1

kennls epl[n
4ClLles LuromasLer ln urban SLudles
november 2012








Euiopean cityness in peispective
!"#$% '(% )*%(#$"+ ,%-"+ ./*01$2 !%('3 4%3 )%15 6(%17+

2

"#$%&'()$*&#
1o sLudy Luropean urbanlLy ls Lo accounL for lLs hlsLory. Cne cannoL wrlLe abouL Lhe conLemporary
Luropean clLy wlLhouL accounLlng for lLs orlglns and Lhe conLexL ln whlch lL developed. Soclal acLlon,
or socleLy generally, Lhen, always flnds lLself ln a spaLlal loglc. 1hlngs happen, and Lhey happen
somewhere. uavld Parvey (1990: 204) puLs lL eloquenLly: !" $% & '()*&+,)"&- &.$/+ /' +0 ,)1($20
"3&" "$+, &)* %4&5, 5&))/" 6, ()*,2%"//* $)*,4,)*,)"-0 /' %/5$&- &5"$/)7 CasLells (2000: 343)
conflrms: %4&5, $% "3, ,.42,%%$/) /' %/5$,"07
1hls essay Lherefore conslsLs of Lhe sLory of clLles, Lold Lhrough Lhe vlewpolnL of maln socleLal
developmenLs of Lhe lasL cenLurles. SocleLy ls boLh shaplng and shaped by clLles. Lxamples from
fleldwork and excurslons are provlded Lo lllusLraLe how soclal, economlc and culLural change has a
lasLlng spaLlal lmpacL on conLemporary urban bullL envlronmenL and on urbanlLy more generally.
Lxplaln Lhe paradlgm: world sysLems approach such as proposed by WallersLeln (1aylor & lllnL, 2000)
(WallersLeln, 2000).
+,- .%-/*#'(0$%*12 )*$3
ln a pre-lndusLrlal era, clLy llfe was noL Lhe sLandard. 1he opposlLe was very much Lrue, Lhe clLy was a
place for Lhe prlvlleged. Coods produced ln Lhe rural areas were boughL and sold on markeLplaces ln
clLles proLecLed by walls and LaxaLlon schemes. AlLhough Lhe general mode of producLlon ln Lhe
feudal sysLem was of a very local producLlon and consumpLlon, mercanLlllsL lnLerclLy neLworks far
preceded conLemporary globallzaLlon or even formaLlon of Lhe naLlon-sLaLe.
ClLles llke venlce and London were lnLernaLlonal Lrade hubs, even before naLlon-sLaLes were
prevalenL. 8ruges, Cologne and Lubeck were lncorporaLed ln Lhe PansaeLlc League, a powerful
lnLerclLy gulld neLwork LhaL 300 years before Lhe rlse of Lhe naLlon-sLaLes effecLlvely puL ln place a
'global' neLwork of proLecLed Lrade (Palllday, 2009).
1he above polnLs ouL LhaL clLles already sLood aL Lhe cenLer of some lnLeracLlons before Lhe advenL
of Lhe lndusLrlal clLles and Lhe concurrenL ralse of Lhe naLlon sLaLe. ClLles, Lhen, should be sLudled as
enLlLles, connecLed Lo each oLher and Lo Lhelr lnhablLanLs, ln a reglonal or naLlonal conLexL, buL noL
necessarlly only consLralned Lo LhaL scale of reference. 1he faulLy posLulaLlon of clLles - or lndeed
anyLhlng - developlng lndependenLly ln naLlon sLaLes [usL because of Lhe pollLlcally lnvoked drawlng
of naLlonal borders ls exacLly whaL WallersLeln (2000) colns as Lhe 8(-"$4-, 9/5$,"0 :%%(+4"$/).
ClLles, Lhen, should be researched ln relaLlon Lo Lhelr poslLlon ln Lhelr relevanL conLexL. A provlnclal
local Lown mlghL be Lhe cenLer of lLs relevanL conLexL of lLs lmmedlaLe surroundlngs: Lhe counLryslde,
Lhe so-called hlnLerland, as lLs perlphery. lor larger clLles ln a vasLly globallzed economy, Lhe cenLer-
perlphery dynamlcs are ln many aspecLs of much larger and Lruly world scale. 1he naLlon SLaLe ln
whlch Lhese clLles are locaLed mlghL be, buL noL necessarlly are, a relevanL conLexL of sLudylng Lhelr
developmenL.
1he spaLlal reallLy of Lhe cenLer of Luropean mercanLlllsm ln Lhe prelndusLrlal era can for lnsLance be
seen ln Lhe clLy of 8ruges. lLs spaLlal sLrucLure sLlll very much reflecLs Lhe success of Lhe golden
ages" of Lhe clLy. 8oughly from Lhe 12
Lh
Lo Lhe 13
Lh
cenLury Lhe clLy was aL Lhe cenLer of Lurope, and
one of lL rlchesL clLles. Cn Lhe conLrary, ln Lhe 19
Lh
cenLury Lhe clLy mlsL Lhe Lraln of Lhe lndusLrlal
revoluLlon, only openlng Lhe harbor of Zeebrugge ln Lhe early 20
Lh
cenLury (nauwelaerLs, 2012) .
3

MosL of Lhe clLy cenLer ls sLrucLured much ln Lhe same way lL was ln Lhe golden ages, or ln Lhe laLer
aLLempLs Lo reconsLrucL Lhe romanLlc passed of LhaL lmaglned shared hlsLory. 1he urban fabrlc
reflecLs Lhese developmenLs, and Lhe currenL clLy pollcy ls parLly geared Lo proLecL [usL LhaL. lL glves
one Lhe sLrange sensaLlon when walklng ouL of 8ruges and lnLo Lhe surroundlng munlclpallLles LhaL
one's walked Lhrough a porLal LhaL sklps Lhe lndusLrlal nelghborhoods. 1he lmmedlaLe surroundlngs
of Lhe clLy of 8ruges have noL been affecLed by Lhe 19
Lh
cenLury lndusLrlal developmenLs, buL sklpped
Lhls sLep Lo lmmedlaLely reflecLlng Lhe fordlsL mode of producLlon and lLs lnherenL suburbanlzaLlon
(cf. lnfra).
+,- *#'(0$%*12 )*$3
ueveloplng an argumenL on clLles by looklng aL Lhe underlylng economlc seLLlngs can hardly be done
wlLhouL accounLlng for Lhe work of kondraLleff (1aylor & lllnL, 2000). Pe proposed Lhe argumenL LhaL
economlc developmenL Lakes place ln recurrenL cycles each comprlslng of sub-cycles of expanslon
and sLagnaLlon, Laklng abouL flfLy years Lo compleLe. 1hus, he ldenLlfles four maln cycles, of whlch
Lhe sLrucLure wlll be used Lo develop Lhls paper. 1he flrsL cycle of growLh (ca. 1780-1820) was
lnduced largely by Lechnologlcal developmenLs ln Lhe lndusLrlal roam of LexLlle producLlon, noLably
Lhe coLLon producLlon ln Lhe uk. SLagnaLlon followed around Lhe 'hungry forLles' (ca. 1823-1848) and
concluded Lhe flrsL kondraLleff cycle. lL was followed by a new upLurn ln Lhe 'mld-vlcLorlan boom'
(ca. 1848-1870), where sLeel was Lhe essenLlal raw maLerlal prosperlng amongsL oLhers rallway
developmenLs. Agaln, Lhls led Lo sLagnaLlon ln Lhe 'laLe vlcLorlan depresslon' (ca. 1873-1893), durlng
whlch Lhe economlcal gravlLaLlonal polnL of Lhe world slowly shlfLed away from Lhe uk, Lhus
concludlng a second kondraLleff cycle. 1hese naLlon sLaLes experlenced Lhe sLrongesL effecLs of Lhe
'Ldwardlan boom' of sLeamshlps and Lhe onseL of gas and elecLrlcal power (ca. 1896-1914), durlng
Lhe Lhlrd kondraLleff cycle, leadlng ln Lhe sLagnaLlon era of Lhe CreaL uepresslon and Lhe World Wars
(ca. 1914-1943). 1he posL-war boom (ca. 1934-1967) wlLh a focus on peLrochemlcals and auLomoblle
producLlon ln a fordlsL producLlon mode was Lhe upsurge of economy ln Lhe flrsL parL of Lhe Lhlrd
cycle. 1he uSA sLood agaln aL Lhe economlc cenLer of Lhe world order when Lhe early 1970's crlsls
sLruck. 1he lmpllcaLlons of a posslble fourLh kondraLleff cycle are sLlll Lo be consldered, slnce Lhe
resulLs of Lhe upsurge of Lhe 'hlgh Lech Lechnology' revoluLlon are noL clear.
1he beglnnlng of Lhe lndusLrlal revoluLlon ln Lhe laLe 18
Lh
cenLury colnclded wlLh many developmenLs.
WlLhsLandlng Lhe amblLlon of flndlng Loo many causal relaLlonshlps, Lhe lnvenLlon of Lhe sLeam
englne and Lhe colncldlng lndusLrlallzaLlon of Lhe mode of producLlon broughL abouL Lhe rapld spaLlal
LransformaLlon of wesLern Luropean socleLy. 1he Lechnologlcal moLor of Lhls developmenL was,
wlLhouL a doubL, Lhe sLeam englne, rapldly spreadlng Lhrough WesLern Lurope durlng Lhe flrsL
kondraLleff wave. 8rlLaln Lhen sLood, as Lhe mosL lndusLrlallzed counLry, aL Lhe cenLer of Lhe world
order (1aylor & lllnL, 2000).
1he Lechnologlcal advancemenL broughL abouL a change ln Lhe mode of producLlon. 1he sysLem of
rural producLlon and local consumpLlon swlfLly made place for a new order of buslness. eople from
Lhe rural areas moved Lo Lhe clLles Lo sell Lhelr labor on a labor markeL, Lo susLaln Lhemselves and
Lhelr famllles. re-lndusLrlal Lowns boomed and clLles expanded geographlcally, and even more so
demographlcally. uenslLy ln clLles aLLalned helghLs never seen before whllsL ofLen noL accounLlng for
Lhls growLh ln lnfrasLrucLure.
4

1hls new caplLallsL economy asked for means of proLecLlons, of a regulaLory sysLem whlch emerged
as Lhe lmperlallsLlc naLlon-sLaLe, proLecLlng naLlonal" economlc, culLural and pollLlcal lnLeresLs.
neverLheless, Lhls seemlng loglc of mulLlple naLlonal hegemonles, maklng up Lhe world as a
paLchwork of naLlons, soon proved Lo be a wrong mulLlple socleLy assumpLlon" ln Lhe age Lo come
(WallersLeln, 2000).
1he cenLral poslLlon of Lhe 8rlLlsh Lmplre was noL esLabllshed by relylng solely on domesLlc lndusLrlal
producLlon. 1he growLh of urban lndusLrles and more speclflcally of LexLlle producLlon could only be
obLalned by Lhe domlnanL form ln whlch naLlonallsL economles emerged: a sLrong lmperlallsm.
LxLrudlng raw maLerlals from colonles ln Lhe perlphery of Lhe world order, and uslng cheap mass
labor force, Lhe rlslng caplLallsL class of 8rlLaln rose Lo power. lndusLrlallzaLlon spread rapldly among
WesLern Lurope, colncldlng wlLh Lhe emergence of naLlon SLaLes. 1he lrench 8evoluLlon ln 1789
offers a prlme example of Lhls wllllngness for naLlonal hegemony, and Lhe nosLalgla Lo a (non-
exlsLlng) common ldenLlLy lmpllclL ln Lhe ldea of a naLlonal sLaLe.
A second kondraLleff wave broughL abouL a new boom ln economlc and lndusLrlal acLlvlLy. 1he mld-
nlneLeenLh cenLury was marked by Lhe emergence of sLeel companles and rallways. noL only ln
8rlLaln, Lhough. 1he flrsL conLlnenLal Luropean rallway golng from 8russels Lo Mechelen ln 1833 gave
way Lo Lhe lndusLrlallzaLlon of Lhe freshly esLabllshed 8elglan sLaLe.
We can of course noL bllndly accepL LhaL Lhe same process was prevalenL LhroughouL WesLern
Lurope wlLhouL accounLlng for hlsLorlcal, culLural and pollLlcal speclflclLy of places. arls, for lnsLance,
was greaLly Lransformed by Lhe lrench 8evoluLlon ln 1789 and Lhe subsequenL PaussmanlzaLlon ln
Lhe laLe nlneLeenLh cenLury as a reacLlon Lo Lhe mld nlneLeenLh-cenLury houslng crlsls. And when lL
ralns ln arls, lL drlps ln 8russels.
1he 8russels bullL envlronmenL Lhen, dlsplays boLh Lhe lndusLrlal herlLage and Lhe naLlonallsLlc vlslon
whlch colnclded wlLh lL. 1he ma[or redevelopmenLs of Lhe cenLral avenues, Lhe CuarLler Leopold, Lhe
[usLlce palace... almed aL puLLlng 8russels on Lhe map as an emerglng world clLy. A second arls.
1ogeLher wlLh Lhls, Lhe lndusLrlal developmenL ln Lhe lower 8russels' reglon was cenLral Lo Lhe clLy's
demographlc growLh. Around Lhe medleval cenLer LhaL's Lhe penLagon, one can sLlll flnd many
examples of Lhls lndusLrlal herlLage ln lLs maLerlal form: abandoned or sLlll operaLlve facLorles,
warehouses, and Lhe canal.
ln Lhls epoch, clLles became Lhe ma[or cenLers of Lhe world economlc and pollLlcal order. Lspeclally
Lhe hlghly lndusLrlally developed 8rlLlsh clLles sLood aL Lhe fronL of also Lhe Lechnologlcal
developmenLs of Lhe 2nd kondraLleff cycle, sLeel and coal lndusLry havlng a lasLlng effecL on clLles as
ManchesLer (1aylor & lllnL, 2000). 1he oncomlng seml-perlphery of Lhe world order - Lhe Amerlcan
and Cerman economles qulckly caLchlng up wlLh Lhe 8rlLlsh - would yeL soon overLake Lhelr
leadershlp ln Lhe onseL of Lhe flrsL World War durlng Lhe second parL of Lhe second kondraLleff Cycle
(1873-1896) (1aylor & lllnL, 2000). 1he newly emerged sysLem of hegemonlc naLlon sLaLes would
soon flnd lLself ln confllcL.
+4& 41%0 1#' *# 5-$4--#
1he developmenL of sLeamshlps, gas and elecLrlcal power and Lhe consequenL furLher rlslng
lndusLrlal economles of Lhe uSA and of unlLed Cermany ln Lurope shlfLed Lhe cenLer of Lhe world
order. AL Lhe same Llme, a new developlng lndusLrlal naLlonal economy emerged ln Lhe seml-
3

perlphery: !apan. ln Lhe perlphery of Lhe world order, new colonles were found and greedlly looLed
(1aylor & lllnL, 2000).
1hls rlslng compeLlLlon beLween naLlon-sLaLes, and speclflcally ln Lurope beLween Lhe unlLed
klngdom and Cermany, gave way Lo a flrsL arms race. As Lechnology kepL lnnovaLlve, Lenslons
beLween naLlon-sLaLes on Lhe Luropean conLlnenL rose, resulLlng ln Lhe llrsL World War 1he end of
Lhls greaL confllcL meanL an enLlre new world map and subsequenL order. AL Lhe core sLood once
agaln Lhe rescued 8rlLlsh Lmplre and now Lhe (economlcally hardly damaged) uSA. A defeaLed
Cermany was banned from Lhe cenLer, and ln Lhe seml-perlphery a new lmporLanL sLaLe arose: Lhe
uSS8, puLLlng ln pracLlce Lhe soclallsL sysLem of Lhe naLlon-sLaLe, as opposed Lo Lhe lmperlallsLlc
sysLem ln WesLern Lurope (Cowland, eL al., 1993).
1he manufacLurlng durlng warLlme and 1aylorlsm as a managerlal approach Lo large scale producLlon
gave - especlally ln Lhe uSA - way Lo furLher lndusLrlal and economlc developmenL. SlgnlflcanL ln Lhls
oncomlng era of large scale mass producLlon ls Lhe producLlon of cars, ln a hlghly segmenLed manner
by a hlghly speclallzed and fragmenLed labor force. lnsLead of havlng crafL workers assembllng cars -
or aL leasL parLs of cars - aL Lhelr worksLaLlon, Lhe lnsLallmenL of Lhe movlng assembly llne greaLly
lncreased producLlvlLy as workers were condemned Lo repeLlLlve slmple Lasks. 1hls was only posslble
due Lo a severe sLandardlzaLlon and slmpllflcaLlon of Lhe end producL and Lhe use of speclallzed
equlpmenL (Allen, 1992a).
1he producLlon and assembly of lnLerchangeable parLs wlLh a pace of work lmposed by machlnery
raLher Lhan adapLed Lo Lhe rhyLhm of workers led lnevlLably Lo an allenaLlon of work for Lhe laborers,
whlch was sLrongly opposed by Lhem and Lhelr unlons. 1he subsequenL answer of Lhe lord facLory
managemenL - and noLably Penry lord - was unseen: workers aL Lhe facLory were Lo parLake ln Lhe
lncreased efflclency of Lhe facLory by an asLonlshlng rlse ln wage. uay pay more Lhan doubled wlLh
Lhe lnsLallmenL of Lhe 3 dollar day already ln 1914 (Allen, 1992a).
?eL Lhls early lordlsm dldn'L puL ln place a susLalnable model of developmenL. 1echnologlcal
lnnovaLlon on lLself wasn'L sufflclenL Lo susLaln growLh raLes, as was exempllfled by Lhe 1930's CreaL
uepresslon. As 8oosevelL's new ueal lllusLraLed, an economlc developmenL model needs sLaLe
lnLervenLlon Lo susLaln economlc growLh (LlpleLz, 1992).
+,- 6&%'*0$ %-7*8- &9 -:$-#0*;- 1))(8(21$*&#
lordlsm as a developmenL model ls Lherefore much more Lhan merely Lechnologlcal lnnovaLlon. lL's a
developmenL model based - as any one - on a labor process model, a reglme of accumulaLlon and a
mode of regulaLlng Lhe above (LlpleLz, 1992). Whereas Lhe labor process model was largely borrowed
from Lhe lndusLrlal revoluLlon era - lndeed, a caplLallsL class employed a worklng class Lo beneflL
from lLs added value - lL dlsLlncLlvely dlffers ln Lhe managemenL of Lhe workers. 8ased on a 1aylorlsL
raLlonallzaLlon of producLlon and Lhe fragmenLaLlon of work so lL can be carrled ouL by seml-skllled
laborers, lL offers much greaLer efflclency galns for Lhe caplLallsL class (Parvey, 1989). CompensaLlon
for Lhls furLher allenaLlon of Lhelr work was offered Lo Lhe laborers ln a slgnlflcanL ralse ln pay
Lhrough a mlnlmal share ln producLlvlLy galns (LlpleLz, 1992). lndeed, producLlvlLy mulLlplled by a
facLor of more Lhan 20 whereas wages rose wlLh a facLor of abouL a LenLh of LhaL (Allen, 1992a).
6

?eL Lhls lmporLanL change Lo hlgh wages for seml- or unskllled labor was essenLlal Lo Lhe lordlsL
developmenL model. lL greaLly lnfluenced Lhe reglme of accumulaLlon by fuellng effecLlve demand.
Plgh wages helped Lo counLer crlses as Lhe 1930's CreaL uepresslon by assesslng Lhe crlsls of
overproducLlon. lndeed, by paylng laborers hlgher wages for Lhelr work, Lhey were noL only paclfled
wlLh 1aylorlsL managemenL meLhods, Lhey formed a *, '&5"/ new cllenL base for mass produced
consumer goods. 1he reglme of accumulaLlon spread as Lhe emerglng mlddle class sLarLed Lo buy
consumer durables and lnvesL ln real esLaLe properLy (LlpleLz, 1992).
Parvey (1989) sLresses Lhe lmporLance of sLaLe lnLervenLlon Lo reallze Lhe ablllLy of mass
consumpLlon. As Lhe CreaL uepresslon lllusLraLed, caplLallsm wlLhouL any mode of regulaLlon ls
bound Lo geL ouL of hand. LlpleLz (1992) polnLs ouL LhaL around LhaL Llme, Lhree alLernaLlves Lo Lhe
falllng free-markeL uLopla were presenLed: lasclsm, SLallnlsm and Soclal uemocracy. WlLh lasclsm
overcome ln Lhe Second World War, a sLrong naLlon-sLaLe based compeLlLlon beLween Soclal
uemocracy and SLallnlsm was laLer lllusLraLed by Lhe 1960's arms race. ln WallersLelns Lerms, we can
see a blpolar cenLral world order: Lhe uSA as Lhe caplLallsL and Soclal uemocraLlc cenLer - WesLern
Lurope aL lLs perlphery. 1he uSS8 was Lhe obvlous cenLer of SLallnlsm, dragglng LasLern Lurope along
aL lLs perlphery (1aylor & lllnL, 2000).
ln Lhe posLwar economlc boom, keyneslan regulaLlon modes ensured nexL-Lo-full employmenL and a
solld rlse ln llvlng sLandards. ln Lhe lordlsL developmenL model, sLrong sLaLe regulaLlon was essenLlal.
LlpleLz (1992) ldenLlfles Lhree maln LralLs wlLhln: soclal leglslaLlon whlch effecLlvely bound real wages
Lo producLlvlLy galns ln flrms, a welfare sLaLe supporLlng non-workers flnanclally Lo keep Lhem as
consumers, and credlL money supplled by prlvaLe banks Lo Lhe vlrLue of flrms.
Mass employmenL aL hlgh wages and mass producLlon broughL abouL mass consumpLlon ln mass
markeLs, Lhus answerlng Lhe needs of Lhe caplLallsL mode of producLlon for never-endlng need of
demand for an expandlng producLlon. As LlpleLz (1992:3) puLs lL convlnclngly: & 2,;$+, /'
&55(+(-&"$/) $% "3, +&52/<,5/)/+$5 2,%(-" /' "3, =&0 "3, +/*, /' 2,;(-&"$/) '()5"$/)%> =$"3 &
-&6/(2 42/5,%% +/*,- &% $"% 6&%$%.
Clearly, Lhls developmenL model dld noL [usL come Lo be ouL of nowhere. lL was a compromlse, resulL
of a long sLruggle and a dellcaLe balance beLween Lhree maln agenLs: sLrong naLlon sLaLes conLrolllng
modes of regulaLlon, laborers demandlng hlgher wages and Lhus lnfluenclng Lhe reglme of
accumulaLlon, and caplLallsL flrms beneflLlng from Lechnlcal lnnovaLlons fuellng producLlvlLy and hlgh
wages. 1hls Lrlangle ls ln an everlasLlng sLaLe of Lenslon, wlLh all agenLs needlng each oLher whllsL
compeLlng for resources.
1he developmenLs ln Lhe posLwar lordlsL boom were noL only soclally of greaL slgnlflcance. SpaLlally,
Loo, Lhls new developmenL model broughL abouL an lmporLanL shlfL. Plgh wages and Lhe affordable
producLlon of consumer durables, noLably auLomoblles, permlLLed emerglng mlddle class workers Lo
spaLlally dlsLance Lhemselves from Lhelr worklng place. lndeed, suburbanlzaLlon was noL only a
colncldlng consequence of Lhe workers' ablllLy Lo purchase a car, Lhls was surely promoLed by car
producers Lhemselves. 1he lord auLomoblle company acLlvely encouraged Lhelr workers Lo llve a
proper llfe", buy a car - why noL Lhe lord 1? - and move Lo a more quleL area (Allen, 1992a).
1he posslblllLy of llvlng ln a larger house and a near full employmenL of clLlzens effecLlvely creaLed
demand for more consumer durables. Cars were boughL, deLached houslng was consLrucLed ln Lhe
7

suburbs, and famllles sLarLed lnvesLlng ln mlxers, ovens, vacuum cleaners and oLher household
equlpmenL. ln Lhe fordlsL developmenL model, Lhls consumpLlon fuelled nearly full employmenL and
subsequenLly suburban llvlng and mass consumpLlon of consumer durables. A seemlngly never
endlng splral, based on a concepL of progress and Lhe pursulL of happlness Lrough consumpLlon and
regulaLed by a sLrong naLlon-sLaLe absorbed Lhe produced surplus caplLal of Lhe lordlsL reglme of
exLenslve accumulaLlon (LlpleLz, 1992).
1he sLronger welfare sLaLes emerglng and supporLlng Lhls reglme of accumulaLlon were vlLal Lo Lhe
expandlng economlc acLlvlLles ln Lhe Colden SlxLles of Lhe lordlsL accumulaLlon reglme. lndeed,
soclallsm was noL only supporLlng lLs own economlc and hence spaLlal lmpllcaLlons, lL effecLlvely had
Lo asserL Lo lmprove llvlng sLandards for Lhe lnhablLanLs of Lhe emerglng soclallsL sLaLes Lo counLer
Lhe LhreaLs of SLallnlsm and lasclsm. 1he hlsLory of Lhe unlflcaLlon of Lurope can much be seen ln
such a process.
llrsLly an economlcal pro[ecL, Lhe foundlng sLaLes of Lhe Luropean Commlsslon (on SLeel and Coal)
reallzed LhaL Lhelr own naLlon-sLaLes were a Loo small scale Lo compeLe ln an lncreaslngly globallzlng
economy. A loosenlng of leglslaLlon and a move Lowards a unlLed economlcal realm (Lhe one
markeL" prlnclple) offered Lhe advanLages of scale and allowed Lurope Lo keep up wlLh Lhe oLher
super powers aL Lhe Lop of Lhe World order. An economlc lnLegraLlon of naLlon sLaLes ln Lurope
furLhermore necesslLaLed paclflcaLlon and lndeed made war beLween parLlclpaLlng sLaLes lmposslble.
noL only was lL an economlc unlon flrsLly, Lhe onseL of Lhe Luropean unlflcaLlon was aL Lhe same Llme
a pollLlcal and paclfylng pro[ecL, averLlng lasclsm and SLallnlsm as lmmedlaLe LhreaLs ln Lhe posLwar
era (Parvey, 1989, LlpleLz, 1992).
1hls Luropean (and Amerlcan) dream of paclfled socleLles, economlcally prosperous and ever-
expandlng, qulckly came Lo a confronLaLlon wlLh lLs lnherenL llmlLs. 1he over-accumulaLlon crlsls of
Lhe early 1970s proved LhaL Lhe scale of Lhe naLlon sLaLe (or of Lhe Luropean 'sLaLe') aL whlch Lhese
socleLles were lmaglned were Loo small. 1he resulLs of an economlc crlsls were urban socleLles wlLh
far reduced employmenL and a polarlzed spaLlal urban fabrlc and labor markeL ln Lhe posL-fordlsL era.
<&0$/6&%'*08= &% 92-:*52- 1))(8(21$*&#
1he economlc upsurge afLer Lhls laLesL crlsls of caplLallsm broughL abouL a new reglme of
accumulaLlon. ln Lhe posL-fordlsL economlc reallLy, full employmenL and Lhe absorpLlon of surplus
value producLlon by purchase of bullL envlronmenL and consumer durables made way Lo a hlghly
polarlzed labor markeL of flexlble employmenL ln a hlghly flexlble globallzed economy. roducLlon
hardly Look place anymore ln Luropean clLles -lf lL dld, lL was much more auLomaLlzed Lhus
demandlng less labor force - and mosLly relocaLed Lo lower-wage parLs of Lhe world. 1he change
from a producLlon Lo a servlce lndusLry meanL for an lmporLanL fracLlon of Lhe labor force Lhe
deLerloraLlon of condlLlons. 1he lower skllled had [obs ln producLlon, buL found Lhemselves ln Lhe
underbelly of Lhe urban posL-fordlsL fabrlc, compeLlng for scarce Lemporal [obs. 1he hlgher skllled
well-educaLed pole of Lhe labor markeL had Lo ad[usL lLself Lo Lhe rapld pace of change and Lhe
lmmense flexlblllLy Lhls new economlc conflguraLlon demanded.
ln Lhe conLexL of Lhls neollberal globallzed caplLallsm, compeLlLlon was noL only flerce on a personal
level ln Lhe [ob markeL. 1he hlgher flexlblllLy of lnvesLmenL meanL LhaL naLlon sLaLes - or lndeed
clLles! - needed Lo lnvesL Lhemselves Lo aLLracL proflLable lnvesLmenLs. We can noLlce a Lurn of
8

pollcles Lowards Lhe commodlflcaLlon of Lhe clLy, especlally ln Lhe more compeLlLlve economlcal
cenLer of Lhe Luropean conLlnenL, Lhe blue banana".
ln Lhe newly emerglng world order, naLlon sLaLes play an lncreaslngly less lmporLanL role. lf we follow
CasLell's approach of World ClLles", one can conslder cenLers and perlpherles ln dlfferenL clLles,
lnLerconnecLed ln hlgh speed neLworks lndependenL of naLlon-sLaLes. lndeed, Lhere ls noL only a
world order of clLles for producLlon or pollLlcs, buL [usL as much for flnanclal markeLs or hlgh-Lech
developmenLs. 1he cenLers of Lhese dlfferenL neLworks and Lhelr subsequenL perlpherles do noL
necessarlly colnclde for dlfferenL neLworks (CasLells, 2006).
As ofLen lf noL always, pollcles can be seen as Lhe Lall LhaL wags Lhe dog". ln Lhls flgure of speech,
one would expecL from pollLlcal rheLorlc LhaL pollLlcs regulaLed and choose Lhe dlrecLlon of socleLles.
neverLheless, one can ask lf Lhe roles are noL opposlLe: ls lL noL pollcles LhaL are runnlng behlnd Lhe
economlc reallLy, ad[usLlng Lo please Lhe almlghLy lnvesLors?
Surely, Lhe ralse ln prlvaLlzaLlon and presLlglous pro[ecLs ln Lhe raL race beLween pollLlcal enLlLles Lo
aLLracL lnvesLmenLs (be lL on a global scale beLween clLles or on a clLy scale beLween nelghborhoods)
rarely beneflL Lhe less affluenL. Cenerally, ln Lhe neollberal caplLallsL loglc, deregulaLlon ls Lhe mosL
prone reacLlon Lo supporL Lhe posL-fordlsL economy - Lhus furLherlng polarlzaLlon and
fragmenLaLlon.
As a convlnclng example, one can once agaln conslder 8russels and lLs role as Lhe Luropean caplLal.
WhaL sLarLed as mere colncldence - Lhe name of Lhe counLry beglnnlng wlLh a leLLer early ln Lhe
alphabeL - became one of 8russels' largesL asseLs. 1o keep Lhe expandlng Luropean lnsLlLuLlons
seLLled and so remaln an lmporLanL clLy and beneflL from Lhe consequenL lncomes, compromlses had
Lo be made. 1he Lerrlbly obvlous lack of any urban plannlng ln Lhe creaLlon of Lhe Luropean
nelghborhood exempllfles how a free-markeL dynamlc of Lhe 8russels urban plannlng helped Lo
assure lLs compeLlLlve poslLlon among oLher clLles Lo aLLracL Luropean lnvesLmenLs. lndeed, lnvesLors
could do as Lhey pleased, compeLlng Lhemselves Loo and Laklng huge rlsks ln for lnsLance Lhe bulldlng
of a congress" cenLer colncldenLally havlng Lhe exacL rlghL slze for Lhe Luropean parllamenL. 1he
clLy and Lhe reglon, Loo, dlrecL Lhelr lnvesLmenLs Lo ensure Lhe compeLlLlveness of 8russels. A hlgh
speed Lraln connecLlon llnks 8russels Lo oLher ma[or world clLles ln [usL a few hours. 8uL whaL does
Lhls mean for Lhe people formerly llvlng ln Lhese now Luropeanlzed" nelghborhoods, or ln Lhe areas
LhaL had Lo be exproprlaLed Lo bulld Lhls LransporL lnfrasLrucLure? And how do Lhe less affluenL
workers ln Lhe old 19
Lh
cenLury lndusLrlal parLs of Lhe clLy beneflL from Lhese lnvesLmenLs? Sacrlflces
had Lo be made Lo keep 8russels on Lhe world clLy map, apparenLly.
lurLhermore, Lhe urban loglc of such an lnherenL economlcal reglme of accumulaLlon shapes lLs
lnhablLanLs. 1he furLher polarlzaLlon of labor markeLs and soclo-spaLlal conflguraLlons do noL
conLrlbuLe Lo a coherenL and shared clLy pro[ecL. 1o assemble resldenLs along a common llne,
collecLlve declslons have Lo be made for Lhe fuLure of Lhe urban. lor everyone should have Lhe rlghL
Lo Lhe clLy, lL should be shaped by negoLlaLlng lLs envlslon wlLh all lLs lnhablLanLs on Lhe basls of
equallLy (Parvey, 2008).
ln ChenL, some pro[ecLs work on Lhls ldenLlLy and common urban pro[ecL lssue by successfully
brlnglng LogeLher acLors of dlfferenL soclal classes, Lrough soclal arLlsLlc pro[ecLs and Lhe llke. A flnal
example from 8russels mlghL offer some hope Lo Lhe doom scenarlos of a posL-fordlsL fragmenLed
9

clLy of gaLed communlLles and avoldance of confronLaLlon. 1he blannual Zlnneke parade expresses
urbanlLy as a shared pro[ecL, wlLh nelghborhoods and people from dlfferenL orlglns and soclal classes
worklng LogeLher Lo produce a commonallLy. A shared urban ldenLlLy of dlfference unlLes Lhem
above Lhe loglc of a naLlonal sLaLe ln a clLy pro[ecL LhaL ls Lruly a 8russels one, crazy, absurd and
beauLlfully organlzed chaos.
>*52*&7%1.,3
Allen, !., 1992a. lordlsm and Modern lndusLry. ln: ?/-$"$5&- &)* @5/)/+$5 A/2+% /' 8/*,2)$"07
Cambrldge: ollLy ress, pp. 230-274.
Allen, !., 1992b. osL-lndusLrlallsm and osL-fordlsm. ln: 8/*,2)$"0 &)* $"% A("(2,%7 Cambrldge: ollLy
ress, pp. 170-220.
CasLells, M., 2006. 3, B$%, /' C3, D,"=/2E 9/5$,"0F C3, !)'/2+&"$/) :;,F @5/)/+0> 9/5$,"0 &)*
G(-"(2,7 2nd red. Cxford: 8lackwell.
Cowland, u., C'nelll, 8. & 8ald, A., 1993. ConLlnulLy and change: Lurope slnce 1918. ln: C3, @(2/4,&)
8/%&$57 London: Longman, pp. 47-69.
Palllday, S., 2009. 1he llrsL Common MarkeL?. H$%"/20 C/*&0, !uly, 39(7), pp. 31-37.
Parvey, u., 1989. C3, G/)*$"$/) /' ?/%"+/*,2)$"07 Cxford: 8aslc 8lackwell.
Parvey, u., 2008. 1he rlghL Lo Lhe ClLy. D,= I,'" B,J$,=> lssue 33, pp. 23-40.
LlpleLz, A., 1992. 1he lordlsL Compromlse. ln: C/=&2*% & D,= @5/)/+$5 K2*,27 new ?ork: Cxford
unlverslLy ress, pp. 1-13.
nauwelaerLs, !., 2012. L2(;;,F M/2-* H,2$"&;, G$"07 8ruges: ClLy of 8ruges.
1aylor, . & lllnL, C., 2000. ?/-$"$5&- N,/;2&4307 Lssex: renLlce Pall.
WallersLeln, l., 2000. 1he essenLlal WallersLeln. ln: C3, ,%%,)"$&- M&--,2%",$)7 new ?ork: 1he new
ress, pp. 129-148.