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Linux
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Linux (pronounced ks/ or ks/)[1] is the name usually given to any Linux
Unix-like computer operating system that uses the Linux kernel. Linux is
one of the most prominent examples of free software and open source
development: typically all underlying source code can be freely modified,
used, and redistributed by anyone.[2]

The name "Linux" comes from the Linux kernel, started in 1991 by Linus
Torvalds. The system's utilities and libraries usually come from the GNU
operating system, announced in 1983 by Richard Stallman. The GNU
contribution is the basis for the alternative name GNU/Linux.[3] Tux, the penguin, mascot of Linux.
OS family Unix-like
Predominantly known for its use in servers, Linux is supported by
Kernel type Monolithic kernel
corporations such as Dell, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Novell, Oracle
Corporation, Red Hat, and Sun Microsystems. It is used as an operating License GNU General Public License and
others
system for a wide variety of computer hardware, including desktop
Working Current
computers, supercomputers[4], and embedded devices such as E-book state
readers, DVRs, video game systems (PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3 and XBox
[5] ), mobile phones and routers.

Contents
1 History
1.1 MINIX
1.2 Commercial and popular uptake
2 Pronunciation
3 Design
3.1 User interface
4 Development
4.1 Community
4.2 Programming on Linux
5 Uses
5.1 Desktop
5.2 Servers and supercomputers
5.3 Embedded devices
5.4 Market share and uptake
6 Code size
7 Licensing, trademark, and naming
7.1 GNU/Linux
8 See also
9 References
10 External links

History
See also: History of Linux

The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in the 1960s and
first released in 1970. Its wide availability and portability meant that it was
widely adopted, copied and modified by academic institutions and businesses,
with its design being influential on authors of other systems.

The GNU Project, started in 1984, had the goal of creating a "complete Unix-
compatible software system" made entirely of free software.[6] In 1985, Richard
Stallman created the Free Software Foundation and developed the GNU General
Public License (GNU GPL). Many of the programs required in an OS (such as
libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell, and a windowing system) were Richard Stallman, founder of the GNU
completed by the early 1990s, although low level elements such as device project, and Linus Torvalds, creator of the
Linux kernel
drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete. [7] Linus Torvalds
has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time (1991), he would
not have decided to write his own.[8]

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MINIX

MINIX, a Unix-like system intended for academic use, was released by Andrew S. Tanenbaum in 1987. The source code for
MINIX 1.0 was printed in his book Operating Systems: Design and Implementation. While easily available, modification and
redistribution were restricted (although this is not the case today). The code was covered by the copyrights of the textbook,
published by Prentice Hall. In addition, MINIX's 16-bit design was not well adapted to the 32-bit design of the increasingly
cheap and popular Intel 386 architecture for personal computers.

In 1991, Torvalds began to work on a non-commercial replacement for MINIX while he was attending the University of
Helsinki.[9] This eventually became the Linux kernel.
In 1992, Tanenbaum posted an article on Usenet claiming Linux was obsolete. In the article, he criticized the operating system
as being monolithic in design and being tied closely to the x86 architecture and thus not portable, which he described as "a
fundamental error".[10] Tanenbaum suggested that those who wanted a modern operating system should look into one based
on the microkernel model. The posting elicited the response of Torvalds, which resulted in a well known debate over the
microkernel and monolithic kernel designs.[10]

Linux was dependent on the MINIX user space at first. With code from the GNU system freely available, it was advantageous
if this could be used with the fledgling OS. Code licensed under the GNU GPL can be used in other projects, so long as they
also are released under the same or a compatible license. In order to make the Linux kernel compatible with the components
from the GNU Project, Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license (which prohibited commercial redistribution) to
the GNU GPL.[11] Linux and GNU developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional
and free operating system.[7]

Commercial and popular uptake

Today Linux is used in numerous domains, from embedded systems[12] to supercomputers,[13] and has secured a place in web
server installations with the popular LAMP application stack.[14] Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel.
Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in turn supports the GNU components. Finally, individuals and
corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may
include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries. Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the
kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux
distributions.

Pronunciation
In 1992, Torvalds explained how he pronounces the word Linux:

'li' is pronounced with a short [ee] sound: compare prInt, mInImal etc. 'nux' is also short, non-diphthong, like
“ in pUt. It's partly due to minix: linux was just my working name for the thing, and as I wrote it to replace
minix on my system, the result is what it is... linus' minix became linux.
”
Torvalds has made available an audio sample which indicates his own pronunciation, in English and Swedish.[15][16]
However, an interview from the 2001 documentary Revolution OS indicates that his preferred pronunciation has slightly
changed.[17]

Many English speakers tend to pronounce the name as ks] or ks].

Design
Linux is a modular Unix-like operating system. It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during
the 1970s and 1980s. Linux uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, and
peripheral and file system access. Device drivers are integrated directly with the kernel.

Much of Linux's higher-level functionality is provided by separate projects which interface with the kernel. The GNU
userland is an important part of most Linux systems, providing the shell and Unix tools which carry out many basic operating
system tasks. On top of the kernel, these tools form a Linux system with a graphical user interface that can be used, usually
running in the X Window System.

User interface

See also: User interface

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Linux can be controlled by one or more of a text-based command line interface (CLI), graphical user interface (GUI) (usually
the default for desktop), or through controls on the device itself (common on embedded machines).

On desktop machines, GNOME, KDE and Xfce are the most popular user interfaces,[18] though a variety of other user
interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces run on top of the X Window System (X), which provides network transparency,
enabling a graphical application running on one machine to be displayed and controlled from another.

Other GUIs include X window managers such as FVWM, Enlightenment, Fluxbox and Window Maker. The window manager
provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X
window system.

A Linux system usually provides a command line interface of some sort through a shell, which is the traditional way of
interacting with a Unix system. A Linux distribution specialized for servers may use the CLI as its only interface. A “headless
system” run without even a monitor can be controlled by the command line via a protocol such as SSH or telnet.

Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU Userland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for
automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple inter-process communication. A graphical terminal
emulator program is often used to access the CLI from a Linux desktop.

Development
The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary
operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open
source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is the best-
known and most widely used. Some free and open source software licences are based
on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft
piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license,
the GNU GPL, is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the
components from the GNU project.

Linux systems adhere to POSIX,[19] SUS,[20] ISO and ANSI standards where possible.
To date, however, only the Linux-FT distribution has been POSIX.1 certified. [21]
A summarized history of Unix-like
Free software projects, although developed in a collaborative fashion, are often operating systems showing Linux's
produced independently of each other. However, because the software licenses origins. Note that despite similar
explicitly permit redistribution there is a basis for larger scale projects that collect the architectural designs and concepts
being shared as part of the POSIX
software produced by stand-alone projects and make this software available together in
standard, Linux does not share any
a Linux distribution. non-free source code with the original
Unix or Minix.
A Linux distribution, commonly called a “distro”, is a project that manages a remote
collection of Linux-based software, and facilitates installation of a Linux operating
system. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. They
include system software and application software in the form of packages, and distribution-specific software for initial system
installation and configuration as well as later package upgrades and installs. A distribution is responsible for the default
configuration of installed Linux systems, system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages
into a coherent whole.

Community

See also: Free software community

Linux is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and
fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a well-known example. Examples
of Commercial distributions include Novell Corporation's SUSE Linux and Red Hat
Corporation's Red Hat Linux. They also maintain a community version of their commercial
distributions, as Novell does with OpenSUSE and Red Hat does with Fedora.

In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux Users Groups (LUGs) seek to
promote Linux and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free
demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users.
There are also many Internet communities that seek to provide support to Linux users and
developers. Most distributions and open source projects have IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. A command line session using
Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples being bash
LinuxQuestions.org and the Gentoo forums. Linux distributions host mailing lists;

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commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.

There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Linux Weekly News is a weekly digest of Linux-related news; the
Linux Journal is an online magazine of Linux articles published monthly; Slashdot is a technology-related news website with
many stories on Linux and open source software; Groklaw has written in depth about Linux-related legal proceedings and
there are many articles relevant to the Linux kernel and its relationship with GNU on the GNU project's website. Print
magazines on Linux often include cover disks including software or even complete Linux distributions. [22][23]
Although Linux is generally available free of charge, several large corporations have established business models that involve
selling, supporting, and contributing to Linux and free software. These include Dell, IBM, HP, Sun Microsystems, Novell,
and Red Hat. The free software licenses on which Linux are based explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization;
the relationship between Linux as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. One common business model of
commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized
business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of
installations or to simplify administrative tasks. Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware.

Programming on Linux

Most Linux distributions support dozens of programming languages. The most common collection of utilities for building
both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU
Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Java, and
Fortran. The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled with GCC. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++
Compiler and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler.

Most distributions also include support for Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. Examples of languages that are
less common, but still well-supported, are C# via the Mono project, and Scheme. A number of Java Virtual Machines and
development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as
many open-source projects like Kaffe. The two main frameworks for developing graphical applications are those of GNOME
and KDE. These projects are based on the GTK+ and Qt widget toolkits, respectively, which can also be used independently
of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of Integrated development
environments available including Anjuta, Code::Blocks, Eclipse, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans, and Omnis
Studio while the long-established editors Vim and Emacs remain popular.[24]

Uses
As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different
purposes including: computer architecture support, embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a specific region or
language, targeting of specific user groups, support for real-time applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment.
Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only free software. Currently, over three hundred distributions are
actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.[25]
Linux is a widely ported operating system. While the Linux kernel was originally designed only for Intel 80386
microprocessors, it now runs on a more diverse range of computer architectures than any other operating system: in the hand-
held ARM-based iPAQ and the mainframe IBM System z9, in devices ranging from mobile phones and wristwatches[26] to
supercomputers.[27] Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel
8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the µClinux kernel fork may run on systems without a memory
management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating
system, such as Macintosh computers, PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones.

Desktop

Although there is a lack of Linux ports for some Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows
programs in domains such as desktop publishing[28] and professional audio,[29][30][31]
applications roughly equivalent to those available for Mac and Windows are available for
Linux.[32]

Most Linux distributions provide a program for browsing a list of thousands of free software
applications that have already been tested and configured for a specific distribution.

Many free software titles that are popular on Windows, such as Pidgin, Mozilla Firefox, A KDE 4 desktop.
Openoffice.org, and GIMP, are available for Linux. A growing amount of proprietary
desktop software is also supported under Linux, [33] examples being Adobe Flash Player,
Acrobat Reader, Matlab, Nero Burning ROM, Opera, Google Picasa, RealPlayer, and Skype.
In the field of animation and visual effects, most high end software, such as AutoDesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple

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Shake, is available for Linux, Windows and/or Mac OS X. CrossOver is a proprietary

solution based on the open source Wine project that supports running older Windows
versions of Microsoft Office and Adobe Photoshop versions through CS2. Microsoft Office
2007 and Adobe Photoshop CS3 are known not to work. [34][35]
Besides the free Windows compatibility layer Wine, most distributions offer Dual boot and
X86 virtualization for running both Linux and Windows on the same computer.

Linux's open nature allows distributed teams to localize Linux distributions for use in locales A GNOME 2.20 desktop.
where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For example the Sinhalese
language version of the Knoppix distribution was available for a long time before Microsoft Windows XP was translated to
Sinhalese. In this case the Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the
knowledge of university professors, linguists, and local developers.

The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic, with at least one key Linux kernel developer, Con
Kolivas, accusing the Linux community of favouring performance on servers. He quit Linux development because he was
frustrated with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a 'tell all' interview on the topic.[36]

See also: Linux gaming

Servers and supercomputers

Historically, Linux has mainly been used as a server operating system, and has risen to prominence in that area; Netcraft
reported in February 2008 that five of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies run Linux on their web servers.[37]
This is due to its relative stability and long uptime, and the fact that desktop software with a graphical user interface for
servers is often unneeded. Enterprise and non-enterprise Linux distributions may be found running on servers. Linux is the
cornerstone of the LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which has achieved
popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.

Linux is commonly used as an operating system for supercomputers. As of November 2007, out of the top 500 systems, 426
(85.2%) run Linux.[38]

Embedded devices

See also: Embedded Linux and Linux devices

Due to its low cost and ability to be easily modified, an embedded Linux is often used in embedded systems.

Mobile phones or PDAs running on Linux and built on open source platform became a trend from 2007, like the Nokia
N810's Internet Tablet OS, Openmoko's Neo1973 and the on-going Google Android.

16.7% of smartphones sold worldwide during 2006 were using Linux[39]

The popular TiVo digital video recorder uses a customized version of Linux.[40]

Several network firewall and router standalone products, including several from Linksys, use Linux internally, using its
advanced firewall and routing capabilities.

Market share and uptake

Many quantitative studies of open source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous
studies specifically examining Linux.[41] The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and
packaged software running Linux is expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.[42]

IDC's report for Q1 2007 says that Linux now holds 12.7% of the overall server market.[43] This estimate was based on the
number of Linux servers sold by various companies.

Desktop adoption of Linux is approximately 1%. In comparison, Microsoft operating systems hold more than 90%.[44][45][46]
[47][48][49][50]

Proponents and analysts attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability,[51] low cost, and freedom from
vendor lock-in.[52]
The frictional cost of switching operating systems and lack of support for certain hardware and application programs designed
for Microsoft Windows have been two factors that have inhibited adoption. That is changing however with the rise of
virtualization technology (e.g VMware, VirtualBox as well as hardware support by Intel and AMD), and recently Google has

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begun to fund Wine, which acts as a compatibility layer, allowing users to run some Windows programs directly under Linux.

The XO laptop project of One Laptop Per Child is creating a new and potentially much larger Linux community, planned to
reach several hundred million schoolchildren and their families and communities in developing countries. Six countries have
ordered a million or more units each for delivery in 2007 to distribute to schoolchildren at no charge. Google, Red Hat, and
eBay are among the major supporters of the project.[53] While the XO will also have a Windows option, it will be primarilly
deployed using RHEL.

See also: Usage share of desktop operating systems

Code size
A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million source lines of code. Using the
Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development
time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost
about 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) to develop in the United States.[54]

Most of the code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including C++,
assembly language, Perl, Python, Fortran, and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were
licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.[54]

In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian GNU/Linux version 4.0.[55] This distribution contained over 283
million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost 5.4 billion euros ($6.85 billion USD) to develop
using proprietary methods.

Licensing, trademark, and naming

The Linux kernel and most GNU software are licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL). The GPL requires that
anyone who distributes the Linux kernel must make the source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under
the same terms. In 1997, Linus Torvalds stated, “Making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did.”[56] Other key
components of a Linux system may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a
more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X Window System uses the MIT License.

Torvalds has publicly stated that he would not move the Linux kernel (currently licensed under GPL version 2) to version 3 of
the GPL, released in mid-2007, specifically citing some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in
digital rights management.[57][58]

In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.[59] Initially, nobody registered it, but on
August 15, 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux
distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and in
1997 the case was settled.[60] The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux Mark Institute. Torvalds has
stated that he only trademarked the name to prevent someone else from using it, but was bound in 2005 by United States
trademark law to take active measures to enforce the trademark. As a result, the LMI sent out a number of letters to
distribution vendors requesting that a fee be paid for the use of the name, and a number of companies have complied.[61]

See also: SCO-Linux controversies

GNU/Linux

The Free Software Foundation views Linux distributions which use GNU software as GNU variants and they ask that such
operating systems be referred to as GNU/Linux or a Linux-based GNU system.[62] However, the media and population at large
refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux. While some distributors make a point of using the aggregate form,
most notably Debian with the Debian GNU/Linux distribution, the term's use outside of the enthusiast community is limited.
The distinction between the Linux kernel and distributions based on it plus the GNU system is a source of confusion to many
newcomers, and the naming remains controversial.

See also
Linux software
Comparison of Linux distributions Linux portal
Comparison of Windows and Linux
Comparison of open source and closed source
Linux Foundation Free software portal
List of Linux devices

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List of Linux distributions

Linux Documentation Project
Hardware certification
Linux Standard Base
Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Security-Enhanced Linux
The Cathedral and the Bazaar
Virtual PC > Emulating Linux-based environments
Revolution OS

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60. ^ "Linux Timeline". Linux Journal (31 May 2006).
61. ^ "Linus gets tough on Linux trademark" (2005-09-05). Retrieved on 2006-09-04.
62. ^ Stallman, Richard (2007-03-03). "Linux and the GNU Project". Free Software Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-03-12.

External links
Linux kernel website and archives
GNU Project website
The Linux Mark Institute (manages the Linux trade mark)
The Linux Foundation
The Linux Documentation Project
Google Linux Search
Intro to Linux at HowStuffWorks

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"

Categories: Linux distributions | Linux | Computing platforms

This page was last modified on 7 July 2008, at 23:08.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux 08.07.2008