Society and Environment

Page 1 Notes
Long type Answers:
Explain in brief some of the major aspects of development
Ans: Development is a total transformation of society and a movement in consciously chosen direction. There is no straight
and linear progress from traditional to modern society, and neither is this transition smooth.
Development is a complex one and involves several aspects:
(1) Political development.
() !ocial development.
(") #conomic development
($.) %ntellectual development.
!1" Political development .: The first re&uirement of political development is a high degree of role of speciali'ation (and
differentiation) of political institutions and the gro(th of communication media. Political parties, trade unions, religious
organi'ations, pressure groups and other similar organi'ations represent functional differentiation. %n the second place, there
is greater emphasis on rational, scientific and secular techni&ues for decision ma)ing. The developed system ac&uires an
impersonal character in (hich the la( *ecomes more important than the (hims of men in po(er.
!#" Social development +hen a traditional society is developed, there is a mar)ed shifting of population from rural areas to
ur*an centers under the impact of industriali'ation, (hich is one of the main agents of development %n addition to migration
to cities and to(ns, the gro(th of technology gradually reduces the percentage of the population engaged in agriculture.
!ocial development *rings a*out a mar)ed change in the outloo) and *ehavior of social groups (hich are characteri'ed *y
the functions they perform rather than *y their caste, language and other such factors, +ith the gro(th of social
development, the individual finds himself in a (ider (orld of freedom in (hich there are fe(er restrictions on his a*ility to
ta)e decision affecting his life. ,e is free to choose his o(n career rather than have it determined on the *asis of his caster
!$" Economic %evelopment
#conomic development also )no(n as -economic gro(th- covers many aspects of social life. %n the first place, it involves the
systematic application of science and technology to the processes of production and distri*ution of goods and services.
!econdly, it compels increasing use of inanimate sources of energy in contrast to the use of human or animal energy in
traditional societies. This change in the pattern of energy consumption can only *e sustained *y a evolution in the
consumption patterns of the masses demanding diversification of production in response to varied consumer needs.
Diversified consumer needs lead to a high degree of speciali'ation in production techni&ues and la*or s)ills. .ationality in
economic decisions (in determining the location of industry, for example) results in increased mo*ility of la*or and
emergence of a vast variety of mar)et processor.
!&" 'ntellect(al development : Development cannot *e sustained for long in any society (ithout a corresponding and self/
sustaining intellectual development characteri'ed *y constantly increasing )no(ledge. This involves the existence of
ade&uate num*er of fact/finding and data/processing agencies, statistical units, .esearch and development la*oratories,
universities and similar institutions. %ntellectual development implies the existence of intellectual elites (ho play a )ey role in
sustaining the gro(th of technology. %ntellectual development leads, in all political systems, to greater emphasis on
secularism and on seculari'ation of the process of government and *ureaucracy0. %t also leads to an increasing emphasis on
strengthening the material *asis of life.

List the impediments to development Explain these in brief
Ans: There are several impediments to development of a traditional society. !ome of the o*stacles are:
(1) 1ac) of s)ills.
() .igid administrative system.
(") %mpatience for rapid development.
($) Passion for &uantitative expansion.
(2) Premature politici'ation.
(3) !train on la( and order resources.
(4) .apid gro(th of population.

(1) Lack of skills: The developing countries are usually (ea) in the s)ills re&uired for development. The real pro*lem in
training personnel for development programs lies not in unparting information to them, *ut in helping them to develop the
re&uired s)ills. %t is necessary, to give field (or)ers and administrators more freedom to experiment and to try ne(
approaches5 *ut this is precisely (here the %ndian programs suffer.
(2)Rigid Administrative System: %n %ndia arid in many other 6ommon(ealth countries, the administrative system inherited
from the 7ritish rule leaves little room for freedom to experiment. The inherited *ureaucracy (ith its outmoded procedures of
(or) and personal attitudes, inade&uate delegation at all levels, too formal supervision of field (or)ers and poor morale
provide a ma8or impediment. f"9 %mpatience for .apid Development %t arises from the *elief that a country must em*ar) on
all areas of development at one time. This has led, among other things, to sym*olic expenditure on *ig pro8ects to convince
the masses and the outside (orld of the country0s determination to *ecome a modern nation in the shortest possi*le period
of time. :any poor countries have spent huge money on nuclear research even though the *asic amenities of life remain
unprovided for a high percentage of their population.
!$" 'mpatience for rapid development %t arises from the *elief that a country must em*ar) on all areas of development at
one time. This has led, among other things, to sym*olic expenditure on *ig pro8ects to convince the masses and the outside
(orld of the country0s determination to *ecome a modern nation in the shortest possi*le period of time. :any poor countries
have spent huge money on nuclear research even though the *asic amenities of life remain unprovided for a high
percentage of their population.

!&" Passion for )(antitative Expansion ;nother o*stacle arises from the passion for a rapid &uantitative expansion
(ithout attention to &uality. ;part from community development, education has very rapidly expanded in %ndia since
independence and ne( universities and colleges have mushroomed under local pressure. The result of this expansion has
*een pumping into the society a vast army of unemployed graduates.
!*" Premat(re Politici+ation : The political leadership in developing countries has a mar)ed tendency to politici'e the mass
prematurely. The large num*er of students and unemployed youths, often recruited *y various political parties, contri*ute to
the restlessness of the political process.
!," Strain on Low and -rder .eso(rces : Politici'ation of the mass results in considera*le strain on the la( and order
resources of the state. The leadership in %ndia has done very little since independence for reha*ilitating the police in the
popular mind as protectors of the la(. ;ttitude formed in the popular mind to(ards police in the era of our freedom struggle
has not yet died *ut has produced a certain am*ivalence to(ards the police. ;s a result, investment in improvement and
strengthening of the police department has appeared to our leadership as *eing in some (ay contrary to the spirit of
democratic (elfare.
!/" .apid 0rowth of Pop(lation: .apidly gro(ing population is one of the ma8or impediments to the development of a
traditional society. .apid population gro(th usually results from the improvement in the general conditions of the mass,
*etter health/care facility and decline in morality. ; high rate of population gro(th offsets the economic gro(th of a country.
This leads to frustration, social tension and mass violence
Page <otes
&$ %efine and explain a (nder1developed economy 2hat are the basics
3haracteristics of (nder1developed co(ntries4
Ans: ;ccording to the -=nited <ations #xperts 6ommittee,- an under/ Pr /4 developed country is one (hose per capita real
income is lo( (hen compared (ith the per capita real income of the =!, 6anada, ;ustralia and +estern #urope. ;ccording
to Prof. Ragnar Nurkse , -the under/developed countries are those (hich, compared (ith the advanced countries, are under/
e&uipped (ith capital in relation to their population and natural resources-. #ven this defination is not fully satisfactory. The
Indian Planning Commissionhas defined an under/developed country as one -(hich is characteri'ed *y the coexistence, in
greater or lesser degree, of unutili'ed or under/utili'ed manpo(er on the one hand and of unexploded natural resources on
the other-. ;ccording to Colin Clark , (ho (as one of the pioneers in the studies of under/developed economies, -economic
development consists in the progressive enlargement of tertiary occupations in the economy-. ;ccording to this definition,
under/developed economies are those in (hich the primary occupations predominate. %n current literature, all countries (ith
lo( per capita income are generally classified as under/developed. %n general, all countries (ith per capita income less than
1>? of that of the =! ("1,@1> =! dollars) may *e regarded as under developed countries. %ndia , (ith a per capita income
of ,"> =! dollars, is one of the most under/developed countries in the (orld.
!ome of the *asic common characteristics are mention *elo(:
(1) Low per capita income (2) Deficiency of capita (3) Excessie dependence on !griculture (4) Rapid "rowth of
Population (5) Large #scale $nemployment (6) $nder%$tili&ation of Resources () 'oreign Trade (rientation (!) Low Leels
of )kill*

&* 5'nternational trade plays an important role in economic development6617(stify the statement
Ans: %nternational trade plays a very important role in economic development since it allo(s a country to escape from its
o(n limitations of natural and human resources and concentrates its efforts in the areas in (hich it has a genuine
advantage. %f there (ere no international trades, a developing country (ould have to gro( on all fronts simultaneously. %n
that case, its gro(th could *e seriously impaired *y the limitations of natural resources and ac&uired human s)ills in many
areas. ; country *ent on gro(ing through an industriali'ation policy may *enefit if it can concentrate at first on light
manufacturing and exporting consumer goods in return for capital goods made *y heavy industries in more developed
countries. %n this (ay, a developing country can gain many of the *enefits of more efficient production that it could not hope
to match for a long time to come.
;mong the other advantages of speciali'ation that international trade ma)es possi*le are the opportunities to ta)e
advantage of the economy of scale *y producing far more goods than (ould *e re&uired to meet the domestic demand in a
state of self/sufficiency. ; further advantage that may *e significant for a developing country is often called the advantage of
-learning *y doing-. An the other hand, economic gro(th (ith a heavy dependence on the foreign trade often *rings in the
serious pro*lem of the *alance of payments in a (orld of fixed exchange rates. %n a developing country, capital goods are
often one of the main limitations to gro(th. %n a closed economy, the pro*lem of scarce capital appears as a resource
pro*lem since there are not enough resources to produce capital goods at a rate as fast as desired. %n an open economy the
same pro*lem appears as a foreign exchange pro*lem since there is not enough foreign exchange to *uy all the imported
capital goods that are desired for faster economic gro(th. %n *oth cases, the pro*lem is the same, i.e., it is very difficult to
o*tain a desired level of capital goods. Ane (ay is to ma)e the capital goods at home5 the other (ay is to ma)e consumer
goods at home and then sell them a*road in exchange for capital goods. ; second pro*lem in a developing country is
related to the import of consumer goods, if the country0s economy is an open one. ;s the country0s productivity rises,
disposa*le income and the standard of living also rise. %n many developing countries, the goods produced at home are
mainly in the necessity class (ith lo( margins of profit, (hereas imported goods tend to have a higher profit margin. %n such
a situation, the rise in income that accompanies economic gro(th *rings (ith it a shift in the pattern of consumer demand,
(ith a larger proportion of consumers opting for the purchase of imported goods. =nless something happens to offset this
shift in consumer demand, economic gro(th can *e accompanied *y an increasingly severe pro*lem of the *alance of
payments. This pro*lem can *e offset in t(o (ays. The first (ay is for the country to develop export commodities (ith
rapidly expanding demand for them in foreign countries. %n this case, the exports can expand rapidly to match the increasing
imports. ; second (ay is for its domestic gro(th to ta)e place partly in the sec/called -import/su*stitute- industries. Bro(th
of industries that compete (ith %mports can )eep the rapidly expanding demand for luxury goods from *eing translated into
an e&ually rapidly expanding demand for their imports.

2rite a brief note on interrelationship between social8 economic and scientific factors
Ans : #conomic development is hardly possi*le (ithout social change, and science, engineering and technology are the
most important factors for changing a traditional society into a modern and developed one. #ngineering is the ( % applied
science and technology is the applied engineering. This clearly sho(s that social, economic and scientific factors for
development are highly interrelated. Technology, arising from scientific research follo(ed *y technological development, has
*een a prime mover m creating the )ind of (orld in (hich (e live today. Crom the shaping of the first stone tools, the
discovery of the (heel, the lever and the plough and learning the use of fire, man has assiduously shaped science to serve
his material needs. !cience, therefore, is not a ne( phenomenonD +hat is different today is that the discover of natural la(s
through scientific research has given a ne( dimension to technology. ;s a result, technology no( has such a massive
impart on our lives that it offers on the one hand an almost infinite promise to relieve poverty and provide healthy conditions
of life, *ut on the other hand it also threatens our pattern of life, the glo*al ecology and even the !urvival of the human race.
Page " <otes
Explain the role of science and technology in development
Ans: %n order to appreciate properly the rationale and relevance of adopting science and technology for development, it is
necessary to dra( a distinction *et(een the t(o terms -science- and -technology-. ;s explained earlier, science and
technology are closely related and highly interdependent. Policy for them, ho(ever, has to *e distinct. !cience is the result
of man0s restless &uest to comprehend the phenomena of nature. 7y its very nature, development of science re&uires a
long/term planning. <o schedule of time can *e fixed in advance for achieving a scientific *rea)through. Technology, on the
other hand, is product or process specific and not universal. =nli)e science, technologies are not (idely pu*lici'ed and
generally, not open to outsiders. The inventor guards the secrets of his technological *rea)through *y getting a patent on it
and thus preventing others from using the process developed *y him. The possession of the patent on a technological
development gives monopoly rights to the patent holder to derive commercial *enefits from it for a fixed period. Technology
is an essential input in all decisions relating to production in all sectors of the economy. ;s a result, technology is amena*le
to time/*ound programs, policies, strategies and planning on a continuing *asis. ;ll plans contain some specific pro8ects
(ith some technological contents in them. Pro8ects launched for national development have to *e supported *y appropriate
technological inputs that (ould improve productivity of *oth men and materials. %n the process of moderni'ation, a country
has to assimilate its o(n indigenous technology as (ell as the relevant imported technology. %ndia has *een doing so ever
since it launched its am*itious five/year Plans. The role (hich relevant technology can play in improving productivity can *e
clearly seen from the experience of Pun8a* . !u*sistence agriculture in Pun8a* (as transformed into a commercial one,
particularly after the Breen .evolution in the 1@3>s, through the application of technology.

&9 2rite a note on the obstacles to :ransfer of :echnology .
Ans : %f the experience of the industriali'ed countries has *een that science and technology have *een ma)or instruments
for their economic development, one (ould assume that the same should *e true for developing countries too. 6ertainly,
great advances have *een made in developing countries *y the direct transfer of technology from advanced countries. Cor
example, communications no( form a (orld(ide net(or)5 certain devastating diseases li)e malaria, smallpox and
tu*erculosis have *een controlled5 and agriculture in the third (orld countries has made rapid progress *y the use of
fertili'ers and high/yielding varieties of seeds.
The relative failure of the process of technology transfer is due to many causes, in addition to the lac) of indigenous
scientific and technological capacity. The profit motive of the donors of technology does not al(ays harmoni'e (ith the *asic
needs of the receivers. Ather causes of the failure of technology transfer lie in the social and political factors in the recipient
nations. ;nother difficulty is the scarcity of capital. ;lso, some technologies are energy/intensive. %n most Third +orld
countries, unemployment and underemployment are (idespread and, therefore, capital/intensive technologies are not
suita*le to them. ;nother o*stacle to successful transfer of technology is the insufficient local availa*ility of the necessary
technical and managerial s)ills.
;t present, the main political de*ate (ith regard to the use of science and technology for development is concentrated on
the transfer process itself, and on the improvement in the access of advanced technology to the developing countries. The
arguments used in the de*ate are highly politici'ed and centre around the effectiveness and motivation of the multinational
corporations (:<6s) as the main agents of technology transfer. The :<6s are needed *y the developing countries, *ut
they are not encouraged. %t is necessary that the multinationals and the developing countries come to terms. The
multinational corporations (ill have to *e encouraged to esta*lish lasting relationship (ith the host country. The
multinationals, as a matter of self/interest, (ill have to learn to *alance the need for next year0s profits (ith their long/term
survival in the host country.

Explain the role of science and technology in r(ral development
Ans: ;pplication of science and technology for rural development has ac&uired a special significance in %ndia 0s
development programs. .ural people occupy the pivotal position in the context of anti/poverty programs. %t has *een (ell
recogni'ed that the physical resources alone are not the only constraint for development. #ven if physical resources are
availa*le, their inefficient/utili'ation can result in under/development. Thus, science and technology assume a greater
significance in the context of rural development since they can increase the efficiency of resource utili'ation. The areas of
economy, (hich can *e su*stantially influenced through the adoption of science and technology, can *e grouped under
production and development. Production efficiency in respect of the rural people relates to the follo(ing t(o aspects:
(1) %ncreasing efficiency of resource use for productive enterprise ta)en
up *y the rural people, either individually or uncooperative groups.
() %ncreasing efficiency of la*or that the rural people provide to the
economy through s)ill development.
Developments in science and technology can *e fruitfully utili'ed for rural development through an improvement in the
production efficiency of investment resources as (ell as that of the rural la*or force, conservation of resources used *y them
and improvement in their health and living conditions. ; great deal of effort has gone into the application of science and
technology for rural development, *ut it has not yet produced desired results. +hile some technologies appropriate for rural
development have *een developed, their com*ined pac)age (innovation, adoption, utili'ation, human resources, ra(
materials and mar)eting) has not made su*stantial change in the productivity, income and living condition of the rural people
in general.
The o*8ectives should *e:
(1) Development of technologies appropriate to rural areas in the existing
!ocioeconomic context of *oth producers and their customers.
() ; -delivery system- or methodology to ensure the self/sustaining
adoption and utili'ation of these technologies.
(") :aximi'ation of their *enefits to the rural poor.
Page 4 Notes
%efine planning 2hat are its characteristics4
Ans: Defination of planning given *y Prof. Dic)inson. ;ccording to him, -#conomic planning is the ma)ing of ma)or
economic decisions / (hat and ho( much is to *e produced5 ho(, (hen and (here it is to *e produced and to (hom it is to
*e allocated / *y the conscious decision of a comprehensive survey of the system as a (hole-. Prof. Loucks defines
planning as -the shaping of all economic activities into group/defined spheres of action, (hich are rationally mapped out and
fitted, as parts of a mosaic, into a coordinated (hole, for the purpose of achieving certain nationally conceived and socially
comprehensive goals. There are three important characteristics of planning. %n the first place, there is a definite planning
authority, (hether it *e the government or another *ody specially constituted li)e the Planning 6ommission in %ndia . This
planning authority is entrusted (ith the tas) of surveying the resource of the country, fixing up targets and laying do(n the
methods for reaching these targets. %f the government itself is the planning *ody, it also executes the plan thus formulated. %t
is not necessary that the planning authority should have supreme or dictatorial po(ers. %t may *e dictatorial, or it may (or)
su*8ect to the democratic control of a parliament as in %ndia . %t may even delegate some of its po(ers to other agencies, *ut
the plans of all such agencies ta)en together must fit into the common pattern laid do(n *y the planning authority. The
second characteristic of planning is that the decisions are *ased on a survey of the economy as a (hole. The planning
authority ac&uires comprehensive )no(ledge of all resources that the economy possesses. :oreover, it )eeps in vie( the
needs and re&uirements of the economy as a (hole, and not merely of some particular sectors of it, (hen it allocates the
resources for various uses. %n third place, the planning authority deli*erately ta)es decisions (ith regard to the use to (hich
various resources in the economy are put in. The economic life of the country concerned is not left to mere chance, or to the
(or)ing of free competition. Planning implies the conscious and deli*erate choice of economic priorities *y the planning
authority. ;nunplanned economy is characteri'ed *y the a*sence of these three characteristics. %n an unplanned society,
each individual is free, (ithin such legal limits as may *e laid do(n *y the state, to ma)e use of the resources at his
command in the manner he thin)s *est. <aturally, he does not ta)e a comprehensive vie( of the economy as a (hole. ,e
has, at his command, only a part of the total resources of the community. ,e uses these resources in such a (ay as to
ma)e the largest profit for himself, (ithout any thought of the effects of his actions on others or on the economy of the
country as a (hole

&;1# Explain the objectives of planning
Ans : The o*8ectives of planning, ho(ever, are not the same for all countries, nor are they the same for any country at all
times. +hat precisely arc the o*8ectives of planning depend on the stage of economic development of the country
concerned, the socio/economic conditions prevalent there at the time of planning, and the re&uirements for a particular
situation. Eeeping the *road o*8ective of accelerating economic gro(th and of raising the standard of living of the people,
the ma8or o*8ectives may *e listed as follo(s:
(1) ;chieving full employment.
() :aximi'ing national income and raising living standards.
(") .apid industriali'ation.
($) ;chieving self/sufficiency m food and ra( materials.
(2) .educing ine&ualities.
(3) .edressing un*alances in the economy.
%t may *e noted, ho(ever, that these o*8ectives are interrelated and complementary, and not mutually exclusive of one
another.
(1) Ac"ieving #$ll %m&loyment: Ane of the ma8or o*8ectives of planning especially in economically advanced countries is
to provide full employment to its citi'ens. =nemployment is one of the *y/products of capitalism, and is considered *y many
to *e the *iggest curse of a modern capitalist society. %n order to end unemployment, the development plans are directed to
those directions and those sectors of the economy (here there is more unemployment. To(ards this end, the state can
redistri*ute the la*or force and productive resources, and thus create more 8o*s in those sectors. Planning in a developing
country li)e %ndia may not *e a*le to create the conditions for full employment in the near future, *ut it can reduce the
incidence of unemployment.
(2) 'a(imi)ing *ational +ncome: ;nother lauda*le o*8ective of economic planning is to maximi'e the national income and
to raise the living standard of the people. The planners pursue this o*8ective relentlessly. The reason is that only planned
efforts can raise the national income apprecia*ly. The unplanned development efforts do not *ring any su*stantial progress
in this direction since the productive efforts are frittered a(ay in an uncoordinated economic activity.
(3) Ra&id +nd$striali)ation: This o*8ective assumes more importance in the case of those countries (hich have *een left
*ehind in the race for industriali'ation, it has *een reali'ed that industriali'ation plays a very important role in raising the
national income and in solving the pro*lem of unemployment, it is difficult for a country to achieve prosperity *y merely
confining itself to agriculture. The economies, (hich are predominantly agricultural, are *ound to remain *ac)(ard unless
attention is paid to industriali'ation.
(4) Ac"ieving self,s$fficiency: ;s a first step to(ards more systematic and intensive planning, it is important to ma)e the
country self/sufficient in the matter of food and essential ra( materials. This self/sufficiency provides a solid *ase for the
country and prepares it for further development through industriali'ation. %f a country is not self/sufficient in the matter of
food and ra( materials, mere political freedom may prove to *e a myth.
(5) Red$cing +ne-$alities: %t is generally reali'ed that political e&uality is meaningless unless it is accompanied *y
economic e&uality. Blaring ine&ualities of (ealth, income and opportunities are against the spirit of democracy. 7ridging the
gulf *et(een the rich and the poor is one of the most important o*8ectives of planning.
(6) Redressing +m.alances in t"e %conomy: Aften it is found that the
economic development in a country is lopsided. ;n economy, for example, may *e predominantly agricultural, or it may
depend too much on the export of oil or minerals. %n our o(n country, nearly 42? of the people are dependent on agriculture
and related activities. This is an example of an un*alanced economy. To lend sta*ility to the economy, it *ecomes essential
to reduce this im*alance. %f there are such im*alances in the economy of a country, removing them *ecomes an important
o*8ective of planning. %n addition, there is usually a regional im*alance in respect of industriali'ation in many of the
developing countries. +hen this is the case, the plans are aimed to correct such regional im*alances too.
Page 2 <otes
%efine Science8 Engineering and :echnology
Ans: !cience, engineering and technology are the most important factors for changing a traditional society into a modern
and developed one. #ngineering is the, % applied science and technology is the applied engineering. This clearly sho(s that
social, economic and scientific factors for development are highly interrelated. Technology, arising from scientific research
follo(ed *y technological development, has *een a prime mover m creating the )ind of (orld in (hich (e live today. Crom
the shaping of the first stone tools, the discovery of the (heel, the lever and the plough and learning the use of fire, man has
assiduously shaped science to serve his material needs. !cience, therefore, is not a ne( phenomenonD +hat is different
today is that the discover of natural la(s through scientific research has given a ne( dimension to technology. ;s a result,
technology no( has such a massive impart on our lives that it offers on the one hand an almost infinite promise to relieve
poverty and provide healthy conditions of life, *ut on the other hand it also threatens our pattern of life, the glo*al ecology
and even the survival of the human race.

%efine the 5rate of pop(lation growth5
Ans : The rate of population gro(th is given *y the difference *et(een the *irth rate and death rate of a country.

2hat is the most effective method of pop(lation control4
Ans : The most effective method of population control is the spread of education.
To a very large extent, the &ualitative aspect of a country0s population is determined *ye the level of literacy. The higher the
rate of literacy, the higher is the contri*ution of population to economic and social development.

2hat is the range of capital1o(tp(t ratio for the developing co(ntries4
Ans : The ratio determines the rate at (hich the output of a country gro(s as a result of a given volume of the capital
investment. ; lo(er capital/output ratio leads to a comparatively higher rate of the gro(th of output as a result of a given
volume of capital investment.

2hat is the meaning of 5planning by direction5 4
Ans : The government may also influence the supply and F or demand of various commodities, and thus increase or
decrease their production , consumption and price. The first of these methods (issue of orders, imposition of controls, etc.) is
)no(n as G planning +y direction, (hile the second method (use of fiscal and monetary policy) is called GPlanning +y
inducement,*

4/10 1efine 23lan 4oliday 2/
Ans: !ince the Third five/year Plan had gone a(ay, the process of planning itself *ecame discredited in the eyes of many
people. ;s a result, there (ere demands from many different &uarters to declare a Plan -oliday .

&#< 2hat is a .olling Plan4
;ns: The ne( pattern of planning (as laid do(n as the .olling Plan , (hich implied that the performance of the Plan (as to
*e assessed every year, and a ne( Plan *ased on this assessment (ould *e prepare for the next year.

&#1 %(ring which five1year Plan period8 maxim(m emphasis was laid
-n steel ind(stries4
;ns: !econd plan (1@23/31) laid special emphasis on heavy industries li)e steel

&## 2hat is 0reen .evol(tion4
Ans :

$." +hen (as the slogan -Bari*i ,atao- given H
;ns: The Cifth Plan attempted to coordinate various sectors of the economy in terms of he ne( slogan "ari+i -atao (G
.emove the povertyI)

$.$ Pre/machine technology includes :

(a) 7as)et (eaving (*) Pottery ma)ing
(c) Anly (a) (c) 7oth .

$.2 Cunctional differentiation is represented *y:

(a) Trade unions (*) Political parties
(c) 7oth (d) <either.

$.3 :atch the follo(ing:
(;) 7harat .atna !ir (7) :ixed economy
:.Jisvesvaraya
(7) %ndia (6) ,igh :ass consumption
(6) Bermany (D) =nder/developed economy
(D) 6olin 6lar) (;) Planned #conomy for %ndia

$.4 +rite true or false: /
The caste system allo(s vertical social mo*ility./ Calse
The caste system did not allo(s vertical social mo*ility.

$.K +rite true or false
;dvertising is an important aspect of economic development. L True

$.@ <ame the odd ones5
(a) #conomic insta*ility
(*) :ultinational corporations
(c) =neven distri*ution of (ealth
(d) #conomic *ac)(ardness.
Page 6 Notes
$."> Cill up the *lan)s:
!ome of the impediments to development are:
1ac) of s)ill, .igid administrative system ., %mpatience for rapid development .5
;nd premature politici'ation.


3=AP:E.1, EN>-.-N?EN:

0ive most s(itable definitions of 5environment5 and 5environmental poll(tion5 2hat is a poll(tant as defined by
the 0overnment of 'ndia in its Environmental Protection Act !1@9,"4
Ans :
#arth is the only planet (here other living *eings have evolved *ecause of the availa*ility of all the ingredients such as air,
(ater, food, energy, etc., (hich are essential for life. These together constitute the environment . The environment can *e
defined as one0s surroundings

Environmental poll(tion may *e *roadly defined as -adding to the environment a potentially ha'ardous su*stance or
source of energy faster than the rate at (hich the environment can accommodate it-. ;lternately, environmental pollution
may also *e defined as:

-;n undesira*le change in physical, chemical or *iological
characteristics of air, (ater and land that may *e or (ill *e
harmful to human life and other living organisms, living
conditions, industrial progress and cultural assets and (ill
deteriorate ra( material resources-.

%n *rief, one may define the environmental pollution as -an unfavoura*le alteration of environment largely as a result of
human activities-.

; pollutant is a su*stance that affects adversely or alters the environment *y changing the gro(th rate of species, interferes
(ith the food chain, health, comfort and amenities of the people and is toxic. %n the #nvironment Protection ;ct (1@K3),
passed *y the Bovernment of %ndia, an environmental pollutant is defined as :

-;ny solid, li&uid or gaseous su*stance present in such con/
centration as may *e or tends to *e in8urious to the environment
and the environmental pollution means the presence in the
environment of any environmental pollutant-.

2rite brief notes on atmosphere8 hydrosphere and lithosphere
Ans :
The glo*al environment consists of atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere in (hich the life/sustaining resources of the
earth are contained. The atmosphere , (hich is a mixture of various gases (mainly nitrogen, oxygen, car*on dioxide and
(ater vapour) extending out(ard from the surface of the earth, evolved from the elements of the earth that (ere gasified
during its formation. The hydrosphere consists of oceans, la)es and streams and shallo( ground (ater *odies.
The lithosphere , on the other hand, is the soil mantle that (raps the core of the earth. (The *iosphere, a thin layer that
encapsulates (enclose in) the earth, is made up of atmosphere and lithosphere ad8acent to the surface of the earth, together
(ith hydrosphere %t is (ithin the biosphere that all the life/forms of earth live. 1ife/sustaining materials in solid, li&uid and
gaseous forms are cycled through *iosphere, giving sustenance to all the living organisms. 1ife/sustaining resources, air,
(ater and food, are (ithdra(n from the *iosphere.
State air poll(tion as defined by the 2=- List the major ca(ses of air poll(tion
Ans :
The +orld ,ealth Argani'ation (+,A) has defined air pollution as -the presence of materials in the air in such concentration
(hich are harmful to man and his environment-. %n addition to industries, there are various other sources of air pollution in
%ndia, e.g., domestic com*ustion of lo(/grade fuels, fine dusts contri*uted *y the deserts and other open and dry fields and
human activities causing heavy pollution of the ur*an air ((ith suspended particulate matters and exhaust from motor
vehicles). The main pollutants of air are car*on monoxide sulphur dioxide,oxides of nitrogen,car*on dioxide and particulates.
;ir pollution affects gro(th,living and life of humans, plants, organisms and all other living *eings.

2hat are the major so(rces of water poll(tion 4 Explain in brief
Ans :
+ater pollution may *e defined as -the addition of su*stances (organic, inorganic, *iological or radiological) or factors (e.g.,
heat) (hich degrade the &uality of (ater so that either it *ecomes a health ha'ard or unfit for useI

The ma8or sources of (ater pollution are:

(1) Domestic.
() %ndustrial (astes.
(") agricultural chemical
($) #xcess heat (from nuclear po(er plants, for example) /
(2) Ail spills (from tan)ers or coastal oil (ells).
Page 7 Notes
,* Explain in brief the environmental ethic
Ans :
The (ord -ethic- is derived from the Bree) (or) -ethos-, (hich means the character of a person as defined *y his actions.
This character has *een developed during the evolutionary process and has *een influenced *y the need for adopting to the
environment. The -ethic-, in short governs our (ay of doing things and this is a direct result of our environment. #cology and
economics are on a collision course no(. The conflict *et(een the ecologists and economists has *een aptly summari'ed
*y Eenneth 7oulding:

-#cology is uneconomic.
7ut (ith another )ind of logic, #conomy is unecologic-.

%n the ecological context, maladaptation to the environment *y an organism results in t(o options:

(1) The organism dies out or
() The organism evolves to a form and character (here it is once again compati*le (ith the environment.
The accepta*le option is one in (hich (e must learn to share, in an e&uita*le manner, our vast *ut finite natural resources
to regain a *alance. This re&uires that our needs *e reduced and that the materials that (e do use must *e replenisha*le.
The recognition of the need for such adaptation as a means of survival has developed into (hat (e no( call the
-environmental ethic-. The *irth of environmental ethic as a force is partly a result of our concern for our o(n long/term
survival, as (ell as our reali'ation that humans are *ut one form of life and that (e should share our earth (ith our fello(
travelers. #nvironmental ethic is not a religion since it is *ased not only on faith, *ut also on hard facts and through analysis.
The environmental ethic is very ne( and none of the doctrine is cast in immuta*le decrees and dogmas. #ducation of the
pu*lic to environmental pro*lems and solutions is of prime importance.

Explain the role of an Environmental Engineer
Ans : ;s pollutants enter air, (ater or soil, natural processes such as dilution, *io /degradation and chemical reactions
convert (aste materials to more accepta*le forms and disperse them through a larger volume. ,o(ever, these natural
processes can no longer perform the clean/up alone due to the enormous amount of (astes generated no(. The (aste
treatment facilities designed *y the environmental engineer are mostly *ased on the principles of self/cleansing o*served in
nature, *ut the engineered processes amplify and optimi'e the operations o*served in nature to handle larger volumes of
pollutants and to treat them more rapidly. #nvironmental engineers adapt the principles of natural mechanisms to
engineered systems for pollution control (hen : (1) they construct tall stac)s to disperse and dilute air pollutants, () design
*iological treatment facilities for the removal of organic materials from (aste (ater, (") use chemicals to oxidi'e and
precipitate iron and manganese in drin)ing (ater supplies, or ($) *ury solid (astes in sanitary land/fill operations.
Accasionally, the environmental engineer must also design to counteract or even reverse natural processes
!-bjectiveAShort :ype"

List major fo(r nat(ral needs of manBind
Ans :
,uman *eings used natural resources are air8 water8 food and shelter

List major fo(r acC(ired needs of manBind
Ans :
ac&uired needs : a(tomobiles8 appliances8 processed food and beverage


A poll(tant may be:
!a" Diodegradable (*) Toxic
(c) Anly (*) (d) 7oth.
,1< ?atch the following:

(;) ;gricultural (astes 1 % (a) ;ir pollution
(7) 6atalytic converter 1 A (*) :otor vehicles
(6) %ncinerators / D (c) <on*iodegrada*le
(D) Pesticides 1 3 (d) !oil pollution

2rite tr(e or false:

Domestic se(age has mainly *iodegrada*le pollutants EFALSE

Ans : Domestic se(age has mainly non /*iodegrada*le pollutants

Name the odd ones:

! a) Poverty (*) #conomic gro(th
(c) Population !d" Poll(tion .

Fill (p the blanBs :

The glo*al environment consists of atmosphere hydrosphere and lithosphere

Page 8 Notes
?-%EL )GES:'-NS
!EssayALong type"

2hat are the six classes of the components of the ecosystem4 %escribe in brief
;ns :
a" components of Eco1system

There are t(o components (parts) of an #co/system.

Diotic : .They are living organisms. They are distinguished on the *asis of their nutritional relationships.
The organisms living, on the land masses are different from those in sea/(ater. 6limate condition *ring a*out variations in
the types of plants and animals found in different land masses.
Abiotic : They are non/*iological of #co/!ystem. They influence the living organism in the area.
They are also called non/living components of the #co/system. #xamples are chemical su*stances found in the soil, (ater,
oxygen, car*on dioxide and minerals li)e phosphates, nitrates or organic materials li)e car*ohydrates, fats, proteins and
vitamins. Ather a*iotic elements of the climate are temperature, rain fall, duration of sunlight, (inds ,nature of soil, slope of
the land, composition of the *odies, etc.
The six classes of an #co/system are as follo(s :

Primary consumers. ,er*ivores feeding on plants. #xample : .a**it etc.
!econdary consumers : carnivores feeding on animals. #xamples : 1ion
") Tertiary consumers : Amnivores feeding *oth plants and animals. #xample 5 man
$) 6onsumers of decomposed tissues of plants. . Decomposers, #xample: *acteria and fungi.
<utrients in soil and (ater.
#nergy from sun and from photosynthesis.

%escribe the ecosystem with reference to a pond as an example
Ans : ; pond is a good example of a small, fresh / (ater, a&uatic ecosystem, (hich is self/sufficient and self/regulating. %n
fact, one of the *est (ays to start the study of ecology is to study a small pond, (here all the *asic components of an
ecosystem can *e conveniently examined.
Abiotic 3omponents : The ;*iotic components of a pond ecosystem consist of the physical and chemical parameters of
pond (ater such as color, odour, taste, tur*idity, electrical conductivity, temperature, p, (hydrogen ion concentration),
suspended solids, dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, al)alinity, chemical oxygen demand (6AD), *iochemical oxygen
demand (7AD), nitrate, sulphate, phosphate, chloride, etc., and certain minerals li)e sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, iron, manganese, nic)el, co*alt, lead, mercury and arsenic. +ater samples can *e collected from the pond and
ail the a*ove/mentioned physico/chemical parameters can *e determined in a (ell/e&uipped la*oratory.
Diotic 3omponents : %n a pond, the auto/trophic (self/nourishing) green plants and some species of photosynthetic *acteria
are the prod(cers . The green plants are mainly the macrophytes and phytoplan)tons present in the pond (ater. The
macrophytes are the rooted larger plants, (hich may *e partly or completely su*merged, emergent or free/floating. The
phytoplan)tons, on the other hand, are extremely small, floating or suspended lo(er plants. Diatoms form a ma8or part of
phytopla)ton o). Ather types of phytoPlan)tons are the green algae such as oscillatoria, volvox, spirogyra, etc.
%n a pond, the ma8ority of cons(mers are the her*ivores. There are also a fe( insects and fishes (hich are carnivores.
They depend on her*ivores for their food. The primary cons(mers are either *enthos or 'ooplarl)tons (microscopic
anirnals). 7enthos are the organisms present at the *ottom of the pond, *ut some are associated (ith the living plants. The
common examples of *enthos are fishes, *eetles or insect larvae. Mooplan)tons are mainly rotifers, proto'oans and
crustaceans. They feed on phytoplan)tons. !ome fishes, insects and frogs come under the category of secondary
cons(mers . They feed on 'ooplan)tons or on small fishes. The large fishes that eat small fishes and (ater sna)es that
feed on fishes come under the category of tertiary cons(mers .
%n a pond, there are some microorganisms that decompose the dead and decaying *odies of *oth consumers and
producers. They are )no(n as decom&osers . !ome *acteria, fungi and actinomycetes *elong to this category of the *iotic
components of a pond. Their main function is to *ring a*out the decomposition of dead and decaying organisms of the pond
ecosystern. Thus, (ithin the small area of a pond, all the important feature of an ecosystern can *e o*served.
Page 9 Notes
2rite a critical note on the principles of ecobalance
Ans : 7y its very nature, ecology is a rnultidisciplinary science. %t involves plant and animal *iology, taxonomy, physiology,
genetics, *ehavioral science, meteorology, pedology, geology, sociology, anthropology, physics, chemistry, mathematics
and electronics. Aften, it is very difficult to dra( a sharp line *et(een ecology and any of the a*ove disciplines since all
impinge on it. #xactly the same situation exists also (ithin ecology, %n order to understand the interactions *et(een the
organism and the environment, or *et(een organisms, it is often difficult to separate *ehavior from physiology, adaptation
from evolution and genetics, or animal ecology from plant ecology.
,istorically, ecology developed along t(o lines, vi'., the study of plants (plant ecology) and the study of animals ( animal
ecology ). Plant ecology focuses on the relationship of plants to other plants and their environment. The approach of plant
ecology is largely descriptive of the vegetational and floristic composition of an area and usually ignores the influence of
animals on the plants. ;nimal ecology, deals (ith the study of population dynamics, population distri*ution, animal *ehavior
and the relationships of animals and their environment. 7ecause animals depend upon plants for food and shelter, animal
ecology cannot *e fully understood (ithout a considera*le *ac)ground of plant ecology. This is particularly true in the areas
of applied ecology li)e (ildlife management.
7oth plant and animal ecology may *e approached as the study of the interrelations of an individual organism (ith its
environment ( a(tecology ), or as the study of groups of organisms ( synecology ). %n many (ays, autecology is the
classical study of ecology, (hich is experimental and inductive. 7ecause autecology is usually concerned (ith the
relationship of an organism to one or more varia*les li)e humidity, light, salinity or nutrient levels, it is easily &uantified and
lends itself to experimental design *oth in the la*oratory and in the field. ;utocology has, therefore, *orro(ed experimental
techni&ues from physics, chemistry and physiology.
!ynecology, is philosophical and deductive in nature. %t is largely descriptive and not easily &uantified. !ome of the important
concepts developed *y synecology are those concerned (ith nutrient cycles, energy *udgets and ecosystern developments.
!ynecology has strong ties (ith geology, meteorology and cultural anthropology. !ynecology may *e su*divided according
to environmental types, e.g., terrestrial ora&uatic ecology. Terrestrial ecology may*e further su*divided into forest,
grassland, desert and arctic ecology. %t concerns (ith such aspects of terrestrial ecosysterms as microclimate, soil
chemistry, soil fauna, hydrologic cycles, ecogenetics and productivity. Terrestrial ecosystems are more influenced *y
organism and arc su*8ect to much (ider environmental fluctuations than a&uatic ecosystems. 7ecause the physical
environment is so important in controlling the a&uatic ecosystern, considera*le attention is paid to the chemical and physical
characteristics of the ecosystem, such as the current and the chemical composition of the (ater. 7y convention, a&uatic
ecology ()no(n as limnology) is limited to stream ecology and la)e ecology. !tream ecology concerns life inflo(ing (aters,
(hile la)e ecology deals (ith life in relatively still (ater. :arine ecology, on the other hand, concerns life in open seas and
estuaries.
Ather ecological approaches concern speciali'ed areas. The study of the geographic distri*ution of plants and animals is
)no(n as ecological plant and animal geography. The study of population gro(th and mortality, is )no(n as population
ecology. The study of the genetics and ecology of local races and distinct species is called ecological genetics. The study of
the *ehavioral responses of animals to their environment is )no(n as *ehavioral ecology. %nvestigations of the interactions
*et(een the physical environment and the organism *elong to ecoclimatology and physiological ecology. The study of the
groups of organisms is )no(n as community ecology. The part of ecology concerned (ith the analysis and understanding of
the structure and function ofecosystems *y using applied mathematics, mathematical models and computer programs is
)no(n as systems ecology. ;pplied ecology, on the other hand, is concerned (ith the applications of ecological principles to
the management of natural resources, agricultural production and pro*lems of environmental pollution.
/# 2rite a short note on biosphere cycles
Ans: The *io/sphere cycle may *e defined as 5t"e flo6 of vario$s elements of t"e .ios&"ere from environment to t"e
organisms i/e/7 &lants and elements and vice,versa/8 %n soil @>? of the nitrogen is organic o*tained from decay of dead
plants (*iomass), animals and plants residue, faeces and urine of animals etc. %t is hydroly'ed ammonium ion (<,$N)(hich
is oxidi'ed to no"". The *io/sphere cycle are *roadly of three types as mentioned *elo( :
1. ,ydrological cycle . Baseous cycle ". !edimentary cycle
Page 10 Notes
2hat do yo( mean by 6Diosphere 3ycle6 4
Ans : 7iosphere means sphere of life. The idea of 7iosphere (as suggested *y ;ustrian geologist #d(ard !uess nearly a
century ago. ;t that time it (as not a so important concept. Today, ho(ever, the *iosphere has *ecome the most important
pro*lem faced *y man. The *asic function of *iosphere is that it supports life. %t is estimated that *iosphere contains more
than three hundred and fifty thousand species of plants and eleven million animal species including man. The *iosphere
supplies the essential re&uirements for !ociety and #nvironment all those species such as plants, animal and human *eings
namely light, heat, (ater, food and living space etc.
7iosphere cycle : :aintenance of the *iosphere is possi*le through constant recycling of materials *et(een the *iotic (living)
and a*iotic (nonliving) components .These cycles are as given *elo(5
(i) ,ydrological cycle : The path of (ater through environment is hydrological cycle
(ii) 6ar*on 6ycle: 6ar*on serves t(o purposes in the environment ( % ) %t is structural component of organic molecules and
() the energy holding chemicals *onds it forms for energy storage.
(iii) <itrogen cycle: Arganisms cannot exist (ithout amino acids, peptides, nucleic acids and proteins all of (hich are organic
molecules containing nitrogen.
(iv) The Phosphorus cycle : :inerals *ecome availa*le to organisms after they are released fro roc)s. Phosphorus cycle is
one of the mineral cycle *egins (hen phosphorus compounds are leached from roc)s and minerals over long periods of
time. %
(v) The !ulphur 6ycle./. !ulphur plays a vital role in organisms, especially as a minor *ut essential component of proteins.
!ulphur compounds are in portant determinants of the acidity of rainfall, surface (ater and soil.
(vi) Axygen 6ycle: Axygen is the main source of respiratory gas for all terrestrial organisms.
Explain in brief the carbon dioxide cycle
Ans : 6ar*on is essential to life, car*on is the *asic *uilding *loc) of the car*o/hydrates. Cats, proteins, D<; (Deoxyri*o
<ucleric ;cid) and other organic compounds necessary for life.
The car*on/cycle is *ased on car*on/dioxide gas, (hich ma)es up>.>"3? of the volume of the troposphere and is also
dissolved in (ater. 6ar*on dioxide is a *asic components of nature0s thermostat. %f car*on cycle removes too much 6A
from the atmosphere, the atmosphere (ill cool : if the cycle generates too much, the atmosphere, the atmosphere (ill get
(armer . Thus, even slight changes in the car*on cycle can affect climate and ultimately the types of life that can exist in
various parts of the planet.
Terrestrial producers remove 6A from the atmosphere and a&uatic producers remove it from the (ater. Then they use
photosynthesis to convert, 6A into complex car*ohydrates such as glucose.
The cells in oxygen producers, consumers and decomposers then carry pit aero*ic respiration. This *rea)s do(n glucose
and other complex organic compounds and converts the car*on *ac) to 6A in the atmosphere or (ater for reuse *y
producers. This connection *et(een photosynthesis in producers and aero*ic respiration in producers, consumers, and
decomposers circulates car*on in the *iosphere and is a ma8or part of the glo*al car*on cycle. !o the process of
photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition and com*ustion (*urning) or fossil fuels mainly maintains car*on cycle.
/, Explain in brief the main ca(ses of eco1imbalance
Ans : 3a(ses of Eco1'mbalance : The .easons (hich cause ecological im*alance are given *elo(. : %f *eyond ">? of
forest land area is resprted to tree/felling then eco/*alance is distur*ed a*out @2? of the land in the arid and semi/arid
regions of the (orld are in the process of desertification.
Delineation means changing land into desert area.
1. Deforestation *rings a*out erosion and soil movement. ; large num*er to trees along the roadsides are falling do(n due
to road construction. %mproper road construction results in soil erosion that may lead to uprooting of large trees and
degeneration of lo(er counts. This (ay it leads to serious ecological im*alances affecting adversely run/off factors,
temperature gradient, and surface radiation.
. ;ero*ic process accumulation enhancing need of 7AD, 6AD and DA emanating from se(age and other (astes.
". %ndustrial effluents and ;gricultural discharges,
$. A(tomobiles . :ore than $> la)hs surface transport moves on the roads of Delhi only.
2. lnd(strial chimney . Thermal Po(er !tations, emission of flyash and dust from stone crushers.
3. Pop(lation and 0(lf1war : ; *rief revie( of Bulf/(ar is descri*ed in a ta*ulated shape.

Page 11 Notes
2hat are the adverse effects d(e to eco1imbalance 4
Ans : !ome important polluted environment and im*alanced ecosystems are as follo(s :
%ll effect on human health.
!oil degradation.
Desetification.
6ontamination of food .
Trace su*stances in the troposphere.
Benetic resource depletion
Depletion of the stratospheric o'one layer
Blo*al (arming.

List and explain the pragmatic remedies to prevent eco1imbalance
Ans: .emediesfor Eco1'mbalance : !ome important strategies (programme and plans) for reducing the ecological
im*alance in the (orld eco/system are given *elo(:
!'" .oad construction activities must *e minimum on reserve forests in order to avoid and distur*ance to natural (ealth. %t is
*etter to consult an environmentalist prior to road construction.
!''" %n order to avoid any geological havoc, *lasting and chipping mountain slopes must *e done under the instructions of
geological investigators.
!'''" +ood *urning as a source of energy is very popular in those area (here oil, gas and coal prices are very high. 7esides
this (ood *urning *ring forth ha'ardous amounts of car*on monoxide (6A) and hydrocar*ons (,6 due to inefficient and
incomplete *urning of (ood. #P; (#nvironmental Pro tection ;gency) recommend use of +ood !toves nation (ide (hilly
areas and plains) to over/po(er eco/im*alance as a remedial measure and attempt deal *urning.
!'>" 7iogas is another (ay, the use of (hich can help in maintaining eco/*alance. %t is a source of rene(a*le energy. %.%.T.,
<e( Delhi has develops technology of *ri&uetting sa( dust into smo)eless fuelL a good and eco/friendly source of energy
(hich yields 7iogas and pynogas. 7iogas is mainly produced from cattle dung, human excreta, stra(, plant, leaves, paddy
hus) sludge, food industries and paper mills, %ts use is good remedy for eco/im*alance *esides *eing cheaper.
!>" Programme of social forestry must *e ta)en upto the grass root level. The (astelands must *e garlanded (ith trees, and
valua*le her*s and shru*s. The *est example of social forestry is found in 6hina (here even single inch of (asteland is not
left (ithout plantation. De*ris o*tained during road cut/tings must *e accumulated at some appropriate place and plantation
must *e done on the same.This plantation (ill help in retaining the natural environment.
Plantation must *e done along the *an)s of rivers, nallaha etc. in order to avoid any further cutting of soil and to protect the
(ater reservoir and dams from more siltation, !mall (ater tan)s along (ith the proper drainage system must *e constructed
along the roadsides in order to protect *oth flora and fauna.
!-bjectiveAShort :ype"
0ive a s(itable definition of ecology
Ans : !*.ac fadyen / G#cology is a science (hich concerns itself (ith the inter/relationships of living organisms, plants and
animals and their environments0
)*C*0endeigh / G #cology is the study of animals and plants in their relation to each other and to their environment * I
what is food chain4
Ans : #cosystems function *y maintaining a flo( of energy and a cycling of nutrients through a series of steps of eating and
*eing eaten, of utili'ation and conversion, (hich is )no(n as food chain
what are the decomposers4
Ans: :icroconsumers or decomposers small heterotrophs, mainly the *acteria and fungi, (hich decompose the dead
remains of plants and animals, utili'e a part of the products of this decomposition for their o(n nourishment and, in the
process, release simple su*stances (hich can *e reutili'ed as nutrients *y the producers.
%efine detrit(s
Ans:
/1$ :he abiotic components of the ecosystem are:
(a) Arganic compounds (*) :icroconsumers
!c" 'norganic s(bstances (d) <one of these.
/1& ?acron(trients are:
!a" -xygen (*) !ulphur
(c) 6hlorine (d) !odium
/1* ?atch the following:
(;) #cology ........ (a) :icTo*es
(7) 7iotic .... ... ....(*) :icroclimate
(6) !ynecology . . (c) +ater
(D) ;*iotic ............(d) :eteorology


/1, ?atch the following:
(;) 7iosphere cycle...... (a) 6alcium car*onate
(7) 6hlorophylis............. (*) :agnesium
(c) !edimentary cycle... (c) 7iogeochemical cycle
(D) Aysters................... (d) !ulphur cycle
/1/ 2rite tr(e or false:
Ans: ;n ecosystem may *e a single tree. O :r(e
/19 2rite tr(e or false:
The chemosynthetic *acteria o*tain energy from the sun. / False
Ans: The chemosynthetic *acteria o*tain energy directly from chemical reaction
2rite tr(e or false:
Cungi, *acteria and animals can *e called autotrophs.
Ans: Cungi, *acteria and animal can *e called heterotropns
/#< Name the odd ones:
(a) 6ar*on dioxide cycle !b" S(lph(r cycle
(c) Axygen cycle (d) <itrogen cycle
/#1 Fill (p the blanB:
During photosynthesis, atmospheric co is incorporated into the
production of the car*ohydrate (hich iP )no(n as 0l(cose !3, =1# -,"
/## Fill (p the blanBs :
Cats are formed *y the elements carbon , hydrogen and oxygen.
Page 12 Notes
3=AP:E.19 EN>-.-N?EN: %E0.A%A':-N

:AD#1 Q=#!T%A<!
!EssayALong type"

9: 1 Explain in brief the ca(ses for environmental degradation in the :hird 2orld co(ntries
Ans : %ndia today is one of the Cirst ten industriali'ed countries of the (orld. +hat these industries have provided and (hat
has come out is note(orthy. There is no sustaina*le development. +e have *oth non/degrada*le and *io/degrada*le
pollutants. Pollutant emission (ithin the permissi*le limit is a fine approach of development *ut the moment permissi*le limit
is crossed may *e due to anyone0s carelessnessit *ecomes ha'ardous to the health of *oth living and non/living organisms.
;ir, (ater, soil and noise pollution is *eing experienced *y society. This is not sustaina*le development +e all )no( that
pollutants are present in (ater, air, soil and sound. Their dimension, source and reduction procedures upto tolera*le limits is
discussed *elo( one *y one.

2hat is 5organic growth54 0ive some examples of (nplanned growths .
Ans : (e had un*ounded faith in science and technology and the miracles they (ould- (or) to eradicate poverty, disease
and other ills of the society. !ince independence, %ndia has made tremendous progress on all fronts. %ndia has also achieved
near self/reliance in many core sectors such as iron and steel, crude oil refining and petrochemicals, drugs and
pharmaceuticals, fertili'ers, engineering goods, food and food processing, *uilding materials and consumer goods.
=nfortunately, this industrial transformation of the country (as not (ell/planned from the point of vie( of environmental
conservation and this improperly planned development has resulted in
pollution of our air, (ater and land. The main factor of environmental pollution in the %ndian su*/continent (i.e., in %ndia,
Pa)istan, 7angaladesh, <epal, 7hutan, :yanmar and !ri 1an)a) appears to *e over/population that thro(s heavy demands
on natural resources including air, (ater, soil, flora and fauna resulting in a serious im*alance in the ecosystem.
;n extreme example of this (as the 9"o&al :as ;ragedy . %n 9anuary, 1@K$, an insecticide plant of =nion 6ar*ide lea)ed a
toxic gas, methyl isocyanate, $ that )illed more than ,>>> people (ithin hours and *linded or other(ise sic)ened
thousands. :ost of the victims of this *iggest industrial accident in the (orld (ere the poor people living in the slums
ad8acent to the plant.
;ccording to many authorities, the main pro*lem concerning environmental degradation is not -gro(th- *ut -unplanned
gro(th-. These authorities have formulated a ne( concept )no(n as Gorganic gro(th-. ;s an ans(er to the pro*lem of
environmental degradation. ;ccording to the principal of organic gro(th, the only ans(er to this universal pro*lem is that
governments should ma)e universal decisions a*ove their short/term and narro( national interests. .ich countries should
transfer more of their resources to poor nations, and each country should speciali'e in (hat it is *est e&uipped to produce.
Development in harmony (ith the environment should *e the spirit of our Cive/Rear Plans. %f (e *uild a large dam, for
example, hundreds of thousands of trees are felled, thousands of acres of fertile land is lost, and thousands of poor people
are displaced. This is the dilemma of development <o one can deny the need for development5 *ut every effort should *e
made to minimi'e its environ/mental cost. +hile planning for any developmental pro8ect, there should *e specific provisions
for environmental protection. ;ttempts should also *e made to remove some of the (ea)nesses existing in the planning
system, (hich include the lac) of co/ordinated institutional support, gaps in the necessary information and data re&uired for
the assessment of environmental impact of various developmental pro8ects, inade&uate availa*ility of trained manpo(er and
lac) of strong pu*lic interest in environment issues.

2rite a critical note on 5Environmental %egradation by the .ich5
Ans: The food re&uirements and ha*it of the rich +estern countries have *een instrumental in destroying the forests and
degrading the land of many poor Third +orld countries. Despite the (orld(ide process of decoloni'ation after the !econd
+orld +ar, it is almost certain that much more land is *eing used today in the developing countries to meet the food
re&uirements of the +estern countries than in the years *efore the !econd +orld +ar. :ore than one/fourth of all the
6entral ;merican forests have *een cleared since 1@3> for the purpose of cattle ranching and a*out @>? of the *eef
produced in these ranches are *eing exported to the =!;, (hile the domestic consumption of *eef in 6entral ;merica has
fallen dramatically during this period. %n the =!, on the other hand, the *eef imported from 6entral ;merica is mostly used to
ma)e pet food and ham*urgers. The price of the 6entral ;merican *eef in the =! ((hich is roughly half the price of the *eef
produced in the =! from grass/fed cattle) does not represent its real ecological cost. The reason is that cattle ranching has
proved to *e the (orst form of land use for the fragile soil of 6entral ;merica on (hich the tropical forests existed *efore
1@3>. %t (as found that (ithin 2 to 4 years of clearing the forest, the productivity of the soil dropped dramatically and the
cattle ranches had to move on to some other areas and clear more forests. %n our o(n country, the first ma8or attac) on the
forests of the <orth/#astern %ndia came (hen tea plantations (ere esta*lished. The current over fishing on %ndia0s coast is
ta)ing place mainly *ecause of the heavy demand for pra(ns in the mar)ets of rich +estern countries and 9apan. This over/
fishing often leads to tension and violent encounter *et(een traditional fishermen and the o(ners of the mechani'ed
tra(lers. ;s a result, %ndia and several other countries in !outh/#ast ;sia have esta*lished regulations to prevent tra(ler
operators from fishing in the first fe( )ilometers from the coast, a 'one reserved for the traditional fishermen. !imilarly, the
export of frog/legs from %ndia to Crance and other #uropean countries to cater to the palates of rich +estern consumers has
led to tremendous increase in the population of agricultural pests in the affected areas. To control these pests, farmers have
to use large amounts of costly pesticides (hich, in turn, leads to more environmental pollution.
The pattern of mindless exploitation of natural resources that (e see on the glo*al scale simply repeats itself on the national
scale. #xactly (hat the industry of the rich +estern countries does to the environment of poor Third +orld countries, the
%ndian industry does the same to the environment of the resource/rich and economically poor states of %ndia li)e Arissa,
9har)hand and 6hhattisgarh. <early half the industrial output in %ndia comes from *iomass/*ased industries li)e cotton,
textiles, rayon, paper, ply(ood, ru**er, soap, sugar, to*acco, 8ute, chocolate, tea, coffee, food processing, pac)aging and
vegeta*le oils. #ach of these industries exerts heavy pressure on the cultivated and forest lands of the country. These
*iomass/*ased industries need crop lands, forests, irrigation and energy. Thus, (e see that one of the main sources of
environmental degradation in the (orld is the heavy demand for natural resources *y the high rate of consumption of the
rich, (hether they are rich nations or rich groups and individuals (ithin the nation itself, and it is mainly their (astes that
contri*ute to the glo*al pollution.
Page 13 Notes
Explain in brief the effects of environmental degradation in 'ndia .
Ans : Ane of the ma8or effects of environmental degradation due to industriali'ation is the large/scale destruction of our
forests, and this has a ma8or impact on the productivity of our crop lands. The reduction of crop/land productivity due to the
destruction of forests occurs in t(o (ays. %n the first place, (hen forests arc destroyed, there is a many/fold increases in the
rate of soil erosion. The result is that the soil literally gets (ashed leading to an intensified cycle of floods and drought.
!econdly, the destruction of forests leads to the shortage of fire(ood and this has an adverse impact on the productivity of
crop lands. The reason is that (hen fire(ood *ecomes scarce, people *egin to use co(dung and crop (astes as fuel for
coo)ing and other purposes. ;s a result, every part of crop plants gets used (as fodder or fuel) and nothing goes *ac) to the
soil to enrich it. Aver a period of time, this constant drain of nutrients from the soil adversely affects it productivity. The more
intensive the agriculture (due to the use of high/yielding varities)5 (ithout any manure and crop (astes going *ac) into the
soil, the faster is the nutrient drain. The district of 1udhiana in Pun8a*, for example, has the highest yield per hectare of many
cereals today5 *ut 1udhiana has also the highest deficiency of many micronutrients in its soil. %n Pun8a*, many fanners have
already started using 'inc routinely as a fertili'er. %f the dram of micronutrients from the soil continues, the farmers (ill soon
*e using sulphur, manganese and iron as fertili'ers. The micronutrient fertili'er industry is li)ely to *ecome a *oom industry
in the near future.

9* =ow is the o+one layer being destroyed4 Explain in detail
Ans: ln the stratosphere, the destruction (or depletion) of the o'one layer is mostly 6aused *y elemental chlorine a toms.
The mechanism for this destruction of o'one involves the follo(ing t(o reactions:
- $ H 3l 111111111111I3l-H- #
3l- H - $11111111111I 3l @H#- #


Af course, there are some other chemical reactions going on in the stratosphere that modify and compete (ith the a*ove
t(o reactions. 7ut if (e ignore the other reactions and add the a*ove t(o reactions, then (e find that the net result is the
follo(ing reaction:

#- $ H 3l1111111111111I$- # H3l

Thus, in the presence of chlorine atoms (6l), t(o o'one molecules are converted into three oxygen molecules, (hile there is
no net consumption of 6l atoms, (hich merely act as a catalyst. ;s a result, one 6l atom can go on converting many o'one
molecules (A $ ) to ordinary oxygen molecules (A ) *efore it is consumed *y some other chemical reactions. %t has *een
estimated that a single chlorine atom in the stratosphere can convert as many as 1> 3 to 1> 3 A " molecules to >, molecules
*efore *eing consumed *y some other reactions. This mechanism is often referred to as the catalytic destruction of o'one
since the chlorine atoms act as a catalyst for the reaction.
:ost of the chlorine in the (orld is in the form of chemically sta*le sodium chloride (<a6%), either dissolved in the oceans or
in underground salt deposits formed *y the evaporation of ancient oceans. #lemental chlorine (6l), (hich is a very reactive
chemical, has a very short life/time in the lo(er atmosphere and has fe( natural (ays to get from the lo(er atmosphere up
to the o'one layer in the stratosphere. The only naturally occurring chemical that can transport much chlorine high enough
into0 the stratosphere to damage the o'one layer is methyl chloride (6, " 6%), (hich is produced in large &uantities *y
*iological processes in shallo( oceans. :ost of this methyl chloride is destroyed in the troposphere (the lo(er atmosphere),
*ut approximately "? of the (orld/(ide methyl chloride emissions reach the stratospheric o'one layer. 6hemically active
solar ultraviolet light in the range of >> to K> nm, (hich enters the o'one layer *ut does not penetrate *elo( it, is strong
enough to split up the methyl chloride molecules, releasing 6l atoms, (hich initiate the reactions given earlier and destroy
the o'one molecules. 7efore (e had the synthetic halogen compounds )no(n as chlorofluorocar*ons (6C6s), methyl (as
pro*a*ly the main natural destroyer of the o'one layer. ,o(ever, this destruction of the o'one (as in *alance (ith its
natural production mechanisms, leading to a steady/state o'one layer.
!tarting a*out a hundred years ago (i.e., from the first decade of the t(entieth century), humans *egan releasing into the
atmosphere synthetic chlorine/containing compounds in significant amount. The compounds li)e methyl chloride (6, " 6%)
that also contain hydrogen atoms can *e attac)ed in the atmosphere *y the A, radical. ;s a result, most of such chlorine/
containing compounds do not survive long enough in the atmosphere to reach the stratosphere. 6ar*on tetrachloride (66%,),
on the other hand, has no hydrogen atom5 so most of it is *elieved to reach the stratosphere and participate in the
destruction of the o'one layer. The (orld production of car*on tetrachloride, ho(ever, has remained more or less constant
over the last 4>/K> years.
Page 14 Notes
=ow sho(ld we protect the o+one layer4 2rite in brief
Ans: !o far the only method (e )no( to protect the stratospheric o'one layer is to limit the emission of those su*stances
(mainly 6C6s) that can destroy it. <o one )no(s of another material (e could send into the stratosphere to protect the
o'one layer from 6C6s. The threat to the o'one layer is so severe that international conferences have *een held and
declarations and treaties have *een adopted that commit the nations to restrict and eventually eliminate the use of 6C6s.
Cor some applications of the 6C6s, satisfactory replacements are alread availa*le and for others, they are *eing sought on
an emergency *asis. :any of the proposed su*stitutes for 6C6s are hydrochlorofluorocar*ons (,6C6s), (hich contain
atleast one hydrogen atom5 so they are suscepti*le to attac) *y A, radicals in the stratosphere.
,uge amounts of money and effort are *eing spent no( to develop suita*le su*stitutes for the 6C6s. The original 6C6s
(ere designed to *e non/ toxic, non/flamma*le and chemically inert. There replacements should have all these properties
and, in addition, a lo( o'one depletion potential (ADP). The ADP is a relative measure of the a*ility of a gas or vapour to
attac) and destroy the stratospheric o'one layer. %t is expressed as a function of the percentage (eight of chlorine in the
halogenated hydrocar*on (to *e used a 6C6 su*stitute) and its lifetime in the stratosphere.
The chemical industry0 is developing t(o ma8or types of 6C6 su*stitutes. Ane of these, )no(n as the
hydrochlorofluorocar*on (,6C6) family, has a fairly lo( ADP. The other group, )no(n as the hydrofluorocar*on (,C6)
family, has 'ero o'one depletion potential since the mem*ers of this family have no chlorine atoms in their molecules. %t may
*e noted, ho(ever, that the mem*ers of *oth families (,6C6 and ,C6) contri*ute to the greenhouse effect and glo*al
(arming. :any chemical companies, including the industrial giants li)e Du Cont (=!;) and the %mperial 6hemical %ndustries
(=E), argue that the (orld should s(itch over to the ,6C6s as an interim step *ecause they are cheaper to produce and
simpler to use.
6ompared to the 6C6s, the hydrofluorocar*on (,C6s) are less sta*le and readily hydrolysed in the troposphere *y the A,
attac)5 so they are *elieved to *e more environment tally accepta*le than the 6C6s. The data on the ne( ,C6s are,
ho(ever, scarce and of 1imited accuracy and this is a ma8or deterrent to their adoption as 6C6 su*stitutes.
;nother pro*lem (ith the 6C6 su*stitutes is that they are not as good as the 6C6s. Cor example, one ,6C6 ()no(n as
,6C6/), (hich, is already *eing used in large/scale refrigerator installations in supermar)ets, etc., cannot *e used in
domestic refrigerators. ;nother su*stitute, a hydrofluorocar*on )no(n as ,C6/1"$a, is under development for domestic
refrigerators5 *ut it is li)ely to cost at least five times more than the 6C6s used currently for this purpose.
%n addition to the pro*lems mentioned a*ove, the 6C6 su*stitutes (ill re&uire a su*stantial amount of re/engineering in
many applications. %n case of domestic refrigerators, for example, larger compressors and pumps may *e needed (hen
6C6 replacements are used. These su*stitutes may also re&uire more energy, thus forcing us to *urn larger amount of fossil
fuel, leading to more glo*al (arming.

%escribe some methods to treat and dispose the m(nicipal sewage
Ans: %n developing countries, the organic pollutional load (contri*uted mainly *y municipal se(age) is a ma8or pro*lem in
connection (ith (ater pollution. %n %ndia, it has *een estimated that municipal se(age contri*utes @>? organic pollutants to
our river systems, 4? is contri*uted *y large and medium industries, (hile the remaining "? comes from small/scale
industries. Thus treatment, utili'ation and proper disposal of municipal se(age are very important steps to(ards the control
of (ater pollution. !ome of the important methods used for the disposal of se(age are as follo(s :
(1) Land 1is&osal and Se6age +rrigation/ %n this method, the se(age is disposed off on land (often for the purpose of
irrigation) instead of discharging it into a (ater *ody. %n this case, the land area acts as a crude filter and sta*ili'es the
se(age *y aero*ic filtration. The se(age is usually given primary treatment *efore its disposal on land. This method is very
similar to intermittent sand filtration. %n case of se(age irrigation, the (ater and the fertili'ing elements in the se(age, vi'.,
nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, are utili'ed to raise crops. ,ence, this method has the special advantage of fertili'ing
the land.
(2) 1il$tion/ %n this method, the se(age is discharged into a large *ody of (ater li)e river la)e or sea. The se(age is usually
treated *efore discharging it into a (ater *ody to ensure that the condition of the receiving (ater *ody does not deteriorate
to the extent of impacting on its normal use. % he cities arid to(ns (hich are situated near a large river (;llaha*ad, Eanpur,
Jaranasi and Patna, all of (hich are situated near the river Banga) mainly use the method of dilution to dispose off their
se(age. This method is considered &uite satisfactory during the rainy season (hen the dilutionfactor is extremely high, *ut
not suita*le for the period from <ovem*er to 9une, (hen the volume of river flo( or the volume of (ater in the river is lo(,
:reatment of Sewage
3rimary ;reatment: The primary treatment of se(age mainly consists of physical separation of floating and suspended
solids (that are settlea*le) from the se(age. The main e&uipment used for the primary treatment are screens, grit cham*ers,
detritus tan)s, s)imming tan)s and settling tan)s.
Secondary ;reatment : The secondary treatment of se(age includes flocculation and precipitation of the remaining
materials in the se(age (ith the help of *iological agencies, and their physical separation in secondary settling tan)s. The
*y/products of the secondary treatment process are screenings, grit and sludges of different )inds. Aut of these, the first t(o
can *e easily disposed off *y *urial or *urning. !ludge, on the other hand, contains unsta*le volatile organic su*stances5 so
it may *e treated *y the method of digestion. %n the process of digestion of sludges, various gases are produced (ith high
calorific value (hich can *e successfully utili'ed for heating or po(er generation. The solid materials left *ehind (i.e., the
digested sludge) contain many fertili'ing materials and are useful as manure or soil *uilder.
Sl$dge 1igestion : The process of sludge digestion consists of li&uefaction of organic materials in the sludge *y anaero*ic
*acteria, (hich produce an al)aline reaction. +hen the sludge is first placed in the digesting tan)., acid digestion (ith the
production of noxious gases results and eventually, al)aline digestion prevails. Ance esta*lished, the al)aline condition
remains in the digestor for an indefinite period. The gases given off *y the sludge are mainly methane (6,S) (ith some
car*on dioxide (6A5) and small &uantities of other gases. ;mong the sludge gases, methane has a calorific value of K,>>>
)calFm" !ince methane forms a*out 34? of the sludge gases, the calorific value of the sludge gas can *e ta)en to *e
approximately 2,""$ )calFm" The sludge gas occupies a*out >.@2 m"F)g of volume at normal temperature and atmospheric
pressure. The main use of the sludge gas, apart from heating the digestion tan)s, is for generating po(er. The po(er thus
generated is enough to pump the entire se(age. Dried digested sludge can *e used as a fertili'er since it contains >.K? to
".2.? nitrogen, a*out 1.3? phosphorous and >."2? potassium on the *asis of the dry (eight of solids. The digested sludge
may also *e used for land filling, incinerated to produce heat and po(er, or dumped into large *odies of (ater.
Page 15 Notes
!-bjectiveAShort :ype"

2hat are S-x and N-x4
AnsJ The t(o oxides of sulpher are sulpher dioxide (!A ) and sulpher trioxide (!A " ), (hich are collectively )no(n as
!Ax , (here xT or xT".
There are several oxide of nitrogen (such as < A, <A,<A ,<A and < A 2 ), +hich are collectively )no(n as <Ax.

List fo(r hea vy me tals that poll(te water
Ans: heavy metals li)e ,g (murcury), 6d (cadmium), P* (lead), ;s , !e and !*.

2hat is a septic tanB 4
Ans : ;n important method used to process the domestic se(age is the se&tic tank7(hich is an underground se(age
container madeof concrete.



2hat are the c1wastes 4
Ans : %t has *een estimated that more than one *illion P6s (personal computers) have already *een sold glo*ally and there
has also *een a spurt in the sales of other electronic items li)e refrigerators, air conditioners, cellular phones and personal
stereos. ;s a result, the &uantum of electronic ;s a result, the &uantum of electronic (aste (discarded electronic items or
G e1waste I)

2hat is o+one4
Ans : The o'one (A " ) is a variant of oxygen (A ), (hich contains three oxygen atoms instead of the usual t(o, as in the
case of the oxygen molcule.

:he common methods for the disposal of solid wastes are:

!A" Sanitary land1fill (*) %ncineration
(c) 6omposting (d) <one of these.

'ndia is a:
(a) Developed country among developing nations
!b" %eveloping co(ntry among developed nations
(c) 7oth
(d) Anly (a).

:hermal power plants (se:

!a" 3oal (*) Ail
(c) =ranium (d) !trontium

P(rification of gaseo(s poll(tants maybe achieved byJ

(a) 6atalyric conversion (*) ;dsorption
(c) ;*sorption !d" All of these

3omplex soil poll(tants incl(de:
(a) Cly/ash (*) Plastics
!c" Doth (d) <either.

2rite tr(e or false:

)(a : ,er*icides, fungicides and insecticides *elong to the family of pesticides.
Ans : True

2rite tr(e or falseK

)(a : Detergents are inorganic chemicals.
Ans : Detergents are organic chemicals.
2rite tr(e or false:

)(a : .adioactive isotopes have a Jery long half/life.
Ans : .adioactive isotopes have a short half/life.

2rite tr(e or false:
)(a : 6admium poisoning may lead to formation of )idney stones
Ans: 6admium poisoning may lead to toxic effect

2rite tr(e or false:
)(a : %ncrease in dissolved oxygen adversely affects the a&uatic plants and animals.
Ans : .educe in dissolved oxygen adversely affects the a&uatic plants and animals.
9#$ 2rite tr(e or false:
)(a : 1ime can not *e used to precipitate phosphorous.
Ans : 1ime can *e used to precipitate phosphorous.
2rite tr(e or false:
)(a : The anaero*ic treatment process is not effective for effluents containing high concentration of orgaiuc matters.
Ans: The anaero*ic treatment process has *een effective for effluents containing high concentration of orgaiuc matters.
Fill (p the blanB:
Prolonged exposure to noise may cause hearing loss
9#* Fill (p the blanB:
Bo*ar gas is a mixture of methane !,<L ) and carbon dioxide !$*L"
9#/ Fill (p the blanB:
,eat is an example of :hermal pollutant
9#9 ?atch thefollowing:
!A" <oise pollution (a) 6arcinogin
!D" Dioxin (*) Detritus tan)
!3" Cly/ash (c) ;uditory effect
!%" !e(age (d) Po(er plant
;/c,7/a,6/d,D/*
?atch the following:
(;) 7rain damage (a) DDT
(7) Deforestation (*) Population
(6) Third +orld countries (c) !oil erosion
(D) +hite lung lung (d) Textiles
;/c,7/a,6/d,D/*

2rite the odd ones :
(a) Breenhouse effect (*) Blo*al (arming
!uspended particulate matters (d) ;cid rain.
Page 16 Notes
3=AP:E. E@ 2AS:E ?ANA0E?EN:

Long :ype )(estions:

%escribe in brief the sanitary land1filling method for solid wastes disposal
Ans: The *asic principle of a landfill operation is to deposit the refuse, compact it (ith the help of *ulldo'ers and then cover
the material (ith at least 12cm of dirt at the conclusion of each day0s operation. +hen the area is full, a final cover of a*out
3>cm of dirt is applied, (hich is necessary to prevent rodents from *urro(ing into the refuse. The selection of a proper land/
fill site is a difficult pro*lem.
;"e engineering as&ects of land,fill site selection incl$de:
!1" %rainage: .apid runoff reduces the mos&uito pro*lems, *ut close proximity to streams or dug/(ells may result in (ater
pollution.
!#" 2ind: %t is prefera*le that the sanitary land/fill *e situated in the do(n (ind direction from the city or to(n.
!$" Si+e: ; small land/fill site (ith limited capacity is generally not accepta*le *ecause finding a ne( site involves
considera*le amount of trou*le.
!&" Gltimate Gse: ;t the planning stage, one has to consider (hether the area can *e utilised for pu*lic or private use after
the land/filling operation is completed.
The a*ove engineering pro*lems are &uite important, *ut even more important are the social and psychological pro*lems of
sanitary land/fills. <o one in his right mind (ill *e happy a*out having a sanitary land/fill near his house. ; community may
*e re(arded (ith playgrounds, tennis courts, golf courses, etc., for tolerating a land/fill operation for a fe( years. %f this
operation is conducted according to accepted practice, there (ill *e very little adverse environmental impact5 *ut it is very
difficult to convince and explain this to the people living near a land/fill. The reason is that most of the sanitary land/fills in
the past (ere nothing *ut glorified gar*age dumps.
The sanitary land/fill operation is, in fact, a *iological method of (aste treatment. %n the a*sence of oxygen, anaero*ic
decomposition steadily degrades the organic material to more sta*le form. This process, ho(ever, is very slo(. The
decomposition may still *e going on after 2 years. The end products of anaero*ic decomposition are mostly gases li)e
car*on dioxide (6A ), methane (6, $ ), aminoma (<, " ), and a small amount of hydrogen sulphide (, !). !ince these
gases have to find an escape, it is a good practice to install vents in land/fills to prevent the *uild/up of the a*ove gases. The
decomposition reactions are self/sustaining and temperature inside the land/fill often reaches 22/3>U 6.
The *iological aspects of the land/fill as (ell as the structural properties of the compacted solid (aste dictate the ultimate
use of sanitary land/fill sites. %t is suggested that nothing should *e constructed on a land/fill site for at least t(o years
*ecause uneven setting may often create pro*lems. %f initial compaction is poor, it may ta)e as long as five years for 8ust
2>? settling to occur. %f pilings are used as foundations on a land/fill, they should extend through the fill and onto roc) or
some other sufficiently strong material.

@# %escribe a modem composting method
Ans: composting of solid (astes is an aero*ic method of decomposing the (astes. :any types of micro/organisms, (hich
are already present in the (astes, sta*ili'e the organic matters in it to produce a soil conditioner. The micro/organisms that
decompose the (astes include *acteria ((hich predominate at all stages of the process), fungi ((hich often appear after the
first (ee)) and actinomycetes ((hich exist during the final stages).
%nitially, the process starts (ith the mesophilic *acteria, (hich oxidi'e the organic matters in the (astes to car*on dioxide
(6A ) and li*erate heat. ;s a result, the temperature rises to a*out $2U6. ;t this point, the thermophilic *acteria ta)e over
and continue the decomposition. During this phase of decomposition, the temperature rises further to a*out 3>U6. The
refuse is periodically turned over to a ,o( enough oxygen to penetrate all parts of the material to support the process. The
compost is sta*ili'ed after a*out three (ee)0s. The end point of a composting operation can *e determined *y noting a drop
in the temperature, earthy smell and a dar) *ro(n colour.
The moisture content of the (astes is a critical factor in the aero*ic composting process. #xcessive moisture ma)es it
difficult to maintain aero*ic conditions. Dearth of moisture, on the other hand, inhi*its the gro(th of microorganisms. Cor an
optimum rate of composting, a moisture content of a*out 22? is re&uired, and it may *e necessary to add (ater in order to
maintain a satisfactory moisture content.
:odern methods of composting may *e classified into t(o *road categories:
(1) :anual method.
() :echanical method.
The manual method is more attractive for to(ns (ith a rural *ias. :anual methods are (idely practiced in %ndia and many
other developing countries. %n %ndia, t(o manual methods have *een developed for composting the refuseFnight/soil mixture.
These are:
(1) The %ndore process.
() The 7angalore process.
%n the %ndore process, layers of vegeta*le (aste and night/soil are alternated, each a*out Kcm thic), to depth of a*out 1.2m
in a trench, or form a mound a*ove the ground. The mixture is )ept aero*ic *y turning it at regular intervals for t(o or three
months. The resulting compost is then left for another month or so (ithout turning. The (hole process ta)es a*out "/$
months. The 7angalore process of composting is a modified form of the hid ore process. The 7angalore process has *een
(idely adopted no( *y various municipalities all over %ndia. %n this process, the refuseF night/soil mixture is placed in layers
(as in the %ndore process) in a trench of a*out one metre deep. %n contrast to the %ndore process, ho(ever, the material is
not himed in the 7angalore process, *ut is digested under essentially anaero*ic conditions, (here*y the decomposition is
complete in a*out $/2 months. Though the 7angalore process avoids turning the material altogether, it lays great emphasis
on the car*on to nitrogen (6F<) ratio of the compost heap and its initial moisture content.
The resulting compost is free from pathogenic (i.e., disease/causing) organisms. An dry *asis, the compost contains
approximately 1.2? nitrogen, 1.1? phosphorous (as P > 2 5) and 1.2? potassium (as E >) and proves to *e a valua*le
nutrient for the soil. Cully mechani'ed composting plants involve shred ding, grinding and mechanical separation of high
density solids.
There are *asically four processes of mechanical composting availa*le in %ndia5
(1) The 7uhler process.
() The Dano process.
( " ) The Tollemache process.
($) The <usoil process.
%n the 7uhler process, the (aste material is ground in t(o stages in hammer mills. The non/compos ta*le inorganic
materials (metals and glass) are separated from the (aste *y the strong sifting action on circular s(inging sieves. The
remaining corn posta*le materialis then decomposed aero*icatly in open trenches or mounds. !ta*ilisation *y this process
may ta)e a*out /" months.
The Dane process uses a long rotating drum, called a *io/sta*iliser unit, for decomposing the (aste. The rotating drum is
inclined so that the (aste flo(s from one end to the other. The refuse is partially decomposed in the drum and the
outcoming refuse is generally free from odour and pathogenic micro/organisms. This partially decomposed refuse is then
completely decomposed in open trenches or mounds. The entire operation may ta)e a*out a month.
%n the Tollemache process, the (aste is pulveri'ed in a vertical pulveriser and then passed through a screening plant to
screen out plastics, etc. The pulverised and screened refuse is allo(ed to decompose in trenches mounds for a*out three
(ee)s, (ith three or four turnings. The resulting compost is then cured for $/2 (ee)s. The complete sta*ili'ation, therefore,
ta)es a*out t(o months.
%n the <usoil process the non/composta*le inorganic material is separated from the (aste, the resultant (aste is pulverised
and the pulveri'ed (aste is led to a vertical digester (here decomposition ta)es place. The vertical digester is a cylindrical
unit having seven sections. The refuse moves do(n(ard through each section of the digester. The rates of air flo( and
(ater addition are regulated so that the decomposition of the (aste ta)es place under optimum conditions. The refuse is
)ept for a*out a day in each section of the digester and thus, the digestion process is completed in a*out seven days. The
resulting compost is &uite satisfactory0 for direct field application (ithout addition of supplementary nutrients.
Page 17 Notes
2rite a critical note on biogas
Ans: %t has *een estimated that approximately 1,1>> million tonnes of (et animal dung per annum are availa*le in our
country from .2> million catties. #ven at 33 ? collection rate, this cattle dung can produce ,2>> million cu*ic litres of
*iogas through *iogas plants and save 1$,>>> million liters of )erosene per year, (hich is mainly used in the villages for
lighting and partly for coo)ing. %n addition, the slurry from *iogas plants can produce 1> million tonnes of organic manure,
(hich can replace 1.$ million tonnes of nitrogen (< ), 1." million tonnes of phosphate (P > " ) and >.@ million tonnes of
potash (E A) per year.
=nfortunately, this tremendous source of *ioenergy has not yet *een fully tapped. The varia*le factors range from cattle
dung availa*ility and its calorific value to *iogas yield and appliance efficiency. T(o ma8or research needs in the area of
*iogas technology are restricted use of (ater in *iogas plants and *etter strains of methane generating *acteria. %n addition,
temperature is a critical factor for the amount of methane generation in a *iogas plant. The ideal temperature for maximum
methane production is approximately "2U 6 since the *acteria are sensitive to lo(er temperatures, particularly in the
northern regions of %ndia. There is a fall in *iogas production *elo( >U 6 and it stops altogether at 1>U6. There is an urgent
need, therefore, to develop ne( strains of methane generating *acteria (hich can produce methane at temperatures less
than >U 6.

%escribe a method to man(fact(re particle boards from wastes
Ans: !cientists at the %ndian Pl)-(ood .esearch %nstitute, 7angalore have developed a technology for manufacturing
particle *oard from rice hus). The particle *oard o*tained *y using this technology is a versatile su*stitute in a (ide range of
applications. The particle *oards, moreover, can also *e made decorative *y incorporating suita*le colours, so they can *e
made more elegant loo)ing and attractive than any other (ood or ply(ood su*stitute. The particle *oard has *een found to
*e superior to (ood or ply(ood *oards *ecause of the follo(ing advantages it offers:
(1) Particle *oard is resistant to termites ((hite ants)
() %t has a high resistance against decay.
(") The particle *oard has excellent mechanical properties such as elasticity, dimensional sta*ility, scre( and nail holding
capacity, a*rasion resistance and surface hardness.
($) %t has an improved (ater resistance.
(2V %t has a high dura*ility.
Depending on the mar)et demand, a varied of product/mix can *e produced *y varying the density and resin content of the
*oards. The method of particle *oard manufacture involves the follo(ing *asic steps:
(1) 6leaning of the ra( material (the rice hus)).
() ;pplication of adhesive.
(") :atformmg.
($) #dge trimming.
(2) !anding.
!tac)ing.
The process has *een licenced to several firms in %ndia and :alaysia. The particle *oards produced *y these firms have
sho(n excellent mar)et acceptance and gained popularity *ecause of their elegant loo), *etter mechanical properties and
lo(er prices.

Short Answer )(estions:

2hat are social wastes4
Ans: !olid (aste, the third pollution after air and (ater pollution, is that solid material (hich arises from various human
activities and (hich is normally descri*ed as useless or un(anted.

2hat do yo( mean by 5shredding the solid wastes54
Ans: !hredding the solid (astes (also )no(n as pulveri'ing) and then spreading the shredded material on fields has *een
found to *e successful in a num*er of places. !ince spreading it out dries the pulveri'ed refuse, it avoids the pro*lems of
offensive rats and file.

2hat is a green f(el4
Ans: The fuel o*tained from (aste plastic contains no lead and had a high octain rating, it is )no(n as B.##< C=#1.

%efine biomethanation4
Ans: %nstead of throughing the gar*age , this gar*age is mixed (ith (ater and *acterial species, specifically cultured for
production of methane. These *acteria decomposes the (aste *y eating and as a result produces methane. This process is
)no(n as 7%A:#T,;<;T%A<.

2hat is fly1ash4
;ns: Cly/ash from coal/fired po(er plants is a ma8or industrial (aste product in %ndia.
2hat is incineration4
;ns: %t is the final solution for the solid (aste pro*lem (including volume reduction).
@11 :he highest calorific val(e can be obtained from:
!a" 0arbage (*) .u**ish
(c) Cathological (astes (d) ;ll have e&ual value.

@1# :he important vectors of h(man diseases in regard to solid wastes are:

(a) .ats (*) flies
!c" Doth (d) non

@1$ AC(atic weeds ca(se:
(a) +ater/*orn diseases
(*) #vapotranspiration
!c" DlocBage of waterways
(d) none

@1& Pyrolysis of plastics may yield:
(a) +ax (*) Brease
(c) ;dhesive !d" All

@1* ?atch the following:
(;) ;nthracene !3" 6oal tar
(7) ,ydrometailurgy !%" #lectroplating
(6) Polymeri'ed (astes !D" :etal #xtraction
(D) !ilver !A" <on*iodegrada*le
@1, ?atch the followingJ
(;) 6ement !3" 7iomass
(7) 6ompost !A" Clyash
(6) Basifier !D" Dano process
(D) :agnesium !%" .efractory

@1/ 2rite :r(e or False:
Apen Dumping of solid (aste is exclusively practiced in %ndia !:"

@19 2rite :r(e or False:
!anitary land fill is an aero*ic process. !F"

@1@ 2rite :r(e or False:
6omposting is an anaero*ic process. !:"
@#< 2rite :r(e or False:
Benerally the agricultural (aste are non/ha'ardous. !:"

@#1 Fill in the blanBs:
The compound furfural , o*tained from corn co*s, is the *asic chemical used for the synthesis of nitrofurans.

@## Fill in the blanBs:
1and/fill operations are &uite difficult to carry out during the raining season.

@#$ Fill in the blanBs:
Ane can recover //////// and //////// from the pic)le li&uor.

@#& fill in the blanBs:
Pathological (astes have a moisture content of a*out K2?.

@#* 2rite the odd one:
(a) <itrogen !b" -xygen
(c) Phosphate (d) Potash

@#, 2rite the odd one:
(a) !lurries (*) !trong ;cids
!c" Solids (d) !ludges
Page 18 Notes
3=AP:E. E1< SGS:A'NADLE %E>EL-P?EN:

Long type Answers:

1<1 %efine and explain s(stainable development
Ans : %n reality, all environmental pro*lems are development pro*lems. :any alternate development strategies have *een
propounded and they are *eing implemented (ithout ade&uate environmental safeguards. %n general, sustaina*ility implies
continuity of all things that are *asically positive and might *e thought of as *roadly desira*le or admira*le. !ome other
definitions or interpretations of sustaina*ility or sustaina*le development are as follo(s:
(1) !ustaina*ility is the a*ility of an activity or development to continue in the long term (ithout undermining that part of the
environment (hich sustains it.
() !ustaina*le development is the development that see)s to improve the &uality of human life (ithout undermining the
&uality of our natural environment.
(") !ustaina*ility implies that human use or en8oyment of the (orld0s natural and cultural resources should not, in overall
terms, diminish or destroy them.

1<# 2hat r the salient feat(res of the Dr(ndtland .eport8M-(r 3ommon Feat(reM4
Ans: The term !ustaina*le Development (as coined *y the +orld 6ommission on #nvironment and Development (+6#D),
headed *y Dr. (:rs.) Bro ,arlem 7rundtland (the then Prime :inister of <or(ay). %n its report -Aur 6ommon Cuture-,
presented in 1@K4 ()no(n as the 7rundtland .eport), sustaina*le development (as defined as the -development that meets
the needs of the present (ithout compromising the a*ility of the future generation to meet their o(n needs-. !ustaina*le
development, therefore, implies protecting the environmental (ealth, human capital stoc), land, (ater and air, ecological
living and non/living resources, and socioeconomic resource *ase.

1>." +hat r the fourteen indicators for G; 7etter +uality of 1ifeI as contained in 1@@@ +hite Paper of the govt. of =EH
Ans: (1) The total output (Bross Domestic Product).
() The per capita investment in private, pu*lic and *usiness assets.
(") The percentage of people of (or)ing age in employment.
($) Qualifications at age 1@.
(2) The percentage of people (ith longer expected years of healthy life.
(3) The percentage of homes 8udged unfit to live in.
(4) The level of crime.
(K) The per capita emissions of green/house gases.
(@) The num*er of days in a year (ith air pollution moderate or high.
(1>) The condition of road traffic.
(11) The &uality and &uantity of readily availa*le (ater.
(1) The population of (ild *irds.
(1") The percentage of ne( homes *uilt on previously developed land.
(1$) The per capita (aste generation and management of (aste.

1>.$ +rite *riefly on the Technology for !ustaina*le #nergy.
Ans: %nergy &ro.lems of $r.anised &o&$lation : The details of energy demand clearly reflect that there is im*alance
*et(een demand and supply of energy. The demand of energy is more (hereas supply is less. Demand is more *ecause
num*er of houses and vehicles are increasing day *y day. 7esides this, consumers of energy are a*undant in num*er. +e
(ere "$.4 crores in 1@21 *ut no( (e are more than 1AA crores in %ndia. #very one nearly is having electrical appliance.
The energy consumption is therefore shooting up.

1<* 2rite a critical note on the :echnology for S(stainable materials .
Ans: There is a glo*al reali'ation of the fact that single use of some of The important materials li)e metals, glass and paper
(ould lead to scarcity of such materials since their feed/stoc)s (ould get exhausted. %n developed countries, resource
recovery is a high technology area. %n many developing countries li)e %ndia, ho(ever city gar*age is sorted out manually for
the recovery of metals, glass, plastics, paper, etc., (hich generate employment and materials for reuse.
The reasons for (aste utili'ation are: (1) economic () environmental (") resource conservation ($) employment generation
and (2) provision of *asic necessities of life.
Page 19 Notes
Short Answer :ype )(estions:

1<, 2hat is 3N0 and what r its main (ses4
Ans: 6<B means 6ompressed <atural Bas, it is mainly used as a fuel. The engines of the other automo*iles can *e easily
modified to run on 6<B. %n case of 6<B the cost is lo(, (ear and tear of engine is lo( and the environmental pollution is
also lo(.

1>.4 +rite all the steps of chemical reaction for the conversion of co)e or coal to methanol.
Ans: The chemical process for the conversion of co)e to methanol is as follo(s:

6 N , A //////// W 6A N ,
6 N , A //////// W 6A N ,
6A N , //////// W 6, " A,



1>.K +hat is Photovoltaic 6ellH
Ans: Photovoltaic energy conversion is a direct energy conversion in the sense that the light energy is directly converted
into electrical energy (ithout intermediate involvement of mechanical or thermal energy. Photovoltaic energy converters are
generally )no(n as !olar 6ells.

1>.@ Bive examples of four non/metallic materials (hich can *e recycled and can *e reused.
Ans: 1) Paper, ) 6o( Dung, ") Plastics, and $) Blass.


1>.1> +hat r uses of 6hina 6layH
Ans: 6hina clay is produced from Branite .oc) for use in ceramic industries. ;*out K> O/@>? of the extracted roc) is spoil,
(hich includes over *urden, (aste roc) and coarse sand. The *ul) of these materials is dumped. 6oarse sand is used in
road construction and in manufacture of *uilding materials.

1>.11 ;t the time of designing of a development pro8ect, care should *e ta)en to preserve:
(a) ,ills (*) Jalleys
(c) !prings !d" All of these

1>.1 7arry commoner, in his famous *oo) G The closing circleI, formulated:
(a) T(o la(s of ecology !b" Fo(r laws of ecology
(c) Three la(s of ecology (d) <o la( of ecology

1>.1" !ectors (hich r most vital for sustaina*le development of %ndia are:
(a) ;griculture (*) %nfrastructure
(c) +ater !d" All

1>.1$ :atch the follo(ing:
(a) #nergy !%" A'one depletion
(*) Beo/thermal #nergy !3" Aur common future
(c) 7rundtland !A" Transport sector
(d) :ontreal protocol !D" 6am*ay *asin

1>.12 +rite true or false:
<othing, in fact, is really a (aste. !:"

1>.13 (rite true or false:
Primary metal industries recover metals from municipal (astes. !:"

1>.14 <ame the odd one:
(a) Blass (*) Plastic
!c" Al(mini(m (d) .u**er

1>.1K <ame the odd one:
(a) ,ydrogen (*) :ethanol
(c) 6oal !d" 'ron

1>.1@ Cill in the *lan)s:
;ll natural features maintain ecological *alance.
Page 20 Notes
?-D'L':N

".1.1 :ypes of ?obility
The term -mo*ility- or -social mo*ility- in its (idest sense refers to any movement of individuals, families or social groups
among different sectors of society. The movement in the same country from one occupation to another or from one religion
to another is a )ind of mo*ility at the national level. An the international scale, migration of people from one country to
another is a very important type of mo*ility. %n anv discussion of mo*ility, a distinction is usually made *et(een the so called
-hori'ontal- and -vertical- mo*ility. The hori'ontal mo*ility involves no change in the position of the individual or the group in
the social hierarchy(system of grades of status) / +hen a (or)er moves from one factory to another, or (hen an engineer
ta)es a position in another company, there is no significant change in his social status. This is an example of hori'ontal
mo*ility. The vertical mo*ility, on the other hand, involves a change of social level in the process of movement. %f a (or)er
*ecomes a (ealthy *usinessman, his position in the class system changes &uite radically. This is an example of vertical
mo*ility, (up(ard). %t may *e noted here that vertical mo*ility may involve either up(ard or do(n(ard movement. ;n
example of do(n(ard mo*ility is a mem*er of an upper class (ho is dispossessed of his (ealth in a revolution and is forced
to enter into a manual occupation. :odern sociologists have concentrated their attention mainly on the up(ard mo*ility. This
is due to the fact that they have *een preoccupied (ith the &uestion of e&uality of opportunity. %n recent years, it has *een
suggested *y many social theorists that the degree of do(n(ard mo*ility might *e a far *etter indicator of the -openness- of
a particular society. The reason is that do(n(ard mo*ility can clearly sho( the extent to (hich it is possi*le for the
privileged(special *enefit or honour) classes and groups to maintain their status and pass on to their descendants the
advantages that they en8oyed. Though sociologists have *een mostly preoccupied (ith the mo*ility of individuals, it is easy
to see that (hole families, groups, and even classes may, at certain times, change their position in the social structure. Ane
of the earliest (riters to *ring out the diverse aspects of vertical social mo*ility (as the economist 9oseph !chumpeter, (ho
in 1@4 analysed and illustrated (hat he termed the -rise and fall- of individuals, families, and (hole classes (ithin the class
structure. %n studying the movement of individuals, sociologists distinguish *et(een the follo(ing:
(1) %ntra generational :o*ility. () %nter generational :o*ility.
The :o*ility is said to *e intra generational (hen an individual moves vertically up(ard or do(n(ard (ithin his o(n adult
lifetime. An the other hand, if vertical movement represented *y a change in the social level occurs from the parental to the
filial(of or due from a son or daughter ) generation (mostly from father to son), it is )no(n as the intergenerational mo*ility. %n
recent years, comprehensive national studies of mo*ility have *een conducted in many countries, *ut such studies have
dealt almost entirely (ith intergenerational mo*ility, investigating changes in occupation *et(een father and son. ;nother
limitation of these studies is that they have concentrated heavily on the educational opportunity as a ma8or factor influencing
up(ard mo*ility. %n contrast to the mo*ility of individuals, the rise and fall of families, groups or classes is relatively more
difficult to study, *ut such movements can *e documented in other (ays. ;n important example of the up(ard mo*ility of
families is the emergence of ne( ruling dynasties( raa8vansh ). Ather examples can *e found in the rise and fall of family
*usiness or politically influence. !uch mo*ility of particular social groups usually occurs as a result of economic, political and
cultural influences.
".1. =istorical St(dies of ?obility:
The pro*lem (ith historical studies of mo*ility is that they largely provide illustrations of various types of mo*ilities *ut do not
sho( the extent of it due to lac) of data. !uch historical studies do not give the actual num*er of individuals or families (ho
change their position *y up(ard or do(n(ard movement in the social hierarchy over a given period of time. ;s a result,
historical comparisons of mo*ility are &uite difficult and largely speculative (theori'e, con8ecture). %n fact, there are many
difficulties even in examining the trends of mo*ility in more recent industrial societies. <evertheless, most sociologists agree
that the vertical social mo*ility (especially that of individuals) is greater in modern industrial societies than it (as in earlier
societies. An the other hand, modern social research sho(s that. #ven in industrial societies. :o*ility is limited and that
there are no su*stantial differences *et(een different industrial societies in the extent of mo*ility in spite of the general *elief
that social mo*ility is greater in the =nited !tates than in the #uropean countries.
The movement of individuals from the (or)ing class into the upper class is generally rare in all societies. 6omparisons
among industrial societies sho( that the greater part of the vertical social mo*ility is a short/range mo*ility. :odern
investigations suggest that one should *e cautious in the interpretation of historical accounts of social mo*ility and undue
prominence (clearly visi*le). !hould not *e given to exceptional cases of up(ard or do(n(ard movement. %t is &uite li)ely
that, in all societies and at most times, there is considera*le amount of sta*ility. +hen this sta*ility is not maintained *y any
formal or legal sanctions, it is ensured *y the inheritance of property, educational advantages or political influences.
".1." :he Process of ?obility
The nature and degree of vertical mo*ility in a society are governed *y a num*er of factors. Ane universal factor is the
occurrence of individuals (ith exceptional endo(ments ( something that is settled on any person or institution) such as
intelligence, physical strength, *eauty, *usiness acumen, etc. %n the past, *eautiful (omen rose to social eminence( rising
a*ove others5 conspicuous) as the mistresses of )ings and no*les, and in more recent times, as film stars. !imilarly, men
(and to some extent, (omen too) have risen in the social hierarchy ( *ody or organi'ation classified in successively
su*ordinate grades) *y accumulation of (ealth, attainment of political or military po(er, and intellectual or artistic
achievements. :anifestations ( clearly sho(n) of such personal &ualities in exceptional amounts are &uite limited and, so
are the social advantages that they *ring. Jertical social mo*ility resulting from exceptional personal &ualities is governed *y
many social factors. %n the first place, the open or closed nature of the class system in a particular society has a po(erful
influence on the vertical movement of individuals. ;n individual in a close system encounters many o*stacles if he see)s to
escape from his social position as a slave, serf( one *ound to (or) on the land), or a mem*er of a lo(er caste. The ideology
that upholds such a system usually tends to inhi*it the development of talent and am*ition at the lo(er levels of the society.
%n the more open class systems of modem societies, there are no formal restrictions on up(ard vertical mo*ility. ,o(ever,
talented individuals from a lo(er social class have to overcome many difficulties, arising mainly from poverty and lac) of
education, in order to succeed and move to a higher social class. %n contrast, less talented individuals from the upper
classes are a*le to maintain their positions due to their inherited social advantages. The extent to (hich an individual talent
(ill lead to up(ard mo*ility is also limited *y the general orientation of the activities of a particular society0. ; primitive tri*al
society that lives *y hunting or is engaged in an on/going (arfare (ith other neigh*ouring tri*es (ill naturally place a high
value on physical strength. !imilarly, a nation engaged in imperial ( pertaining to ) expansion and colonisation ( the act or
practice of coloni'ing) (ill highly rate military &ualities5 and the nation that is mainly concerned (ith industrial and economic
developments (ill attach the greatest importance to *usiness s)ills. The general changes in social structure has a profound
influence on social mo*ility/ Cor example, a revolution that dispossesses ( to degrade) an existing upper class or a national
li*eration movement that overthro(s foreign rule creates ne( opportunities for individuals, groups and even (hole classes
to move up(ard and occupy dominant positions. The mo*ility is also affected *y more gradual changes in a society,
especially if the changes occur in its occupational structure. Thus, the expansion of technical and professional employment
involves a continuing movement out of manual (or), and this accounts for a ma8or cause for the up(ard mo*ility in modem
industrial societies.
:o*ility is high during a revolution and after a revolution, a system of social stratification may emerge and the rate of social
mo*ility may decline ( to deviate) . !imilarly, during recession or depression, (hen the rate of gro(th slo(s do(n,
opportunities for mo*ility are greatly reduced. %n such circumstances, the possi*ility of up(ard mo*ility (ill largely depend
upon the extent of do(n(ard mo*ility. ;nother factor having an influence on the mo*ility, (hen there is little economic
development, is that of differential fertility. %f the upper and middle classes limit their families, the vacant places may*e filled
*y individuals (ho rise from the lo(er classes. !uch differential fertility has rarely *een a ma8or influence on social mo*ility.
=p(ard social mo*ility has often *een promoted *y international movement of population . ; very important example of this
phenomenon is the colonial expansion of many #uropean countries from the sixteenth century on(ards, (hich provided
opportunities for individuals to move up(ard in society *y enriching themselves as traders or settlers and, at the same time
as they su*8ugated ( to *ring under po(er) other people in ;sia, ;frica and ;merica. ;t a later stage, (ith the creation of
ne( societies *y #uropean settlers in their adopted countries (especially in <orth ;merica and ;ustralia), fresh opportunities
for mo*ility (ere provided *y large scale immigration.
Page 21 Notes
".1.$ 3onseC(ences of ?obility
The vertical movement of a large num*er of people up and do(n the social hierarchy tends to *rea) do(n the exclusiveness
of the social class and creates a more uniform national culture. ,opefully, this may also lead to reduction of class conflict, or
at least class pre8udices. :any sociologists have claimed that the lesser degree of mass consciousness in the =! society,
as compared to the societies of #uropean countries, is due to the highest rate of social mo*ility in the =!. %t may *e noted
that the (idespread *elief that opportunities for up(ard mo*ility are greater in the =! than in other societies may itself have
had an important influence on the lesser degree of class/consciousness in the =!. The other side of the coin of social
mo*ility is the argument that preoccupation (ith vertical movement reinforces the class system. Thus, the individuals (ho
are concerned to rise or at least to avoid falling in the social hierarchy accept and even emphasi'e ( to lay stress on) the
importance of class and status distinctions ( separation or division) . ;nother conse&uence of mo*ility is the more effective
use of individual talent and a*ility, and this is generally considered *eneficial from the point of vie( of the society as a (hole.
The reason is that if the individuals are confined to the social segment in (hich they are *orn, many useful talents (ill
remain undiscovered and unused. %n modern industrial societies, the expansion of education has *een stimulated ( to
produce increased action in) *y the desire of the governments to provide opportunities for the development of all the a*ilities
in the population, although most of the countries are far from achieving this goal.

Jertical mo*ility may also have some undesira*le conse&uences. Jertical social mo*ility, *oth up(ard and do(n(ard,
produces strain in the individuals striving for success and adapting to ne( social milieus. !uch mo*ility may also *e
disruptive ( having an upsetting or unsettling effect) of families and local communities, (e.g., in Eerala, (here thousands of
talented individuals have gone to (or) in the :iddle #ast countries, disrupting their family life). ; high rate of vertical mo*ility
may produce in a society the condition that the Crench !ociologist Dur)heim called -anomie- (meaning normlessness) and
the resultant disorientation and anxiety ( a state of *eing anxious) . =nder this condition, there is insufficient regulation of the
individual *ehaviour, and the individual suffers from the -malady of infinite aspiration ( lofty hopes or aims )-. The presence
of such stress and strain may also give rise to a higher incidence of mental illness among the highly am*itious and highly
mo*ile individuals.
".1.2 3hannels of ?obility
:any social institutions li)e army, church, school, political party and occupational organisation serve as the channels of
vertical mo*ility through (hich individuals ascend or descend the social ladder. %n any society, at a given period of time, one
of these institutions may play a dominant role, (the army in time of (ar). +ith the exception of the period of anarchy, vertical
mo*ility is strongly controlled *y the ela*orate social machinery of testing, selection and placement of individuals (ith regard
to various social positions. The family, the church and the school test the general intelligence and character of the individual
according to their standards. +hen the individual enters an occupational institution, he is tested for the specific a*ility and
s)ills necessary for the successful performance of definite functions. These institutions, therefore, serve as social sieves.
They perform not only the educational and training functions, *ut the selective functions as (ell.
The process of vertical mo*ility exerts a num*er of important influences upon social life. %ntensive vertical mo*ility increases
plasticity arid versatility of *ehaviour and stimulates progress in thought, discovery and invention. An the other hand, too
high a rate of social mo*ility seems to increase mental diseases (hen the individuals face difficulties in adaptation to the
ne( situation. Jertical mo*ility ma)es the social structure elastic, *rea)s the isolation created *y class and caste and
stimulates rationalism. %t0s direct and indirect influences on all aspects of social organisations are very potent, *ut highly
complex.
".1.3 3(rrent :rends in ?obility
The economic development of the +estern industrial nations after the +orld +ar %% and the provision of more ela*orate
(elfare services have generated significant changes in the class system. These changes have *een interpreted in many
different (ays *y various sociologists. ;ccording to some authors, there has *een a general diminution ( decrease) in class
differences. This has resulted in a higher level of living, greater social mo*ility and a limited redistri*ution of (ealth and
income. These social changes are reflected in a decline in class conflict. This interpretation leads to the conclusion that the
+estern societies are moving in the direction of relative classlessness or that they are *ecoming predominantly middle class
societies. %n sharp contrast to this interpretation, other social scientists have argued that the social changes since +orld +ar
%% are leading to the formation of ne( social classes li)e a ne( upper class consisting of managers and organi'ers of
production in *oth pu*lic and private sectors.
". 'N3-?E %'S:.'DG:'-N /
"..1 3oncept of 'ncome
%ncome results from the services rendered to the society *y an individual or an organisation. !ervice may *e defined as the
creation of desira*le events, results or the avoidance of undesira*le eventsFresults. The value of an income is the value of
the services. Cor all practical purposes, the value of an income is measured in terms of money. =nder services, one may
include the follo(ing:
(1) The *enefits from a property right such as the interest yield from a *ond or a fixed deposit in a *an).
The *enefits derived from o*8ective instruments such as the shelter offered *y a d(elling.
Crom the co/operation of individuals (ith such o*8ective instruments (the transport sender of a rail(ay).
($) The services rendered *y individuals (hether they are manual, la*ourers or highly &ualified professionals.
The total income of an individual or personal income is the total money value of the services received *y him from all
sources during a given period of time, usually in one year. !imilarly, a person0s net money income is the sum of all his
money receipts less the money invested *y him. The income of society as a (hole is the total money value of all the
services received *y the mem*ers of the society from all sources. %n case of an individual, his -real income- is the money
value of his expenditures on food, clothing, shelter, amusements and other miscellaneous services. Ane important result of
these principles of income calculation is the exclusion of capital gains from the income. The capitalisation, at any point of
time of the income expected in the future, is not itself an income. 7y the same to)en, an increase in the capitalisation from
one point of time to another is not income except potentially. Thus, if a fixed deposit of .s.lAAA.AA in a savings *an) is
earning .s.lAA.AA a year as interest and if the depositor (ithdra(s his interest earnings every year, the actual income from
his fixed deposit is .s.lAA.AA a year and the principal sum of .s.l >>>.>> is the capitalisation of this income. An the other
hand, if he does not (ithdra( the interest, this amount is merely accrued and *ecomes capital gain rather than an income.
6ertain peculiarities attach to income from la*our as contrasted (ith income from property. Thus in computing the income of
a domestic help, it (ould *e necessary to include not only his (ages *ut also his per&uisites ( of one0s o(n) li)e *oarding
and lodging since these are a part of his compensations, in addition to money (ages. :oreover, accountants do not usually
deprecate the income of a (or)ing man as they depredate in case of a machine, for they cannot easily appraise the value of
a human *eing. :ore complications arise due to the fact that income must *e defined for the purpose of taxation. The)ind of
income that is taxed is largely determined *y the economicorganisation of a country and the fiscal needs of its govemmenX.
Page 22 Notes
".. National 'ncome
<ational income may *e defined provisionally as:
(1) The net total of commodities and services produced *y the people comprising a nation.
() The total of such commodities and services received *y the nation0s individual mem*ers in return for their assistance in
producing commodities and services.
(") The total of goods and services consumed *y these individuals out of the receipts thus earned or
($) The net total of desira*le events en8oyed *y these individuals in theirYYYYYYYYYYYYY.
0Defined in any of the a*ove mentioned manners, national income is the end product of a country0s economic activity. ;s a
result, national income reflects the com*ined play of economic forces and serves to appraise the prevailing economic
organisation of a country. Cigures for per capita income, especially (hen ad8usted for differences in purchasing po(er of
money, measure the economic (elfare of a country. ; continuous series of annual estimates of either the total or per capita
national income suggest (hether the nation tends in the course of time to gro( richer or poorer arid ho( rapidly this change
ta)es place.

".." %istrib(tion
"..".1 Problem of 'ncome %istrib(tion
%t is not enough for a country to attempt to increase its national income *y development programmes. The national income
must *e increased5 *ut it is also necessary to ensure that it is e&uita*ly distri*uted among various sections of the society.
%ne&uality of income is an important feature of capitalist economies. #ven socialist and communist countries, (ho have
esta*lished systems for the purpose of reducing ine&ualities of personal income, have failed to attain this e&uality, in pro/
historic times, there (as no need for a policy on income distri*ution since man led a nomadic ( a mem*er of a (andering
pastoral community life), al(ays in search of food. %ncome distri*ution came into force during the feudal ( a right to the use
of land, houses, etc in perpetuity) system and attamed great importance (ith the advent of the %ndustrial .evolution.
Bovernment policies to ensure a fair distri*ution of personal income are among the most controversial and difficult issues of
pu*lic policy.

"..". 3a(ses of 'neC(ality
The ma8or components of personal income are la*our earnings (salary or (ages), property earnings (rents, interests and
dividends) and government transfer payments. Disposa*le personal income consists of the personal income minus any
taxes paid on it. +ealth (or -net (orth-) consists of the total value of financial and tangi*le ( capa*le of *eing possessed)
assets minus the amount of money o(ed to *an)ers or other creditors. The ma8or causes of ine&uality of incomes in an
economy are:
(1) 'nheritance : !ome persons are *orn (ith a silver spoon. .ich inheritance gives them a good start in life, !ome persons
are *orn landless5 others inherit thousands of acres. !ome parents die under de*t leaving the *urden of de*t on their
children (hile others leave huge cash and properties to their heirs. !o long as the system of inheritance continues,
ine&ualities are *ound to continue.
() System of Private Property : =nder the system of private property, a person is free to earn, free to save and free to
o(n property. Ance a person earns and ac&uires property, his property starts earning for him *y (ay of rent, interest, etc.).
That0s (hy some earn more and others earn less and differences in property lead to difference in income. Property is one of
the ma8or causes of the ine&uality of income.
(") %ifferences in Nat(ral )(alities : <o t(o persons have the same natural &ualities. !ome are more gifted than others.
Persons (ho are endo(ed *y nature (ith superior intelligence, *etter physi&ue and greater capacity for hard (or) can
easily surpass others in the race of life. !ome inherit a fee*le mind in a fee*le *ody and they are left *ehind.
($) %ifference in AcC(ired :alents : To some extent, environment ma)es the man since natural (or in*orn) &ualities are
considera*ly modified *y environment. ; child may *e highly intelligent, *ut if he or she is not luc)y enough to receive
proper education or training, the latent a*ilities remain mostly undeveloped. An the other hand, a child of even mediocre
( average in &uality, performance) nature a*ilities can do *etter if he or she is properly *rought up and educated.
Professional education, for example, improves a person0s earning capacity.
(2) LacB of -pport(nities : !ome persons are luc)y enough to get a good chance, and they may ma)e the most of it. %t is
(ell )no(n that underdeveloped regions (li)e =ttaranchal, 9har)hand, 6hhattisgarh and <agaland) do not offer good
opportunities for employment, (here as developed regions (li)e Pun8a*, :aharashtra and Bu8arat) have ample
opportunities.

".."." 3onseC(ences of 'neC(ality
%ne&uality of income leads to serious economic and social conse&uences. !ome of the ma8or conse&uences of uneven
income distri*ution are as follo(s:
(1) 3lass 3onflict : %ne&uita*le distri*ution of income and (ealth has divided the society into t(o classes, the -have0s- and
the -have/nots-, (hich are forever on the (ar path. This class conflict leads to social and political discontent
() Political %omination : The rich dominates the political machinery and uses it to promote his o(n interests. This results
in corruption and social in8ustice.
(") Exploitation of the Poor : The rich exploits the poor economically, socially and politically. The a(areness of this
exploitation may lead to political a(a)ening, agitation and even political revolution. %ne&uality of income is an important
cause for social and political insta*ility.
($) 3reation of ?onopolies : =ne&ual distri*ution of income promotes monopolies. The monopolies can crush small
enterprises and change unfair prices.
(2 " S(ppression of :alent : %t is not easy for a poor person to ma)e his (ay in life, no matter ho( talented he or she may
*e. %t is a great social loss that highly *rilliant *ut poor people are not a*le to ma)e their full contri*ution to the society and
the nation.
(3) No .eal %emocracy : Democracy is a farce (hen there is a (ide gulf *et(een the rich and the poor. There can *e no
real democracy and political e&uality (ithout economic e&uality.
(4) ?oral %egradation : =ne&ual distri*ution of income leads to moral degradation of the society as the rich are corrupted
*y vice and the poor are demorali'ed *y lac) of economic resources. The economic ine&uality
corrupts the rich and degrades the poor. %t *ecomes almost impossi*le for the poor to retain their honesty and integrity (hen
they see the corrupt and rich people rising in life.

"X.".$ ?eas(res to .ed(ce ineC(alities
%n the present era of social and political a(a)ening, it has *ecome a ma8or plan) of political policy to reduce the ine&uality of
income distri*ution, if not eliminate it. ;fter the independence, %ndia decided to set up a socialistic pattern of society. +ith
this end in vie(, the Bovernment of %ndia strives to prevent the concentration of (ealth and income in a fe( hands. !ome of
the measures to reduce ine&uality in the distri*ution of income and (ealth are:
(1) Fixing ?inim(m 2age : The first step in the direction of a more egalitarian ( *elieving in and upholding the principle of
e&uality among people.) society is to guarantee each citi'en a minimum (age, consistent (ith a minimum standard of living.
The :inimum +age ;ct (as passed in %ndia in 1@$K. %n pursuance of this ;ct, minimum (ages are fixed from time to time
for agricultural la*our and other (or)ers.
() Social Sec(rity : ;n important measure for a more e&uita*le distri*ution of income is the introduction of a
comprehensive social security scheme assuring each citi'en a minimum standard of economic (elfare. !uch a social
security scheme must include provision for free education up to certain level, free medical and maternity aid, old/age
pension, unemployment *enefits, compensation for sic)ness and accidents, provident fund and group insurance schemes.
%n this (ay, su*stantial *enefits can *e assured even to persons (hose incomes are lo(. !ocial services li)e pu*lic par)s,
li*raries, museums, community halls and community TJ sets may *e provided on a li*eral scale so that poor are a*le to
en8oy many of the amenities availa*le to the rich.
(") EC(ality of -pport(nity : The government may devise suita*le means to provide e&ual opportunities to *oth the rich
and the poor in getting employment or getting a start in trade or industry. Cor example, the government may institute a
system of li*eral scholarship, stipends and lo( interest loan so that the poor can ac&uire higher education and technical
s)ills. %n %ndia, many concessions are offered to the scheduled castes, scheduled tri*es, other *ac)(ard classes and
persons living in *ac)(ard areas to reduce ine&uality in the society.
($) Steeply10raded 'ncome :axes: ;s possi*le fiscal devices may *e adopted to *ridge the gap *et(een the rich and the
poor. Ane such device is the steeply/graded (i.e., progressively higher) income taxes. This can prevent to some extent the
rich getting richer. Ather direct taxes li)e the super tax, the excess profits tax, the capital gains tax and limits on dividends
may also *e used for this purpose.
(2) Steep Estate %(ty : %n order to prevent the perpetuation ( continuation or preservation for ever) of ine&uality from
generation to generation, steeply/graded estate duty, death duty and succession taxes may *e imposed. %n 1@3$/32, and
again in 1@33S4, the rates of estate duty (ere made steeper in %ndia, rising up to $>?.
(3) 3eiling on Property : +ith a vie( to reducing ine&ualities *et(een the *ig and small farmers, ceilings on agricultural
holdings may *e imposed, as has already *een done in %ndia. The main purpose of land ceilings is to *ring a*out a (ider
o(nership and use of land. !imilarly, a ceiling ( an upper limit) on ur*an property may *e imposed so that the ine&ualities in
ur*an areas can *e reduced.
Page 23 Notes
"..$ Statistical Analysis of 'ncome %istrib(tion
%n the first place, there has *een an attempt to esta*lish a functional relationship *et(een the si'e of income and the
num*er of recipients. !econdly, an attempt has *een made to summarise the income distri*ution *y a single measure of the
ine&ualities of income. The most famous attempt in the first direction is the Pareto0s la(. The la(, in its most dogmatic form,
states that the distri*ution of income in the upper ranges of income tax payers sho(s a linear relationship. :athematically,
the Pareto0s la( may *e stated as:
log< log;/cYYYYYYYYYYYYY.
(here F is the income si'e, < is the num*er of individuals having an income e&ual to or larger than Z and ; and a are
constants (found from empirical statistics *y fitting the data to the straight line given *y the a*ove e&uation).
%t has *een found that the constant (x (the slope of the straight line) is approximately e&ual to 1.2 in all countries at present.
%n addition, all ranges of income distri*ution follo( the same linear relationship for all countries at present. %t follo(s,
therefore, that *ecause of the unchanging and unchangea*le nature of the (hole range of income fre&uency distri*ution,
economic (elfare can *e increased only through an increase in the total amount of income. %t is o*vious that the Pareto0s
la( is of great importance for ma8or &uestions of economic theory as (ell as economic policy. :any economists and
statisticians have directed their attention to(ards testing of its validity. .esults of such cumulative analysis have sho(n that
the Pareto0s la( is &uite inade&uate as a mathematical generalisation. 7ecause of the heterogeneity of the fre&uency
distri*ution curve (due to grouping together of income from various economic categories), it is unli)ely that any mathematical
la( descri*ing ade&uately the entire distri*ution of income can ever *e formulated. Ather attempts to su*stitute for the linear
distri*ution (ith another mathematical expression have also *een found unsatisfactory for descri*ing the distri*ution of
income. ,o(ever, a Crench economist, .. Bi*rat, has o*tained successful descriptions of a large num*er of fre&uency
distri*utions of income *y using a modification of the normal distri*ution curve of errors. The curve employed *y Bi*rat is:
R/r--
Jii
MTaloste/x[)N*YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY.
(here y is the num*er of income recipients, Z is the varia*le si'e of income, (Z / x" is a selected income constant, (hile a
and * are constants to *e found from empirical statistics. The assumption in (hich e&. "..$. differs from the normal
distri*ution curve is that the effect of each of the numerous contri*utory factors is not independent *ut proportional to the
effect of other factors.

"..2 ?eas(res of 'neC(ality of 'ncome
The more fruitful developments in the direction of summarising ine&uality of income *y a single measure has yielded
numerous measures. !uch single measures of ine&uality of income *roadly fall into four groups:
(1) The measures derived from a specific type of mathematical e&uation and hence, contingent upon the goodness of fit of
the curve implied *y that e&uation.
The measures of the mean deviation type, availa*le in the statistical theory of fre&uency distri*ution and applica*le to
diverse types of ///////////////// .
The measures of mean difference types.
The measures constructed *y using definite theoretical criteria in regard to (elfare e&uivalents of individual income. %n the
first group, there are three important measures of ine&uality. The coefficient a of Pareto0s e&uation has *een employed as a
measure of ine&uality. The steeper the slope (the larger the numerical value of a), the smaller the ine&uality of income. ;
second measure of ine&uality is Bini0s index of concentration 2, (hich is derived from another e&uation of income
distri*ution: log <TK log!/log E (here < is the num*er of individuals (hose income is a*ove a certain si'e, ! is the sum of
incomes (each greater than the certain si'e), and 2 and E are constants to *e determined from empirical data. %t may *e
noted that < is a function of the sum of incomes greater than a certain si'e rather than a function of that income si'e itself,
as in the case of the Pareto0s la(. The relationship *et(een Pareto0s measure a and Bini0s measure ! can *e eunrScprl *y
the pniiatinn %Z third measure of ine&uality of income may *e derived from the curve employed *y Bi*rat. This measure is
ta)en to *e e&ual to 1>>Fa. Af the dispersion measures developed in the statistical theory offre&uency distri*ution, the
average and the standard deviation naturally suggest themselves as indices of the ine&uality of income. The resulting
relative measures of dispersion can *e o*tained from a fre&uency distri*ution in (hich the class intervals of income si'e are
ta)en in a*solute figures or in logarithms. The advantage of the latter procedure arises from the fact that the positive
s)e(ness characteri'ing fre&uency distri*utions of income is reduced *y ta)ing the income varia*le in terms of
logarithms.The mean difference of incomes is given *y the arithmetic average of differences(ta)en (ithout regard to their
positive or negative signs) *et(een all possi*le pairs of incomes. This measure (as suggested *y Bini and it is )no(n as
the -ratio of concentration-. ;nother (idely )no(n measure of ine&uality, (hich is related to Bini0s ratio of concentration, is
)no(n as -1oren' curve-. %n the 1oren' curve, the cumulative percentages of total income (lc) are plotted along theZ/axis,
(hile the cumulative percentages of population (P6), from the poorest to the richest, are plotted along the R/axis. %n the
1oren' curve, an e&ual distri*ution of income (total a*sence of ine&uality) is represented *y a straight line passing through
the origin and having a slope eaua\ tn unity as sho(n *y the straight %mp ; in the fig.
Page 24 Notes
Cig."..2.1 :ypical Loren+ c(rves
(%cTcumulative percentages of income and P6 Tcumulative percentages of population) #mpirical distri*utions of income, on
the other hand, usually appear as concave hyper*ola, as sho(n *y the curves 7 and 6. The existing ine&uality.of income is
measured *y the area *et(een these straight hyper*olas and the line. The curve 7 sho(s less ine&uality of income, (hile
the curve 6 indicates greater ine&uality. The variety of methods devised to measure the ine&uality of income illustrate the
profusion( spending a lot of money) of various aspects. %t also suggests a high pro*a*ility of divergent results from the
analysis of one and the same data. %n addition, this lac) of agreement as to the precise aspect of ine&uality to *e studied is
usually accompanied *y paucity ( insufficiency ) of ade&uate empirical data on income distri*ution. 6onsidering these t(o
factors, therefore, one (ould expect to find fe( definite conclusions as to the trends or differences in the ine&uality of
income. An the contrary, one usually finds a profusion of contradictory generalisation, (hich are often o*vious results of
pressure to respond someho( to a pro*lem vital to social policy. ,o( divergent and unrelia*le such inferences are may *e
illustrated in the case of former Prussia, (hich is one of the fe( countries for (hich empirical data on personal distri*ution of
income are availa*le for a long period. Crom the income data for Prussia for the years 1K42,1K@3,1@1" and 1@1@,
Pro)opovich concluded that the ine&uality of income (as increasing during the period 1K42 / 1@1@. ; contrary conclusion
(as derived from the same data *y ,eifferich, (ho claimed that no tendency to(ards a greater concentration of income (as
o*serva*le. An the other hand, ;ngelopoulos studied the data for the years 1K@3,1@1$ and 1@3 and inferred that the
ine&uality of income had diminished during the period 1K@3 /1@3.

"." S-3'AL :ENS'-NS AN% :=E'. 3AGSES
"." Social :ensions
!ocial tensions usually result from the conscious pursuit of exclusive values *y individuals andFor social groups. The
individual mem*ers and groups al(ays (iden or narro( their claims on society for life, li*erty of movement, property and
other desira*le things *y competing against one another. 6ompetitors *ecome self/conscious rivals, opponents or even
enemies. The relative position of an individual in relation to the current value in a society is controlled *y influences of (hich
he is mostly una(are. An the other hand, everyone *elieves in some measures that his personality and life can and should
*e protected from the encroachment *y others and that it can *e enhanced at the expense of others. Thin)ing along these
lines *y individuals and groups leads to social conflict, (hich may involve the defence of (hat already has or the ac&uisition
of (hat one does not have. ;c&uisition may mean ta)ing a(ay of that *elongs to another or the appropriation of that (hich
another (ould li)e to have. The defensive, destructive and o*structive aspects of a social conflict *ecome entangled (ith
one another in every crisis and create social tensions. #xclusive values may *e pursued *y individuals and groups *y
various means (hich may vary all the (ay from physical violence to persuasion and thus include the (hole range of
techni&ues used for social control. 6onflict among human *eings differs from the struggle for survival among animals in the
diversity of the means employed *y the former. #ach animal is *ound *y its very structure to a fe( stereotyped means for
coping (ith a conflictsituation. An the other hand, the nature of man is so plastic that rich variations can *e found (ithin the
human species among the means employed to deal (ith conflicts. Thus, the place of physical com*at is usually ta)en *y
argument, admonition( (arning) , ridicule( to laugh at) , litigation( engaged in a la(suit.) , etc. and these are the functions of
cultural setting in (hich conflicts occur. !ocial conflict is a mode of registering or consummating social change. ;s a result,
conflict is more acute in case of rapid social changes, (hen the vested interests of the old social order stand out against the
pressures from the ne(. ; social crisis may *ring a*out a (illingness to come to terms (ith the re&uirements of ne(
realities. Thus, stri)es, *oycotts and (ars fre&uently lead to a more permanent organisation f interests and social tensions
and su*side after prolonged agitations and protracted litigations. !ocial crisis may also result in the o*literation of one or
*oth of the contending parties. %t is not al(ays true, ho(ever, that a particular social conflict can produce a relatively a*iding
settlement. %t has often *een said that vital issues are never decided: they are merely superseded. There are numerous
causes of social tensions.
The most important ones are:
(1) 6lass struggle. () Political corruption.
(") 6rime. ($) 6ompetition. (2) =nemployment. (3) ,eterogeneous ( different in )ind) population. (4) .acialism. (K) .eligious
intolerance( ina*ility to tolerate) .
1inguistic ( relating to languages or )no(ledge or the study of language) intolerance.
(1>) =neven distri*ution of (ealth.
(11) .apid social change. (1) +ar.
;mong the a*ove t(elve causes of social tensions, the first five are very visi*le.
".". 3lass Str(ggle
6lass struggle is a form of social conflict, (hich creates tension in the society. 6redit for the theory of class struggle goes to
Earl :arx and Criedrich #ngels. They formulated the doctrine of class struggle in the 6ommunist :anifesto in 1K$4. :arx0s
theory of class struggle asserts that, in the course of ma)ing a living and utilising technical )no(ledge and industrial
e&uipment, the mem*ers of society *ecome segregated into classes (hich carry on different functions in industry and, as a
result, occupy different positions in the social organisation. ;mong these classes, there arises an ;ntagonism ( opposition )
of interests, (hich may lead to a struggle. The modem capitalistic regime ( system of government) does not a*olish the
class struggle5 it merely creates ne( classes and intensifies the struggle among the classes. +ith the development of
capitalism, society splits up more and more into t(o hostile camps O the *ourgeoisie ( the middle class of citi'ens) and the
proletariat ( the poorest la*ouring class) . The *ourgeoisie attempts to convert surplus value into profits, (hile the proletariat
tries to resist it. %n the ensuing struggle, the (or)ers reali'e that the po(er of the *ourgeoisie rests on the o(nership of the
means of production and that economic exploitation ( the act of using for selfish purposes) can *e ended only through
esta*lishment of a ocialist society *ased on collective o(nership. An the *asis of his theory of class struggle, :arx predicted
the inevita*le victory of the proletariat (ith assumption of certain inherent tendencies in capitalism, vi'., the rapid
concentration of industry, the disappearance of the middle class and the gro(th and increasing misery of the (or)ing class.
%n any society, the process of production is simultaneously a process of economic exploitation ( the act of successfully
applying industry to any o*8ect ) . Those (ho do physical (or) receive less than they produce, not only *ecause a portion of
it is necessary for the extension of production, *ut also *ecause they have to support the o(ners of the means of
production. The resulting antagonism ( opposition) finds its expression in a struggle for distri*ution of the total national
product. ;s this struggle *ecomes conscious, it gives rise to class conflict and creates social tension. The dominant minority
tries to maintain and extend the opportunities for exploitation, (hile the exploited ma8ority continually strives to li*erate itself.
Bradually, class interests intermingle ( mix together ) (ith political, religious and even scientific and technological interests.
!ince the po(er of the ruling class is al(ays concentrated in the organisation of the state, the oppressed class aims directly
against the state. #very class truggle is a political struggle, (hich aims at the a*olition ( to put an end to ) of the existing
social order and esta*lishment of a ne( social system. %n order to prove capa*le of esta*lishing a ne( social organisation,
the class must possess certain essential characteristics:
(1) %t must *e economically exploited and politically oppressed.
() %t must *e a producing class.
%t must *e (elded together *y the conditions of its existence.
%t must form a large mass or a ma8ority of the population.
;ccording to the theory of class struggle, all these characteristics are found in the industrial (or)ing population. %t is for this
reason that the industrial proletariat represents the only class, (hich can carry out a complete social revolution and can
reorganise society on the *asis of the socialist ideal. The peasantry ( a lo(ly class of smallholders) lac)s most of the a*ove
traits. An the other hand, the peasantry forms a large portion of the population in most countries. !o, it is essential that the
industrial (or)ers should ally ( a choice ta( or large mar*le) themselves (ith the poorer elements of the peasantry to carry
out the social reorganisation. The classical theory of class struggle, as outlined a*ove, has encountered many difficulties. <o
definitive division of society can *e made into classes on the *asis of the so/called factors of production, the la( of the
division of la*our or the sources of income. %n modern society, the struggle *y economic and social groups is fragmentary
and intermittent. %t is generally concentrated around ma8or issues of immediate importance. %t is also inevita*le that
economic interests should *e overshado(ed from time to time *v cultural, religious or racial factors. <ationalism, *oth as
economic and cultural phenomena, tends to offset the formation of classes. #conomically, machination is li)ely to regard
itself as one unit common interests as against other nations. 6ulturally, each nation tries to consolidate its economic
coherence *y means of national ideals (hich permeate( to penetrate and fill the pores of ) all social groups. To the extent to
(hich it anifests( that may *e easily seen *y the eye or perceived *y the mind) itself, the struggle of economic groups iPa
potent factor of social change. :anifestations of group conflicts li)e stri)es reveal stagnant conditions and serve as a
stimulus to their elimination or amelioration ( to improve) . An the other hand, (hen such conflicts in the industrial (orld are
concerned merely (ith group shares in the distri*ution of (ealth, they may result in social detriment ( damage) . %n large
social transformations, the struggle of classes may lead to social disintegration ( to *rea) up) . This is true specially (hen
the class struggle is carried out among social groups (hich are in early stages of economic and intellectual development.
!uch class struggles have often resulted in social crises.
Page 25 Notes
"."." Political 3orr(ption
Political corruption is generally the misuse of pu*lic po(er for private profit. ;lthough no political group has *een entirely
free from 8o**ery ( unfair means employed to secure some private end) , corruption has not prevailed to an e&ual degree at
all times or under all conditions. %t has responded to various opportunities for the misuse of po(er reated *y various
governmental institutions. ;ny analysis of the prevalence ( common) of political corruption, therefore, must regard it as a
phenomenon of group psychology, conditioned *y the entire cultural setting of the group. Thus, no remedial programme to
eliminate political corruption can *e fully successful if it limits itself to the prosecution ( persevere (ith ) of individual
offenders or even to administrative organisations. Political corruption re&uires the existence of pu*lic officials (ith po(er to
choose *et(een t(o or more courses of action and the possession *y the government of some po(er or (ealth, (hich can
*e used for private gains. These t(o prere&uisites are found even in relatively simple primitive societies. ,o(ever,
corruption (as generally scarce ( *y no means plentiful ) in primitive societies, primarily *ecause of the dominance of
tradition in determining conduct and the promptness of punishment. %t (as the 7ritish historian 1ec)y (ho remar)ed in his
*oo) ,istory of #uropean :orals that -%t is possi*le that the moral standard of most men is much lo(er in political
8udgements than in private matters in (hich their o(n interests are concerned-. %t is dou*tful, ho(ever, that political morality
is (orse than average *usiness morality. %n modern societies, *usiness and government are increasingly placed in direct
relationship (ith each other through various government contracts, (hich are *ecoming more and more important (ith the
gro(ing scale of governmental activity. #specially conducive to corruption are contracts for military supplies, particularly in
times of (ar. %n modern times, (ar involves huge expenditure under conditions of relaxed pu*lic control since pu*lic
attention is focused on supplying the soldiers (ith (hat ever they need regardless of cost. ;fter the (ar, surplus (ar
materials are disposed of at a fraction of their cost. Thus, recognition *y *usinessmen of the opportunities for tremendous
profits during and after the (ar increases the strain on the honesty of pu*lic officials. %t goes (ithout saying that corruption is
not restricted to any particular country or society. 6orruption is an international phenomenon. ,o(ever, developing countries
are generally found to *e more corrupt than developed ones. ; recent survey of 2> important nations of the (orld has sho(n
that %ndia, Pa)istan, <igeria, 6hina and .ussia are among the most corrupt countries in the (orld, (hile !(it'erland,
!ingapore, <e( Mealand and the =! are among the least corrupt countries. The exposure of corruption may come through
individuals (investigative 8ournalists) or organisations. =nder the party system of governments, exposures of political
corruption result from the desire of opposition parties out of po(er to o*tain po(er. %n many 1atin ;merican countries, (here
elections may not *e very fair, revolution is the only (ay to accomplish the change of government. +hile some
improvements in conditions often result from such revolutions, corruption generally continues for the *enefits of ne(
governments. <o particular system of government is a guarantee against political corruption. 6orruption can *e eliminated
only (here the po(er to do so is lin)ed (ith the desire to crush corruption . 7ut po(er itself is an inducement to corruption.
;s the saying goes, -po(er corrupts and a*solute po(er corrupts a*solutely-. 1ittle progress in getting rid of corruption can
*e expected (here those in po(er either *enefit from corruption or fail to recognise the necessity for its elimination.
%gnorance of the existence of corruption, (idespread *enefits derived from the lavish ( to (aste ) distri*ution of goods,
political indifference (or lac) of political (ill) and materialistic culture are the ma8or factors (hich contri*ute to corruption in
the political
life of a nation and create tension in society.

".".$ 3rime
;ntisocial conduct ()no(n popularly as -crime-) may *e regarded as a universal phenomenon or a function of group/life. %ts
extent, particular form it ta)es and the reaction it provo)es ( to call up or evo)e (feelings, desires, etc)) are intimately
dependent on the cultural status and social organisation of the group. The term -crime- is used indiscriminately *y the
layman to denote antisocial, immoral or sinful *ehaviour. +hat the la( calls crime is merely conduct, (hich is declared to *e
socially harmful *y the groups, (hich are po(erful enough to influenceH legislation in a state. The existence of crime in a
community is a challenge to its mem*ers since crime is harmful for ordered social gro(th. 6om*ating ( a struggle) crime
involves huge economic *urden and enormous (aste of misdirected energy. The progress of the science of human
*ehaviour in the last several decades has increasingly centred its attention on criminal *ehaviour. ;s a result, the last half
century has seen the development of the science of criminology/ Afficial and private agencies for the study of criminals and
their treatment have also multiplied rapidly during this period. The reason is that the tas) of dealing (ith crime and criminals
is such that it demands )no(ledge of facts upon (hich an intelligent programme of study and treatment may *e *ased.
Biven the serious nature of crime and its adverse effects on society, much thought has *een devoted to its control. T(o
general lines of thought have emerged for the purpose of controlling crime, the ameliorative ( to improve) and the repressive
( to )eep under control5) philosophies. The ameliorative philosophy asserts that as the ran)s of the middle class gro( in a
society, fe(er and fe(er people commit crime. :oreover, as the middle class gro(s, more people may *ecome intolerant
( too *ad ) of crime and they commit offences more fre&uently. ;s a result, criminal acts that do occur can *e treated more
effectively. %n order to control crime, it is necessary to *ring a*out the middle class *y upgrading socio/economically the
lo(er class. %n contrast to this, the repressive philosophy regards the modern society (especially in developed nations)
inherently prone to criminal *ehaviour due to the decline of informal community control, greater secularisation ( pertaining to
the present (orld ) and more egoistic ( the 0%0 or self, that (hich is conscious and thin)s) moral code. 6onse&uently, modern
society may at *est *e expected to produce an affluent population lac)ing in personal restraint ( forci*le control ) and civic
consciousness. %n the first place, punitive ( punishment) methods must *e employed to redress offences and efficient
organisation must *e used to prevent crime. .egarding enforcement of la(, administration of 8ustice and reha*ilitation
( restore to former privileges, rights,) o f criminals, the a*ove t(o contrary lines of thought have given rise to three strategies
(or policies) to com*at crime. These three strategies are referred to as punitive, therapeutic ( relating to the curing of disease
) and preventive respectively. The punitive approach regards the offender not. Anly as 8ustifying punishment morally, *ut as
*eing also suscepti*le to deterrent measures. Punishment is, therefore, exercised to incapacitate the criminal for the present
and to )eep him a(ay from engaging in any criminal act in the future. %n many developed countries, the punitive method has
lost ground to the other t(o ameliorative methods. ;s a result, the capital punishment has already *een a*olished in most
countries. The therapeutic approach, on the other hand, deems the offender to *e malfunctioning and is in need of
psychological or sociological treatment. %n the =!, a*out >? of the staff employed for la( enforcement and administration
of 8ustice deal (ith corrections, (ith reha*ilitation as their primary goal. The preventive approach centres on modifying the
interaction of social and individual conditions to forestall offensive *ehaviour. This method calls for improvement of
sociological environment, strengthening of social structure and development of conforming personalities. #ducation and
recreation can play a vital part in this respect, and so can a (ide range of other practices li)e vocational placement and
community organisation.

".".2 6ompetition
6ompetition is an important term in social theory. %t is *y competition (of persons, firms, industries, nations, races or
cultures) that the fittest survives. 6ompetition arises out of rivals ( a person pursuing an o*8ect in competition (ith another) ,
(hich is a universal fact in life and society. .ivalry ( competition) is manifested in a struggle among germ cells among plants
for sunlight and gro(th and among animals, for food and mates. .ivalry is evident in the striving in our daily life and appears
in every social order under (hich men live. %t is due to rivalry that conflicts occur among primitive tri*es for hunting grounds
and among capitalists to *ag huge profits. %n the march of history, a machine process (ins its (ay against ancient crafts, a
novelty called -*usiness- displaces custom and authority in the control of industries and a modern creed ( any system of
*elief or set of principles) replaces out(orn dogma in domination over human mind. The su*8ect of competition has invited
varied and often conflicting statements from various authors since a single explanation of a complex social phenomenon li)e
competition are inade&uate. 6ompetition is hardly distinguished from free enterprise and capitalism. An the one hand,
competition is the giganticF huge motor (hich causes the individuals to use their mental and physical po(ers to the *est
advantage to go ahead. 6ompetition develops in the individual the ha*it of self/reliance. 6ompetition has lifted the human
race to a standard (here the mode of living of common la*ourers in developed countries is more comforta*le than the daily
existence of ancient )ings. An the other hand, competition is a nice ne( name for the *rutalF senselessly cruel5 fact of all
against all, (ithout pity or mercy. 6arried to its logical conclusion, competition may turn into anarchy. in recent times,
competition has invited attention of social thin)ers and activists. Ane group demands that competition *e preserved in all its
native simplicity, (hile another group (ould li)e to eradicateF to destroy or get rid of the evil of competition and su*stitute it
(ith a moral economic order. 7ut since the shortcomings of competition lie in its specific performance, the general demand
has *een to mend the system and ma)e it (or). ;s a result, the arrangements of competition have *een modified from
(ithin in many cases. 7usinessmen, for example, form trade, industrial or commercial associations (e.g.. Truc) A(ners0
;ssociation) (ith an aim to ma)e 6ompetition less ruthless and more rational. !imilarly, farmers organise co/operatives
(e.g., ;nand :il) =nion 1imited, *etter )no(n as -;:=1-) to escape the tyranny of an uncontrolled mar)et. 1a*ourers form
trade unions only to secure a *argaining po(er e&ual to that of their employers. Aften, the state interferes in private matters
for several reasons, to conserve natural resources, to ensure the &uality of goods *y standardisation, to fix hours of la*our,
to provide compensation for accidents and so on. 7ut even the use of formal authority in such cases leaves the rival firms in
an industry as free to compete as *efore. %n the (a)e of collective action and state interventionF interference , competition is
not eliminated5 it merely *ecomes more regulated. ; constructive effort has *een made to maintain competition. ;n inherent
(ea)ness of competition lies in its dependence upon contract. !o long as *uyers (ant goods and sellers are (illing to
accept money, the li*erty of contract promotes order. The greed for more money ma)es it advantageous to the producers of
goods to agree among themselves to control production capacity, to regulate output and to sta*ilise prices. %n such cases,
the state is invo)ed to ma)e the rivals compete rather than co/operate. Creedom of contract is encouraged along vertical
lines (i.e., *et(een *uyer and seller) and has to *e prohi*ited along hori'ontal lines (i.e., *et(een *uyer and *uyer and
*et(een seller and seller).\
Page 26 Notes
".".3 Gnemployment
+or) satisfies many needs of the individual and the community. Cor the individual, (or) satisfies the need to exercise his
faculties and to participate in the collective (or) of society. %n addition, (or) also gives the individual a claim upon social
products, ena*ling him to support himself and his family. %n case of the community, (or) is necessary for survival and
progress of civilisation. %n traditional societies, in (hich the productivity of agricultural la*our is very lo(, virtually the entire
population must *e employed in farming. +hen productivity reaches a certain level, the demand for primary goods (i.e.,
agricultural products) drops in relation to the demand for other goods li)e clothing, shelter and manufactured products. The
production of these secondary goods ultimately *ecomes organi'ed in factories and expands dramatically. ;s the demand
for manufactured goods gro(s and remains high, employment in the secondary sector also remains high. %n addition, there
is also a tertiary sector of employment comprising of services li)e teaching, administration, medical care, tourism and other
similar pursuits that are not carried out in factories. %n countries (ith high standard of living, the demand for products of the
tertiary sector )eeps increasing. ;s a result, employment in this sector increases more rapidly than in the primary or
secondary sector. The great shrin)age of employment in the primary sector is one of the most important phenomena of
modern history. :en (ho a*andon the soil have to change not only their means of livelihood *ut their residence and (ay of
life. Cor a long time, the migration from a peasant culture involving millions of people (ent mainly to(ards the factories.
;lthough the output of the factories continued to increase, the same (as not the case (ith factory employment. %n the =!,
employment in the secondary sector pea)ed at a*out one/third of the la*our force from 1@> to 1@4> and since then, the
expansion has *een in the tertiary sector. Technological progress (ould have led to unemployment (or much reduced
(or)ing hours), had it not *een for the expansion of the tertiary sector. The same is more or less true in case of other
developed countries. The consumption of primary or agricultural goods eventually reaches a point of saturation. The
consumption of manufactured goods passes through a phase of increase and then another phase of relative decline. %t is the
tertiary sector, ho(ever, that a*sor*s most of the manpo(er freed *y technological progress in the other t(o sectors. The
result is that employment as a (hole does not decline over the long run *ecause of technological progress. %n the (ealthy
and technologically advanced countries, neither the si'e of the (or) force nor the num*er of (or)ing hours per (ee) has
sho(n any tendency to decline in the last fifty years. Af course, there have *een economic crises (li)e depression and
recessionF the state of *eing set *ac) ) giving rise to unemployment5 *ut the unemployment created in this (ay (as
eventually a*sor*ed. ; dynamic economy re&uires that the la*our force *e mo*ile enough to move out of the sectors in
(hich technological advances have reduced the need for manpo(er and into the sectors in (hich la*our is in short supply.
!uch a migration, ho(ever, is inevita*ly accompanied *y some degrees of unemployment or underemployment. During the
Breat Depression of the 1@>"s, the rate of unemployment in the (estern capitalist countries reached very high levels. %n the
=!, the rate of unemployment reached 2? of the la*our force in 1@"". %n !(eden, unemployment reached 2? t(ice (in
1@1 and 1@"1). #ven in Breat 7ritain, unemployment (as a*ove 12? during the period of Breat Depression. !ince the
!econd +orld +ar, unemployment rates in developed countries have remained far *elo( such catastrophic levels, *ut they
are &uite high in most of the developing nations. #ven (hen the overall rate of unemployment is lo(, it remains a serious
social pro*lem. +hile some (or)ers may *e temporarily out of (or) (or passing from one 8o* to another), others may remain
unemployed for a long time. The =! 7ureau of 1a*our !tatistics has studied the incidence of unemployment &uite
thoroughly. The figures of this 7ureau sho( that (omen have more unemployment than men, young people more than
adults and persons (ithout education or special s)ills more than educated persons do.
!ince the !econd +orld +ar, the governments of many countries (especially the developing ones) have *ecome committed
to a programme of reducing unemployment and underemployment. The constitution of Crance explicitly charges the state
(ith assuring full employment to its citi'ens. !imilar goals have *een set up (ith varying degrees in many other countries.
#ven, the 6harter of the =nited <ations ma)es employment a ma8or o*8ective for its mem*ers. Different governments have
follo(ed various policies in the pursuit of full employment. Ane general approach to(ards this end is to improve the supply
of manpo(er5 another is to alleviate F to ma)e light5 the adverse effects of unemployment and underemployment. ; third
approach to full employment see)s to maintain the economic activities at a high level through fiscal policies. Cinally, there is
the method of economic planning (here the government0s Planning 6ommission sets targets for various sectors of the
economy that are lin)ed to forecasts of availa*le manpo(er. This approach is *ased on the *elief that the complex pro*lems
of unemployment and underemployment cannot *e separated from other pro*lems of economic and social developments.
:oreover, all the developed countries and many developing ones as (ell try to soften the impact of unemployment through
some forms of unemployment compensation. %n some cases, governments see) to induce employers to retrain (or)ers for
ne( 8o*s rather than laying them off. The pro*lem of unemployment is often a regional matter. +hen this is the case,
attempts are made *y governments to mitigate it through regional development programmes. The efforts to deal (ith the
insta*ility of employment caused *y technological and economic progress involve providing information on the state of the
la*our mar)et and on the &ualifications of those see)ing (or). This is done *y government or private employment agencies
in the hope of directing 8o* see)ers more efficiently to existing 8o*s or helping them to prepare for occupation in (hich
manpo(er is li)ely to *e needed. :ost countries no( have such agencies, designed to *ring together the t(o sides of the
la*our mar)et. %nformation provided *y such employment agencies leads to guidance, and guidance leads to education,
training and retraining. :any governments endeavourF to attempt to provide or su*sidise training programmes for those
(hom couldn0t *enefit from them. The use of monetary and fiscalF pertaining to the pu*lic treasury or revenue policies to
)eep the economy functioning at a high level of employment has *een underta)en in many countries since the Breat
DepressionF a lo(ering. %n periods of recession or of gro(ing unemployment, the government may increase the aggregate
demand *y expanding the money supply or *y increasing its o(n spending. This approach (as &uite successful in the =!
during the 1@3>s, (hen a ma8or reduction in the income tax, incentives for *usiness investments, and a large increase in
federal spending for *oth (ar and non/(ar purposes *rought the unemployment rate do(n to ".2? (in 1@3@). %n the years
that follo(ed, the =! (as faced (ith the pro*lem of serious inflationF undue increase in &uantity of money in proportion to
*uying po(er . %n order to solve the pro*lem of inflation, efforts (ere made to sta*ilise prices5 *ut these efforts directly led to
rising unemployment. %n contrast, the Crench government undertoo) national planning on a *road scale in the 1@2>s and
1@3>s and succeeded in it. The resulting high death rate among small children in such families (poor) often reinforces the
tendency to have more children and, the vicious cycle continues. :oney is a crucial factor in health care. ;lso suita*le
mental hospitals, child guidance and marriage guidance clinics and schemes for the care of alcoholics and dingF Doctor of
#ngineering addicts are essential. There should *e significant developments in the treatment of malad8usted mem*ers of
society. The fragmentationF division into fragments of earlier health service organisations (such as single/disease/oriented
programmes and the separation of curative and preventive services) is no( giving (ay to more comprehensive
organisations. ,ealth promotion, disease prevention, curving of the ill and reha*ilitation are *rought together into one
net(or) of integrated services that reach the community level. Decisions of great complexity are involved in allocating
limited resources to provide health services to a large num*er of people. %n order to achieve optimum results, there should
*e an increasing emphasis on the health planning process and on the design of more effective pu*lic health service
systems. ;n important aspect of national health planning should *e close co/ordination *et(een planning, *udgeting,
implementing and evaluating of health/care programmes. <o pu*lic health service can *e fully effective unless the
concerned government (ill ta)e care to this aspect.
Page 27 Notes
".$." P(blic Ed(cation
The essential features of a system of pu*lic education are the re&uirement of compulsory attendance, free tuition, provision
of *oo)s and education an opportunity for all. %n most countries, very fe( of these ideals have *een realised in practice. Cree
education, for example, is generally limited to primary education in most countries. The additional proposal that free tuition
should *e supplemented *y scholarships for maintenance of the students are still in the discussion stage even in the leading
countries. Today there is a general tendency all over the (orld for compulsory education up to the age of fourteen. +hile the
principle of compulsory education up to the age of fourteen has generally *een accepted, the enforcement of compulsory
attendance still lags far *ehind. This is partly due to poor economy conditions and inade&uate num*er of schools in many
countries and partly as a result of the inertia of parents (ho themselves have had no education The concept of pu*lic
education, ho(ever, should not *e limited to the provision of schools only. %t should include the provision of all those
activities and organisations that ena*le the students to derive the future *enefits from the school (or). These generally
include provision for medical inspection, medical treatment, meals in school ((ith or (ithout charge) excursions and, a*ove
all, ade&uate playgrounds and athletic facilities. To these should *e added the agencies for vocational guidance and
placement. %t may *e mentioned, that complete realisation of this com*ination of education and social services is not to *e
found in any one system of pu*lic education any(here in the (orld. The reason is that the a*ove conception of the scope of
pu*lic education is of very recent origin. ;lthough extracurricular activities such as various clu*s. 7oy !couts, Birl Buides,
<66, etc are found every(here, these have not yet *een incorporated in pu*lic school systems under the control of pu*lic
authorities. %t is no( responsi*ility of the systems under the control of pu*lic authorities. it is no( responsi*ility of society to
see that its mem*ers get ade&uate pu*lic education

".$.$ 2elfare of DacBward 3lasses
; social (elfare policy may *e defined as the strategy of action indicating the means and methods adopted to implement the
social (elfare services the means and metnods adopted to implement it (hich include the follo(ing:
(1) +elfare of *ac)(ard classes.
() +elfare or vulnera*le portions of the society.
(") Camily and child (elfare
($) 6orrectional services.
These services include programmes (hich are intended to cater to the These services include programmes (hich are
intended to cater to the needs of persons and groups (ho, *y reasons of social, economic or physical handicaps, are una*le
to avail of (or traditionally denied) the amenities ant services provided *y the community. %n other (ords, social (elfare
service offer services to those sections of the society (ho need special care. The vulnera*leF capa*le of *eing physically or
emotionally (ounded or in8ured sections of population, on the other hand, include person. *elonging to *ac)(ard classes,
scheduled castes, scheduled tri*es, children youth, (omen, slum d(ellersF an overcro(ded, s&ualid neigh*ourhood. ,
physically or mentally handicapped, (omen under moral danger, 8uvenile F young offenders, *eggars, prisoners, etc. %n spite
of some remar)a*le advancements, the overall progress is no commensurate (ith the expenditure. There is a need to *ring
a*out a change in the existing organisational set/up for the implementation of social (elfare policy in order to achieve
integration and co/ordination among various social (elfare services for the (ea)er sections. ;nd the society has social
(elfare services for the (ea)er section tremendous responsi*ility to achieve the society.

".$.2 Family and 3hild 2elfare

!everal programmes for family and child (elfare have *een formulated and implemented in %ndia since independence, *ut
an explicit national policy in family and child (elfare has not yet *een evolved. The ma8or emphasis present is on the
integrated approach to provide (elfare services to family and children. ;t present. Camily and 6hild +elfare Pro8ects are the
important programmes directed to(ards the (elfare of (omen and children especially in rural areas. The Camily and 6hild
+elfare Pro8ects normally cater to the children in the age group of >/13 years and greater attention is paid to the children in
the age group of >/3 years. The Camily and 6hild +elfare Pro8ects are implemented at the *loc) level. The responsi*ility of
fulfilling the statutory o*ligations for family and child (elfare under various central and state legislations rests mainly (ith the
government agencies. The voluntary social (elfare organisations deal mainly (ith non/statutory senders for the (elfare of
(omen, children, the handicapped and other vulnera*le groups. Thus, the voluntary social (elfare organisations share a
ma8or responsi*ility in the implementation of social (elfare policy. Joluntary organisations in the society can play a crucial
role in the field of family and child (elfare due to their vast and pioneering experience in social (elfare and their humane
approach (in contrast to the *ureaucratic approach *y government agencies). The society has thus a pivotal role to play for
family and child (elfare.

".2 S-3'AL 'NS:':G:'-NS
".2.1 3oncept of Social 'nstit(tions
!ocial institutions are organised (ays to meet the *asic needs of a society. %nstitutions usually involve norms that guide
social interactions and thus, reducing the li)elihood of random or unpredicta*le *ehaviour *y the mem*ers. ; social
institution can *e defined as a cluster of norms that guide social interactions to(ards the fulfilment of one or more of the
*asic needs of a society. +hen these norms are accepted, persons interact socially in predicta*le (ays that lead to
fulfilment of societal needs. #ducation, religion, family, political system and the economic system are regarded as the *asic
social institutions in most societies. The concept of social institution can *e *ro)en do(n into three *asic elements:
(1) ; social institution helps to fulfil one or more of the *asic needs of a society.
() #ach social institution lays do(n a set of norms.
(") !ocial interaction is guided *y the norms of a social institution and
these norms are expressed in the roles associated (ith various social positions. The first element explains the purpose or
function of a social institution. #ach society has certain fundamental needs, (hich must *e met if the society has to survive.
!ocial institutions help meet these needs. #conomy meets the need for efficient production and exchange of goods and
services, (hile the family meets the need for reproduction and socialisation of ne( social mem*ers. The second element
involves a cluster of norms. These norms specify certain procedures that should *e follo(ed li)e paying interest on
*orro(ed money and *uying goods at a certain rate. The third element included in the concept of a social institution is that
interaction among persons is greatly influenced *y social positions and accompanying roles associated (ith an institution.
#ach institution has a num*er of social positions li)e mother and father in the family, *loc) and district representatives in the
political institution and students and teachers in the educational institution. ; social institution usually exhi*its the follo(ing
characteristics:
(1) %t emerges through unplanned development.
() %t changes slo(ly.
(") %t is related to other institutions.
($) %t assumes different forms in different societies.
The development of a social institution is the result of a gradual evolutionary process. %n case of a family, the mem*ers of a
society do not consciously agree that their family institution has to ta)e a particular form. .ather it emerges over a period of
time in accordance (ith several other social changes. !imilarly, changing sex roles in the institution of a family in modern
%ndian societies have significantly influenced the institution of economy. #mployment of (omen on a massive scale has
contri*uted to many changes in the family institution. The norms and forms of social institutions in one society may *ear little
resem*lance to the same institutions in another society. Cor example, political, economic, religious, educational and family
institutions in the =! are &uite different from that of 6hina.
Page 28 Notes
".2. F(nctions of Social 'nstit(tions
The term -institution- in its social usage implies a (ay or thought or action (hich is em*edded in the ha*its or customs of a
group of people. The range of institutions is as (ide as the interests of man)ind. ;ny informal *ody of usage (such as
common la(, higher education, moral code, etc.) is an institution in the sense that it lends sanctions, imposes ta*oosF
for*idden and lords it over some human concerns. ;ny formal organisation li)e the government, the church, the university
and the trade union imposes commands, lays out penalties and exercises authority over its mem*ers. ;ll these are
examples of social institutions. They may *e rigid or flexi*le in their structures, strict or lenientF tolerant in their demands, *ut
all of them constitute standards of conformity from (hich an individual mem*er may depart only at his perilF danger . Aur
culture is a synthesis or a collection of institutions. #ach of these institutions has it o(n domain and its distinctive office. The
function of each social institution is to set a pattern of *ehaviour and to fix a 'one of tolerance for various activities related to
the institution. #ti&uetteF forms of civili'ed manners or decorum , for example, decreesF to decide or determine *y sentence
in la( the ritualsF relating to, (hich must *e o*served in all polite social intercourse. #ducation, on the other hand, provides
civili'ing exposures through (hich the potential capacities of individuals are developed into the a*ilities for performance,
appreciation and en8oyment. The institution of marriage gives propriety to the sex union, *esto(sF to give or confer (a
re(ard, distinction, etc) regularity upon procreationF to generate , esta*lishes the structure of the family and creates a
*alance *et(een personal am*ition and social sta*ility. ; num*er of social institutions may com*ine or compete to impress
character upon the mass of human endeavourF an attempt or trial and to give direction to it. Thus, the state claims primary
o*edience and imposes some order upon the activities of man)ind. The institution of la( determines the outmost limits of
accepta*le actions *y punishing offenders and settling disputes. The community is made up of such overlapping provinces
of various social institutions. %t is the social institution in its role of organiser (hich ma)es this (orld a social (orld.

".2." -rigin and %evelopment of Social 'nstit(tions
%t is almost impossi*le to discover a legitimate origin for such an organic and complex entity as a social institution. %ts origin
may lie in an accidental, ar*itrary or a conscious action. ; man (savage or civilised) stri)es a spar) from flintF a variety of
&uart' , ma)es an image from mud or *re(sF to prepare *y infusion a concoctionF to fa*ricate . The act is repeated and then
multiplied5 ideas, sanctions and ha*its from the existing culture get attached5 and gradually there develops a ritualF relating
to of fire, a ceremonial for appeasingF to placate *y ma)ing or effecting concessions gods, or a cult of healingF to cure . %n all
societies, ho(ever for(ard or *ac)(ard, the roots of even the most elementary arrangements li)e *arterF to give in
exchange , *urial, (orship, (or) life and sex union run far *ac) into the un)no(n past and em*ody the )no(ledge,
ignorance, hope and fear of people. %n fact, a social institution has no origin apart from its development, since an institution
is an aspect of a continuous social process. ; social institution emerges form the impact of novel circumstances upon
ancient custom and it is transformed into a different group of usage *y cultural change. %n the gro(th of a social institution,
the usual may give (ay to the unusual so gradually as to *e almost unnoticed. ;s an institution develops (ithin a culture, it
responds to changes in the prevailingF to *e victorious sense and reason. The pu*lic regulation of *usiness consistently
reflect the prevailing thin)ing on the relation *et(een the state and the industry. !imilarly, the pages of la( reports reveal
the ingenuity (ith (hich the same old rules
and standards are reinterpreted to serve the changing notionsF an idea of social necessity. %n this continuous process of
adaptation *y an institution to the prevailing intellectual environment, an active role is assumed *y the common sense, i.e.,
the *ody of ideas ta)en for granted *y a society during a particular period. 7ecause common sense determines the climate
of opinion (ithin (hich all other institutions must operate, it is the dominant institution in a society. %n an even *roader (ay,
an institution is accommodated to the fol)(ays of culture in a society. ;s circumstances impelF to urge for(ard and common
opinions in a society change, an institution held in high esteem earlier (e.g., piracy) may fall from graceF easy elegance in
form or manner , (hile another under ta*oo (such as *irth control) may at first (in tolerance and later general acceptance.
;s one social system passes into another and the values of life change, one social institution gives (ay to another that is
*etter adapted to the times. ;n institution that survives, such as matrimony, has to respond to cultural changes and adapt to
them. %n the social process, the life of an institution depends upon its capacity for adaptation to changing social conditions.
The same process of development applies to an institution introduced from an alien society. The act of *orro(ing a social
institution from another society merely gives the opportunity for its modification to suit the needs of the adopting society.
+hen .ussia appropriated the industrial .evolution, it stripped a(ay the enveloping *usiness arrangement and converted it
into an instrument to serve as a national social economic system. The act of transplantationF to transfer of a social institution
into another society may at first retard its gro(th, *ut eventually it is lively to promote it.
Page 29 Notes
".2.$ F(nctioning of Social 'nstit(tions
The very flexi*ility of a social institution ma)es it a creature of social stress and strain. %n a sta*le or a slo(ly/changing
society, an institution fits rather neatly into the cultural pattern of the society. An the other hand, if social changes *ring
disorder, the structure of a social institution may *e compromised. ; social institution may even fall into the hands of
-enemies- and *e used to defeat its proclaimedF to announce officially purpose. Thus a community of asceticsF a person (ho
rigidly a*stains from ordinary *odily gratifications for conscience0s sa)e often develops into a (ealthy religious
esta*lishment, a political party dedicated to personal freedom *ecomes the champion of vested (ealth and a philosophy
contrived to li*erate thought remains to enslave it. Those (ho contrive rules and formulae cannot control the uses to (hich
they are put. %n the course of time, therefore, the function of a social institution may *e compromised or even lost in its
esta*lishment. The spirit may *ecome the letter and the vision may *e lost in a ritual of conformity. %f a social institution
*ecomes formal, a greater ha'ard to its integrity is found in its organisation and its personnel. Thus, a need for la( and
order finds an expression in a government, the demand for 8ustice in a legal system and the desire for (orship in a church.
+hen the government, legal system and church are formally esta*lished, various groups *ecome interested in their
structure and offices, their procedures and emolumentsF advantage and their ceremonials and traditions. ; host of officials
come into *eing, (ho are mainly interested in the maintenance of the esta*lishment to (hich they are committed. These
officials have their o(n preferences and pre8udices and they are not immuneF free from o*ligation to consideration of their
o(n prestige and position. ;s an institution *ecomes more formal and more rigid, the good of theinstitution rather than its
proclaimed purpose tends to *ecome dominant. +hen this happens, the lines of activity of the formalised institution may *e
fro'en into rigidity. ;s long as a social institution remains vital, men accommodate their actions to its detailed arrangements
(ith little (orry a*out its inherent nature or its cosmic purpose. +hen it *egins to give (ay or it is seriously challenged,
compelling arguments are set forth to 8ustify the existence of an institution. Cor example, the institution of capitalism (as
never created *y design5 *ut no( that it is already there, contemporaryF *elonging to the same time ((ith) scholars have
intellectualised it into a purposive and self/regulating instrument of general (elfare. !o long as people are a*le to do as their
fathers and grandfathers did, they manifest little curiosity a*out the arrangements under (hich they live and (or). !o long
as the procedure of institution is un&uestioned, people are little a(are of the conventions and values (hich give rise even to
outstanding achievements of an institution.


".2.2 -rganic Nat(re of Social 'nstit(tions
%nstitutional development al(ays drives a fault line *et(een current fact and prevailing opinion. :en meet ne( events (ith
the (isdom they already possess. That (isdom usually *elongs to the past since it is a product of the experience of a *y/
gone era. ;s ne( social institutions emerge from the old, men persist dealing (ith the unfamiliar in their old and familiar
(ays. Thus a social institution, li)e a living thing that it is, has a tangledF involve in i dentity. %t cannot *e sho(n in
perspective or revealed in detail *y the logical method of exclusion and inclusion. #ach institution holds (ithin itself elements
dra(n from the modern era of information technology, the rational universe of the eighteenth century and the fol)(ays of
some far offcenturies. %t holds many un)no(n possi*ilities, (hich a suita*le occasion may *ring to life. %t may *e concluded
that a social institution is an imperfect agent of an order and purpose in a developing culture. %t is created *y *oth intent and
chance. ; social institution imposes its pattern of conduct upon the activities of men and its compulsion upon the course of
unanticipated events. ; social institution may, li)e any other creation of man, *e ta)en into *ondage *y the po(er that it (as
designed to control. ;n institution is a
fol)(ay, al(ays ne( and yet ever old, directive and yet responsive, a creature of means and also a master of ends.

:AD#1 Q=#!T%A<!
(#ssayF1ong Type)
".1 Define and explain -social mo*ility-. ". #xplain in detail the vertical mo*ility.
"." +rite in *rief the conse&uences of mo*ility. ".$ +hat is understood *y -income-H #xplain in *rief.
".2 Define and explain -national income-. ".3 +rite a note on income distri*ution.
".4 +hat are the causes of ine&uality of incomeH #xplain in *rief.
".K +hat are the conse&uences of ine&uality of incomeH #xplain.
".@ #xplain the causes *ehind social tensions. ".1> -6lass struggle creates social tensions-/9ustify the statement.
".11 #xplain -political corruption-. ".1 Define crime. Bive reasons *ehind crime. !uggest steps to control
crime.
".1" +rite a note on -6ompetition-. ".1$ +hat are the ma8or causes *ehind unemployment H !uggest some
measures to reduce the rate of unemployment.
".12 1ist the societal responsi*ilities and explain each in very *rief.
".13 -Pu*lic health services. Pu*lic education. +elfare of *ac)(ard
classes and Camily and child (elfare are the ma8or societal
responsi*ilities- / #xplain to 8ustify the statement.
".14 +hat is understood *y -social institutions-H #xplain. ".1K +ritein*riefthefunctiorlsofsocialinstitutions.
(A*8ectiveF!hort iype) ".1@ +hat is a hori'ontal mo*ility H
".> Bive an example of a vertical mo*ility. ".1 Define real income.
". 1istthepossi*lemeasurestoreduceine&ualityofincome. "." +rite the Pareto0s la( mathematically.
".$ Dra( the 1oren' 6urve for e&ual distri*ution of income. ".2 The strategies to com*at crime are:
Punitive (c) Preventive
".3 :atch the follo(ing: (;) 6ommunist :anifesto (7) <66
(*) Therapeutic (d) ;ll the three. (a) <igeria (*) Ear%:arx (> 6orrupt country (c) :ahatma Bandhi (D) Tertiary sector (d) %ndia
".4 +rite true or false:
The mo*ility is said to *e mtergenerational (hen an individual movesvertically up(ard or do(n(ard (ithin his o(n lifetime.
".K +rite true or false:
Apportunities for mo*ility are greatly enhanced during a recession or a depression.
".@ +rite true or false:
The total income of an individual is the total money value of the services received *y him from all sources, including his o(n
activity.
"."> +rite true or false:
!ocial institutions are never the organi'ed (ays to meet the *asic needs of society.
"."1 <ame the odd ones:
(a) ,ealth promotion (*) Camily (elfare (c) 6lass conflict (d) .eha*ilitation.
"." Cill up the *lan)s:
The five main causes of social tensions are ]]]]]]]]]], ]]]]]]]]]],