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Engineering Physics
BS-124

By Atif M.Khokhar

 Intro & History of X-rays

 Scientist
 Date
 Nature of X-rays
 Bremsstrahlung process
 Characteristic X-rays
 The production of X-RAYS
 Properties of X-Rays
 Interaction with matter
 Application
 Space Exploration and X-Rays
 Atomic Spectra

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 Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen, German physicist,

Who, on November 8, 1895, accidentally detected
electromagnetic radiation, today known as x-rays
or Roentgen rays.
 An achievement that earned him the first Nobel
Prize in Physics in 1901.

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Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 X Ray, penetrating electromagnetic radiation, having

a shorter wavelength than light, and produced by
bombarding a target, usually made of tungsten, with
high-speed electrons

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Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

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 X rays are 10 um - 10 mm

electromagnetic radiation
ranging in wavelength
from about 100 A to 0.01
A
700 to 104 nm

400 to 700 nm

10 to 400 nm

10-1 to 10 nm

10-4 to 10 -1 nm

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 Wave length range from 10

to 0.01nm

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 The shorter the wavelength of the X ray, the greater

is its energy and its penetrating power.
 Longer wavelengths, near the ultraviolet-ray band of
the electromagnetic spectrum, are known as soft X
rays.
 The shorter wavelengths, closer to and overlapping
the gamma-ray range, are called hard X rays

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar 7

 “ Process In which
electromagnetic radiation
produced by the acceleration
of a charged particle (an
electron), when deflected by
another charged particle (an
atomic nucleus). Electron
radiates away from the site of
encounter.” such radiations NOTE
The phenomenon was
are called X-rays discovered by Nikola Tesla
during high frequency
 Bremsstrahlung process (from the German research he conducted
bremsen, to brake and Strahlung, radiation, thus, between 1888 and 1897.
"braking radiation" or "deceleration radiation"),

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar 8

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 An incident electron penetrates

the electron cloud of the atom
and passes close to the nucleus.
 The electron's kinetic energy is
reduced as it is deflected from
its original path. The energy
lost by the electron takes the
form of a Bremsstrahlung
photon.
Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar 9

X-RAYS Continuous Spectrum

SPECTURM shifts toward higher

frequencies when the energy of
the bombarding electrons is
increased

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 When a colliding electron

excites an atom to high-
energy state, that atom can
then radiate an x-ray photon

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar 11

M-orbital

L-orbital
K-absorption Kb
Ka1 Ka2

K-orbital
Wave-lengths

Cu(Ka1)= 1.54015 Å; Cu(Ka2)= 1.54433 Å

Cu(Ka)= 1.54015 Å
Cu(Kb)= 1.39317 Å

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

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 The two sharp peaks in the

illustration at left occur
when vacancies are
produced in the
 n=1 or K-shell of the atom
and electrons drop down
from above to fill the gap.
The x-rays produced by are
called K-alpha x-rays, and
those for the n=2 transition
are called K-beta x-rays.
 The continuous distribution
of x-rays which forms the
base for the two sharp peaks
at left is called
"Bremsstrahlung" radiation.

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Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar 14

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 The target atoms consists of a small "block" of the

target material, usually mounted on a heat removing
substrate, and sometimes immersed in oil .
 The electrons come from a heated filament of ~10-50
mA current .
 The incident electrons acquire a high incident energy by
being accelerated by the high voltage supply of tens of
kV, connected across the target block and the filament.
 The resulting X-rays scatter away from the target, and
pass through a window in the X-ray tube housing.

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 Accelerate electrons to 10kV - 100kV

 Let electrons hit heavy atoms
 Some x-rays emitted via Bremsstrahlung and some
as characteristic X rays
 X-ray tube filters away
lowest energy photons,
which is good because
they’re useless and burn

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar 18

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 X rays affect a photographic emulsion in the same way light

does .
 X rays also cause fluorescence in certain materials, such as
barium platinocyanide and zinc sulfide.
 Another important characteristic of X rays is their ionizing
power, which depends upon their wavelength. The capacity
of monochromatic X rays to ionize is directly proportional to
their energy.
 X rays may be diffracted by passage through a crystal or by
reflection (scattering) from a crystal, which consists of
regular lattices of atoms that serve as fine diffraction
gratings.

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 In the interaction between matter and X rays,

three mechanisms exist by which
X rays are absorbed.

1. Photoelectric Effect
2. Compton Scattering
3. Pair Production

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar 21

 When a photon, in the X-ray portion of the

electromagnetic spectrum strikes an atom, it may
intrude on an electron within an inner shell and
eject it from the atom. If the photon carries more
energy than is necessary to eject the electron, it
will transfer its residual energy to the ejected
electron in the form of kinetic energy. This
phenomenon, called the photoelectric effect,
occurs primarily in the absorption of low-energy X
rays.

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 When a high-energy photon collides with an

electron, both particles may be deflected at an
angle to the direction of the path of the incident X
ray. The incident photon, having delivered some of
its energy to the electron, emerges with a longer
wavelength. These deflections, accompanied by a
change of wavelength, are known as Compton
scattering.

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar 23

 When a high-energy photon penetrates the electron shell

close to the nucleus, it may create a pair of electrons, one
of negative charge and the other positive; a positively
charged electron is also known as a positron. This pair
production is an example of the conversion of energy into
mass. The photon requires at least 1.2 MeV of energy to
yield the mass of the pair.
 If the incident photon possesses more energy than is
required for pair production, the excess energy is imparted
to the electron pair as kinetic energy. The paths of the two
particles are different.

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Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar 25

 When the square root of the

frequencies of the characteristic
x-rays from the elements is
plotted against the atomic
number, a straight line is
obtained. In his early 20's,
Moseley measured and plotted
the x-ray frequencies for about
40 of the elements of the
periodic table. He showed that
the K-alpha x-rays followed a
straight line when the atomic
number Z versus the square root
of frequency was plotted.

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 Used to detect Tuberculosis and

disease of lungs
 Dentists used to check the condition
of teeth before beginning the
treatment.
 High energy X-rays are used to
destroy cancer cells
 Used in CAT(computerized axial
tomography)scan

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar 27

 X-rays are used to find the hidden flaws in the

metals such as cracks, air holes strain in casting and
imperfections in welds.
 Used to check the uniformity of the insulating
materials.
 Use to distinguish between real and artificial
diamond.
 Used for security purposes, like detection of Arms,
explosives and precious metals

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Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar 29

X-Ray Pictures

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

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Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 Caused by strong
magnetic fields that
may span up to
500,000 square
kilometers

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

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 These occur anywhere

on the Sun at opposition
of the active regions.
 Caused by magnetic
fields that are sucked
down into the
photosphere

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

Below: New Mexico’s Very Large

Array

Above: Hawaii’s twin Keck

observatories

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Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

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Atomic Spectra

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar 37

Atomic Spectra - Since the 19th century, it had

been known that when elements are heated until
they emit light (glow) they emit that light only at
discrete frequencies, giving a line spectrum.
-

+
Hydrogen
Gas Line Spectrum

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

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Line spectra cannot be explained by the classical

physics.
We explain this phenomenon by utilizing two new
concepts:
1. The particle nature of light (photons)
2. Energy levels: An atom can only have
certain discrete energy values- we say that
their energy is quantized. These energy
values are called energy levels.

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

When an electron makes a transition from a higher energy level to a

lower energy level ,the difference in the energy is emitted out as a
photon . Each transition produces a photon of a certain energy and
this appears as a line of certain wavelength on the spectrum. These
lines constitute the Emission spectrum

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

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When white light passes through a gas, the gas absorbs light of certain
wavelengths that are not present in its emission spectrum. The
resulting spectrum has some colors (wavelengths ) missing replaced
by dark lines. This is called the Absorption spectrum.

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

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Hydrogen spectrum

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Hydrogen Spectrum

Orbital diagram

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