Electrical Principles

Factual Information Electrical Principles Page 1
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................ 1
ATOMIC STRUCTURE......................................................................................... 4
CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS.................................................................... 5

Conductors:..................................................................................................................................................... 6
Insulators:........................................................................................................................................................6
SEMI-CONDUCTORS........................................................................................... 6
PN junction Diode:......................................................................................................................................... 7
N type ......................................................................................................................................................7
P type N............................................................................................................................................. 7
ELECTRIC CURRENT.......................................................................................... 7
Effects of Current:..........................................................................................................................................8
Current Direction:.......................................................................................................................................... 8
DC-Direct Current........................................................................................................................................8
AC-Alternating Current................................................................................................................................8
ELECTRIC CHARGE............................................................................................ 8
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE................................................................................ 9
Temperature:................................................................................................................................................ 10
Resistors:....................................................................................................................................................... 12
Types ........................................................................................................................................................12
Classification..............................................................................................................................................12
Color Code.................................................................................................................................................12
Symbols......................................................................................................................................................12
Resistors in Series...................................................................................................................................... 13
Resistors in Parallel....................................................................................................................................13
ELECTRICAL CALCULATIONS......................................................................... 14
Ohm’s Law:................................................................................................................................................... 14
Electrical Energy:......................................................................................................................................... 14
Electrical D.C. Power:..................................................................................................................................14
DC CIRCUITS..................................................................................................... 14
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Series:.............................................................................................................................................................15
Parallel:..........................................................................................................................................................15
MEASURING....................................................................................................... 15
Permanent Magnet Moving-Coil Instrument (PMMC):.......................................................................... 16
Current:......................................................................................................................................................... 16
Inside a Ammeter....................................................................................................................................... 17
Voltage:..........................................................................................................................................................17
Inside a Voltmeter......................................................................................................................................18
Resistance:..................................................................................................................................................... 18
Inside a Ohmmeter..................................................................................................................................... 19
Resistance by Ammeter and Voltmeter:..................................................................................................... 19

A Arrangement...........................................................................................................................................19
A Better Arrangement................................................................................................................................ 20
CRO – Cathore Ray Oscilloscope:.............................................................................................................. 20

The Sinusoidal Wave (Sine Wave) ........................................................................................................... 20
RMS – Root Mean Squared (The Effective Value)................................................................................... 21
Formulas for Sine Waves Only.................................................................................................................. 21
Other Wave Forms..................................................................................................................................... 22
CONVERTING OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY..... 24

Sources of Energy:........................................................................................................................................24
Converting:....................................................................................................................................................24
Mechanical to Electrical............................................................................................................................ 24
Thermal to Electrical..................................................................................................................................24
Nuclear to Electrical.................................................................................................................................. 24
Solar to Electrical [Solar cells (semiconductor devices)].......................................................................... 24
Chemical to Electrical (Batteries).............................................................................................................. 24
BATTERIES........................................................................................................ 25
Cell Capacity and Other Factors:............................................................................................................... 25
Capacity..................................................................................................................................................... 25
Discharge Rate........................................................................................................................................... 25
Temperature............................................................................................................................................... 25
Density (Specific Gravity)......................................................................................................................... 25
Final Voltage..............................................................................................................................................25
Standard Discharge Rates.......................................................................................................................... 25
Ampere-Hour Efficiency............................................................................................................................26
The Electromotive Force Series ..............................................................................................................26
Available Cells...........................................................................................................................................26
Battery Connection:..................................................................................................................................... 26
One Cell..................................................................................................................................................... 26
Lead-Acid cells:.............................................................................................................................................27
Cell Construction....................................................................................................................................... 27
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Nickel-Alkaline Cells:................................................................................................................................... 27
Cell Construction....................................................................................................................................... 27
Storage Cell Comparisons:.......................................................................................................................... 28

Lead-Acid Cells......................................................................................................................................... 28
Nickel-Alkaline Cells.................................................................................................................................28
Fuel Cells:...................................................................................................................................................... 28
MAGNETISM....................................................................................................... 29
Electromagnets:............................................................................................................................................ 30
Magnetic Fields .........................................................................................................................................30
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule:........................................................................................................................ 31
Hysteresis Loop:............................................................................................................................................31
Magnetic Units:.............................................................................................................................................32
Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F)................................................................................................................. 32
Magnetising Force......................................................................................................................................33
Flux Density............................................................................................................................................... 33
Reluctance..................................................................................................................................................33
Magnitude of a Generated E.M.F.............................................................................................................. 33
Permeability............................................................................................................................................... 33
Pull of an Electromagnet............................................................................................................................34
Series Magnetic Circuits:............................................................................................................................. 34

Reluctance..................................................................................................................................................35
Flux............................................................................................................................................................ 35
M.M.F ....................................................................................................................................................... 35
Parallel Magnetic Circuits:..........................................................................................................................35

Reluctance..................................................................................................................................................36
Flux............................................................................................................................................................ 36
M.M.F ....................................................................................................................................................... 36
INDUCTANCE..................................................................................................... 36
Inductance:....................................................................................................................................................36
Potential Difference................................................................................................................................... 37
Energy From Inductance............................................................................................................................ 37
Impedance (Z):.............................................................................................................................................. 37
Reactance................................................................................................................................................... 37
D.C. Time Constant:.....................................................................................................................................37
Inductors:...................................................................................................................................................... 38
Types ........................................................................................................................................................38
Classification..............................................................................................................................................38
Symbol....................................................................................................................................................... 39
Inductors in Series......................................................................................................................................39
Inductors in Parallel................................................................................................................................... 39
Common Inductor - Transformers:............................................................................................................ 39

Types..........................................................................................................................................................39
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Classification..............................................................................................................................................39
Symbols......................................................................................................................................................40
EMF Equation............................................................................................................................................40
CAPACITANCE................................................................................................... 40
Capacitance:..................................................................................................................................................40
Reactance:..................................................................................................................................................... 41
D.C Time Constant:......................................................................................................................................41
Capacitors:.................................................................................................................................................... 42
Types .........................................................................................................................................................42
Specifications............................................................................................................................................. 42
Deriving Values......................................................................................................................................... 43
Symbols......................................................................................................................................................43
Capacitors in Series....................................................................................................................................44
Capacitors in Parallel................................................................................................................................. 44
RESONANCE...................................................................................................... 45
AC CIRCUITS..................................................................................................... 46
Series:.............................................................................................................................................................47
Parallel:..........................................................................................................................................................47
AC POWER......................................................................................................... 48
Power Triangle:............................................................................................................................................ 49
The Resultant Power (Apparent Power) is made up of Two Components................................................ 49
True Power.................................................................................................................................................49
Reactive Power ......................................................................................................................................... 49
Power Factor.............................................................................................................................................. 49
Atomic Structure
 All materials are made from molecules which are combinations of elements or
element themselves.
 Elements are formed from electrons that have electrically charged particles.
 The ionisation of these particles in an electric circuit can produce heat, magnetism,
chemical change and effect the normal function of human and animal physiology.
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 Each proton and neutron has approximately 1800 times the mass of the electron.
Proton (+ ve)
Nucleus
 Atom Neutron (No Change)
Electrons (– ve)
Nucleus
Electrons
Valence Electrons (Outer Layer)
Conductors and Insulators

 The number of electrons orbiting in the valance shell (Outer Shell) determines the
electrical ability of materials.
 The valance shell can have between 1 and 8 electrons.
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Conductors:
 Fewer electrons in valance shell, the better the conductor.
 Easily become free electrons.
 Metallic Bonding.
Materials
Copper
Gold
Aluminum
Silver Free
Electrons
Platinum
Iron
Insulators:
 More electrons in the valance shall, the better the insulator.
 Iomc Bonding (Ion combination).
Materials
Rubber
Mica
Cotton
Oil
Plastic No Free Electrons
Glass
Semi-Conductors
 Four electrons in the Valence shell.
 Generates Co-valent bonding with four adjacent atoms.
Materials
Silicon (Si)
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Germanium (Ge)
 To produce N type and P type semi-conductor materials, the pure silicon water is
injected with impurities.
Materials
Arsenic (5 Valence) Silicon
Aluminum (3 Valence)
Silicon Arsenic
1 Free Electron
PN junction Diode:
+
N type
 Negative (free electrons) P + Electron
 Donor atoms introduced. Current
P flow  Electron
P type N
 Positive (short of free electrons)
 Accepton atom introduced.

Electric Current
 UNIT: Amperes (A) or (I)
 Flow of electrons.
 1A  6.24  1018 Electrons
Formula: I= q
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t
I = Current (A)
q = Charge (C)
t = Time (s)
Effects of Current:
 Physiological
 Chemical
 Mechanical
 Nuclear
 Thermal
 Solar
Current Direction:
DC-Direct Current
 Electron Flow: from negative (excess of electron) to positive (depleted in electrons).
 Conventional current flow: from positive (charge potential) to negative (charge
potential).
+ Positive
Electron Flow  Negative
+ 
Conventional Current Flow (I) I

Positive Negative t
Electrons Electrons
AC-Alternating Current
A Active
N Neutral
I
A N t
Electric Charge
 UNIT: Volts (V)
 Current direction depends upon the applied EMF or voltage.
 Represent an electrical pressure.
 Current flow in a closed electrical circuit.
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Formula: EMF = JS
C
EMF = Electromotive force (V)
JS = Energy Supplied (J)
C = Charge (C)
Formula: PD = JR
C
PD = Potential difference (V)
JR = Energy Released (J)
C = Charge (C)
E.g.
1.5V EMF in here

1.3V PD
Internal resistance
Electrical Resistance
 UNIT: Ohm ()
Formula: R = .l
a
R = Resistance ()
 =Resistivity (.m)
l = Length (m)
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a = Cross-Sectional Area (m2)
Metal Resistivity at 20C

Aluminium 2.83  108
Copper (annealed) 1.72  108
Iron 9.71  108
Lead 20.61  108
Silver 1.64  108
Manganin 4.8  107
Gold 2.45  108
Tungsten 5.5  108
Nickel 7.8  108
Constantan 49  108
Temperature:
 PTC: Positive Temperature Coefficient (Resistance increases with temperature)
 NTC: Negative Temperature Coefficient (Resistance decrease with temperature)
 The follow graph is the resistance of copper due to temperature, the graph is not
completely linear shown by the broken line.
 The linear graph passes through –234.5C.
 If another temperature is known one can use similar triangles to calculate any
other temperature and therefore calculate resistance.
R ()
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T (C)
-234.5C
Formula: Rt = R0 (1 + t)
Rt = Resistance at Temperature t°C ()
R0 = Resistance at a particular temperature ()
 = Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
t = Temperature (°C)
Metal  at 20°C  at 0°C

 The
negativ
e value
of
carbon
indicat
es that
it is
NTC.
(This is
becaus
Aluminum 3.9  103 4.24  103
Copper 3.93  103 4.26  103
Iron 5  103
Silver 3.8  103 4.12  103
Carbon 5  104
Gold 3.4  103 3.65  103
Tungsten 4.5  103 4.95  103
Nickel 6  103
Constantan 8  106
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Resistors:
Types
 Fixed
 Variable
 Light
 Voltage
Classification
Value Ohm - 
Tolerance Percentage -  %
Power rating Watt - W
Color Code
Significant Figures Multiplier Tolerance
Name Colour 1 Band 2nd Band 3rd Band
st
4th Band 5th Band
Black 0 0 0 1
Brown 1 1 1 10 1%
Red 2 2 2 100 2%
Orange 3 3 3 1000
Yellow 4 4 4 10000
Green 5 5 5 100000 0.5%
Blue 6 6 6 1000000 0.25%
Violet 7 7 7 10000000 0.1%
Grey 8 8 8
White 9 9 9
Gold 0.1 5%
Silver 0.01 10%
None 20%
E.g. Yellow – Violet – Red – Gold  4.7k, 5% or 4k7, 5%
Symbols
Fixed Resistor Light Dependent Resistors Potentiometers
(LDR)
Trimpot Resistor
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Resistors in Series
Formula: RT = R1 + R2...
RT = Total Resistance
R1 = 1st Resistor
R2 = 2nd Resistor
... = Etc
Resistors in Parallel
1 Note: This only

Formula: RT = 1 + 1 ... or R1.R2 works for two
R1 R2 R1 + R2 resistors.
RT = Total Resistance
R1 = 1st Resistor
R2 = 2nd Resistor
... = Etc
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Electrical Calculations
Ohm’s Law:
 Relationship between voltage, current and resistance
Formula: E = I.R
E = Potential Difference (V)
I = Current (A)
Electrical Energy:
Formula: W = P.t
W = Work (J)
P = Power (W)
t = Time (s)
Electrical D.C. Power:

 1KWh = 3.6MJ (Since P = W/t)
 Rate at which work is done or energy consumed.
Formula: P = I2.R P = V.I P = V2
R
P = Power (W)
I = Current (A)
V = Volts (V)
DC Circuits
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 Voltage drop or PD is in the direction of current.
 No voltage is lost.
Series:
RT = R1 + R2
V1 = I.R1
V2 = I.R2
VT = I.RT
 VT  (V1 + V2) = 0
Parallel:
RT = R1.R2
R1 + R2
VT = V1 = V2
V1 = I1.R1
V2 = I2.R2
VT = I.RT
I = I1 + I2
Measuring
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Permanent Magnet Moving-Coil Instrument (PMMC):

 Current flowing in the coil
produces the deflecting
force, and spiral springs
provide a controlling force.
A pointer attached to the
coil indicates the amount of
deflection.
 The deflection of the pointer
of a moving-coil instrument
is directly proportional to
the current flowing through
the coil.
 When the current is in the wrong direction, the magnetic field set up around the coil
reacts with the field from the magnet in a way that tends to cause the pointer to
deflect to the left of the zero position. The terminals of the instrument are identified
as + and  to show the polarity for correctly connecting the meter into a circuit.
Current:
 Use an ammeter.
 Connect in series with the circuit at the appropriate location.
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Inside a Ammeter
Formula: Rs = Im.rm
I – Im
Rs = Shunt resistor ()
Im = PMMC current for F.S.D (A)
rm = PMMC resistance ()
I = Ammeter current for F.S.D ()
 A low resistance shunt resistor causes most of the circuit current to be bypassed
around the low-current PMMC. The PMMC measures a portion of the total current
and indicates total current on is scale.
Voltage:
 Use a voltmeter.
 Connect in a Parallel position with the component.
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 Sensitivity is the accurate responds to the measurement.

Formula: S= R
E
S = Sensitivity (/V)
R = Resistance of voltmeter ()
E = Volt range on PMMC (V)
Inside a Voltmeter
Formula: R = V – rm
Im
R = Multiplier resistor ()
V = Voltage (V)
rm = PMMC resistance ()
Im = PMMC current for F.S.D (A)
Resistance:
 Use a ohmmeter.
 Switch the circuit off and isolate the resistance concerned.
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Inside a Ohmmeter
Formula: RT = Rx + R1 + rm
RT = Total resistance ()
Rx = Resistor being tested ()
R1 = Variable resistor ()
Rm = PMMC resistance ()
Resistance by Ammeter and Voltmeter:

A Arrangement
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Formula: Rx = Vx
I  Iv
Rx = Resistor ()
Vx = Voltmeter reading (V)
I = Ammeter reading (A)
Iv = Voltmeter current (A)
A Better Arrangement
Formula: Rx = Vx
Ix
Rx = Resistor ()
Vx = Voltmeter reading  VA (V)
Ix = Ammeter reading (A)
CRO – Cathore Ray Oscilloscope:

The Sinusoidal Wave (Sine Wave)
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V
+ Vm
 Vm Vp-p
+Vm = Max Amplitude

Vm = Min Amplitude
Vp-p = Peak to Peak Voltage
T = Period (time for one cycle)
Frequency – The number of cycles per second

Formula: f= 1
T
F = Frequency (Hz)
T = Period (s)
RMS – Root Mean Squared (The Effective Value)

 AC (V or I) that produces the same heating effect as DC (V or I).
Formula: VRMS = 1 T [V(t)] 2.d.t
T O
Formulas for Sine Waves Only

Formula: VRMS = Vm
2
VRMS = RMS voltage (V)
Vm = Maximum voltage (V)
Formula: Vm = 2 .VRMS
Formula: Vp-p = 2.Vm = 2 2 .VRMS

Vp-p = Peak to peak voltage (V)
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Formula: PAC = IRMS2.R PAC = VRMS .IRMS PAC = VRMS2

R
PAC = Power (W)
IRMS = RMS current (A)
Formula: V(t) = Vmax.sin (.t)

V(t) = Voltage at ‘t’ time (V)
Vmax = Maximum voltage (V)
 = Angular velocity = /t (rad.s-1)
t = Time (s)
Formula: I(t) = Imax.sin (.t  )

V(t) = Voltage at ‘t’ time (V)
Vmax = Maximum voltage (V)
 = Angular velocity = /t (rad.s-1)
t = Time (s)
 = Phase change between voltage and current ()
Other Wave Forms
Triangular Sawtooth
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Square Pulses
or
Noise
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Converting other forms of Energy to Electrical

Energy
Sources of Energy:
Chemical Batteries
Mechanical Kinetic, Potential
Nuclear Reactor
Thermal Geothermal
Solar Solar cells
Converting:
Mechanical to Electrical
Power generation -Car electrical system
-Hydro electrical system
-Thermal power station
Piezo electric -Pressure on a crystal (Quartz) produces an EMF
-Transducer (sensors) for pressure, acceleration, force, weight
Thermal to Electrical
Thermal electric -Thermocouples (The difference between two junctions of a metal
produces an EMF)
Nuclear to Electrical
Reaction high-energy particles  Heat steam water  Turbine  Electrical Alternator
Solar to Electrical [Solar cells (semiconductor devices)]

Photo resistive -LDR
Photo conductive -Phototransistors
-Photo diodes
-Photo -SCR’s, TRIAC’s
Chemical to Electrical (Batteries)

 Charging produces free ion’s in the electrolyte
 Primary Cells cannot be re-charged
 Secondary Cells can be re-charged
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Batteries
Cell Capacity and Other Factors:
Capacity
 Its ability to deliver energy—is usually expressed in ampere-hours, or simply the
product of the discharge in amperes over a number of hours.
 This value has little significance unless it is qualified by the many factors which
influence a cell’s capacity: the main ones’ being the discharge rate, temperature,
specific gravity and final voltage.
Discharge Rate
 The higher the discharge in amperes, the less will be the capacity in ampere-hours.
 There are two main factors causing this:
 Lack of immediate diffusion of the electrolyte.
 Increase in voltage drop within the cell which reduces the available voltage to
supply the load on tile cell.
Temperature
 Many chemical actions are accelerated at higher temperatures.
 The internal resistance of the cell and the viscosity of the electrolyte are often
reduced with increasing temperature.
 These factors combine to give an increased capacity at higher temperatures and a
decreased one at lower temperatures.
Density (Specific Gravity)

 Electrolytes with higher values contain more active material for chemical reactions.
 The electrolyte with a higher density contributes to a decreased internal cell
resistance and enables the cell to maintain a higher terminal voltage.
Final Voltage
 This term is used to designate the minimum useful and accepted voltage at various
rates of discharge.
Standard Discharge Rates

 Two commonly used rates are the 8 and 10 hour values.
 Any rating is acceptable, provided it is correctly specified.
 Manufacturers often list several rates in their specifications, for convenience in
making comparisons.
 A secondary cell should not be discharged beyond tile point where it approaches
exhaustion. This “over-discharging” can have harmful results on the cell,
particularly if it is not promptly recharged.
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Ampere-Hour Efficiency
 Ratio of the number of ampere-hours obtainable during discharge, to that required to
restore the cell to its original condition.
 The value varies widely depending on the use of the cell.
Lead-acid cell 90%
Nickel-cadmium cell 75-80%
Fuel cell up to 90%
The Electromotive Force Series

Metal Electrode potential in volts
Aluminium 1.67
Zinc 0.76
Chromium 0.71
Lead 0.13
Hydrogen 0
Copper +0.34
Silver +0.8
Gold +1.42
Available Cells
Cell Positive Negative Electrolyte Volts/Cell Type
Electrode Electrode
Deniell Copper Zinc Sulphuric Acid 1.1 Wet Secondary
Lead-Acid Lead Lead Sulphuric Acid 2 Wet Secondary
Peroxide
Nickel-Iron Nickel Iron Potassium 1.2 Wet Secondary
Oxide Hydroxide
Carbon-Zinc Carbon Zinc Ammonium And Zinc 1.5 Dry Primary
Chloride
Zinc- Manganes Zinc Potassium 1.5 Dry Primary or
Alkaline e Dioxide Hydroxide Secondary
Manganese
Dioxide
Mercury Zinc Mercuric Potassium 1.3 Dry Primary
Oxide Hydroxide
Nickel- Nickel Cadmium Potassium 1.25 Dry Secondary
Cadmium Hydroxide Hydroxide
Battery Connection:
 Batteries in parallel arrangement amps increases
 Batteries in series arrangement volts increases
One Cell
Voltage Resistance
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Lead-Acid cells:
 The main advantage of this type of cell is its ability to deliver large amounts of power
for short periods.
 Variations in plate construction allow for individual specialised uses.
 This weakens the plate frames and consequently they have to be strengthened by
making them out of an alloy. In turn this can lead to reduced cell life.
Cell Construction
 In the fully charged condition the active material of the positive plate is lead
peroxide, and the negative plate is spongy lead.
 The discharging action converts the plates to lead sulphate and water is produced,
so diluting the electrolyte.
 The active materials have no rigid mechanical form or strength, and it is necessary
to mount them in a frame or grid. These are then known as pasted plates and are the
most common form of construction.
 The method is adaptable to both positive and negative plates. The grid usually has
antimony added to the lead for rigidity and extra mechanical strength.
Nickel-Alkaline Cells:
 In the nickel-alkaline cells there are two major types, although they are known under
various brand names. One has nickel-iron based electrodes and the other has nickel-
cadmium based electrodes.
 Each type has similar basic construction and an operating voltage of 1.2 V. There
are minor differences in construction to suit such specific purposes as engine
starting, standby power supplies and emergency lighting.
Cell Construction
 Both electrodes are usually made of a powdered material held in pockets
manufactured within a pressed steel frame.
 The active positive material is nickel hydroxide.
 The negative plate material is powdered iron for the iron based cell and calmium
converting to cadmium hydroxide for the cadmium-based cell.
 The cell case is often a steel pressing, but for some purposes may be made of plastic.
 The electrolyte is mainly potassium hydroxide (caustic soda) dissolved in water, but
may have some additives to lower the internal resistance of the cell.
 The cell itself often contains several plates of each polarity as in the lead-acid cell.
 The separation between plates is often by round pins instead of fiat separators.
 Where a steel cell container is used it must be insulated from the plates as well as
from other cells.
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Storage Cell Comparisons:

Lead-Acid Cells
 Higher voltage per cell-2 V per cell against 1.2 V per cell.
 Price--up to 8 times cheaper than an alkaline cell.
 Smaller for same capacity.
 Availability--many non-related businesses stock the lead-acid cell.
 Higher discharge currents available.
 Lower internal resistance
Nickel-Alkaline Cells
 Can be left discharged without harm
 Can be overcharged without harm
 Approximately 20 year life expectancy compared with 3 years for the lead-acid cell
 Less weight
 More rugged and substantial construction – better able to withstand mechical and
electrical abuse
 Electrolyte less subject to freezing in cold weather
Fuel Cells:
 If the load is replaced by a D.C. supply oxygen collects at the anode and hydrogen at
the cathode.
 When the load is replaced the cell generates a current flow until the gases have
recombined to form water.
 The special electrodes of platinum black do not undergo a chemical change but
merely act as catalysts.
Reversible Gas Cell + 
Oxygen (O) Hydrogen (H)
Water (H2O)
OH() (+)H
 Another version of the fuel cell consists of two chambers and two porous electrodes
separated by an electrolyte.
 Hydrogen supplied to the upper chamber diffuses through electrode A and reacts
with the electrolyte, forming positive ions and free electrons.
 The ions migrate through the electrolyte to electrode B where they combine with
oxygen and electrons, which have passed through the external load, forming water.
 Gives more energy per unit mass than a storage battery and in addition water is
produced as a useful by-product.
 Each kilowatt-hour of energy produces approximately half a litre of water.
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 It can easily be visualised that a solar cell could be used to produce electrical energy,
which in turn could produce hydrogen and oxygen from water during daylight hours.
However a lot more research work needs to bc done, the gases could be stored until
required and then fed into a fuel cell to produce electrical energy again, not
necessarily during daylight hours and without the use of storage batteries.
“Hydrox” Fuel Cell
Hydrogen
Electrode A 
Electrolyte
Electrode B +
Oxygen
Water
 An advanced fuel cell of the type being developed today is capable of delivering 50 A
at approximately 0.6 V for many hours.
Magnetism
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Electromagnets:
Magnetic Fields
 The further away the flux the weaker it is
 Opposite conductors repel
 Like conductors attract
Right-Hand Thumb
Grasp the conductor in the right hand, with the thumb pointing in the direction of current
flow. The fingers point in the direction in which the magnetic force is acting
Straight Conductor Solenoid
Luke Cole Page 30

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule:

If the first finger of the right hand points in the direction of the magnetic flux and if the
thumb point in the direction of movement of the conductor with respect to the magnetic
field, then the second finger, held at right angles to both the thumb and the first finger,
will point in the direction of the positive terminal of the conductor that is in the direction
of the E.M.F
Hysteresis Loop:
Luke Cole Page 31

Magnetic Units:
Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F)
 Field strength
Luke Cole Page 32

 Equivalent to Voltage
Formula: Fm = I.N
Fm = Magnetomotive force (A.t)
I = Current (A)
N = Number of turns in the coil (t)
Magnetising Force
Formula: H = I.N
l
H = Magnetising force (A.t.m-1)
I = Current (A)
l = length of magnetic circuit (m)
Flux Density
 Equivalent to Current
Formula:  = B.A
 = Webers group of 108 lines of force (Wb)
B = Flux density (Wb.m-2 or T)
A = Area (m2)
Reluctance
 Equivalent to Resistance & Ohm’s law for magnets
Formula: Rm = Fm

Rm = Reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
I = Current (A)
 = Webers group of 108 lines of force (Wb)
Magnitude of a Generated E.M.F

Formula: V = N.
t
V = E.M.F (V)
N = Number of turns in coil (t)
 = Flux (Wb)
t = Time (s)
Formula: V = B.l.v
V = E.M.F (V)
B = Flux density (T)
l = Length (m)
v = Velocity of conductor (m.s-1)
Permeability
Formula:  = r.o
 = Permeability
r = Relative permeability
Luke Cole Page 33

o = Permeability of free space = 4  10-7
Formula:  = B
H
 = Permeability
B = Flux Density (T)
H = Magnetising force (A.t.m-1)
Pull of an Electromagnet
Formula: F = B2.A
2.o
F = Force (N)
B = Flux density (T)
A = Area (m2)
o = Permeability of free space = 4  10-7
Series Magnetic Circuits:

Coil (M.M.F)
Luke Cole Page 34

Flux () Yoke (Rm 1)
Air gap (Rm 4) Air gap (Rm 2)
Armature (Rm 3)
Reluctance
 Like Resistors
Formula: Rm T = Rm 1 + Rm 2 + Rm 3 + Rm 4
Rm T = Total reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Rm 1 = Yoke reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Rm 2 = Air gap reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Rm 3 = Armature reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Rm 4 = Air gap reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Flux
 Flux is like current so it is Common to all the reluctance’s
M.M.F
 Sum of M.M.F drops (voltage drops)
Formula: I.NT = I.N1 + I.N2 + I.N3 + I.N4
I.NT = M.M.F supply (Coil) (A.t)
I.N1 = M.M.F drop of Rm 1 (A.t)
Parallel Magnetic Circuits:

Rm1 Rm 2
Luke Cole Page 35

M.M.F
1 T 2
Reluctance
 Like Resistors
Formula: 1 1 1
Rm T = Rm 1 + Rm 2
Rm T = Total reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Rm 1 = 1st reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Rm 2 = 2nd reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Flux
 Flux is like current so:
Formula: T = 1 + 2
T = Total flux (Wb)
1 = Rm 1 flux (Wb)
2 = Rm 2 flux (Wb)
M.M.F
 Sum of m.m.f drops (voltage drops)
Formula: I.NT = I.N1 = I.N2
I.NT = M.M.F supply (Coil) (A.t)
Inductance
Inductance:
 A moving magnetic field causes a current to flow in a coil & a current flowing in a
inductor causes a magnetic field.
 A moving magnetic field induces an E.M.F in the conductor.
Luke Cole Page 36

Formula: L = N.
I
L = Inductance (H)
N = Number of conductors
 = Flux linkage (Wb)
I = Current (A)
Potential Difference
Formula: V = L.I
t
V = P.D. (V)
L = Inductance (H)
t = Time (s)
I = Current (A)
Energy From Inductance

Formula: W = ½.L.I2
W = Energy (J)
L = Inductance (H)
I = Current (A)
Impedance (Z):
 Total resistance of an inductor.
 Applies only to A.C. circuits.
 Vector Sum of reactance (Out of phase with resistance by 90) and resistance
within the inductor.
Reactance
 Led’s Resistance by 90.
Formula: XL = 2..f.L
XL = Reactance ()
f = Frequency (Hz)
L = Inductance (H)
D.C. Time Constant:

 Time for the current to reach 63%.
 Current decreases at the same rate as it increase.
100%
IL
Luke Cole Page 37

VL
0%
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time constant
When: =1 I = 63% V = 37%
Formula: =L
R
 = Time constant (s)
L = Inductance (H)
R = Resistance of inductor ()
Formula: I(t) = VT/RT (1  et/)

I(t) = Current at time ‘t’ (A)
VT = Total voltage (V)
t = Particular time (s)
Formula: V(t) = VT (1  et/)

V(t) = Voltage at time ‘t’ (A)
Inductors:
Types
 Fixed
 Variable
Classification
Value Henry - H
Luke Cole Page 38

Symbol
Air-cored Inductor Iron-cored Inductor
Inductors in Series
Formula: LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + …
LT = Total Inductance (H)
L1 = 1st Inductor (H)
L2 = 2nd Inductor (H)
L3 = 3rd Inductor (H)
… = Etc
Inductors in Parallel
1
Formula: LT = 1+ 1+ 1…
L1 L2 L3
LT = Total Inductance (H)
L1 = 1st Inductor (H)
L2 = 2nd Inductor (H)
L3 = 3rd Inductor (H)
… = Etc
Common Inductor - Transformers:

Types
 Step up or down voltage (P.T.)
 Step up or down current (C.T.)
 Vary the Impedance
Classification
Value Henry - H
Luke Cole Page 39

Power Rating Apparent Power - VA
Symbols
 Transformers are laminated to reduce current

 Soft Steel is used to give a narrow hysteresis loop and high permeability
EMF Equation
Formula: V1 = (4.44).N1.f.max
V1 = Primary voltage (V)
N1 = Number of turns on primary voltage
f = Frequency (Hz)
max = Maximum flux (Wb)
Formula: V2 = (4.44).N2.f.max
V2 = Secondary voltage (V)
N1 = Number of turns on secondary voltage
f = Frequency (Hz)
max = Maximum flux (Wb)
Formula: V1/V2 = N1/V2 = I2/I1

V1 = Primary voltage (V)
N1 = Number of turns on primary voltage
V2 = Secondary voltage (V)
N2 = Number of turns on secondary voltage
I2 = Current in secondary coil (A)
I1 = Current in primary coil (A)
Capacitance
Capacitance:
Formula: C = .A
d
C = Capacitance (F)
 = Permittivity of dielectric = 0.r (F/m)
Luke Cole Page 40

A = Area of one plate (m2)
d = Distance between plates (m)
Dielectric Material Permittivity

Air = 0 8.85  10-12
Paper 22.125  10-12
Transformer Oil 35.4  10-12
Mica 44.25  10-12
Porcelain 53.1  10-12
Ceramic (Strontium 66.375  10-12
Titanate)
Formula: Q = C.V = I.t

Q = Charge (C)
C = Capacitance (F)
V = P.D (V)
Reactance:
 Applies only to A.C. circuits.
 Lag’s resistance by 90.
Formula: XC = 1
2..f.C
XC = Reactance ()
f = Frequency (Hz)
C = Capacitance (F)
D.C Time Constant:

 When a resistor and capacitor are in series
100%
VC
Luke Cole Page 41

IC
0%
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time constant
When: =1 Q = 63%
Formula:  = R.C
R = Resistor ()
C = Capacitor (F)
Formula: I(t) = VT/RT (1  et/)

I(t) = Current at time ‘t’ (A)
Formula: V(t) = VT (1  et/)

V(t) = Voltage at time ‘t’ (A)
Capacitors:
Types
 Electrolytic or non-Electrolytic
 Fixed
 Variable
Specifications
Value Farad - F
Tolerance Percentage -  %
Luke Cole Page 42

Maximum voltage Volts - V
Deriving Values
1st Figure (Value) – 2nd Figure (Value) – 3rd Figure (Multiplier) – 4th Figure (Tolerance)
Figure below (Voltage)
Tolerance
M = 20%
K = 10%
J = 5%
C = 0.25pF
E.g. 104K  0.1F, 10%, 150V

150
Symbols
Luke Cole Page 43

Fixed Capacitor Electrolytic Capacitor
Trimmer Capacitor
Variable Capacitor
Capacitors in Series
1
Formula: CT = 1+ 1+ 1…
C1 C 2 C3
CT = Total Capacitance (F)
C1 = 1st Capacitor (F)
C2 = 2nd Capacitor (F)
C3 = 3rd Capacitor (F)
… = Etc
Formula: QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q2 = …
QT = Total Charge (C)
Q1 = 1st Charge (C)
Q2 = 2nd Charge (C)
Q3 = 3rd Charge (C)
... = Etc
Capacitors in Parallel
Luke Cole Page 44

Formula: CT = C1 + C2 + C 3 + …
CT = Total Capacitance (F)
C1 = 1st Capacitor (F)
C2 = 2nd Capacitor (F)
C3 = 3rd Capacitor (F)
… = Etc
Formula: QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q2 + …
QT = Total Charge (C)
Q1 = 1st Charge (C)
Q2 = 2nd Charge (C)
Q3 = 3rd Charge (C)
... = Etc
Resonance
 Resonance occurs when XL = XC
Luke Cole Page 45

 When Resonance occurs the current becomes in phase with the voltage and the
circuit acts as if the inductor and capacitor are not there.
Formula: fr = 1
2.. L.C
fr = Resonant frequency (Hz)
L = Inductance (H)
C = Capacitance (F)
This graph shows where resistance and reactance are equal and therefore resonance
occurs
XL
R R
f
XC
AC Circuits
 Ohm’s Law applies to AC (Except angles are accounted for)
Luke Cole Page 46

Series:
Impedance Phasor Diagram

Z = XL + R VT = I.Z = VR + VL
VL = I.XL
VR = I.R
XL Z VL VT
R I VR

Z = XC + R VT = I.Z = VR + VC
VR = I.R
VC = I.XC
R I VR
XC VC VT
Z
Parallel:
Luke Cole Page 47


-1 -1 -1 -1
Z = (R + X L + XC ) VT = VR = VC = VL
I = IR + IL + IC
VR = IR.R
VC = IC.XC
VL = IL.XL
XL Z IC IT
R IR VT
XC IL
AC Power
Luke Cole Page 48

Power Triangle:
The Resultant Power (Apparent Power) is made up of Two Components
Q S

P
Formula: S = V.I or S2 = Q2 + P2
S = Apparent power (V.A)
V = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
Q = Reactive power (vars)
P = True power (W)
True Power
Formula: P = V.I.cos
P = True power (W)
V = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
 = Angle between voltage and current
Reactive Power
 Power in a Inductor or Capacitor (Since P = V.I.cos = 0)
 Led’s True Power by 90
Formula: Q = V.I.sin
Q = Reactive power (vars)
V = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
Power Factor
 Quantity of True Power
 Best with unity pf (To improve pf add capacitance)
Formula: pf = cos
pf = Power factor
Luke Cole Page 49

Electrical Principles

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Electrical Principles

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Factual Information Electrical Principles Page 1

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS.................................................................... 5

Electrical D.C. Power:..................................................................................................................................14

Luke Cole Page 1

Resistance by Ammeter and Voltmeter:..................................................................................................... 19

CRO – Cathore Ray Oscilloscope:.............................................................................................................. 20

CONVERTING OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY..... 24

Luke Cole Page 2

Storage Cell Comparisons:.......................................................................................................................... 28

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule:........................................................................................................................ 31

Series Magnetic Circuits:............................................................................................................................. 34

Parallel Magnetic Circuits:..........................................................................................................................35

D.C. Time Constant:.....................................................................................................................................37

Common Inductor - Transformers:............................................................................................................ 39

Luke Cole Page 3

D.C Time Constant:......................................................................................................................................41

Luke Cole Page 4

Valence Electrons (Outer Layer)

Conductors and Insulators

Luke Cole Page 5

Luke Cole Page 6

Luke Cole Page 7

Conventional Current Flow (I) I

Luke Cole Page 8

1.5V EMF in here

Luke Cole Page 9

Metal Resistivity at 20C

Luke Cole Page 10

Metal  at 20°C  at 0°C

Luke Cole Page 11

E.g. Yellow – Violet – Red – Gold  4.7k, 5% or 4k7, 5%

Luke Cole Page 12

1 Note: This only

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Electrical D.C. Power:

Luke Cole Page 14

Luke Cole Page 15

Permanent Magnet Moving-Coil Instrument (PMMC):

Luke Cole Page 16

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 Sensitivity is the accurate responds to the measurement.

Luke Cole Page 18

Resistance by Ammeter and Voltmeter:

Luke Cole Page 19

CRO – Cathore Ray Oscilloscope:

Luke Cole Page 20

+Vm = Max Amplitude

Frequency – The number of cycles per second

RMS – Root Mean Squared (The Effective Value)

Formulas for Sine Waves Only

Formula: Vp-p = 2.Vm = 2 2 .VRMS

Luke Cole Page 21

Formula: PAC = IRMS2.R PAC = VRMS .IRMS PAC = VRMS2

Formula: V(t) = Vmax.sin (.t)

Formula: I(t) = Imax.sin (.t  )

Other Wave Forms

Luke Cole Page 22

Luke Cole Page 23

Converting other forms of Energy to Electrical

Solar to Electrical [Solar cells (semiconductor devices)]

Chemical to Electrical (Batteries)

Luke Cole Page 24