Professional Documents
Culture Documents
n
C E = M + S
Where:
n
: Net heat gain from radiation (short-wave radiation and long-wave
radiation). This is often the largest part and it drives many energy fluxes.
C : Net sensible heat loss, which is the sum of all heat losses to the
surroundings by conduction and convection.
E : Net latent heat loss, which is required to convert all water evaporated
from the liquid to the vapor state and is given by the product of the
evaporation rate E and the latent heat of vaporization of water ( =
2.454 MJ kg
-1
at 20
o
C).
16 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Wong and Jusuf
M : Net heat stored in biochemical reactions, which represents the storage
of heat energy as chemical bond energy and is dominated by
photosynthesis of respiration.
S : Net physical storage of thermal energy, which includes the energy
used for heating the plant as well as heat used to raise the temperature
of the air.
Some researchers reported that the energy transferred to latent heat through plants
can be very high. Almost 1460kg of water is evaporated from an average tree
during a summer sunny day, a cooling effect that is equal to five average air
conditioners [48].
A single tree has the capability to moderate the surrounding microclimate, but its
impacts are limited. Large urban parks, on the other hand, extend the positive
effects to the surrounding built environment. Chen and Wong studied two urban
parks in Singapore and concluded that a maximum 1.3K average temperature
difference was observed around the parks. The temperatures measured within
parks also have strong relationship with the density of plants, i.e. Leaf Area Index
(LAI). Plants with higher LAIs may cause lower ambient temperatures. Results
derived from the simulation study showed that a significant amount (almost 10%
reduction of the cooling load) of energy consumption for cooling may be saved
when buildings are built near parks [49]. A study in Japan [50] showed that even a
small area of 60x40m can create a notable cooling effect. The maximum
difference between inside and outside of the small greenery area was 3K. The
study also showed that the air temperature distribution was closely related to the
distribution of greenery in the city. Jauregui found that in a large urban park in
Mexico City, the ambient temperature was 2-3K lower than its surrounding built-
up area and its influence reached a distance of 2km, about the same as its width
[51]. Therefore it can be stated that groups of trees may effectively improve the
thermal environment of the urban area.
Trees have impressive shading effects towards the built environment. Dense
foliage trees are able to intercept the incoming solar radiation by 70% 90% [52-
54]. The shading effect provided by the plants on the surface of the buildings
Urban Heat Island and Mitigation Strategies at City Cool Materials for the Built Environment 17
lowers the surface temperatures and subsequently lowers the cooling energy
consumption. Strategically located plants may reduce the cooling energy
consumption between 25% 80% [55-61]. They can be in the form of trees
located at the eastern or western side of the buildings wall, as well as rooftop or
vertical greenery. Extra savings can be observed when air conditioning units are
well shaded by plants [62].
The development of roof and wall planting has also been increased in the recent
years, with a number of installations for roof gardens and vertical greenery in
various building types, such as airports, hotels, residential and educational
buildings, shopping malls and other facilities. Wong studied the impact of
intensive and extensive rooftop greenery to the buildings energy behavior and
environment [63]. Rooftop greenery can provide benefits not only to the building
but also to the ambient temperature conditions. With the intensive rooftop garden
system, the surface temperature may reduce up to 3.1K and the ambient
temperature at 1 m may reduce up to 1.5K as shown in Fig. 9. The impact of
rooftop greenery is even more pronounced for metal roofs. Without plants, the
metal surface can be up to 60-70C during daytime and lower than 20C at night.
With plants, it ranges only from 24C to 32C.
Figure 9: Comparison of surface and ambient temperatures measured with different plants
(Source: Wong et al. 2007).
Rooftop greenery research in Japan concluded that the temperature above the
rooftop greenery can be reduced of around 2-5K compared to a hard surface [64,
18 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Wong and Jusuf
65]. Meanwhile, the surface temperature under the plants is reduced of almost 25-
30K compared to the metal surface during the peak hour of clear days. Fioretti
investigated the rooftop greenery performance in Mediterranean climate of Italy.
The study also found a 5-6K temperature reduction above the green roof while the
foliage reduced the solar radiation incidence on the roof surface between 80% -
90% [66].
In the city, the amount of buildings faade surfaces is quite large compared to the
roof surfaces. Hence, greening of building faade surface, known as vertical
greenery system, has a great potential in mitigating the UHI effect through
evapotranspiration and shading [67]. Vegetation can dramatically reduce the
maximum temperature of a building by shading its walls from the sun, with daily
temperature fluctuation being reduced by as much as 50% [68]. In addition, a
faade fully covered with greenery is protected from the solar radiation intensity
in the summer and it can reflect or absorb by its leaf cover between 40% - 80% of
the received radiation, depending on the amount and the type of greenery [31].
A research in the humid climate of Hong Kong showed a maximum temperature
decrease of 8.4K by vertical greenery systems in an urban canyon [69]. The
reduction is significant as the distribution of ambient air in a canyon influences
the energy consumption of buildings. Higher temperatures in a canyon increase
the heat convection into the building and correspondingly increase the cooling
load [70]. Surface temperatures of vertical greenery systems have been observed
in different settings at the University of Toronto since 1996 [71]. These results
have consistently demonstrated that areas with vertical greenery are cooler than
light-colored brick walls and black surfaces that are typically found in urban
areas. In Japan, experiments show that vines can reduce the surface temperature of
a veranda with south-western exposure by 13-15K and the air temperature by 1-
3K [52]. In Africa, a temperature reduction of 2.6K was observed behind
vegetated panels of vines [72]. Therefore, together with the insulation effect of
vegetation, the temperature fluctuations at the wall surface can be reduced
between 10-60K to 5K-30K [73].
In Singapore, eight different vertical greenery systems were studied vs. their
thermal performance [74]. The reason of the differences in the thermal
Urban Heat Island and Mitigation Strategies at City Cool Materials for the Built Environment 19
performance of these vertical greenery systems can be a combination of various
factors, including the substrate type, the insulation of the system structure, the
substrate moisture content as well as the shading and insulation of greenery
coverage. At the same time, the interactions between leaf area, geometry, color
and other microclimatic parameters such as solar radiation are complex and may
result in different cooling efficiencies during day and night. Maximum reduction
of 11.58K in the wall surface temperature on clear days is observed by the vertical
greenery systems (Fig. 10) and a reduction of up to 3.33K in ambient air
temperature from a distance of 0.15m away (Fig. 11) compared to a regular
concrete wall.
Figure 10: Wall and substrate surface temperature of Vertical Greenery System no.5 (Source:
Wong et al. 2010).
Figure 11: Ambient temperatures at a distance of 0.15m away from Vertical Greenery System no
1, 2 and 4 (Source: Wong et al. 2010).
20 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Wong and Jusuf
URBAN VENTILATION
Wind speed in the urban areas is seriously decreased compared to the undisturbed
wind speed. Moreover wind direction may be altered. The roughness of buildings
and urban structures (geometry) affects wind within the cities and slows down
wind speeds, thus decreases the natural ventilation potential and increases the
pollutants concentration. One of the causes of UHI is the reduced turbulent
transfer of heat within streets, due to the decrease of wind speed. The serious
reduction of wind speed in urban canyons hampers the application of airflow
through natural ventilation for dense urban environments [70]. The decrease in
outdoor ventilation increases the outdoor pollutant concentrations and creates
poor thermal comfort conditions. This has a trickling effect to the indoor
environments as well. Experimental evaluation of airflow reduction in urban
canyons has shown a reduction of 90% [75].
Natural ventilation is a good strategy for achieving acceptable thermal comfort,
dilution of pollutant concentrations and dispersion of heat flux. Air movements
determine the convective heat and mass exchange of the human body with the
surrounding air. Higher air velocities increase the evaporative rate of skin surface
and consequently enhance the cooling sensation [76].
Oke classified the wind variation with height over the cities with a two-layer
classification of urban modification, the urban canopy layer (UCL) and urban
boundary layer (UBL), see Fig. 12. As the air flows from rural to urban areas, the
boundary layer must adjust to the new boundary conditions defined by the skyline
of the city [77].
The urban canopy layer (UCL) or obstructed sub-layer extends from the
ground surface up to the height of the buildings. The climatic conditions inside the
UCL are determined by various urban configurations and material properties. In
general, the wind speed inside this layer significantly decreases relative to the
undisturbed wind speed. The turbulence decreases with increasing height due to
ground obstacles and thermal airflow instabilities. The urban boundary layer
(UBL), or free surface layer, lies above the buildings roof tops. Its thickness
(from hundreds to thousands of meters) is determined by the gradient height at
Urban Heat Island and Mitigation Strategies at City Cool Materials for the Built Environment 21
which surface friction of the ground no longer affects the general wind flow. It
varies from one point to another because of the variable heights of the buildings
below and wind speed. It is also more homogeneous in its properties over the
urban area than the UCL. In the UBL, the complex terrain increases the roughness
of the surface and therefore increases the turbulence.
Figure 12: Schematic representation of the urban atmosphere illustrating a 2-layer classification of
urban modification (Source: Oke 1987).
In highly urbanized cities like Hong Kong or Singapore, most residential estates
have high canyon geometry ratios e.g. 2-3. According to Oke, 70-80% of daytime
radiant energy surplus within urban canyons is dissipated to the air through
turbulent transfer. The balance 20-30% is stored and released at night [78].
Some key parameters that affect the air flow in urban landscape [14, 79] are the
following:
1. The prevailing breezeway or air path. The overall permeability of the
district has to be increased at ground level. This is to ensure that the
prevailing wind travels along breezeways and major roads can
penetrate deeply into the district. This can be achieved by proper
linking of open spaces, creation of open plazas at roads junctions,
maintaining low-rise structures along prevailing wind direction.
2. Variation of building height. Varying the height of buildings
significantly improves the penetration of the airflow in the urban
landscape. Stepping building height in rows would also create better
22 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Wong and Jusuf
wind at higher levels if the differences in building heights between
rows are significant.
3. Orientation and layout of the buildings/streets with adequate gaps
between buildings are essential for good airflow. The main streets and
breezeways should be aligned in parallel or up to 30 to the prevailing
wind direction, in order to maximize the penetration of prevailing
winds through the estate. Building axis should be parallel to the
prevailing wind to avoid obstruction (Fig. 13).
4. Increasing the permeability of building blocks by the provision of
void decks at ground level or at mid-span. This helps improve the
ventilation for pedestrians, and to remove the pollutants and heat
generated at ground level.
Figure 13: Orientation of street grids (Source: Ng E. 2009).
When the prevailing wind blows perpendicular to the street canyon, there are
three regimes of wind patterns, which are a function of building (L/H) and canyon
geometries (H/W) [70, 80, 81]. These are the isolated roughness flow (IRF), the
wake interference flow (WIF) and the skimming flow (SF), see Fig. 14. Wind
flows are considered perpendicular when the predominant airflow direction is
approximately (30) to the long axis of the street canyon.
Urban Heat Island and Mitigation Strategies at City Cool Materials for the Built Environment 23
Figure 14: (a), (b), (c) Perpendicular flow regimes in urban canyons for different aspect ratios
(Source: Oke 1988).
The airflow pattern of the widely spaced buildings, i.e. H/W < 0.4 for cubic and <
0.3 for row buildings, is similar to the airflow pattern of the isolated ones (Fig.
14a). For a closer spacing, such as H/W up to 0.7 for cubes and 0.65 for row
buildings, the airflow pattern changes to wake interference flow (Fig 14b). It is
characterized by a reverse (with respect to upwind flow direction) horizontal flow
in the lower canyon and forward flow along the canyon top. A small vortex may
appear behind the upwind building but it is not dominant. An area of low wind
speed appears in the canyon center. Maximum wind occurs at the top of the
canyon and relatively high wind speed occurs down the face of the downwind
building. At the higher building geometry (H/W) and density, the main airflow
skims over the building rooftops and the bulk of the airflow does not enter the
canyon. This flow is named as skimming flow (Fig. 14c).
The relationship between the three principle airflow regimes and their respective
canyon H/W and L/H ratios has been summarized by Oke [80], as shown in Fig. 15.
24 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Wong and Jusuf
Figure 15: Threshold for flow regimes in urban canyons as functions of urban canyon H/W &
L/W ratios (Source: Oke 1988).
Cool Materials
The optical and thermal characteristics of building materials that determine the
energy consumption in the built environment, is the solar radiation albedo and the
emissivity of long wave radiation. Those parameters have a very important impact
on the urban energy balance as seen in Fig. 16. The albedo of a surface is defined
as its reflectivity, integrated hemi-spherically over the wavelength. The usage of
high albedo materials keeps the surface temperature lower by reducing the amount
of solar radiation absorbed into the buildings and the ambient air temperature at
urban level [82]. Table 2 shows the albedo of various typical urban materials and
areas [70, 83-85].
Figure 16: Diagram of cool roof system (Source: U.S. Cool Roof Rating Council).
Urban Heat Island and Mitigation Strategies at City Cool Materials for the Built Environment 25
Table 2: Albedo of typical urban materials and areas [70, 83-85]
Surface Albedo
Streets
Asphalt (fresh 0.05, aged 0.2)
0.05 - 0.20
Walls
Concrete
Brick/Stone
Whitewashed stone
White marble chips
Light colored brick
Red brick
Dark brick and slate
Limestone
0.10 - 0.35
0.20 - 0.40
0.80
0.55
0.30 - 0.50
0.20 - 0.30
0.20
0.30 - 0.45
Roofs
Smooth-surface asphalt (weathered)
Asphalt
Tar and gravel
Tile
Slate
Thatch
Corrugated iron
Highly reflective roof (weathered)
0.07
0.10 - 0.15
0.08 - 0.18
0.10 - 0.35
0.10
0.15 - 0.20
0.10 - 0.16
0.60 - 0.70
Paints
White, whitewash
Red, brown, green
Black
0.50 - 0.90
0.20 - 0.35
0.02 - 0.15
Urban Areas
Range
Average
0.10 - 0.27
0.15
Other
Light-colored sand
Dry grass
Average soil
Dry sand
Deciduous plants
Deciduous forests
Cultivated soil
Wet sand
Coniferous forests
Dark cultivated soil
Grass and leaf mulch
0.40 - 0.60
0.30
0.30
0.20 - 0.30
0.20 - 0.30
0.15 - 0.20
0.20
0.10 - 0.20
0.10 - 0.15
0.07 - 0.10
0.05
Extensive studies on cool coating materials for roofs or other buildings surfaces
as one of solutions to mitigate UHI have been conducted during the last decade.
26 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Wong and Jusuf
Cool roof is identified as a roofing system that is able to deliver high solar
reflectance and high thermal emittance [86]. Cool roof system is purposed to
reduce heat load for air conditioning system, energy usage and CO
2
released to
atmosphere. Bretz and Akbari [87] studied the relation between albedo of three
different coatings, which were applied on three buildings roofs, and building
energy consumption. From the two months up to six years measurements, it is
shown that the higher the roof albedo value, the higher the percentage of energy
savings. However, over the time, albedo values of the coated roofs dropped due to
the accumulation of dirt and microbial growth causing at the same time, a similar
reduction of the energy saving percentage. Experiments of washing the roof
showed that albedo value drops was only temporary and it would recover 90% of
its original value upon the washing although it may not be cost effective.
ENERGY STAR labeled roof products are able to reduce surface temperature up to
100F (equal to 37.79
o
C) and peak cooling demand by 10-15%. White or light colors
coated roofs have been promoted widely in the U.S. to achieve cooler roof surface
temperatures by increasing solar reflectance as a complementary alternative to metal
roofing system which has high thermal emittance but low solar reflectance [88].
Synnefa et al. [89] conducted a study on the thermal performance of non-white
cool colored coatings. Ten prototypes of cool colored coating tiles were compared
with standard coating tiles for a period of three months during daytime and
nighttime. The results show that cool colored coating tiles are more selective in
absorbing infrared band, resulting in higher solar reflectance and lower surface
temperature. From their experiment, there is a correlation between solar
reflectance and surface temperature during daytime. These cool coatings can be
applied to other building materials besides roofs.
Another experimental study done by Simpson and McPherson [90] on three
identical scaled model houses in Tucson, Arizona for period of three months
showed that white roof, which has a higher albedo compared to silver or gray and
brown roofs, reduced the surface temperature to almost 20
o
C compared to a gray
or silver roof and to almost 30
o
C compared to a brown roof. However, detailed
observation also showed that increasing building surface's albedo may not be
effective in reducing its temperature if the emissivity is also reduced.
Urban Heat Island and Mitigation Strategies at City Cool Materials for the Built Environment 27
The issues of aesthetic and maintenance require darker roof colors more desirable
than white or light coated color roofs. Karlessi et al. [91] conducted a comparative
study between thermochromic coatings, cool and common coatings. The research
showed that thermochromic coatings are able to respond thermally to the
environment. Thermochromic coating colors faded or became colourless when the
ambient temperature was higher than the transition temperature. Under these
conditions the surface reflects more solar radiation, hence, reduces the surface
temperature.
With similar principles with cool roofs, cool pavements have been promoted
aggressively the last years. Akbari et al. [92] believes that by implementing cool
roofs and cool pavements, the urban areas overall albedo can be increased by
about 0.1. The study predicted that by increasing albedo of urban roofs and paved
surfaces worldwide offsets 44Gt of emitted CO
2
. Kinouchi [93] studied the
structure of pigment and coating with low reflectivity in the visible part of
sunlight spectrum and high reflectivity of near infrared. The field measurement on
paint coated asphalt pavement indicated 15C lower than conventional asphalt
pavement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Part of information included in this chapter has been previously published in
author's own publication.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author(s) confirm that this article content has no conflict of interest.
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