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Ans. A fluid is a substance that flows (deforms continuously) on application of stresses.

Both
liquids and gases are fluids. Liquids are deformable but not compressible, while gases are deformable as
well as compressible
Ideal fluids are completely characterized by it density and pressure. They do not have shear
stresses or dissipative properties like viscosity.
In real fluids, viscosity, shear stresses, surface tension etc. are all present.



Ans. Viscosity is the property of a fluid to resist relative motion between adjacent fluid layers.
Due to viscosity, resisting shear stresses originate in the fluid between adjacent fluid layers having
velocity difference. The two types of viscosity are dynamic (absolute) viscosity () and kinematic
viscosity (). Mathematically, dynamic viscosity is defined by the relation:
= .

where is the shear stress at a point, and

is the velocity gradient.




Ans: Depending on pressure change across the turbine, there are two types of turbines-
i. Impulse turbine: All the pressure energy is converted to kinetic energy at the
nozzle itself before the water jet reaches the turbine. The turbine blades are
moved by transfer of momentum by the water jet. For-example: Pelton-wheel

ii. Reaction turbine: The pressure drop here occurs inside the turbine, along with
change in kinetic energy. For example - Francis turbine.



Depending on the type of flow of water inside the turbine, turbines are classified
as axial flow, centrifugal flow and mixed flow turbines.




Ans. Pump is a fluid-machine that takes in fluid at lower head (or lower pressure), performs work on it
and releases the fluid at higher head (or higher pressure).
Centrifugal pump: Impeller
Suction
Discharge Volute casing
The parts of the centrifugal pump are as shown in the figure:
Suction: This is the part through which liquid enters the centrifugal pump at the eye of the impeller.
Impeller: Impeller comprises of the rotating blades of the centrifugal pump. The impeller transfers its
momentum to the liquid.
Volute casing: It is the casing within which the waer being pumped is enclosed. Confinement of water
inside the volute casing makes pressure increase possible.
Discharge: It is the outlet of the pump through which water (at high pressure) flows out.



The notable advantages are:
i) Nearly 100% efficient, only inefficiency is due to fluid friction which is low at low velocities
ii) Hydraulic presses have very few moving parts, and hence are simpler, more reliable and
maintenance free
iii) Lower fixed costs and operating costs.
iv) Greater versatility (different types of usage configurations) and more control flexibility
v) It is less noisy than mechanical presses or actuators of similar ratings











Source, from: http://technologyforyou.org/blog/mechanical/how-pneumatic-frl-unit-work.html


FRL unit means Pneumatic Filter Regulator Lubricators (FRL).The compressed air in a
Pneumatic system must be conditioned before it can used by components. Inside the FRL
unit pressurized air should be Filter, Regulator and Lubricating

Their respective purposes are:

Filtering contaminants and moisture out of the air
Regulating the air pressure level
Lubricating the air




If the fluid is a liquid, then the pressure depends on the density and the depth of the liquid
(h)
Pressure is given by the relation p = gh
Thus the deeper one travels under a fluid, the higher the pressure becomes. Similarly, for
the same depth, a more dense fluid results in greater pressure than a less dense fluid. (for
example pressure due to 760 mm of mercury is equal to that of the entire column of air
above the ground).

If the fluid is a gas, the pressure depends on the density as well as temperature of the gas.
For example, for ideal gases, p = RT. Thus, keeping the density same, if the gas is heated to
a higher temperature, then its pressure increases.



The Bernoulli equation is given as follows:

For any point in a streamline of a fluid undergoing a steady, inviscid, incompressible flow

P + gh +

v
2
= constant

Where and v are density and velocity of the fluid at any point inside the streamline.

The first term is called the pressure head, the second term is the gravitational head and the
third term is called the velocity head.




Source: Fundamentals of fluid mechanics : Munson Okiishi, Young











For fluid flowing in streamline, Bernoullis equation tells us that the sum of the pressure head (p/),
velocity head (V
2
/2g) and gravitational head (h) is constant. Each of these heads represent a form of
energy pressure energy, kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy. The energy line represents
the sum of these heads at different points of the flow. This can be measured by a pitot static tube
measuring stagnation pressure). Under the assumptions of Bernoulli equation, this sum is constant
giving rise to a straight line denoting constant energy.
On the other hand, the hydraulic grade line (HGL) represents the sum of the pressure and gravitational
head (not the velocity head). So, the total energy remaining same, if the velocity of fluid at a point
increases, then the hydraulic grade line dips. The piezometric sum represented by the hydraulic grade
line is measured by a static pressure tap connected to a piezometer tube.

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