matter
weight
Organic
matter
A1 (cm) (cm) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (%)
1 0 12 12 13.235 2.009 15.244 15.189 0.055 2.74
2 12 17 5 13.599 1.949 15.548 15.477 0.071 3.64
3 17 25 8 13.807 2.018 15.825 15.625 0.2 9.91
4 25 28 3 12.389 1.952 14.341 14.282 0.059 3.02
5 28 29 11 12.893 2.038 14.931 14.842 0.089 4.37
6 29 41 12 12.968 1.976 14.944 14.899 0.045 2.28
7 41 54 13 15.233 2.104 17.337 17.12 0.217 10.31
8 54 66 12 10.342 2.017 12.359 12.311 0.048 2.38
9 66 71 5 15.981 1.807 17.788 17.742 0.046 2.55
10 71 81 10 12.232 2.474 14.706 14.659 0.047 1.90
11 81 91 10 15.622 1.765 17.387 17.362 0.025 1.42
12 91 113 12 15.886 1.965 17.851 17.823 0.028 1.42
13 113 122 9 13.006 2.042 15.048 15.013 0.035 1.71
A4
1 0 - 14 14 12.805 2.026 14.831 14.791 0.04 1.97
2 14 - 26 12 15.944 2.015 17.959 17.917 0.042 2.08
3 26 - 38 12 12.566 2.025 14.591 14.314 0.277 13.68
4 38 - 46 8 15.565 1.996 17.561 17.511 0.05 2.51
5 46 - 52 6 15.509 2.054 17.563 17.336 0.227 11.05
6 52 - 58 6 12.893 2.041 14.934 14.843 0.091 4.46
7 58 - 67 9 16.795 2.028 18.823 18.362 0.461 22.73
8 67 85 18 16.044 2.033 18.077 18.035 0.042 2.07
9 85 94 9 15.686 1.986 17.672 17.616 0.056 2.82
10 94 115 21 16.649 2.283 18.932 18.896 0.036 1.58
76
Appendix G Grain size analysis data for cores A1 and A4
Table 17 contains the grain size analysis data for the sections of core A1.
Core number
A1
1
0-
12cm
2
12-
17cm
3
17-
25cm
4
25-
28cm
5
28-
29cm
6
29-
41cm
7
41-
54cm
8
54-
66cm
9
66-
71cm
10
71-
81cm
11
81-
91cm
12
91-
113cm
13
113-
122cm
Grain size (um) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g)
>4000 12.23 8.05 1.4 0.67 0.81 82.13 3.64 16.2 9.09 84.51 24.86 63.17 25.2
2000-4000 14.2 4.03 1.16 1.99 2.67 22.62 4.05 6.51 4.79 17.6 17.49 16.29 9.56
1400-2000 7.79 2.87 2.4 3.07 3.48 15.63 3.69 3.86 1.04 8.64 14.93 4.33 3.31
1000-1400 8.81 2.6 1.66 4.18 4.13 14.45 4.39 3.92 3.61 6.24 14.34 3.97 2.22
850-1000 6.22 1.68 2.09 2.61 3.05 7.7 2.59 2.12 5.69 3.34 10.16 2.39 1.18
500-850 20.06 5.68 3.99 9.39 15.89 21.94 12.13 6.68 8.35 9.93 29.27 8.64 3.67
300-500 21.07 7.57 8.5 7.9 24.31 13.96 21.32 3.93 8.26 9.92 14.88 6.47 3.47
210-300 9.49 4.77 9.16 3.15 15.93 4.45 16.4 1.74 5.17 4.85 5.9 3.53 1.43
150-210 7.61 4.83 16.45 1.63 12.86 3.46 18.89 1.57 3.86 3.69 2.97 2.63 1.06
105-150 4.01 4.72 11.63 0.91 5.77 2.35 10.67 0.85 2.86 2.35 0.96 1.95 0.52
90-105 1.4 2.37 3.11 0.37 3.27 1.55 5.83 0.51 1.31 0.31 0.39 1.13 0.17
63-90 1.1 1.95 4.26 0.54 1.89 1.21 6.62 0.32 2.31 0.57 0.44 0.96 0.17
<63 2.64 2.83 8.03 0.64 3.96 1.19 10.5 1.21 3.05 1.37 1.09 2.44 0.82
total sample
weight
116.63 53.95 73.84 37.05 98.02 192.64 120.72 49.42 59.39 153.32 137.68 117.9 52.78
77
Table 18 contains the grain size analysis for the sections of core A4.
Core number A4 1
0-14cm
2
14-26cm
3
26-38cm
4
38-46cm
5
46-52cm
6
52-58cm
7
58-67cm
8
67-85cm
9
85-94cm
10
94-114cm
Grain size (um) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g)
>4000 32.36 20.45 0.2 62.06 6.61 12.49 9.83 83.06 59.04 85.85
2000-4000 11.84 21.24 0.33 12.39 5.39 6.89 9.31 24.26 6.93 61.07
1400-2000 6.4 17.98 2 5.67 4.07 3.63 7.68 13.49 2.13 28.37
1000-1400 4.81 15.64 2.47 4.51 3.27 3.55 4.57 10.35 1.61 23.14
850-1000 3.05 10.17 1.08 2.13 2.27 2.3 2.09 6 0.78 11.17
500-850 11.59 28.18 2.72 6.8 6.44 8.37 12.4 18.95 2.82 27.86
300-500 9.16 20.08 4.96 4.48 5.76 5.41 11.85 14.44 2.4 16.2
210-300 1.68 10.03 5.87 2.39 3.03 2.19 8.48 8.39 1.75 6.68
150-210 0.53 5.4 10.76 1.68 2.98 1.15 7.99 6.88 1.65 4.46
105-150 0.28 3.06 13.04 1.74 3.15 0.68 5.63 5.74 1.46 2.84
90-105 0.08 0.69 7.38 0.81 1.68 0.2 2.48 2.24 0.72 0.81
63-90 0.09 1.1 5.34 0.82 1.82 0.29 2.9 1.23 0.9 1.03
<63 0.47 1.53 11.67 1.91 6.53 1 6.09 5.73 2.25 3.5
total sample
weight
82.34 155.55 67.82 107.39 53 48.15 91.3 200.76 84.44 272.98
78
Appendix H Tailings dam material analysis
Table 19 Tailings dam material and control site descriptions and organic matter
content (Ghosh, 2000).
Sample site Depth
(cm)
Description Organic
Matter %
Control 1 1-6 Root layer 13.89
Control 2 7-16 Dark brown soil 8.24
Control 3 7-30 6.31
Control 4 31+ 3.59
West dam
A7 10-11 Dark brown soil 22.12
B13 8-10 Dark brown soil 26.21
C20 1-6 Root layer 17.54
C21 7-13 Dark brown soil 38.99
C22 13-14 Brown layer 3.37
C23 14-25 Light brown
layer
34.97
C24 25-34 Grey, course
grain
1.03
C25 34-36 Clay layer 1.82
C26 36-39 Wetter clay 1.27
C27 39-54 Fine & course
grey layer
1.86
D29 10-11 Dark brown
layer
22.59
East dam
E35 7-13 Dark brown
layer
36.66
F40 1-3 Root layer 42.33
F41 4-6 dark brown layer 29.85
F42 6-17 Grey/brown
layer
2.81
F43 25-27 Cream coloured
clay layer
2.85
F44 37-38 Brown clay 1.34
F45 42-43 Red coloured
layer
1.66
F46 52-53 Grey clay 0.89
G47 56-58 Wet, coarse,
grey grains
1.07
QC sample
79
Table 20 Minor element analysis results for samples collected from the control sites (Ghosh, 2000).
Control site samples
Sample site
& number
QC
Expected
QC Actual QC
Difference
Control 1 Control 2 Control 3 Control 4
Depth 1-6cm 7-16cm 7-30cm 31+ cm
Description Root layer Dark brown soil layer
OM % 13.89 8.24 6.31 3.59
Lead 7.5 9 -1.5 675> 509> 115> 62>
Barium 162 165.9 -3.9 459.3 463 464.3 517.6
Chromium 119 121 -2 281 298 193 195
Copper 113 112.4 0.6 61.5 66.4 48.5 72.4
Niobium 9.9 8 1.9 31.5 34.2 30.3 31
Nickel 75 76.2 -1.2 73.4 73.1 78.6 73.4
Strontium 186 181.6 4.4 48.6< 55.4< 14.7< 55.8<
Rubidium 21.4 21.2 0.2 93.7> 95.2> 113.2> 101.7>
Vanadium 257 264.6 -7.6 199.8 197.3 210.5 213.8
Yttrium 26 22.2 3.8 27.1 29.6 28.8 32.9
Zinc 84 80 4 152.8 131 133.1 101.9
Zirconium 99 100.7 -1.7 373.4> 420> 322.9> 349.5>
Tungsten 2.4< 3.7< 3.2< 4.3< 4<
Neodymium 14.6 13.6< 1 41.9 46 39.1 44.3
Thorium 2.4 2.6 -0.2 14.8 14.4 16.3 15.2
80
Table 21 Minor element analysis results for samples collected from the west tailings dam (Ghosh, 2000).
West tailings dam samples
Sample site
& number
A7 B13 C20 C21 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 C27 D29
Depth 10-11cm 8-10 cm 1-6cm 7-13cm 13-14cm 14-25cm 25-34cm 34-36cm 36-39cm 39-54cm 10-11cm
Description Dark
brown
soil
Dark
brown
soil
Root
layer
Dark
brown
soil
Brown
layer
Light
brown
layer
Grey,
course
grain
Clay
layer
Wetter
clay
Fine &
course
grey
layer
Dark
brown
layer
OM % 22.12 26.21 17.54 38.99 3.37 34.97 1.03 1.82 1.27 1.86 22.59
Lead 2368> 5283> 6813> 11950> 4473> 5026> 3032> 10355> 4709> 1844> 4362>
Barium 1696.3> 638.5 2219.2> 1063.9> 1435.8> 2802.9> 702 918.4 614.7 506.5 1066.5>
Chromium 155 147 92 224 63 25 10 9< 11 4< 174
Copper 245.1> 123.8 243.7> 394.4> 119.6 128.7 139.9 220.4> 219.1> 161.8> 389.7>
Niobium 24.5 23.3 19 18.6 19.5 18.8 20.6 17.7 18.3 19.5 19.5
Nickel 67.9 58 77.3 91.8 56.5 82 49.8 121 108 51.8 75.5
Strontium 30.1< <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD
Rubidium 125.8> 132.5> 129.7> 104.0> 179.4> 167.2> 154.1> 136.5> 136.9> 147.1> 128.7>
Vanadium 191 212.5 193 177.9 187.2 207.1 204.3 216 199.8 208.7 182.3
Yttrium 16.7 <LLD <LLD <LLD 0.2 <LLD 6.8 <LLD <LLD 7.9 <LLD
Zinc 468.5> 310.7> 1075.0> 563.1> 926.1> 1838.7> 709.9> 2043.5> 2003.1> 813.1> 377.7>
Zirconium 367.4> 321.5> 173.6 204.9 181.8 169.9 139.1 98.4 117.3 137.3 237.3
Tungsten 0.9< 1.2< 5.0< 0.9< 2.6< 4.6< 4.6< 11.6< 6.1< 2.7< <LLD
Neodymium 43.2 31.1 32.5 27.3 33.3 32.3 34 28 33.6 30.3 32
Thorium 62.9 67.7> 65.1 152.5> 23.4 19.2 16.3 24.7 17.2 16.1 117.3>
81
Table 22 Minor element analysis results for samples collected from the east tailings dam (Ghosh, 2000).
East tailings dam samples
Sample site &
number
E35 F40 F41 F42 F43 F44 F45 F46 G47 QC
sample
Depth 7-13cm 1-3cm 4-6cm 6-17cm 25-27cm 37-38cm 42-43cm 52-53cm 56-58
Description Dark
brown
layer
Root
layer
dark
brown
layer
Grey/bro
wn layer
Cream
coloured
clay layer
Brown
clay
Red
coloured
layer
Grey clay Wet, coarse, grey
grains
OM % 36.66 42.33 29.85 2.81 2.85 1.34 1.66 0.89 1.07
Lead 3925> 4106> 4169> 1993> 28949> 13117> 18602> 21115> 12865> 9
Barium 839.5 1053.5> 1333.6> 1148.0> 3252.1> 3729.0> 2417.2> 1102.1> 2087.1> 178.4
Chromium 196 208 217 26 27 31 30 21 29 124
Copper 470.4> 579.4> 621.4> 85.4 565.1> 258.0> 1796.6> 578.9> 232.9> 112.4
Niobium 20.8 17.3 20 18.2 10.3 16.7 9.1 12 17 8.3
Nickel 86 87.5 91.8 48 676.7> 217 2249.9> 557.6> 131.5 76.6
Strontium <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD 181
Rubidium 127.2> 120.3> 125.3> 175.0> 135.9> 155.9> 61.1> 133.6> 130.5> 22.1
Vanadium 178.6 163.4 161.9 202.8 240.6 221.7 221 212.6 219.2 254.7
Yttrium 2.4 <LLD <LLD 7.5 <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD <LLD 21.8
Zinc 441.7> 272.1> 325.2> 1084.1> 16806.7> 4975.8> 57935.6> 12870.5> 2684.0> 82
Zirconium 296.5> 237.4 261.7 173.1 0.2< 108.4 37.1 35.3 110.7 101.1
Tungsten <LLD <LLD <LLD 5.0< 33 13.2< 56.2 23.5< 8.4< 3.3<
Neodymium 34.3 33.1 34.9 28.9 16 29 18.5 27.9 25.5 14.1
Thorium 124.7> 152.5> 171.2> 18.6 36.7 28.7 24 32.2 25.3 2.1

Helen Kember (2001)

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Helen Kember (2001)

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A study of metal contamination of

sediments within Lake Ullswater and

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