CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The skeletal syste !s an organ syste that "ro#!des "hys!cal su""ort !n l!#!ng
organ!ss. The skeletal syste !s generally d!#!ded !nto three ty"es$ e%ternal&
!nternal& and 'ase (lu!d )hydrostat!c order*& although hydrostat!c skeletal syste
can also 'e grou"ed se"arately (ro the other t+o s"ec!es !n the a'sence o(
su""ort!ng structures. The order can not o#e on the!r o+n& 'ut ass!sted 'y the
uscles. ,!th the coo"erat!on 'et+een the skeletal and uscular& l!#!ng creatures
can -u"& run& s+!ng& run and so on. .o +!th an!als& es"ec!ally #erte'rates& they
also ha#e a (rae+ork +h!ch !s #ery !"ortant !n the act!#!ty.
All #erte'rate an!als ha#e a d!((erent skeletal structure& rang!ng (ro P!sces&
A"h!'!ans& Re"t!l!an& A#es unt!l to /aals. O( these d!((erences& the order o(
each syste 0 each o( these #erte'rates certa!nly has a d!((erent (unct!on. Then
+!th the !n(luence o( en#!ronental causes o( d!((erences !n ada"tat!on& so there !s
a gro+!ng structures and set'acks. By study!ng a e'er o( th!s grou" +e can
"reser#e the en#!ronent& 'ut !t also can "ro#!de !n(orat!on such as the
!"ortance o( sc!ence educat!on (or the +orld. But !n th!s "a"er +e s"ec!(!cally
d!scuss the d!((erences !n the (rae+ork o( the class syste o( #erte'rate an!als.
Page 1 1
1.2 Research 3uest!on
1. ,hat !s the de(!n!t!on o( skeleton4
2. Ho+ !s the class!(!cat!on o( skeleton4
5. Ho+ !s the co"ar!son o( skeleton syste !n #erte'rate4
1.5 Research Pur"ose
1. To kno+ the de(!n!t!on o( skeleton
2. To kno+ the class!(!cat!on o( skeleton
5. To kno+ the co"ar!son o( skeleton syste !n #erte'rate
Page 1 2
CHAPTER II
DI.CU..ION
2.1 De(!n!t!on o( .keleton
The skeleton !s the 'ody "art that (ors the su""ort!ng structure o( an
organ!s. There are t+o d!((erent skeletal ty"es$ the e%oskeleton& +h!ch !s the
sta'le outer shell o( an organ!s& and the endoskeleton& +h!ch (ors the
su""ort structure !ns!de the 'ody.
2.2 Class!(!cat!on o( .keleton
1. Based on 6ocat!on !n Body
Based on locat!on !n 'ody& skeleton can 'e d!#!ded !nto t+o "arts& they
are endoskeleton and e%oskeleton. Endoskeleton !s skeletal syste that
located !nner the 'ody +h!ch (ors the su""ort structure !ns!de the 'ody
such as skeleton !n #erte'rate )"!sces& a"h!'!an& a#es& re"t!l!an&
aals* +h!le e%oskeleton !s skeletal syste that located outer the 'ody
+h!ch !s the sta'le outer shell o( an organ!s such as skeleton !n
!n#erte'rate )arthro"od and olusca*.
2. Based on Its Conta!ns
Based on !ts conta!ns& skeleton can 'e d!#!ded !nto t+o "arts& they are
'one and cart!lage. Bone !s co"osed o( cells 7 'one 7 (or!ng cells
)osteo'lasts* +h!ch "roduce a atr!% o( osteocytes. Osteocytes atr!%
conta!n!ng calc!u car'onate )CaCO5* and calc!u "hos"hate )Ca)PO
8
*
2
*
+h!le cart!lage co"osed 'y cells cart!lage )chondrocytes* that "roduce
kondr!n atr!% (or& and conta!ns a lot o( adhes!#e su'stance and a l!ttle
l!e. The e%a"les o( cart!lage such as cart!lage !n the nose& ear& and
trachea.
2.5 Co"ar!son The .keletal .yste
An endoskeleton !s an !nternal su""ort structure o( an an!al&
co"osed o( !neral!9ed t!ssue. Endoskeleton de#elo"s +!th!n the sk!n or !n
Page 1 5
the dee"er 'ody t!ssues. The #erte'rate !s 'as!cally an endoskeleton ade u"
o( t+o ty"es o( t!ssues )'one and cart!lage*. Dur!ng early e'ryon!c
de#elo"ent the endoskeleton !s co"osed o( notochord and cart!lage. The
notochord !n ost #erte'rates !s re"laced 'y #erte'ral colun and cart!lage !s
re"laced 'y 'one !n ost adults.
An endoskeleton ay (unct!on "urely (or su""ort )as !n the case o(
s"onges*& 'ut o(ten ser#es as an attachent s!te (or uscle and a echan!s
(or trans!tt!ng uscular (orces. A true endoskeleton !s der!#ed (ro
esoder t!ssue. .uch a skeleton !s "resent !n ech!noders and chordates.
:et they do ha#e cart!lag!nous t!ssue !n the!r 'ody& e#en !( !t !s not
!neral!9ed& es"ec!ally !n the head& +here !t (ors a "r!!t!#e cran!u. The
endoskeleton g!#es sha"e& su""ort and "rotect!on to the 'ody and "ro#!des a
eans o( locoot!on.
In general& all chordates ha#e endoskeleton and e%oskeleton. 6o+er
an!als ha#e endoskeleton that (ors a notochord. In any #erte'rate& there
!s an e%oskeleton +h!ch !s the der!#ed (ro layer o( sk!n called deral
skeleton. Deral skeleton a syste o( 'ony (orat!ons that de#elo"s !n the
connect!#e 7 t!ssue layer o( sk!n& or dera& o( #erte'rates or !n s!"le +ays !s
a der!#ate o( the der!s sk!n& (or e%a"le& scales and (!ns o( (!sh& 'ony "lates
!n Crocod!l!a and Chelon!a& gastral!a !n re"t!les& 'ony aror on the arad!llo.
The deral skeleton "er(ors "rotect!#e and su""ort!#e (unct!ons. It !s
ost h!ghly de#elo"ed !n (!sh and lor!cate Agnatha. The or!g!nal ty"e o(
deral skeleton +as the "laco!d scale )deral dent!cles*& +h!ch co#ered the
head and 'ody o( the an!al e#enly )(oss!l telodonts and Euselach!!*. The
deral dent!cles could (use !nto ore or less large "lates& (or!ng a shell. In
the e#olut!on o( (!sh& the deral skeleton d!((erent!ated !nto a ce"hal!c sect!on&
cons!st!ng o( large oss!(!cat!ons (or!ng a deratocran!u& and a truncal
sect!on& cons!st!ng o( ro+s o( scales )coso!d and gano!d*.
;erte'rate "hylogeny has sho+n a gradual s!nk!ng o( the eleents o(
the deral skeleton 'eneath the sk!n& 'r!ng!ng the deratocran!al oss!(!cat!ons
Page 1 8
!nto closer contact +!th the cran!u and gradually reduc!ng the shell o(
truncal scales )+ell de#elo"ed !n any (oss!l #erte'rates*. In e%tant terrestr!al
#erte'rates the rud!ents o( the "r!!t!#e deral skeleton are "reser#ed !n the
(or o( 'ony scales !n a"odal a"h!'!ans and #entral r!'s !n tuataras and
crocod!les. In certa!n #erte'rate (ors& such as turtles and arad!llos& a hea#y
deral skeleton de#elo"ed secondar!ly. The skeletal (orat!on !n certa!n
!n#erte'rates !s soet!es called a deral skeleton& 'ut such (orat!ons d!((er
(ro the deral skeleton o( #erte'rates !n content )(or e%a"le& calcareous
"lates and the s"!nes o( ech!noders*.
Endoskeleton o( #erte'rates !s generally co"osed o( a%!al skeleton
and a""end!culare skeleton. The a%!al skeleton cons!sts o( the 'ones along the
central a%!s o( an organ!s. In huans& generally !t cons!sts o( <= 'ones and
!s co"osed o( s!% "arts> the skull 'ones& the oss!cles o( the !ddle ear& the
hyo!d 'one o( the throat& the r!' cage& sternu and the #erte'ral colun. But
!n #erte'rate& a%!al skeleton !ncludes the coluna s"!nal )#erte'ral colun*&
cran!u& costae or r!'s& and sternu& +h!le the skeleton a""end!culare !nclude
e%tre!ty and c!ngulu anter!or and "oster!or skeleton. The a%!al skeleton
along +!th the a""end!cular skeleton together (ors the co"lete skeleton.
1. A%!al .keleton
a. Coluna s"!nal!s )#erte'ral colun or s"!ne*
The coluna s"!nal!s& also kno+n as #erte'ral or s"!ne& !s a 'ony
structure (ound !n #erte'rates. It !s (ored (ro the #erte'rate.
1. P!sces
The #erte'rae o( lo'e0(!nned (!shes cons!st o( three d!screte
'ony eleents. The #erte'ral arch surrounds the s"!nal cord& and !s o(
'roadly s!!lar (or to that (ound !n ost other #erte'rates. ?ust
'eneath the arch l!es a sall "late 7 l!ke "leurocentru& +h!ch "rotects
the u""er sur(ace o( the notochord& and 'elo+ that& a larger arch0
sha"ed !ntercentru to "rotect the lo+er 'order. Both o( these
structures are e'edded +!th!n a s!ngle cyl!ndr!cal ass o( cart!lage.
Page 1 @
A s!!lar arrangeent +as (ound !n the "r!!t!#e 6a'yr!nthodonts& 'ut
!n the e#olut!onary l!ne that led to re"t!les )and hence& also to
aals and '!rds*& the !ntercentru 'ecae "art!ally or +holly
re"laced 'y an enlarged "leurocentru& +h!ch !n turn 'ecae the 'ony
#erte'ral 'ody.
Page 1 A
Picture 1
In ost ray0(!nned (!shes& !nclud!ng all teleosts& these t+o
structures are (used +!th& and e'edded +!th!n& a sol!d "!ece o( 'one
su"er(!c!ally rese'l!ng the #erte'ral 'ody o( aals. In l!#!ng
a"h!'!ans& there !s s!"ly a cyl!ndr!cal "!ece o( 'one 'elo+ the
#erte'ral arch& +!th no trace o( the se"arate eleents "resent !n the
early tetra"ods.
In cart!lagenous (!sh& such as sharks& the #erte'rae cons!st o(
t+o cart!lagenous tu'es. The u""er tu'e !s (ored (ro the #erte'ral
arches& 'ut also !ncludes add!t!onal cart!lagenous structures (!ll!ng !n
the ga"s 'et+een the #erte'rae& and so enclos!ng the s"!nal cord !n an
essent!ally cont!nuous sheath. The lo+er tu'e surrounds the notochord&
and has a co"le% structure& o(ten !nclud!ng ult!"le layers o(
calc!(!cat!on.
6a"reys ha#e #erte'ral arches& 'ut noth!ng rese'l!ng the
#erte'ral 'od!es (ound !n all h!gher #erte'rates. E#en the arches are
d!scont!nuous& cons!st!ng o( se"arate "!eces o( arch0sha"ed cart!lage
around the s"!nal cord !n ost "arts o( the 'ody& chang!ng to long
str!"s o( cart!lage a'o#e and 'elo+ !n the ta!l reg!on. Hag(!shes lack a
true #erte'ral colun& and are there(ore not "ro"erly cons!dered
#erte'rates& 'ut a (e+ t!ny neural arches are "resent !n the ta!l.
2. A"h!'!an
The #erte'ral colun o( (rog !s located !n the !d0dorsal
reg!on 'eh!nd the skull and (ors the endoskeleton along the
long!tud!nal a%!s o( the 'ody. It cons!sts o( B s!gnet r!ng l!ke #erte'rae
and a long urostyle. O( the n!ne #erte'rae the 2nd to Cth #erte'rae are
co"lete and ore or less s!!lar and hence are called ty"!cal
#erte'rae& +h!le the other #erte'rae d!((er (ro the ty"!cal #erte'rae as
+ell as (ro each other.
Page 1 C
5. Re"t!l!a
The #erte'ral colun !n d!nosaurs cons!sts o( the cer#!cal
)neck*& dorsal )'ack*& sacral )h!"s*& and caudal )ta!l* #erte'rae.
D!nosaur #erte'rae "ossess (eatures kno+n as "leurocoels& +h!ch are
hollo+ de"ress!ons on the lateral "ort!ons o( the #erte'rae& +h!ch
ser#ed to decrease the +e!ght o( these 'ones +!thout sacr!(!c!ng
strength. Pleurocoels are (!lled +!th a!r sacs& accord!ng to soe
researchers. The sauro"od d!nosaurs are kno+n (or the!r unusually
long ta!ls& +h!ch +ere anchored !n soe cases 'y o#er @= caudal
#erte'rae. In any hadrosaur and thero"od d!nosaurs& the caudal
#erte'rae +ere re!n(orced 'y tendons. The "resence o( three or ore
sacral #erte'rae& !n assoc!at!on +!th the h!" 'ones& !s one o( the
de(!n!ng character!st!cs o( d!nosaurs. The occ!"!tal condyle !s a
Page 1 <
Picture 2
structure on the "oster!or "art o( a d!nosaurDs skull +h!ch art!culates
+!th the (!rst cer#!cal #erte'ra.
8. A#es
The '!rd skeleton !s h!ghly
ada"ted (or (l!ght. It !s e%treely
l!ght+e!ght 'ut strong enough to
+!thstand the stresses o( tak!ng
o((& (ly!ng& and land!ng. One key
ada"tat!on !s the (us!ng o( 'ones
!nto s!ngle oss!(!cat!ons& such as
the "ygostyle. Because o( th!s&
'!rds usually ha#e a saller
nu'er o( 'ones than other
terrestr!al #erte'rates. B!rds also
Page 1 B
Picture 4
Picture 3
lack teeth or e#en a true -a+& !nstead ha#!ng e#ol#ed a 'eak& +h!ch !s
(ar ore l!ght+e!ght. The 'eaks o( any 'a'y '!rds ha#e a "ro-ect!on
called an egg tooth& +h!ch (ac!l!tates the!r e%!t (ro the an!ot!c egg&
and that (alls o(( once !t has done !ts -o'.
@. /aals
In huan anatoy& the #erte'ral colun usually cons!sts o( 28
art!culat!ng #erte'rate& and n!ne (used #erte'rae !n the sacru and the
coccy%. It !s s!tuated !n the dorsal as"ect o( the torso& se"arated 'y
!nter#erte'ral d!scs. It houses and "rotects the s"!nal cord !n !ts s"!nal
canal& and hence !s coonly called the s"!ne& or s!"ly 'ack'one.
There are norally 55 #erte'rae !n huans& !nclud!ng the (!#e
that are (used to (or the sacru )the others are se"arated 'y
!nter#erte'ral d!scs* and the (our coccygeal 'ones that (or the
ta!l'one.
The u""er three reg!ons co"r!se the rea!n!ng 28& and are
grou"ed under the naes cer#!cal )C #erte'rae*& thorac!c )12
#erte'rae* and lu'ar )@ #erte'rae*& accord!ng to the reg!ons they
occu"y. Th!s nu'er !s soet!es !ncreased 'y an add!t!onal #erte'ra
!n one reg!on& or !t ay 'e d!!n!shed !n one reg!on& the de(!c!ency
o(ten 'e!ng su""l!ed 'y an add!t!onal #erte'ra !n another. The nu'er
o( cer#!cal #erte'rae !s& ho+e#er& #ery rarely !ncreased or d!!n!shed.
'. Cran!u
1. P!sces
At the ne%t Elaso'ranch!! co"osed o( cart!lage.
Chondrocran!u cons!sts o( 1 layer o( cart!lage. Or'!t su""orts large
eye'all& sellaturc!ca !n chondrocran!u 'ase to rece!#e the "!tu!tary
gland.
Page 1 1=
Picture 5
2. A"h!'!a
There are aount o( skull. Ca"cula o"t!cu ha#e holes called
'entral (enetra o#al!s +h!ch !s the sta"ed!al "late o( coluella der!#ate
o( hyoand!'ulare. ;!sceral!s reduce lo+er -a+ skeleton co#ered os
e'raneus.
Page 1 11
Picture 6
5. Re"t!le
The e%!stence o( add!t!onal le#els hardness !n oss!(!cat!on and
'one. Only the "arts that are cart!lag!nous !s etho!d. At no (oraen
!nter"arental ."henodon and there are any e'raneus oss!(!cat!on.
8. A#es
Alost l!ke re"t!les& os e'raneus l!ke oss!cula scleral!s r!ng
attached to the eye and there !s a +ra" sclerot!c r!dge 0 r!dge
la'o!dal. Hyo!d a""aratus cons!sts o( a ed!an sect!on cons!st!ng o(
2 "a!rs o( 5 'ones and horn.
Page 1 12
Picture 7
Picture 8
@. /aals
In onkeys and huans on the -a+ art!culat!on and!'ulare
(ossa o( the te"oral "art sEuaus os. O"t!cu oss!(!cat!on un!ted to
(or the "etrosal co#er!ng the !nner ear. Petrosal and ty"an!c
ossEuaosa! un!ted +!th the "etrous "art o( the te"oral os. In
huans& A eleents o( os s"heno!d (or a s!ngle s"heno!d.
c. Costae )r!'s*
1. P!sces
Page 1 15
Picture 9
Picture 10
At sall costae Elaso'ranch!! #entrolateral attached to the
sternu F 'aso"o"hyses. They d!d a se"tu skeletongenous. H!gher 7
le#el "!sces has a #entral!s costae.
2. A"h!'!a
At stegoce"hal!an (oss!l& (ound costae that are structurally
strong and e%tends to the #entral "art o( the 'ody a"h!'!an. Costae
on a"h!'!an d!d not art!culated +!th the sternu. .oe o( the e%t!nct
Page 1 18
Picture 11
a"h!'!an deral ha#!ng t!' F gastral!s #0sha"ed !n #entral a'doen
and the structure rese'les endoskeleton.
5. Re"t!le
Costae on re"t!le attached to the sternu& ar!se (ro the
truncus and ta!l. Chelon!an currently do not ha#e costae on the neck.
Gecko has costae on 'oth #erte'rae. At o"h!d!a all #erte'rae ha#e
costae& e%ce"t !n. atlas and a%!s. At the crocod!l!an are (loat!ng r!'s )2
"a!rs at last thoracal!s coste*.
Page 1 1@
Picture 12
8. A#es
In odern '!rds& a "oster!or cer#!cal #erte'rae "ossessed costae
+h!ch can 'e dr!#en. B!c!"!tal costae strong& (lat& connect!ng the
#erte'rae thoracal!s the sternu. Each o( !t cons!st!ng o( "arts o( the
#erte'ral and sternal.
Page 1 1A
Picture 13
@. /aals
Usually '!c!"!tal. Thoracal!s costae de#elo"ed !n th!s grou".
.ternal "ort!on o( d!rect and !nd!rect un!ted called costaecart!lago.
d. .ternu
Page 1 1C
Picture 14
Picture 15
.ternu !s the 'reast'one that there !s a "lace at the 'ase o( 'ra!n
and cart!lage st!ck!ng cartal!s& contra#era )sternal r!'s* !s a uscular
"ectoral ar!go. Cran!al "art o( the sternu !s called the anu'r!u. The
!ddle sect!on !s called the 'ody and the trunk !s called the "rocessus
s"o!deus kaodal sect!on.
The sternu !s a tetra"od structure and "redo!nantly an!ote. It
!s o( endochondral or!g!n. Its "resence& s!9e& and anato!cal relat!onsh!"s
are correlated +!th the e%tent to +h!ch the (orel!'s are e"loyed !n
locoot!on. It ser#es ch!e(ly as a 'ase aga!nst +h!ch the "ectoral g!rdles
and& !n an!otes& the r!'s are 'raced& and as the anato!cal or!g!n o( the
#entral uscles o( the (orel!'s. The sternu !s largest !n "terosaurs&
car!nate '!rds& and 'ats& +h!ch reEu!re strong uscles (or (l!ght. It !s uch
reduced or a'sent !n tetra"ods lack!ng (orel!'s. It has acEu!red add!t!onal
roles !n soe tetra"ods& such as ass!st!ng !n 'reath!ng o#eents !n '!rds.
The sternu o( a"h!'!ans !s +ell d!((erent!ated only !n anurans.
,hether or not Necturus has a sternu de"ends on oneHs de(!n!t!on. It
cons!sts o( ore or less !solated nodules o( cart!lage assoc!ated +!th the
l!nea al'a !ed!ately caudal to the
Page 1 1<
coraco!ds cart!lages o( the "ectoral g!rdle and e%tend!ng !nto the "ro%!al
ends o( ad-acent yose"ta. A sall 'ut d!screte sterna eleent !s "resent
!n other salaanders at the sae locat!on. A"odans ha#e no trace o( a
sternu.
6!9ards are ag!le cl!'ers and runners. As a correlate& the!r strong
"ectoral g!rdles are (!rly 'raced aga!nst a su'stant!al sh!eld 7 sha"ed
sternu o( cart!lage or re"laceent 'one. The sternu o( the lu'er!ng
crocod!l!ans !s a s!"le cart!lag!nous "late attached to the "rocoraco!d o(
the "ectoral g!rdle. Caudally& !t !s cont!nuous +!th an e%"anse o( a
!neral!9ed (!'rous e'rane !ncor"orat!ng gastral!a. Turtles ha#e no
sternu. The t+o hal#es o( the "ectoral g!rdle are un!ted #entrally 'y
(!'rous l!gaents or 'y a ere +edge o( cart!lage.
The sterna o( odern '!rds that are ca"a'le o( (l!ght ha#e
de#elo"ed an enorous keel& or car!na& to +h!ch the ass!#e "ectoral
(l!ght uscles are attached. The de#elo"ent o( a car!na !n "terosaurs and
'!rds !s an !nstance o( con#ergent e#olut!on. The sternu o(
Page 1 1B
Picture 16
Arcaheopteryx +as sall and lacked a keel& an !nd!cat!on that these (!rst
'!rds +ere not strong (l!ers.
The sternu o( terrestr!al aals& !nclud!ng huans& !s
co"osed o( a ser!es o( 'ony segents& or sterne'rae and !s co"arat!#ely
narro+ !n co"ar!son to that o( re"t!les. The last sterne'ra& %!"h!sternu&
'ears a cart!lag!nous or 'ony %!"ho!d "rocess. /ar!ne aals tend to
ha#e a relat!#ely short sternu& only a sall nu'er o( r!'s reach the
sternu& and !nd!#!dual sterne'rae tend to 'e (used. Th!s cond!t!on !n
cetaceans ay 'e correlated +!th the gallo"!ng ode o( s+!!ng
necess!tated 'y the lack o( (unct!onally co"etent anter!or (l!""ers.
E((orts to deter!ne the nature o( the earl!est sterna ha#e 'een
(rustrated !n that there !s l!ttle e#!dence o( a sternu !n a"h!'!an
la'yr!nth. E!ther !t +as not "reser#ed& or !t had not yet coe !nto 'e!ng the
tendency o( collagenous t!ssues 7 +h!ch !ncludes yose"ta and the l!nea
al'a. It ay 'e that oss!(!cat!on !n the ce"hal!c "ort!on o( the l!nea al'a
that ult!ately "roduced sterna +as a res"onse to susta!ned echan!cal
stresses result!ng (ro locoot!on on land. A sternu ay ha#e ar!sen
se#eral t!es !n the e#olut!on o( tetra"ods& "erha"s !nde"endently !n
urodeles& !n anurans& and !n an a"h!'!an l!ne lead!ng to an!otes.
The an!ote sternu ar!ses as "a!red esenchyal 'ars that later
un!te and undergo chondrogenes!s. In any aals& "resternal and
su"rasternal 'lasteas also de#elo". The "resternal 'lastea contr!'utes
to the anu'r!u& and the su"rasternal centers soet!es do. The latter
ay g!#e r!se to !nde"endent su"rasternal oss!cles. .oe huans ha#e
su"rasternal oss!cles& 'ut they are not (ound unless there !s an occas!on to
% 7 ray the sternocla#!cular -o!nt.
2. A""end!culare .keleton
a. De(!n!t!on o( A""end!culare .keleton
Page 1 2=
A""end!culare skeleton !s a grou" o( 'ones that co"ose the u""er
)anter!or* and lo+er )"oster!or* l!'s& that located !n the "er!(er o(
a%!ale skeleton.
'. The "arts o( A""end!culare skeleton
1* E%tre!ty .keleton
E%tre!ty can 'e d!#!ded !nto u""er )anter!or* and lo+er
)"oster!or* e%tre!t!es. U""er )anter!or* e%tre!ty cons!sts o( 'one
sca"ula& cla#!cle& huerus& rad!us& ulna& car"al& etacar"al& and the
"halangs 'ones.
1. .ca"ula
.ca"ula !s a 'one located "oster!or to the costal 'one and
sha"ed l!ke a (lat tr!angle. .ca"ula has a "ro-ect!on )s"!ne&
coraco!d* +h!ch attaches a uscle that ser#es to o#e the
u""er ar and (orear. .ca"ula art!culates +!th the cla#!cle
through the acro!on. A de"ress!on )'as!n* on the lateral s!de
o( the sca"ula to (or a 'all 7 socket -o!nt +!th the huerus&
the gleno!d (ossa.
2. The cla#!cle
The cla#!cle !s the 'one that art!culates +!th the sca"ula at the
lateral and ed!al s!des o( the anu'r!u on. At th!s "os!t!on
the sca"ula cla#!cle acts as a 'arr!er that "re#ents the huerus
sh!(ted too (ar.
5. Huerus
Huerus !s the long 'one !n the u""er ar& +h!ch !s assoc!ated
+!th the gleno!d (ossa o( the sca"ula through. At the "ro%!al
huerus ha#e soe other "arts o( the anato!cal neck& surg!cal
neck& tu'ercles a-or& !nor and sulcus !ntertu'erculare
tu'ercles. At the d!stal huerus has se#eral "arts& aong
Page 1 21
others condyles& lateral e"!condyle& ca"!tulu& trochlear&
ed!al e"!condyle and the olecranon (ossa )"oster!or s!de*.
,!ll art!culate +!th the ulna 'one o( the huerus !n the
olecranon (ossa& (or!ng a h!nge -o!nt. On the huerus 'one
also conta!ned soe 'u"s& aong other "rotrus!ons to the
delto!d uscle.
8. The Ulna
Ulna 'one o( the (orear !s located on the ed!al s!de o( the
anato!cal "os!t!on. In the "ro%!al reg!on& the ulna art!culates
+!th the huerus through the olecranon (ossa )!n the "oster!or
"art* and through the "rocess o( the corono!d )the trochlea on
huerus*. Th!s art!culat!on sha"ed h!nge -o!nts& allo+!ng the
(le%!on 0 e%tens!on ot!on. Also art!culates +!th the rad!al ulna
on the lateral s!de. Th!s art!culat!on -o!nts re#ol#ed sha"e&
allo+!ng the ot!on o( "ronat!on 0 su"!nat!on. In the d!stal
reg!on& the ulna art!culates +!th the rad!al return& there !s also a
so 7 called "rocessus stylo!d "rocessus.
@. Rad!us
Rad!us !s the (orear 'one located on the lateral s!de o( the
anato!cal "os!t!on. In reg!on o( "ro%!al rad!us art!culates
+!th the ulna& allo+!ng the occurrence o( "ronat!on 0
su"!nat!on ot!on. ,hereas !n the d!stal reg!on& and the stylo!d
"rocess o( the conta!ned area (or the attachent o( the car"al
'ones !nclude 'ones sca"ho!d and lunate 'ones.
A. Car"al
Car"al 'ones cons!sts o( < short 'ones that art!culate +!th the
d!stal end o( the ulna and rad!us& and the "ro%!al end o( the
etacar"al 'one. Bet+een the car"al 'ones are sl!d!ng -o!nts.
The e!ghth !s the sca"ho!d 'one& lunate& tr!Eutru& "!r!(or!s&
tra"e9!u& tra"e9o!d& ca"!tate& and haate.
Page 1 22
C. /etacar"al
Cons!sts o( (!#e etacar"al 'ones are !n the +r!st and "ro%!al
"art art!culates +!th the d!stal car"al 'ones. ?o!nts "roduced 'y
the car"al 'ones and etacar"al handade to 'e #ery (le%!'le.
At the thu'& there !s a saddle -o!nt 'et+een the car"al 'ones
and the thu' etacar"al allo+ such o#eent crosses the
"al and allo+s cla"!ng F hold!ng soeth!ng. /etacar"al
'one !n the (!nger 1 )thu'* and 2 )!nde% (!nger* there !s a
secao!d 'one.
<. The Phalangs Bones
Phalangs 'ones are the 'ones o( the (!ngers& there are t+o !n
each thu' "halangs )"halangs "ro%!al and d!stal* and 5 !n
each o( the other (!ngers )"halangs "ro%!al& ed!al& d!stal*.
H!nge -o!nt (ored 'et+een the 'one "halangs ake hand
o#eents to 'e ore (le%!'le& es"ec!ally (or gras"!ng
soeth!ng.
,h!le lo+er )"oster!or* e%tre!ty cons!sts o( 'one "el#!s& (eur& t!'!a&
(!'ula& tarsal& etatarsal& and the "halangs 'ones.
1. Pel#!s
Pel#!s cons!sts o( a "a!r o( "el#!s )h!" 'one* +h!ch !s the (lat
'ones. Each h!" 'one cons!sts o( three a!n "arts$ the !l!u&
"u'!s and !sch!u. 6ocated !n the su"er!or "art o( the !l!u and
sacru (or the art!culat!on +!th the #erte'rae& !sch!u
located !n the !n(er!or 0 "oster!or& and !n(er!or "u'!c 0 located at
the anter!or 0 ed!al. The t!" o( the !l!u called the !l!ac crest
) !l!ac crest *. The eet!ng 'et+een the "u'!s o( the le(t h!" and
r!ght h!" called the sy"hys!s "u'!s. There !s a 'as!n at the
con(luence o( the !l!u 0 !sch!u 0 "u'!s !s called the
aceta'ulu& !ts (unct!on !s (or art!culat!on +!th the (eur 'one.
Page 1 25
2. Ieur
The (eur !s the (!'ula& +h!ch art!culates +!th the "ro%!al
"art o( the "el#!s and t!'!a art!culates +!th the d!stal sect!on
through the condyles. In the "ro%!al reg!on o( the "rocessus
are called trochanter a-or and !nor trochanter&
!ntertrochanter!c l!ne connected 'y. Conta!ned !n the d!stal
anter!or lateral condyle and ed!al condyle (or art!culat!on
+!th the t!'!a& and "atella sur(ace to 'one. Conta!ned !n the
d!stal "oster!or !ntercondylar (ossa.
5. T!'!a
T!'!a !s the lo+er leg 'one that !s located ore ed!al than the
(!'ula. In the "ro%!al& ed!al t!'!al condyle and lateral had
+here 'oth (ac!es (or art!culat!on +!th the (eoral condyle.
There !s also (ac!es to art!culate +!th the (!'ula on the lateral
s!de o( the head. In add!t!on& the t!'!al tu'eros!ty (or the
attachent o( l!gaents ha#e. In the area o( art!culat!on +!th
the d!stal t!'!a (or!ng the tarsal 'ones and the ed!al
alleolus.
8. The (!'ula
The (!'ula !s the lo+er leg 'one that !s located ore laterally
than the t!'!a. At the "ro%!al (!'ula art!culates +!th the t!'!a.
,hereas !n the d!stal& lateral alleolus and (!'ula (or!ng
(ac!es (or art!culat!on +!th the tarsal 'ones.
@. Tarsal
Are C tarsal 'ones that (or the art!culat!on +!th the (!'ula and
t!'!a !n the "ro%!al and the d!stal etatarsal. There are C
tarsal 'ones& the calcaneus& talus& Cu'o!d& na#!cular& and
cune!(or )1& 2& 5*. Calcaneus 'one acts as a 'u((er stand.
A. /etatarsal
Page 1 28
A etatarsal 'one that art!culates +!th the @ tarsal 'one !n the
"ro%!al and d!stal "halangs. /etatarsal 'one !n 1 )thu'*
there are t+o sesao!d 'ones.
C. Phalangs 'ones
Phalangs are 'ones o( the toes. There are t+o 'ones !n the
thu' "halangs and 5 "halangs !n each (!nger rest. .!nce there
!s no saddle -o!nts !n the toes& caus!ng the (!ngers are not as
(le%!'le thu'.
2* C!ngulu Pectoral and C!ngulu Pel#!cale
C!ngulu Pectoral or shoulder 'one 'racelet& the -o!nt that
connects the ar to the 'ody. The ankle -o!nt has a 'o+l that !s not
"er(ect 'ecause the 'ack !s o"en. In sha"e 'y t+o 'ones& naely$
the sca"ula )shoulder 'lade* and the cla#!cle )collar'one*.
1. The cla#!cle )collar'one* sha"ed l!ke the letter J.J& assoc!ated
+!th the u""er ar 'one )huerus* to (or -o!nts that "roduce
(reer o#eent& one end connected to the sternu and the
other end connected to the sca"ula. .ect!on relat!ng to the
sternu are called sternal e%tre!t!es and related "arts are
called e%tre!t!es akro!nal!s acro!on.
2. .ca"ula )shoulder 'lade*& located at the 'ack o( the outs!de& has
10< r!'s& ne%t to !t has a sect!on called s"!na sca"ula. 6arge&
tr!angular sha"e and (lat& located on the 'ack o( the r!'s. To"
and 'otto o( the s"!ne !s cur#ed sca"ula land there called the
(ossa su"ra sca"ula )u""er* and Iona !n(ra sca"ula )'otto*.
End o( s"!na sca"ula at the shoulder to (or ta-u called the
acro!on and the cla#!cle assoc!ated +!th -o!nts through.
Then the a!n (unct!on o( the c!ngulu "ectoral or shoulder 'one
'racelet naely$
1. The attachent o( se#eral uscles that allo+ o#eent o( the
-o!nts.
Page 1 2@
2. Ior+ard shock o( u""er l!' to the 'ody (rae )a%!al*.
5. As a 'ooster to kee" the u""er l!' o( the chest so that the ar
can o#e (reely.
Pel#!cale c!ngulu or g!rdle 'one cons!sts o( t+o h!" 'ones. In
the ch!ld 0 the ch!ldDs h!" 'one cons!sts o( three se"arate "!eces o(
'one that !s Ill!u )to"*& 'one !sch!un )'otto* and the "u'!c 'one
)!n the !ddle*. In the 'ack o( the "el#!c g!rdle sacru are 'ones
that are "art o( the segent 0 the #erte'rae. At the (ront there !s a
"u'!c sy"hys!s connect!#e t!ssue that connects the t+o "u'!c
'ones. Pel#!c 'one 'racelet cons!sts o($
1. Bo+el Bone )os Ill!u*& nu'er 2 "!eces le(t and r!ght& the
sha"e !s +!de and (lat and cur#ed (ac!ng stoach. A cur#ed
sect!on called t'sa!l!aka& called Kr!sta edges and "rotrud!ng
"arts !l!ac called !l!ac s"!ne. At oll!u os !s a hole 'o+l -o!nts
located +here the head o( the (eur -o!nts than called
aceta'ulu.
2. H!" 'one )"el#!s os*& !s a ca#!ty (ored 'y the connect!on
'et+een the 'ones 0 h!" 'ones. U""er ca#!ty called "el#!c
ca#!ty ne%t to the '!g and the lo+er called the sall "el#!s.
Bet+een large "el#!c ca#!ty and sall "el#!s se"arated 'y a
l!ne dra+n c!rcle to the le(t and to the r!ght o( the sy"hys!s
"u'!s roontor!u head!ng. At large "el#!c ca#!ty there are
tools +h!le the content conta!ned on the sall "el#!s organs
'ladder.
5. Bone sat )os !ch!u*& (or a se!0c!rcle (ac!ng u"+ards&
rest!ng on the 'ulge has called tu'er!sk!ad!ku seat.
8. "u'!c 'one )os "u'!s*& a (orked 'one& one leads to the u""er
s!de and another to the s!de to the 'otto. Nu'er t+o le(t and
Page 1 2A
r!ght o( each other are connected 'y cart!lage called the
sy"hys!s "u'!s.
Then the a!n (unct!on c!ngulu "el#!cale or g!rdle 'one that !s$
1* To su""ort the +e!ght together +!th the #erte'rae.
2* Protect!ng and su""ort!ng organs 'elo+& such as the 'ladder&
the re"roduct!#e organs.
5* As a "lace o( gro+th o( the (etus.
c. Co"ar!son o( A""end!culare .keleton on P!sces& A"h!'!ans&
Re"t!les& A#es& and /aals.
1* P!sces
Order a""end!culare are 'ones and attach (!ns 'ackers. There
are (!#e k!nds o( (!sh are (!n s!ngle (!ns )'ack& ta!l& and anal* and
"a!red (!ns )(!ns a'do!nal and chest*. There are (!sh !n the class
Chondr!chthyes are su""orted 'y "!eces o( cart!lage called the
'asal cart!lage located at the 'otto o( the 'eak yeryu"u neural
and rad!al cart!lage located !n the 'asal su""ort!ng (!ngers. I!ns
chest 'one 'racelet !s su""orted 'y the shoulder )"ectoral g!rdle*
strong and called coracosca"ula. On the (!shDs "ectoral (!n shoulder
'racelet ade u" o( cart!lage and 'one 'elly deral. The (!ns
su""orted 'y the "el#!c cart!lage attached "lace 'as!"teryg!u. At
ale (!sh& !n the end there +as "rone 'asal clas"er organs used !n
'reed!ng to hel" del!#er s"er.
I!sh sha"e !s deter!ned 'y se#eral sect!ons o( the #erte'rae at
the 'ack. There #erte'rae segent (!%ed #erte'rae sha"e and there
!s also a change !ts sha"ed. At outl!ne sha"e (!sh ta!l there are three
k!nds$
Page 1 2C
1* Proterocerca$ roads that susta!n #erte'rate (!ns +!thout
chang!ng !ts (or.
2* D!"hycercal !s the sha"e o( "!nnna caudal!s that rounded or
ta"ered s!etr!cally and the end o( #erte'rae segent not reach
the end o( the (!n.
5* Heterocercal$ (!sh sha"e !s not syetr!c& !n +h!ch the u""er
ta!l (!sh ta!l cur#ed u"+ard and su""orted 'y a segent o( the
s"!ne. The 'otto t!" o( the ta!l !s shorter than !n the u""er ta!l
!s only su""orted 'y a (e+ (!ngers ta!l (!n.
8* Hoocercal$ syetr!c sha"e +here the to" o( the ta!l +!th the
'otto and su""orted 'y the (!nger ta!l (!n. 6ast t+o segents
o( the s"!ne to change sha"e and there are a (e+ e%tra 'ones.
6ast #erte'ra turned !nto urostyle as the chorda os!((!cat!on end
and tacked h! se#en "!eces o( 'one called hy"ural. Hy"ural
a'o#e& there are three add!t!onal also called a"ural.
2* A"h!'!ans
Page 1 2<
Picture 17
A""end!cular structure on a"h!'!an that !s c!ngulu "ectoral
or shoulder 'racelet on a"h!'!an 'one cons!sts o( the cla#!cle&
e"!coraco!d& coraco!ds& sca"ula& and su"rasca"ula. Then "el#!cale
c!ngulu or g!rdle 'ones (or and gro+ !nto la!na "el#!cal!s
"u'!s& !sch!u& and !l!u. Iurtherore& cons!st!ng o( anter!or and
"oster!or e%tre!t!es. Anter!or and "oster!or l!' cons!sts o( (!#e
segents. Anter!or e%tre!ty cons!sts o( the huerus that
art!culates +!th the sca"ula at gleno!deal!s& rad!us and ulna. Nanus
co"!led 'y car"al!a& etacar"al!a& and d!g!t!. Car"al!a cons!sts
rad!ale& ulnare& !ntered!u& central& and d!stal car"ale. ,h!le the
"oster!or e%tre!ty cons!sts o( a long 'one& os (eroorale& +h!ch
art!culates +!th the c!ngulu "el#!cale& and aceta'ulu.
5* Re"t!les
C!ngulu "ectoral or shoulder 'one 'racelet !s ade u" o(
'one cart!lage and 'one e'rane. Bone cart!lage !s coraco!ds&
sca"ula& and the sca"ula su"ra. ,h!le the e'rane 'ones are
cla#!cle& cle!thru& and su"racle!thru. At crocod!lla and lacet!ll!a
reduce or no. And then "el#!cale c!ngulu or g!rdle 'ones (or
and gro+ !nto la!na "er#!cal!s "u'!s& !sch!u& and Ill!u.
Iurtherore cons!sts o( the anter!or and "oster!or e%tre!t!es.
Anter!or and "oster!or l!' cons!sts o( (!#e segents. Anter!or
e%tre!ty cons!sts o( the huerus& +h!ch art!culates +!th the
sca"ula at gleno!deal!s& rad!us and ulna. Nanus co"!led 'y
car"al!a& etacar"al!a& and d!g!t!. Car"al!a cons!sts rad!ale& ulnare&
!ntered!u& central& and d!stal car"ale. ,h!le the "oster!or
e%tre!ty cons!sts o( a long 'one& os (eroorale& +h!ch art!culates
+!th the c!ngulu "el#!cale and aceta'ulu.
8* A#es
Page 1 2B
C!ngulu "ectoral or shoulder 'one 'racelet cons!sts o( t+o
cla#!cles are un!ted to (or a (urcula on 'uung !ntercla#!ula (ly&
'ut the '!rds do not (ly& do not eet !n the #entral cla#!cle& so there
(urcula. Then "el#!cale c!ngulu or g!rdle 'ones tersusu a'o#e the
"u'!s& !sch!u& and Ill!u. Iurtherore cons!sts o( the anter!or
and "oster!or e%tre!t!es. Anter!or and "oster!or l!' cons!sts o(
(!#e segents. Anter!or e%tre!ty cons!sts o( the huerus
art!culates +!th the sca"ula and gleno!deal!s& rad!us and ulna.
Nanus co"!led 'y car"al!a& etacar"al!a& and d!g!t!. Car"al!a
cons!sts rad!ale& ulnare& !ntered!u& central& and d!stal car"ale.
,h!le the "oster!or e%tre!ty cons!sts o( a long 'one& os
(eroorale& +h!ch art!culates +!th the c!ngulu "el#!cale and
aceta'ulu.
B!rds ha#e a 'one structure that ada"ts to (ly. Ada"tat!on o(
'!rd 'ones are as (ollo+s$
1. B!rds ha#e a hal( l!ghter than the -a+ and teeth !n aals.
2. B!rds ha#e the sternu )'reast'one* !s (lat and 'road& use(ul as
a 'road (l!ght uscle attachent.
5. The 'ones o( '!rds are hollo+ and l!ght+e!ght. Bones are #ery
strong 'ecause !t has a cross structure.
8. The +!ngs are co"osed o( 'ones that are less than the 'ones
o( the hands o( huan. That ser#es to reduce +e!ght es"ec!ally
+hen '!rds (ly.
@. The s"!ne co'!ne to g!#e the (or a sol!d (rae+ork&
es"ec!ally +hen the (la""!ng +!ngs +h!le (ly!ng.
A. B!rds also ha#e d!st!nct!#e 'ones su!ta'le (or (ly!ng. The
e'ers changed !nto +!ng. The 'one and enlarged 'reasts
and (lattened as the attachent o( uscles and +!ngs. That
allo+s '!rds to (ly.
Page 1 5=
@* /aals
Costas cont!nued +!th the ne%t #entral sternu& thus (or!ng a
ca#!ty +h!ch "rotects the #!tal organs and allo+s the "rocess o(
res"!rat!on ot!on. C!ngulu "ectoral!s attached to the thora% 'y
usculus and su""orted 'y the cran!al e%tre!ty. In each
he!s"here cons!sts atasse'uah (lat tr!angular 'one )sca"ula*
+h!ch ends (or!ng angkokan "lace the hueral head attached&
t!ed together +!th a se!0c!rcular cla#!cle 'one 'y usculus.
Caran!al!s e%tre!ty !s d!#!ded !nto$
1. Brach!u )u""er ar* o( huerus
2. Ante'rach!u )(orear* o( rad!us and ulna
Nanus )hand* !s a (or o( d!g!t! ossa car"al!s )+r!st 'ones*& ossa
etacar"al!a )"al 'ones* and "halangus )cha'er rad!us*.
C!ngulu "el#!cus a h!" 'one that st!cks (!rly on the sacru and
each hal( cons!sts o( the h!"'one os !ch!u )"oster!or* and "u'!c
os )#entral s!de*. The th!rd eet!ng o( the 'ones that (or the
(aous as acer!or un!ted dorsal and #entral s!de o( the #erte'rae
'elo+. Caudal!s e%tre!ty cons!sts o($
1. Ieur as the u""er l!'s
2. Crus as lo+er l!'s cons!st o( the t!'!a and (!'ula 'ones
5. Pes )(eet* cons!st!ng o( ossatarsal!a )+r!st 'ones*& ossa
etacar"al!a )(oot* and "halangus )segent rad!us*
8. There are 'er(ucula (!nger )cla+* and rando!9ed.
d. Co"ar!son o( #erte'rate an!als 'y g!rdles& (!ns and l!'s
a* Pa!red (!ns and g!rdles !n "!sces
1* Cladoselache!
Has the s!"lest (!n& second 'asal!a s!s!h not un!ted.
Page 1 51
2* Elaso'ranch!!
U 7 sha"ed "ectoral g!rdle o( 'ranch!al cart!lage !n the "ost
sect!on& not d!rectly related to the skeleton a%!ale& e%ce"t on
skates& +h!ch are un!ted 'y cart!lage su"rasca"ular!s the
coluna #erte'ral on each s!s!h. G!rdle cons!sts o( 1 layer o(
cart!lage sca"ulocoraco!d. ;entral "art !s coraco!d'ar& +here
"rocessus sca"ular!s +!dened to dorsal length on each s!s!h&
under sect!on gleno!d +here "ectoral 0 (!n -o!nted. Each cart
has a "rocessus sca"ular!s. sca"ular!s attached to !ts end. I!n
!tsel( cons!sts o( 5 cart. Basal!a$
a. /eta"teryg!u
'. /eso"teryg!u
c. Pro"teryg!u
Rad!al!a cart!lage e%tends segental d!stral o( 'asal!a.
a. Pa!red g!rdles and l!'s o( tetra"ods
A""end!cular skeleton !n all tetra"ods sho+ed the sae
'as!c structure. Ha#e the shoulder )"ectoral g!rdle*& +here
e'ers (ace attached to the th!gh )"el#!c g!rdle* rear
su""ort e'er. Pectoral g!rdle (or!ng relat!onsh!"s +!th
coluna #erte'ral e%ce"t uscle and l!gaent. Pel#!c
g!rdle !s attached d!rectly to the>
1* Pectoral g!rdles and l!'s
Cons!sts o( cla#!cle F os e'raneus& coraco!d&
sca"ula& "recoraco!d. In#entory +!th e'ers (ace !n
the cur#e o( the gleno!d (ossa& +here art!culat!on +!th
the huerus& rad!us ulna& car"als& etacar"als&
"halanges +!th @ d!g!t!.
2* Pel#!c g!rdle and l!'s
Cons!st!ng o( !sch!d!u& !!u& "u'!s. Both are usually
on the os "u'!s sy"hys!s sy"h!s!s. Esch!n also o(ten
Page 1 52
un!ted to (or sy"h!s!s Isch!a. Aceta'ulu !s a
e'er o( the -o!nt +!th the 'ack o( the (eur& t!'!a
(!'ula& tarsals& etatarsals& "halanges.
'. G!rdles and l!'s o( a"h!'!ans
Pectoral g!rdle on "r!!t!#e a"h!'!an has !ntercla#!cula.
In the odern A"h!'!a ha#e cla#!cle. Caec!l!ans ha#e no
l!'s and g!rdle l!'s. /e'ers and 'racelets caudate
sall and +eak. Pectoral g!rdle at the 'eh!nd structure
s!"le and (!%ed cart!lage e%ce"t !n the gleno!d (ossa.
Un!ted +!th the sca"ula coraco!d& cart!lage "recoraco!d
"ro-ect!ons& anter!os o( each coraco!d. Cal#!cula no. Each
sca"ula assoc!ated +!th cart!lage !n dosrsal su"ra +!de
sca"ular!s. Caudata "u'o!sch!a !rregular un!ted on the
ed!an sy"hysus& !l!ac "rocess on each s!de o( the
trans#erse "rocesses # un!ted. sacral!s. At caudata e'ers
(ace to the huerus& rad!us and ulna& os car"al!a reduce the
nu'er 1 un!on 8 d!g!t! Polle%. On the h!nd l!'s (eur&
t!'!a& (!'ula rea!n se"arate& d!g!t! reduct!on. Pectoral
g!rdle on sal!ent!a sho+ed soe od!(!cat!ons. At large
(rogs are coraco!d& "rocoraco!d cla#!cle& sca"ula and
su"rasca"ula& the Rana cla#!cle un!ted or cart co#er.
"recoraco!d& +here the great (rog coraco!ds "recoraco!d
and un!ted !n the !ddle. Pel#!c g!rdle on .al!ent!an
cons!sts o( long !l!u !sch!u and "u'!s sall. .c!ence
!nherent !n the anter!or to the "rocessus trans#ersus. #.
sacral!s.
c. G!rdles and l!'s o( re"t!les
G!rdles and l!'s !n re"t!les thr!#e e%ce"t on O"h!d!a and
lacert!a legless. O"h!d!a not ha#e "ectoral g!rdles or
(orel!'& 'ut the "el#!s and h!ndl!' shr!nk!ng !n soe
Page 1 55
(a!l!a. Pectoral g!rdle cons!sts o( A os re"t!les cart !s
coraco!ds& "recoraco!d& sca"ula& os e'raneus& cla#!cle&
and !ntercal#!cula. ,h!le "el#!c g!rdle cons!sts o( 5
eleents o( 'one& +h!ch un!ted +!th the !l!u 2
costaesacral!s& sy"hys!s "u'!s and !sch!al (or!ng the
ed!an& and the os "u'!s reduct!on Crocod!l!a.
d. G!rdles and l!'s o( a#es
Coraco!ds "ectoral g!rdle cons!sts o( +!de& th!n& narro+
sca"ula& cla#!cle round. Both ed!al cla#!cle un!ted to (or
the (urcula F +!sh'one Paleognathae relat!#ely sall g!rdle&
cla#!cle sall or non0e%!stent. ,h!le the on Archaeo"tery%
there are 5 "el#!c 'ones together to (or a #ery large
!nno!nate os.
e. G!rdles and l!'s o( aals
At onotreata os cart!lag!nous "ectoral g!rdle cons!sts o(
the sca"ula& coraco!d& and "aracoraco!d )e"!coraco!d*. In
ost aals coraco!ds coraco!ds reduc!ng the to
"rocess the sca"ula near the gleno!d (ossa. Pel#!c g!rdle
'ones cons!sts o( 5 eleents& the adults coe together to
(or !nno!nate os. /onotreata and /arsu"!al on a "a!r
o( cart!lag!nous os that e%tends to the (ront o( the "u'!s
#entral a'do!nal +all& and they are e"!"u'!s os F
arsu"!als. Pel#!c s"ec!al o( a""endas!s on the lo+er leg&
(!'ul reduce and o(ten un!ted +!th the t!'!a. Pro-ect!on o(
the t!'!a to (or the calcaneu. D!g!t! reduce the h!nd
l!'s.
Page 1 58

There !s a 5 (oot "osture
1* Plant!grade on Homo sapiens )huan*& 'ear& "anda&
!nsect!#ore.
Page 1 5@
Picture 18
2* D!g!trade on Iel!s& Can!s )t!ger& dog*.
5* Ungul!grade !n EEuus& Bos& Cer#us )horse& '!son& deer*
CHAPTER III
C6O.ING
5.1 Conclus!on
The skeleton !s the 'ody "art that (ors the su""ort!ng structure o( an
organ!s. There are t+o d!((erent skeletal ty"es$ the e%oskeleton& +h!ch !s the
sta'le outer shell o( an organ!s& and the endoskeleton& +h!ch (ors the su""ort
structure !ns!de the 'ody.
Endoskeleton o( #erte'rates )"!sces& a"h!'!an& re"t!le& a#es& aals*
are generally co"osed o( a%!al skeleton and a""end!culare skeleton. The a%!al
skeleton cons!sts o( the 'ones along the central a%!s o( an organ!s. In huans&
generally !t cons!sts o( <= 'ones and !s co"osed o( s!% "arts> the skull 'ones& the
oss!cles o( the !ddle ear& the hyo!d 'one o( the throat& the r!' cage& sternu and
the #erte'ral colun. But !n #erte'rate& a%!al skeleton !ncludes the coluna s"!nal
)#erte'ral colun*& cran!u& costae or r!'s& and sternu& +h!le the skeleton
a""end!culare !nclude e%tre!ty and c!ngulu anter!or and "oster!or skeleton.
The a%!al skeleton along +!th the a""end!cular skeleton together (or the
co"lete skeleton.
Page 1 5A
Bas!cally& each endoskeleton o( (!#e classes o( #erte'rates ha#e 'een
changes a""ro"r!ate +!th gene and !ts ada"tat!on !n en#!ronent. Th!s case
sho+!ng there !s an e#olut!on !n skeletal syste o( #erte'rate agree +!th the (act
+h!ch clar!(y that "henoty"e !s a resultant 'et+een genoty"e and en#!ronent.
5.2 Ad#!ce
.oe ad#!ces that can 'e su'!tted 'ased on th!s "a"er are as (ollo+s$
a. Ior student& th!s "a"er !s e%"ected to 'e a'le to study the skeleton syste
!n the #erte'rate& and the co"ar!son o( skeleton syste !n the #erte'rate
start (ro the "!sces& a"h!'!an& re"t!l!an& a#es& and aals.
'. Ior "u'l!c& th!s "a"er !s e%"ected to 'e a'le to g!#e ore attent!on a'out
the health o( skeleton syste !n the!r l!(e& so that not eas!ly attack the
skeleton d!seases.
c. Ior go#ernent& th!s "a"er !s e%"ected to 'e a'le to !ncrease the health
soc!ety through the "re"ared health (ac!l!t!es.
Page 1 5C