Nettl-Theory and Method Ethnomusicology

Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1
Bruno Nettl
Theory and method in ethnomusicology
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PREFACE
The #ield o# ethnomusicology has undergone tremendous gro4th and e:,ansion since
(orld (ar II& Many merican institutions o# higher learning ha"e %egun to o##er courses in
this disci,line and its "arious as,ects and su%di"isions& Many ,u%lications de"oted entirely to
ethnomusicology ha"e a,,eared; most o# these are de"oted to the music o# non-(estern and
#ol3 cultures' indi"idually or in grou,s' 4hich is the %asic su%<ect matter o# ethnomusicology'
%ut there ha"e %een #e4 attem,ts &to %ring together the methods 4hich ethnomusicologists
use and the theories on 4hich their 4or3 has %een %ased& There is a need' I %elie"e' #or the
s,ecialist in #rican music' in 1innish #ol3 song' and in ,re-Colom%ian instruments to ha"e
some common %ac3grolmd o# method and o# theoretical orientation& The ,ur,ose o# the
,resent attem,t is to sho4 4hat ethnomusicologists try to do and 4hat they are actually
doing' and to ,ro"ide some theoretical %ac3ground #or the %eginning ethnomusicologist'
4hate"er area o# the 4orld is to %e his s,ecialty& =s a result there is little in#ormation'
e:ce,t %y 4ay o# illustration' a%out the music o# non-(estern and #ol3 cultures ,er se in this
%oo3' or a%out the cultural conte:t o# this music>&
Se"eral uses are en"isioned #or the "olume at hand& It could ser"e as a %asic te:t #or a
general course in ethnomusicology and its "arious as,ects at the senior college and graduate
le"el' and as a su,,lementary te:t #or courses de"oted to #ol3 music' to the music o#
,articular cultures or areas' to #ol3lore' and to general musicology& It could %e o# use to
ma<ors8 in music' anthro,ology' sociology' #ol3lore' and linguistics' and' also to students 4ith
a minor interest in one o# these #ields& lso' it is designed to ser"e as a hand%oo3 #or the
scholar in a related disci,line such as anthro,ology'
"ii
#ol3lore' sociology' linguistics' ,sychology' and' o# course' general musicology 4ho desires
some ac?uaintance 4ith the ,ur,oses' acti"ities' methods' and theories o# ethnomusicology
4ithout 4ishing to study the details o# the musical cultures themsel"es& 1ol3 singers and #ol3
song enthusiasts as 4ell as academic laymen 4ith an interest in recent de"elo,ments in the
humanities 4ill also #ind the su%<ect rele"ant&
I ha"e a,,roached the tas3 o# ,resenting a com,endium o# theory and method as a
historian 4ho descri%es the 4or3s o# ,ast =sometimes "ery recent ,ast> scholarshi, and as a
teacher 4ho 4ishes in a ,ractical sense to hel, a student to learn a%out some o# the acti"ities
in"ol"ed in ethnomusicological study& The order o# the %oo3 #ollo4s' "ery roughly' the order
o# e"ents in ethnomusicological research& Sometimes' o# course' it has not %een ,ossi%le to
esta%lish such a se?uence; and surely it is unnecessary to ,oint out that all research ,ro<ects
cannot #ollo4 the same outline and ,rocedure& Ne"ertheless' a#ter an introductory cha,ter on
the nature and aims o# the #ield' it seems logical #irst to ac?uaint the student 4ith the
%i%liogra,hic resources o# ethnomusicology and 4ith its most im,ortant scholars and
,u%lications&
This is #ollo4ed %y Cha,ter @' de"oted to #ield 4or3' in 4hich a num%er o# techni?ues
and ,rocedures are gi"en in detail& Ha"ing collected and a%sor%ed material in the #ield' the
ethnomusicologist is #aced 4ith the ,ro%lem o# transcri%ing = Cha,ter 0> and 4ith analyAing
and descri%ing #irst the style o# indi"idual com,ositions = Cha,ter B> and then o# grou,s or
entire re,ertories o# music = Cha,ter /> &The study o# musical instruments' 4hich is also
discussed in Cha,ters @ to /' is gi"en some s,ecial attention in Cha,ter 9' 4hile the role
4hich music ,lays in human culture -touched u,on' o# course' in the cha,ter on #ield 4or3 -
is our #inal su%<ect& It may seem that a concern 4ith this large to,ic should come earlier in
the 4or3 o# the scholar' %ut a %road "ie4 o# music as an as,ect o# %eha"ior seems to me
most a,,ro,riate a#ter discussion o# the more technical and s,ecialiAed details o# #ield 4or3'
transcri,tion' and analysis& Thus Cha,ter 5 is concerned 4ith some historical and geogra,hic
a,,roaches to the
"iii
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology @
study o# music in culture at large' 4hile Cha,ter . touches u,on the role o# music in the
indi"idual culture and in the li#e o# the indi"idual ,erson' and u,on the #unction o# music in
relation to some other #orms o# communication& In each cha,ter I ha"e attem,ted to gi"e
some o# the theories under 4hich ethnomusicologists ha"e o,erated' to sur"ey the most
im,ortant accom,lishments rele"ant to the to,ic' and' 4here #easi%le' to ,ro,ose some
techni?ues and ,rocedures 4hich the student or no"ice may use&
Suggested readings are listed in the cha,ter %i%liogra,hies and mar3ed 4ith asteris3s&
The ,,endi: lists some suggested ,ro<ects to hel, the student or the layman in ac?uainting
himsel# 4ith some o# these techni?ues in his home or school en"ironment& These are' o#
course' not really ethnomusicological ,ro<ects' %ut rather e:ercises ,reliminary to 4or3 in the
disci,line itsel#&
It has %een necessary to discuss-sometimes critically-the 4or3s o# many scholars' and it
has also %een necessary to omit mention o# many 4or3s 4hich might ha"e %een included& I
4ill not attem,t to <usti#y inclusions and omissions here' %ut %y 4ay o# a,ology I should li3e
to say that as I 4or3ed on this ,ro<ect I %ecame increasingly im,ressed %y the tremendous
"ariety o# a,,roaches and the large amount o# theoretical 4riting 4hich the #ield has
,roduced& true com,endium o# all theory and method in ethnomusicology 4ould re?uire a
multi"olume set& (e ha"e here attem,ted to ,ro"ide only an introduction&
Many colleagues' ethnomusicologists and others' ha"e' through their 3no4ledge and
4isdom im,arted in con"ersation and discussion' hel,ed in the 4riting o# this %oo3; I should
li3e to e:,ress my than3s to them& I am es,ecially inde%ted to !onald *& *ea"itt =*i%rary o#
Congress>' to Roy T& (ill =Boston +ni"ersity>' and to my colleagues at (ayne State
+ni"ersity' $ro#essors rnold Salo, and Richard & (aterman' #or reading ,arts o# the
manuscri,t and #or ma3ing ,ertinent comments and suggestions&
I am inde%ted also #or ,ermission to ?uote material 4hich a,,eared in a num%er o#
,u%lications& The *ist o# 1igures gi"es the sources o# the illustrations' and I am grate#ul to the
authors' editors' and ,u%lishers o# these sources #or allo4ing me to re,rint
i:
them& I am also grate#ul to the #ollo4ing #or ,ermission to ?uote materials in the %ody o# the
te:t8 to !r& Cose,h O& Bre4' !irector o# the $ea%ody Museum' Har"ard +ni"ersity' #or
,ermission to ?uote the ?uestionnaire #rom !a"id $& McllesterDs Enemy (ay Music =Cha,ter
@> ; to Ro:ane McCollester #or ,ermission to ?uote #rom her ETranscri,tion Techni?ue +sed %y
Fygmunt Estreicher'E in Ethnomusicology 081@6'1./6 =Cha,ter 0>; to the editors o# Musical
Guarterly #or ,ermission to ?uote #rom Charles SeegerDs E$rescri,ti"e and !escri,ti"e Music
(riting'E in MG 008 150' 1.B5 =Cha,ter 0>; to nthony Baines' editor o# the 2al,in Society
Cournal' #or ,ermission to ?uote #rom EClassi#ication o# Musical InstrumentsE %y Curt Sachs
and E& M& "on Hom%ostel' translated %y nthony Baines and K& $& (achsmann' 2al,in Society
Cournal 108 71' 1./1 =Cha,ter 9>& Cha,ter 5 contains large sections' re"ised' 4hich a,,eared
,re"iously in three ,a,ers o# mine ,u%lished in merican nthro,ologist =1.B5>'
South4estern Cournal o# nthro,ology =1./6> and cta Musicologica =1.B5>; I am grate#ul to
the editors o# these three ,u%lications #or ,ermission to re,rint ,ortions o# these articles&
1inally' I 4ish to e:,ress my than3s to my 4i#e #or hel,ing 4ith much o# the mechanical 4or3
in"ol"ed in 4riting this %oo3' and #or 3ee,ing her ,atience 4hile my ty,e4riter clic3ed on
ine:ora%ly through the ,eace#ul early morning hours&
B&N&
!etroit' Michigan
May' 1./@
:
CONTENTS
Preface "ii
List of Figures :ii
CH$TER 1&(hat is EthnomusicologyH 1
7& Bi%liogra,hic Resorces o# Ethnomusicology 79
@& 1ield (or3 /7
0& Transcri,tion .5
B& !escri,tion o# Musical Com,ositions 1@1
/& The Nature and !escri,tion o# Style8 Some Theories and Methods 1//
9& Instruments 760
5& Music in Culture-Historical and 2eogra,hical ,,roaches 770
.& Music in Culture-Conte:t and Communication 7/.
$$EN!II& Some $reliminary and $re,aratory E:ercises and $ro%lems 7.B
Index @66
:i
FIGURES
1 Su,,lementary sym%ols #re?uently used in transcri,tion& Guoted' 4ith additions'
#rom Bruno Nettl' n Introduction to 1ol3 Music in the +nited States' !etroit8
(ayne State +ni"ersity $ress' 1./6' ,,& 51-57& 169
7 =a> Kunst Monochord #or determining #re?uencies& 110
=%> Nomogramm #or con"erting #re?uencies to cents& 1rom 1ritA Hose' EEin
Hil#smittel Aur Bestimmung der Sc%rittgrosse %elie%iger Inter"alle'E
Musi3#orschung B =1.B7> ,&769& 11B
@ =a> Noot3a Song' transcri%ed %y 1rances !ensmore& 1rom !ensmore' Noot3a and
Guileute Music' (ashington8 Smith&61 sonian Institution =Bulletin 170 o# the
Bureau o# merican-Ethnology> ' 1.@.' ,& 775& 115
=%> Noot3a Song' transcri%ed %y Bruno Nettl& Transcri%ed #rom the *i%rary o#
Congress record' Songs o# the Noot3a and Guaeute' edited %y 1rances !ensmore'
1S * @7' side B' song 17&115
0 Hand gra,h %ased on transcri,tion in 1igure @%& 171
B utomatic transcri,tion gra,h according to the Nor4egian method& 1rom Karl
!ahl%ac3' Ne4 Methods in Jocal 1ol3 Music Research' Oslo +ni"ersity $ress'
1.B5' 1igure .B' ,& 19@& 170
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology B
/ ra,aho $eyote song& Collected %y B& Nettl' 1.B7& 1B/
9 EThe El#in Knight'E collected in Indiana& Transcri%ed %y Bruno Nettl #rom *i%rary
o# Congress record 190@ B 1& 1B9
5 Cheremis song& 1rom Bruno Nettl' Cheremis Musical Styles' Bloomington8 Indiana
+ni"ersity $ress' 1./6' ,& 76' 1igure .& 1B.
. $oly,honic song #rom the Caucasus& 1rom Ro%ert *ach' E2esiinge russischer
Kriegsge#angener'E Oesterreichische 3ademie der (issenscha#ten&
$hiloso,hische-Historische Klasse' SitAungs%erichte 76080' ,& 16.& 1/7
16 $oly,honic song #rom the Solomon Islands& 1rom Erich M& "on Hom%ostel' E!ie
Musi3 au# den nord4estlichen Salomo-lnselnE in Richard Thum4ald' 1orschungen
au# den Salomo-Inseln und dem Bismarc3-rchi,el' Berlin8 !& Reimer' 1.17& s
?uoted in Marius Schneider' E$rimiti"e music'E Ne4 O:#ord History o# Music' "ol& 1&
*ondon8 O:#ord +ni"ersity $ress' 1.B9' ,& 9/' e:am,le 1@B& 1/7
11 Com,arison o# !ahomean and North merican Indian tem,o using Kolins3iDs
method& 1rom M& Kolins3i' EThe e"aluation o# tem,o'E Ethnomusicology @ =1.B.>'
,& 0.& 15.
17 !istri%ution o# the EriseE in North merican Indian music& 1rom Bruno Nettl'
EMusical cartogra,hy and the distri%ution o# music& South4estern Cournal o#
nthro,ology 1/ =1./6>' ,& @0@& 705
1@ !iagram o# distri%ution o# traits in musical areas& 1rom Bruno Nettl' ENotes on
musical areas'E cta Musicologica @6 =1.B5>' ,& 19@& 7B9
10 Sha4nee Indian song& Collected and transcri%ed %y Bruno Nettl& 750
EThe 2y,sy *addie'E collected in Indiana& *i%rary o# Congress rchi"e o# 1ol3 Song
record 19B6 B 1' transcri%ed %y Bruno Nettl& 75B
1B CAech #ol3 song' E ch syn3u' syn3u&E 75/
1/ ra,aho song& Collected %y Fdene3 SalAmann in 1.B6' transcri%ed %y Bruno Nettl& 759
19 CAech #ol3 song' ECeme oci <dete s,at&E 75.
15 I%o 4ar song& Collected and transcri%ed %y Bruno Nettl& 7.6
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology /
Chater !
"hat is Ethnomusicology#
!e#ining ethnomusiccology is not an easy tas3' #or there is a di##erence %et4een 4hat
those 4ho call themsel"es ethnomusicologists ha"e done and are doing' and 4hat they thin3
they should %e doing& 1or ,ractical ,ur,oses' it is sim,lest to say that ethnomusicologists in
the ,ast ha"e %een students o# the music outside (estern ci"iliAation and' to a smaller
e:tent' o# Euro,ean #ol3 music& s such they ha"e 4or3ed in an area ad<acent to musicology
at large and also to cultural anthro,ology& Musicology' de#ining itsel# as the #ield 4hich
in"ol"es the scholarly and o%<ecti"e study o# music o# all ty,es and #rom all a,,roaches' has
actually gi"en the lionDs share o# its attention to the music o# (estern ur%an' ci"iliAation' the
music o# the Euro,ean 4ritten tradition& nd 4hile con"entional musicologists ha"e
occasionally considered also the music o# other cultures' they ha"e more #re?uently
4ithdra4n #rom this large area and relegated it to the ethnomusicologist' 4hom they ha"e
sometimes considered as <ust another 3ind o# musicological s,ecialist' %ut at other times a
re,resentati"e o# a related %ut se,arate #ield #rom theirs& nthro,ologists' es,ecially those
4ho concentrate on the study o# culture' ha"e claimed all o# the 4orldDs cultures as their <ust
domain; %ut in #act they ha"e s,ent %y #ar most o# their time and the s,ace in their
,u%lications on the cultures outside (estern ci"iliAation& Thus ethnomusicologists' 4hate"er
their de#inition o# themsel"es ha,,ens to %e =and some o# these de#initions
$$!
are discussed %elo4>' ha"e 4or3ed' on the one hand' as the s,ecial 3ind o# musicologist 4ho
in"estigates e:otic music and' on the other hand' as the s,ecial 3ind o# anthro,ologist 4ho
in"estigates music rather than other as,ects o# human culture' again outside (estern
ci"iliAation&
Ethnomusicologists ha"e contri%uted to these ,arent disci,lines' and their 4or3 has
%een %ased largely on the methods de"elo,ed in musicology and cultural anthro,ology& In
s,ite o# the relati"ely late recognition o# the im,ortance o# ethnomusicological data %y music
historians' the role 4hich ethnomusicology has ,layed in musicology at large is considera%le&
Needless to say' the ,rimary contri%ution in"ol"es the musicologistDs desire to understand all
music' i&e&' all human music and e"en =i# there is such a thing> musical ,henomena in the
animal 4orld ,arenthetically' it is ,erha,s signi#icant to #ind that the latter' although no 4ay
a,art o# anthro,ology = 4hich is %y de#inition the study o# man> has tacitly %een included in
the ethnomusicologistDs s,here o# interest' as i#' ,erha,s' e:otic cultures and non-human
%eha"ior shared common elements& The only really common element here is' o# course' the
strangeness in relation to (estern ci"iliAation& s early as the late nineteenth century'
musicologists recogniAed the need #or ha"ing data on the music o# other cultures a"aila%le i#
they 4ere to understand music as a uni"ersal ,henomenon& $sychologists o# music-and some
o# the early students o# ethnic music 4ere mem%ers o# this grou, ha"e also #elt the need #or
using material #rom other cultures to corro%orate their #indings&
But musicologists in the t4entieth century ha"e increasingly %ecome s,ecialists in
(estern music& Nineteenth-century musicologists 4ere ,ro%a%ly more interested in music as
a uni"ersal ,henomenon than their t4entieth-century ,u,ils' 4ho ha"e #ound it use#ul and
necessary to concentrate on "ery s,eci#ic as,ects o# the (estern musical tradition&
Ethnomusicology 4ould a,,ear to ha"e less o# a contri%ution to ma3e to such s,ecialiAed
research' %ut it ,lays a role ne"ertheless& The relationshi, o# (estern music to that o# its
non-Euro,ean neigh%ors
$$%
to the music o# the Near East' to the tradition o# He%re4 music' to the music o# India' etc&-
and e"en more' the ties o# (estern culti"ated or ur%an music to its un4ritten counter,art'
#ol3 music' are at "arious ,eriods in history ?uite intimate& The art music o# Euro,e has
al4ays interchanged material 4ith the #ol3 tradition o# its geogra,hic en"ironment' and
in#luences on Euro,e #rom other continents ha"e ,erha,s %een stronger than is generally
recogniAed& 1or the e"aluation o# these in#luences' #or descri,tion o# the musical styles and
,ractices in 4hich they originated' the methods o# ethnomusicology are a necessary tool&
To cite a 4idely used e:am,le' the study o# the origins o# Euro,ean ,oly,hony' 4hich in
the #ine art tradition is assumed to date #rom the Middle ges' in"ol"es non-(estern musics
4hich ha"e ,oly,honic styles analogous or similar to those o# medie"al Euro,e& It in"ol"es
also a 3no4ledge o# the musical styles 4hich may ha"e in#luenced (estern Euro,e in the
Middle ges' and o# the #ol3 music =as it e:ists today' and as it may ha"e e:isted then> 4hich
can %e ,resumed to ha"e %een a"aila%le #or the e:change o# musical ideas and materials& The
e:am,les 4hich could %e used to indicate the ,otential and ,ast ser"ices o# ethnomusicology
to a study o# the history o# (estern culti"ated music are numerous; medie"al ,oly,hony is
one o# the outstanding ones& The data on non-(estern and on #ol3 styles must al4ays %e
a"aila%le #or an intelligent inter,retation o# (estern music history &
similar case can %e made #or the need o# musical in#ormation in anthro,ology& Music
is one o# the #e4 uni"ersal cultural ,henomena' #or no ,eo,le is 3no4n 4hich does not ha"e
some 3ind o# music& In s,ite o# the great "ariety o# musical styles the 4orld o"er' there is
enough homogeneity in musical %eha"ior to ma3e identi#ication o# music as such ,ossi%le and
sim,le& Thus' it is necessary #or an anthro,ologist' i# he is to %e #ully in#ormed a%out a
,articular culture' to 3no4 also something a%out the musical %eha"ior o# the ,eo,le& This is
es,ecially to %e em,hasiAed #or those cultures-and there are many o# them - in 4hich
$$&
music ,lays a role o# great im,ortance in cosmology' ,hiloso,hy' and ceremonial li#e&
Music is sometimes used as corro%orati"e e"idence #or ,articular theories in
anthro,ology&The #indings o# E& M& "on Horn%ostel regarding the tuning o# ,an,i,es in BraAil-
he thought the tuning to %e identical 4ith that used in ,arts o# Oceania' ,resuma%ly
indicating ,rehistoric cultural contact %et4een these areas-are a case in ,oint& =This
inter,retation o# Horn%ostelDs has' it should %e noted' turned out to %e contro"ersial; %ut it is
still a classic e:am,le o# musical data in the ser"ice o# ethnology>&
Studies in acculturation' that is' the result o# intimate contact %et4een neigh%oring
cultures' ha"e %een ,ursued through music =see (achsmann 1./1
1
; Merriam 1.BB; and
Cha,ter 5 o# this %oo3>& Statistical measurement in cultural anthro,ology has %een made 4ith
the use o# musical ,henomena' 4hich lend themsel"es more easily to ?uanti#ication than do
some other as,ects o# culture' such as religion' social organiAation' etc& =See Merriam 1.B/>
nd #inally-,erha,s this is another reason #or the close association o# music 4ith statistics in
cultural anthro,ology-there is the ,ossi%ility o# distinguishing %et4een musical content and
musical style' i&e&' %et4een s,eci#ic com,ositions and the characteristics 4hich they share
4ith other ,ieces in their re,ertory =see Cha,ter />& Ethnomusicological theory and research
ha"e %een ,ro#oundly a##ected %y this #act& It is ,ossi%le #or indi"idual com,ositions' e&g&'
songs' to mo"e #rom one culture to another and to change in the ,rocess' and it is also
1 Bi%liogra,hic re#erences are gi"en in the #oml o# internal citations 4hich re#er to the cha,ter %i%logra,hies&
,u%lication is cited %y gi"ing in ,arentheses the authorDs last name' the date o# his ,u%lication' and' 4here
a,,lica%le' the ,age num%er=s> ,receded %y a colon& 1or e:am,le' =Sachs 1./78B/> re#ers to the ,u%lication listed
under SachsD name' dated 1./7' in the cha,ter %i%liogra,hy' and to ,& B/ o# that ,u%lication& In order to reduce
re,etition o# names' I ha"e used ,hrases such as ESachs =1./78B/> says& &&E to con"ey the same in#omlation& The
cha,ter %i%liogra,hies also indicate suggested su,,lementary reading; the suggested items are mar3ed 4ith
asteris3s& (here rele"ant' the ,ages 4ithin a ,u%lication 4hich contain the suggested readings are es,ecially cited&
$$'
,ossi%le #or stylistic #eatures K ty,es o# #orm' scale' rhythm K to mo"e #rom one culture to
another and %e su,erim,osed on songs already in e:istence& This 3ind o# distinction' 4hich
can %e made more easily in music and the other arts than else4here in culture' ma3es
musical data o# s,ecial use in the inter,retation o# cultural ,henomena %y the anthro,ologist&
Thus 4e see that ethnomusicology is most closely allied to historical musicology and to
cultural anthro,ology& nd 4hile the "arious ethnomusicologists di##er greatly in their
de#initions o# the #ield' and in their em,hases' ,ro%a%ly none 4ould deny the im,ortance o#
the t4o related areas in his 4or3& The role o# ethnomusicology in t4o other #ields' 4hich are
in a sense ,art o# anthro,ology K #ol3lore and linguistics K should also %e mentioned&
O%"iously' music in oral tradition =and this is the main ra4 material> is an im,ortant ,art o#
#ol3lore' 4hich in"ol"es those as,ects o# culture 4hich li"e in the oral tradition' and es,ecially
those 4hich in"ol"e artistic creati"ity& nd since music is a #orm o# communication related in
some 4ay to language' the #ield o# ethnomusicology' 4hich studies the 4orldDs music' can
contri%ute to and dra4 on the #ield o# linguistics' 4hich studies the 4orldDs languages&
Es,ecially in studying the relationshi, o# the 4ords and music o# songs are these t4o
disci,lines in close alliance&
The Scoe o( Ethnomusicology
1or ,ractical ,ur,oses' 4e may say that the ethnomusicologist deals mainly 4ith three
3inds o# music& Most characteristic o# the #ield and its history ,erha,s is the music o# the
nonliterate societies' those' that is' 4hich ha"e not de"elo,ed a system o# reading and
4riting o# their o4n languages' and 4hich' accordingly' ha"e a relati"ely sim,le 4ay o# li#e&
Sachs =1./7> o%<ects to this "ie4 K as do some other scholars K %ecause he %elie"es that
,resence or a%sence o# literacy does not constitute such a ma<or distinction %et4een culture
ty,es& The ,eo,les in the non-
$$)
literate category include the merican Indians' the #rican Negroes' the Oceanians' the
ustralian a%origines' and many tri%es throughout sia& These cultures are #re?uently called
E,rimiti"e'E %ut the term is not really a,,lica%le %ecause it im,lies that they are close to the
early stages in manDs history =4hich cannot %e ,ro"ed so #ar as culture is concerned> or
e:ceedingly sim,le =4hich is not al4ays correct' as some non-literate cultures ha"e a "ery
com,le: social organiAation' com,licated rituals' art' and indeed' musical styles and customs
in"ol"ing music>& Moreo"er' mem%ers o# nonliterate societies 4ho ha"e mastered a 4orld
language such as English =and these indi"iduals are increasing in num%er> understanda%ly do
not relish %eing re#erred to as E,rimiti"esE in their readings& Thus the term E,rimiti"eE has
%een gradually disa,,earing #rom the literature o# anthro,ology and ethnomusicology& The
term E,re-literateE has %een used' %ut it has the disad"antage o# im,lying an e"olutionary'
ine"ita%le se?uence leading to literacy& The term Etri%alE is also #ound' %ut it is di##icult to
a,,ly %ecause it im,lies a ,articular 3ind o# social and ,olitical structure 4hich most' %ut not
all' nonliterate cultures ha"e& I# a culture does not ha"e a tri%al organiAation' its music
,ro%a%ly should still %e included in the material under discussion' %ecause it is' a#ter all'
distinguished %y the lac3 o# a 4ritten tradition& It is di##icult to de#ine Etri%alE cultures& nd
thus the 4ord Enonliterate'E ,rosaic though it may seem com,ared 4ith the shorter and more
"i"id-sounding terms as Etri%alE and E,rimiti"e'E seems the most descri,ti"e one #or the
grou, o# ,eo,les 4ith 4hich ethnomusicology has %een most closely associated&
second category o# music al4ays included in the sco,e o# ethnomusicology is that o#
the sian and north #rican high cultures K China' Ca,an' Ca"a' Bali' south4est sia' India'
Iran' and the ra%ic K s,ea3ing countries& These are the cultures 4hich ha"e a culti"ated
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology .
music analogous in many 4ays to that o# (estern ci"iliAation' characteriAed %y considera%le
com,le:ity o# style' %y the de"elo,ment o# a ,ro#essional class o# musicians' and o# musical
theory and notation& These cultures ha"e #or
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centuries had 4ritings a%out music 4hich ha"e made ,ossi%le a historical a,,roach similar to
that o# the historian o# (estern music& ctually none o# these nations ma3es use o# a system
o# musical notation as com,le: and e:,licit as that o# the (est' and musical li#e' e"en in the
ur%an areas' is largely in the realm o# oral tradition 4here indi"iduals learn music %y hearing
it and %y %eing taught 4ithout the 4ritten notation& Thus it is o#ten di##icult to dra4 a shar,
line %et4een nonliterate musical cultures and oriental high cultures& Kunst calls the latter
EtraditionalE =Kunst' 1.B.81>' and the ethnomusicological literature' 4ithout committing itsel#
too dee,ly to a classi#ication' sim,ly re#ers to this "ast area o# cultures as Eoriental&E
third category K and this one is not acce,ted %y all ethnomusicologists K is #ol3 music'
4hich may %e de#ined as the music in oral tradition #ound in those areas 4hich are dominated
%y high cultures& Thus not only (estern ci"iliAation %ut also the sian nations such as Ca,an'
China' etc&' ha"e #ol3 music' %ut o# course that o# the (est has ,layed a much greater role in
research& 1ol3 music is generally distinguished #rom the music o# nonliterate societies %y
ha"ing near it a %ody o# culti"ated music 4ith 4hich it e:changes material and %y 4hich it is
,ro#oundly in#luenced& It is distinguished #rom the culti"ated or ur%an or #ine art music %y its
de,endence on oral tradition rather than on 4ritten notation' and' in general' %y its e:istence
outside institutions such as church' school' or go"ernment& nd it has %ecome acce,ted as
,art o# ethnomusicology %y many scholars %ecause its styles' though related to those o#
(estern art music' are yet su##iciently di##erent to allo4 it to %e classed among the strange'
e:otic mani#estations o# music 4hich #orm the core o# ethnomusicology&
Some Aroaches to Ethnomusicology
*i3e most young disci,lines' ethnomusicology has engaged in a good deal o# sel#-
criticism and sel#-ins,ection& Since 1.B6'
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a num%er o# articles ha"e %een 4ritten a%out the ,ro%lems o# de#ining the sco,e o#
ethnomusicology& (hile these gi"e the im,ression o# contro"ersy' the authors do not argue
so much a%out the outside limits o# the #ield as a%out em,hases 4ithin the #ield; 4ith #e4
e:ce,tions' they agree on the sco,e o# ethnomusicology& Most o# them are ,re,ared to
include all cultures o# the 4orld' including (estern ci"iliAation' %ut they recogniAe the greater
im,ortance to themsel"es o# non-(estern and #ol3 music& mong the e:ce,tions is Caa,
Kunst =1.B.81>' 4ho stresses the role o# oral tradition as a distinguishing #eature&
Curt Sachs' in the su%title o# his general 4or3 on ethnomusicology =Sachs 1.B.>'
s,eci#ies that Musi3 der 1remd3ulturen =music o# #oreign cultures> is the material to %e
studied in 4hat he still calls "ergleichende Musi34issenscha#t =com,arati"e musicology - the
earlier term #or ethnomusicology>& The 2erman Marius Schneider =1.B981> s,eci#ies non-
Euro,ean music' and em,hasiAes the im,ortance' in de#ining the #ield' o# com,arati"e 4or3&
Rhodes =1.B/> tends to su,,ort the same ,osition& Kolins3i =1.B981-7> ' ho4e"er' ,oints out
that it is not so much the geogra,hic area as the general a,,roach 4hich distinguishes our
#ield& He %elie"es that ethnomusicology has de"elo,ed a ,oint o# "ie4 4hich results #rom the
study o# many and di"erse cultures' %ut 4hich should %e a,,lied also to (estern art music&
The notion that the su%<ect matter should %e limited geogra,hically' *e&' include only the
non-(estern 4orld' has %een the o%<ect o# 4ides,read o%<ection and criticism& But in s,ite o#
the acce,tance %y many scholars o# the desira%ility o# including (estern art music' it is ta3en
#or granted that only in studying a culture #oreign to himsel# can a scholar master su##icient
o%<ecti"ity& By studying his o4n culture' he may %e conditioned to too many ,re<udices and
,ersonal associations to %e ,ro,erly o%<ecti"e K so many ethnomusicologists %elie"e&
Thus one may en"ision (estern music %eing in"estigated in ethnomusicological #ashion
%y #rican or sian scholars' 4hile (esterners could continue to s,ecialiAe in non-(estern
cultures&
2oing e"en #urther in this direction' Merriam =1./6> stresses
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the need #or uni"ersal use o# ethnomusicological methods& Indeed' Seeger =E(hither
EthnomusicologyHE' ,& 161> %elie"es that historians o# (estern art music ha"e usur,ed the
name EmusicologyE' 4hich should really %e reser"ed #or those no4 called ethnomusicologists;
the mentioned historians 4ould then %e considered s,ecialists 4ithin the %roader #ield' coe"al
4ith' say' historians o# Chinese music& (hile a case can %e made #or the <ustice o# this
,ro,osal' there is not much ,oint in urging its acce,tance on the scholars in"ol"ed& 1inally'
Chase =1.B589> de#ines ethnomusicology as the Emusical study o# contem,orary manE'
including (estern man; %ut he seems to omit #rom his de#inition the historical study o#
oriental culti"ated music 4hich is usually included' as 4ell as the use o# archeological
e"idence in nonliterate cultures&
In the matter o# em,hasis' most ethnomusicologists agree that the structure o# music
and its cultural conte:t are e?ually to %e studied' and that %oth must %e 3no4n in order #or
an in"estigation to %e really ade?uate& In the research done %e#ore 1.@6' analysis and
descri,tion o# the music itsel# out4eighed the other a,,roaches& Since 1.B6' on the other
hand' the merican ethnomusicologists coming #rom anthro,ology seem to ha"e #a"ored the
study o# musical culture o"er detailed 4or3 4ith the music itsel#& Merriam =1./6816.-16> lists
si: main areas to 4hich a student o# one musical culture should gi"e his attention' in addition
to the music itsel#8 1> instruments; 7> 4ords o# songs; @> nati"e ty,ology and classi#ication o#
music; 0> role and status o# musicians; B> #unction o# music in relation to other as,ects o# the
culture; and /> music as creati"e acti"ity& Merriam also stresses the im,ortance o# #ield 4or3'
that is' o# the need #or the ethnomusicologist' in order to 4or3 e##ecti"ely' to collect his ra4
material himsel#' and to o%ser"e it in its Eli"eE state& gain' ,ro%a%ly no one 4ould deny the
im,ortance o# #ield 4or3& Be#ore a%out 1.06' ho4e"er' it 4as ta3en #or granted that some
scholars 4ould not or could not go into the #ield' and that they 4ould do com,arati"e 4or3 in
the la%oratory& It 4as also assumed that those 4ho did #ield 4or3 4ould occasionally
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s,end time at home 4or3ing on music collected %y othersgeneral anthro,ologists ,erha,s-
4ho could ma3e recordings %ut could not analyAe the music& These Earmchair
ethnomusicologists'E according to Merriam =1./6811@>' are gradually decreasing in
im,ortance& No4' it may %e argued that the %asic #ield 4or3 can %e re,laced %y the collecting
and descri,ti"e study on the ,art o# nati"e scholars in underde"elo,ed countries' #or instance
that the merican #ield 4or3er in the Congo can %e re,laced %y the Congolese 4or3ing in his
o4n %ac34oods& lso' it may %e said that an ethnomusicologist de"oting himsel# entirely to
a#ield study o# one culture can hardly engage in com,arati"e 4or3& nd i# he is re,laced %y
the nati"e #ield 4or3er' 4hat 4ill his #unction %eH It may %e argued that' in addition to #ield
4or3' the armchair a,,roach' %road and com,arati"e' is a "ery essential contri%ution o#
ethnomusicology& ccording to Seeger =E(hither EthnomusicologyHE' ,& 160>' E4ho 4ill digest
the resultsH It is the Horn%ostels 4ho 4ill do so 4ith great and lo#ty o%<ecti"ity' and together
the t4o techni?ues =#ield and com,arati"e> 4ill gi"e us the music o# man3ind&E On the other
hand' #e4 4ould seriously o%<ect to MerriamDs statement that the ,rimary understanding o#
music de,ends on an understanding o# the ,eo,leDs culture =Merriam 1./6811@>&
Since 1.B@' a grou, o# merican ethnomusicologists has tried to achie"e the 3ind o#
understanding en"isioned %y Merriam %y immersing itsel# into #oreign cultures as acti"e
musicians& The %asic assum,tion o# this grou,' 4hose leader is Mantle Hood' e?uates the
musical style o# a culture to some e:tent 4ith a language' so that %y long contact 4ith a
gi"en musical culture' an ethnomusicologist can %ecome the e?ui"alent o# a nati"e musician&
Cust as it ta3es a great deal o# learning and ,ractice to learn a second language %eyond oneDs
nati"e tongue' and thus to %ecome %ilingual' it re?uires time and #re?uent contact 4ith
another musical culture to %ecome %i-musical =Hood 1./6>& Some ethnomusicologists ha"e
%ecome as ,ro#icient as Siamese' Indian' and Ca,anese musicians' ha"ing studied 4ith nati"e
masters& mem%er o# such a grou, %ecomes a s,ecialist on only one
$!$
or t4o #oreign musical cultures& This a,,roach has %een a great success' %ut it seems to
e:clude the ,ossi%ility o# the %road com,arati"e a,,roach' since a (esterner can no more
%ecome ,ro#icient in many musical cultures than he can learn to s,ea3 many languages
,er#ectly& The conce,t o# %i-musicality has also %een used %y ethnomusicologists in non-
(estern nations 4hose aim is not only the o%<ecti"e study o# their music %ut the sha,ing o# a
musical culture in 4hich (estern and nati"e elements are com%ined& This a,,roach could
,erha,s %e called Ea,,lied ethnomusicologyE' in a #ashion analogous to Ea,,lied
anthro,ology'E 4hose #unction is to hel, non-(estern grou,s through the ,rocess o#
acculturation 4ith (estern ci"iliAation& much more com,rehensi"e statement o# HoodDs
,osition 4as ,u%lished in 1./@ =Hood 1./@>& Here Hood also sur"eys the history o#
ethnomusicology in merica&
(e see' then' that the #ield o# ethnomusicology has a core o# su%<ect matter K the
music o# nonliterate cultures' the music o# ad"anced oriental societies' and the #ol3 music o#
(estern and oriental ci"iliAations K 4hich is generally acce,ted as its #ield o# com,etence'
and that disagreements e:ist only in de#ining the outer limits o# the #ield and in determining
em,hasis and a,,roach& (e can summariAe the consensus in stating that ethnomusicology is'
in #act as 4ell as theory' the #ield 4hich ,ursues 3no4ledge o# the 4orldDs music' 4ith
em,hasis on that music outside the researcherDs o4n culture' #rom a descri,ti"e and
com,arati"e "ie4,oint& 1ield 4or3 and la%oratory analysis' structure o# music and cultural
%ac3ground' %road com,arison and the narro4er s,ecialiAation associated 4ith de"elo,ing
%imusicality' synchronic and diachronic study K all are rele"ant and im,ortant& Needless to
say' in all a,,roaches' o%<ecti"ity' a"oidance o# "alue <udgments %ased on the in"estigatorDs
o4n cultural %ac3ground' and the acce,tance o# music as a,art o# culture are essential&
1inally' 4e may as3 again 4hether ethnomusicologists should concern themsel"es 4ith
the music o# the (estern high culture; and i# they did this' ho4 they 4ould %e distinguished
#rom the
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EordinaryE historians o# (estern music& My ,ersonal ans4er to the #irst ?uestion is a not-too-
em,hatic Eyes&E The second ?uestion 4ill %e ans4ered' in ,art' in this %oo3& In summary' this
ans4er is that historians o# (estern music ha"e concentrated on a #e4 as,ects o# musical
culture' and that they ha"e sometimes ta3en things #or granted 4hich should not ha"e %een
ta3en #or granted& n ethnomusicological a,,roach to (estern music 4ould ta3e into account
the role o# music in culture' the ,ro%lems o# ,er#ormance ,ractice' those o# descri,ti"e "ersus
,rescri,ti"e notation' the ,rocedures and methods o# descri%ing music =4hich ha"e %arely
%een touched in (estern music>& The di##iculties o# studying #oreign musical cultures ha"e
#orced the musicologists to de"elo, methods 4hich try to assure o%ecti"ty and criticism o#
e"idence& The historian o# (estern music' %eing a mem%er o# the culture 4hich he is
studying' has not al4ays had to %e so concerned 4ith o%<ecti"ity' and the a,,roach o# the
critic rather than the scholar is still #elt in many o# his ,u%lications& The ethnomusicologistDs
main ,otential contri%ution to the study o# (estern music is' then' the techni?ues 4hich he
has de"elo,ed in the study o# other musical cultures&
Trends in the .istory o( Ethnomusicology
de#initi"e history can hardly %e 4ritten #or a #ield' such as ethnomusicology 4hich is
so ne4 that the ma<ority o# its e:,onents are still li"ing and acti"e& Se"eral %rie# sur"eys o#
the history o# ethnomusicology ha"e a,,eared; those %y Sachs =1./78B-@7>' Kunst =1.B.>'
and Nettl =1.B/87/-00> may %e mentioned here& This history is actually the su%<ect o# our
%oo3 and a,,ears in its "arious as,ects in each cha,ter& Our tas3 here is to summariAe the
ideological trends in the history o# ethnomusicology ' something 4hich is not easy to do
%ecause so many o# the scholars are o# the ,resent rather than the ,ast8 their total
contri%utions as 4ell as their ,redominant ,oints o# "ie4 can
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hardly %e e"aluated since their "ie4s may change and their im,ortant contri%utions may %e
su,erseded %y still more signi#icant ones& Many trends can %e #elt in di##erent countries at
"arious times' and the emergence o# indi"idual scholars has occasionally 4rought sudden
changes in these trends %ecause the #ield is so s,arsely ,o,ulated& Ne"ertheless' certain
tendencies ha"e %een mani#ested' and the alternating in#luence o# "arious disci,lines has
caused an alternation o# em,hasis and interest 4hich is 4orth noting&
s a #ield concerned 4ith the music o# non-(estern cultures' ethnomusicology is an old
area o# interest; %ut as a #ield 4ith modern methods and e?ui,ment and 4ith a name' it is
relati"ely ne4& In some 4ays it goes %ac3 to the com,osers o# the later Middle ges and the
Renaissance 4ho used #ol3 music and e"en some sian material' 4hich 4ould ha"e %een
considered "ery e:otic' as elements in some o# their com,ositions& The Renaissance
humanists and the eighteenth-century rationalists 4ere surely the s,iritual ,redecessors o#
the modern interest in all as,ects o# manDs %eha"ior' and in the 4ays o# men outside oneDs
o4n culture& To the history o# ethnomusicology %elongs Cean Cac?ues Rousseau' 4hose
#amous encyclo,edia o# music' #irst ,u%lished in 19/9' contains sam,les o# #ol3' Chinese' and
merican Indian music& !escri,tions o# oriental music 4ere 4ritten %y missionaries in the late
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries& nd an interest in Euro,ean #ol3 music has %een
cons,icuous in the 4orld o# scholarshi, in early nineteenth-century Euro,e' ,articularly
England and 2ermany&
$erha,s 4e can consider the descri,tions o# Chinese music %y 1rench missionaries =du
Halde' miot> and the collecting o# 2erman #ol3 song %y ,hiloso,hers and ,hilologists =such
as Herder and the %rothers 2rimm> as ,art o# the same cultural tradition& !i##erent as 4ere
the %ac3grounds o# these t4o grou,s o# students' %oth 4ere e"idently moti"ated %y a regard
#or the "alue o# musical material #oreign to themsel"es& It is curious to #ind missionaries'
4hose aim 4as to ,resent (estern culture and religion to the Orient' doing also the o,,osite'
$!&
%ringing oriental music to the (est& But it 4as to %e e:,ected that the ,oets o# Romanticism
4ould ta3e an interest in the songs o# the rural ,o,ulation& The collections o# indi"iduals such
as Herder =see $uli3o4s3i 1.@@> and the theoretical treatises on #ol3lore %y 4hat !orson
=1.BB> calls the #irst grou, o# English #ol3lorists 4ere e"entually to ha"e considera%le im,act
on the de"elo,ment o# ethnomusicology& But there is actually not much connection %et4een'
on the one hand' the nineteenth-century collectors o# #ol3 song' the missionaries such as
miot' and the historians o# (estern music 4ho also del"ed into the Orient' such as
Kiese4etter' and on the other hand' the #ounders o# the disci,line o# ethnomusicology &
(hereas ethnomusicology is usually' %y im,lication' considered much younger than
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1@
historical musicology' the t4o areas' in the modern senses o# their names' originated in the
same decade& Musicology is usually considered to ha"e started in 155B 4ith the ,u%lication o#
the Jiertel<ahrschri#t #ur Musi34issenscha#t' 4hose #ounders 4ere $hili,, S,itta' 1riedrich
Chrysander' and 2uido dler& These scholars distinguished %et4een music history and the
,resuma%ly more scholarly and in some 4ays scienti#ic a,,roach o# musicology' 4hich 4as to
em%race not only (estern music history %ut also the "arious as,ects o# Esystematic
musicologyE K music theory' acoustics' ,sychology o# music' and the synchronic study o# the
music o# non-(estern cultures& The second "olume o# the Jiertel<ahrschri#t #ur
Musi34issenscha#t did indeed contain a milestone in ethnomusicology8 Carl Stum,#Ds study o#
Bella Coola Indian songs =Stum,# 1566> ' 4hich is considered %y some as the #irst really
ethnomusicological ,u%lication since it is a study o# the musical style o# a single tri%e 4ith
em,hasis on the structure o# scale and melody =see also Cha,ter 7>&
Caa, Kunst =1.B.87-@> does not consider Stum,# as the #irst %ona #ide
ethnomusicologist' %ut ,re#ers to ,lace & C& Ellis in this honored s,ot& EllisDs ma<or 4or3
= Ellis 155B> is close in time to Stum,#Ds and again sho4s the ,ro:imity in time o# origin
%et4een historical musicology and ethnomusicology&
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Kunst considers Ellis im,ortant %ecause o# his contri%utions to methodology - the so-
called cents system o# measuring inter"als 4as de"ised %y him K rather than %ecause o# his
in"estigation o# any indi"idual musical style or culture& (hiche"er o# these scholars is
considered the real #ounder o# our #ield' its %eginnings %elong ,ro,erly in the 1556Ds' the time
in 4hich historical musicology also %egan&
Ethnomusicology 4as not the outgro4th o# a single #ield; rather' re,resentati"es o#
se"eral disci,lines con"erged' roughly at the same time' %ut ,ro%a%ly not %y coincidence' on
the music o# the non-(estern cultures& Carl Stum,# can ,erha,s %e considered a
re,resentati"e o# the #ield o# ,sychology' 4hich 4as one o# the su%<ects on 4hich he
,u%lished 4idely' and %oth he and the outstanding Erich M& "on Horn%ostel 4ere em,loyed in
the E,sychological instituteE o# the +ni"ersity o# Berlin& & I& Ellis 4as a ,hilologist and
mathematician& (alter 1e43es 4as an anthro,ologist; 4hile 1ranA Boas' the anthro,ologist
4ho had such a great im,act on merican ethnomusicologists' %rought to his #ield the
methods o# his #irst areas o# study' geogra,hy and ,hysics& The historians o# (estern music
4ho 4ere ,rominent at the time o# the #irst ethnomusicological ,u%lications K dler' S,itta'
Chrysander K had an interest in and a res,ect #or this ne4 %ranch o# their disci,line' %ut their
o4n contri%utions to it and their in#luence on it 4ere relati"ely minor& In later times' and
e"en during the 1.06Ds and 1.B6Ds' ethnomusicologists seem to ha"e %een recruited less
#rom the ran3s o# music historians than #rom those o# #ol3lorists and anthro,ologists' and
4hen the #ield o# music did contri%ute a scholar to the #ield' it 4as ,erha,s more li3ely to %e
a ,racticing musician or com,oser than a historian&
The large num%er o# disci,lines 4hich ha"e contri%uted ,ersonnel has made
ethnomusicology a #ield 4ith little centraliAed methodology& (e cannot say that any single
tradition led to our methods& #ield 4hich has the %road goal o# understanding all o# the
4orldDs music in its cultural conte:t has o# necessity had to dra4 on the e:,erience o# many
#ields o# study&
$!)
The di"ersity o# our origins has %een more o# an asset than alia%ility' e"en though it has
at times o%structed clear communication& But in the early days o# ethnomusicology' the
im,ortance o# ,sychologically and mathematically oriented scholars had #ar-reaching
conse?uences& Characteristically' the recognition %y Ellis' that inter"als must %e measured
o%<ecti"ely' and his in"ention o# the cents system according to 4hich each hal#tone is di"ided
into 166 e?ual ,arts =the cents> ga"e im,etus to the o%<ecti"e descri,tion o# scales&
The im,ortance o# the in"ention o# sound recording to the de"elo,ment o#
ethnomusicology cannot %e o"erestimated& Right #rom the time o# the earliest recordings'
students o# non-(estem music %egan using this mar"elous method o# ,reser"ing the sound
o# a ,er#ormance o# music' as a 4ay o# collecting their ra4 material and as an aid to its
analysis& It is generally %elie"ed that the #irst recordings o# non-(estern music 4ere made %y
(alter 1e43es' 4ho made Edison cylinders o# Funi and $assama?uoddy Indian songs in 155.&
The ,honogra,hic recording o# ethnic music 4as ta3en u, %y other merican scholars' such
as 1rances !ensmore' and shortly a#ter 1e43esD %eginning' the 2erman ,ioneer Carl Stum,#
also ,u%lished a study o# Indian music =Stum,# 15.7> %ased on recorded material&
The need #or using recordings in the study o# non-(estem music 4as immediately
o%"ious to the student& He 4as' a#ter all' con#ronted %y a 3ind o# sound 4hich may ha"e
seemed chaotic' 4hich made no musical sense to his (estern-oriented ear' and he needed
re,eated hearings in order to ena%le him to reduce this mass o# strangeness to something
4hich his mind could ,ercei"e as a system& In the area o# #ol3 music' the need #or studies
%ased on recordings 4as not generally acce,ted ?uite as early& Here the student thought
himsel# to %e #aced %y a 3ind o# music 4ith 4hose style he 4as already #amiliar through his
ac?uaintance 4ith (estern culti"ated music' and %ecause #ol3 songs had already %een
4ritten do4n and ,u%lished in collections #or decades& It 4as not until the highly ,restigious
Bela Barto3 =4hose notations' %ased on recordings' di##er so
$!*
greatly #rom those ,resented in commercial #ol3 song collections> sho4ed that
ethnomusicological methods o# notating music ,roduced a ,age o# music 4hich loo3ed ?uite
di##erent #rom the ,ages o# older #ol3 song collections' and %egan to ,u%lish his scienti#ic
studies o# Hungarian and other Eastern Euro,ean #ol3 music' that Euro,ean #ol3 song %egan
routinely to ,arta3e o# the ,rocesses o# #ield recording and transcri,tion& #ter the ,ractice o#
recording %ecame esta%lished at the turn o# the nineteenth century ' many indi"iduals not
,rimarily or ,articularly interested in music %egan to ma3e recordings o# the music o#
cultures near 4hich they ha,,ened to %e& It %ecame e"ident that the ,rocesses o#
coloniAation and (esterniAation o# all ,eo,les 4as a%out to 4or3 changes in the musical
cultures o# the 4orld' and that many musical styles 4ould soon disa,,ear& This a,,lied also
to Euro,e and North merica' 4hose ra,id ur%aniAation and industrialiAation threatened to
cause the traditional #ol3 music styles to disa,,ear&
nthro,ologists and #ol3lorists there#ore too3 u, the cause o# music recording' and since
they re?uired no s,ecial 3no4ledge o# music in order to ma3e these recordings' great
num%ers o# cylinders' and later' o# dis3s' 4ere ,roduced and gi"en to the ethnomusicologists'
4ho 4or3ed at home in the la%oratory' #or transcri,tion and analysis& Indeed' the %ul3 o# the
material collected 4as too great #or the small s,rin3ling o# interested ethnomusicologists to
handle' so that the esta%lishment o# organiAed archi"es %ecame essential &
The idea o# ha"ing archi"es #or storing' ,rocessing' classi#ying' and cataloging
ethnomusicological recordings has %ecome %asic in the #ield and has led to the de"elo,ment
o# a s,ecial area o# 3no4ledge and s3ill 4ithin ethnomusicology& rchi"es are' in a sense'
e?ui"alent to li%raries in other disci,lines inso#ar as their im,ortance in research is
concerned&
The most #amous o# the Euro,ean archi"es is the $honogramm rchi" in Berlin' #ounded
in 1.66 %y Carl Stum,# and Otto %raham mainly #or storing cylinders %rought %y 2erman
ethnologists& It #unctioned #or se"eral decades as the model #or
$!+
archi"es esta%lished else4here' es,ecially in the +nited States' 4here a #ormer assistant in
the Berlin archi"e' 2eorge HerAog' 4as later to %uild at Colum%ia +ni"ersity a similar
collection 4hich mo"ed' in 1.05' to Indiana +ni"ersity& Since (orld (ar II' the leading role
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1B
among archi"es has %een ta3en o"er %y HerAogDs institution' called the rchi"es o# 1ol3 and
$rimiti"e Music =and 4hich in 1.B0 came under the direction o# 2eorge *ist>' and %y the
*i%rary o# CongressDs rchi"e o# 1ol3 Song& 1or histories o# the "arious Euro,ean archi"es' see
issues o# the 1ol3lore and 1ol3 Music rchi"ist' also the 4or3s o# Kunst =1.B.>' HerAog
=1.@/>' and Horn%ostel =1.@@>& The history o# archi"es is a #ascinating one to 4hich an entire
"olume should %e de"oted8 4e can mention only the most im,ortant indi"idual institutions&
Most o# the archi"es ha"e recordings as their ,rimary interest; %ac3ground in#ormation
o# all sorts =see Cha,ter @> is included' %ut notations are not usually ,art o# the collections'
although the Indiana +ni"ersity archi"e as 4ell as the Berlin $honogrammarchi" ha"e issued
lists o# ,u%lications %ased on their recorded holdings& Some o# the Euro,ean #ol3 song
archi"es' ho4e"er' ha"e consisted largely o# transcri,tions' and only lately ha"e %egun
adding recordings to their holdings&
$ossi%ly the most ,rominent o# these archi"es is the !eutsches Jol3sliedarchi" in
1rei%urg-im-Breisgau& Here are stored collected "ersions o# the 4ords and music o# 2erman
#ol3 songs in manuscri,t as 4ell as on recordings& The disad"antages o# manuscri,t
collections com,ared to recorded ones' i# not sel#-e"ident' are discussed in Cha,ter 0& But an
archi"e such as that in 1rei%urg has the ad"antage o# ma3ing ,ossi%le a much more thorough
inde:ing and cataloging o# its material than does a collection consisting only o# recordings&
The 1rei%urg archi"e has a num%er o# catalogues and inde:es' ma3ing it ,ossi%le to identi#y
songs according to ty,e' ,lace collected' #irst ,hrase o# the tunes' related tunes in Euro,ean
#ol3 music outside 2ermany' inclusion in ,rinted sources' etc& This ty,e o# cataloguing has
not had a great im,act on the archi"es 4hich concentrate
$!,
on non-(estern music' %ut it should %ecome' increasingly' an as,ect o# all
ethnomusicological archi"ing& In summary' 4e should stress that the de"elo,ment o# archi"es
has %een tremendously im,ortant& In the 1./6Ds' national archi"es in many nations' regional
ones in large countries such as the +nited States' and more modest institutional ones
around; and one o# the #uture tas3s o# ethnomusicology 4ill %e to centraliAe the in#ormation
regarding the holdings o# all o# these collections&
The 4or3 o# many ethnomusicologists has %een oriented to4ard the indi"idual ,iece o#
music' rather than-as some 4ould 4ish K to4ard the musical %eha"ior o# cultures& nd this
#act has as its %ac3ground the de"elo,ment o# archi"es and their em,hasis on identi#ying and
creating a,,roaches to the s,eci#ic 4or3 o# music& The #act that archi"es ha"e' to a degree'
neglected the cultural conte:t o# music is ,erha,s a #actor in the relati"e neglect' until "ery
recently' o# this im,ortant ,hase o# ethnomusicology &
Ethnomusicology in the United States
In the +nited States' ethnomusicology since 1.66 has occu,ied a ,osition o# relati"ely
greater ,rominence than it has in Euro,e& (e ha"e mentioned the early recording acti"ities
o# (alter 1e43es' 4ho 4as later to %ecome the director o# the Bureau o# merican Ethnology
in (ashington =an institution 4hich 4as' throughout this century' to s,onsor a great deal o#
research on Indian music including the tremendous recording acti"ity o# 1rances !ensmore>
merican students o# non-(estern culture soon %egan to realiAe that music is an as,ect o#
human %eha"ior 4orth including in any ,icture o# culture; %ut their Euro,ean counter,arts'
4ith #e4 e:ce,tions' ha"e sho4n less interest in music %eyond ma3ing #ield recordings K
4hich is in itsel#' o# course' a "alua%le contri%ution& In the +nited States' some o# the
anthro,ologists %ecame acti"e in the study
$!-
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1/
o# these recordings' in transcri,tion' analysis' and so #orth& nd anthro,ological institutions
4ere the ones 4hich su,,orted scholars 4or3ing in non- (estern music& This is ,ro%a%ly due
to the attitude o# 1ranA Boas' the 2erman immigrant 4ho is generally considered the leader
o# the distincti"ely merican a,,roach to anthro,ology 4hich em,hasiAes #ield 4or3' the
descri,tion o# 4hole cultures' and an interest in ,sychology& Boas himsel# made #ield
recordings on the north4est coast o# the +nited States and Canada' and did a certain amount
o# transcri%ing& nd he trained a num%er o# in"estigators 4ho 4ere to %ecome scholars o#
great ,rominence =among them 2eorge HerAog>' and 4ho 4ere to em,hasiAe the role o# the
arts in their 4or3& This tradition o# anthro,ological %ac3ground in merican ethnomusicology
=in contrast to the ,re"ailingly musicological %ac3ground in Euro,e> continued into the
1.B6Ds&
O# course the statement o# this tradition should not %e ta3en too literally' #or it indicates
only a tendency; e:ce,tions a%ound' and many indi"idual scholars cannot %e classi#ied as
%eing on either side o# this not-too-distinct #ence& In his relationshi, to other scholars' the
ethnomusicologist =according to Sachs 1./781B> Esits on the #ence %et4een musicology and
ethnology&E
But this is in a 4ay only due to the coincidences 4hich caused the #ield to %e ,o,ulated
%y indi"iduals 4ho %egan in one o# the t4o main disci,lines and then #ound the other
attracti"e and necessary&
The merican ethnomusicologists 4ho a,,roached their #ield as anthro,ologists did'
indeed' #re?uently get into anthro,ology #rom the #ield o# music& Some 4ere ,racticing
musicians =es,ecially <aAA musicians> 4ho 4ished to del"e into the #ol3 and non-(estem
roots o# their art& Others 4ere students o# (estern music history 4ho disco"ered the music o#
other cultures more or less %y academic coincidences such as %eing re?uired to ta3e a
cognate course in Ecom,arati"e musicology&E Some 4ere students o# anthro,ology 4ho'
hearing e:am,les o# #rican music' 4ere moti"ated %y the ,iano lessons ta3en in their youth
to e:,lore the e:otic music #urther& Characteristically' it 4as
$%$
the musician 4ho in his student days 4as stimulated %y anthro,ology' %ut 4ho then returned
to a,,roach the #ield o# ethnomusicology as an anthro,ologist& It has %een rare #or a student
o# culture to %egin' as a graduate student' to sho4 an interest in music' and to start #rom
scratch to de"elo, the 3no4ledge o# music needed #or detailed ethnomusicological 4or3&
$erha,s the musical s3ill re?uired #or transcri,tion and analysis must %e ac?uired early in li#e'
or at least cannot %e gleaned #rom %oo3s %ut re?uires hours o# la%oratory training& t any
rate' until recently' the merican anthro,ologist 4ho did not ha"e a musical %ac3ground o#
sorts 4as sometimes discouraged #rom ma3ing studies o# music %eyond sim,ly collecting
recordings in the #ield& Thus' 4hile they ha"e recogniAed the im,ortance o# music in culture
and ha"e encouraged the ethnomusicologists in their ran3s' merican anthro,ologists ha"e
not %een "ery acti"e in descri%ing musical %eha"ior themsel"es& But again' e:ce,tions must
%e noted' and this is only a tendency& Since the 1.06Ds' there ha"e %een e##orts' es,ecially on
the ,art o# Mel"ille I& Hers3o"its' lan $& Merriam' Richard & (aterman' and others' to
encourage anthro,ologists 4ithout a music %ac3ground to study directly at least certain
as,ects o# musical %eha"ior 4hich do not in"ol"e the technical analysis o# music =see Merriam
1./6>&
Similar trends can %e noted in Euro,ean institutions in the 1.B6Ds& But in most cases'
Euro,ean scholars ha"e %een com,letely trained musicologists 4ho later mo"ed into
ethnomusicology and digested the anthro,ological in#ormation 4hich they needed 4hen they
4ere already mature scholars& Being historians o# music' they #re?uently turned to the art
music o# the sian nations' although they sho4ed an interest also in the nonliterate cultures&
+, to the 1.B6Ds' the merican ethnomusicologists 4ere mainly students o# 4hat they
themsel"es called E,rimiti"e and #ol3 music&E
Since the early 1.B6Ds three im,ortant trends in merican ethnomusicology ha"e
changed its image& $erha,s the most e"ident o# these is the conce,t o# %i-musicality as a 4ay
o#
$%!
scholarly ,resentation o# the music o# other cultures' and o# acti"e ,er#ormance and e"en
com,osition in the idiom o# another culture as a 4ay o# learning the essentials o# its musical
style and %eha"ior& This conce,t' #ostered ,rimarily %y Mantle Hood at the +ni"ersity o#
Cali#ornia at *os ngeles' has had a great im,act on the musicians in the +nited States and
has ta3en the #ield o# ethnomusicology to a degree out o# the hands o# anthro,ology
de,artments in the uni"ersities and ,laced it in the music de,artments' many 6L 4hich had
,re"iously %een ?uite neglect#ul o# it& Students o# this ne4 school o# thought go into the #ield
not so much as ethnological in"estigators %ut as ,u,ils' and their desire is among other
things to #ind com,etent nati"e teachers 4ho 4ould teach them' as they 4ould teach nati"e
,u,ils' the musical arts o# their countries& O# course this a,,roach is sim,lest in those
cultures 4hich ha"e a 4ay o# tal3ing a%out music' a system o# music theory' and a tradition
o# music instruction& Thus it has %een 1ollo4ed most #re?uently in the sian high cultures&
$u,ils 6L Mantle Hood ha"e %egun teaching ethnomusicology at a num%er o# merican
colleges' the result %eing that oriental music has %egun to ,lay a much greater role in
ethnomusicology as it is ,racticed in this country& The more traditional' anthro,ological
a,,roach continues side-%y-side 4ith this ne4 one' %ut e"en anthro,ologists' such as !a"id
$& Mcllester' ha"e %een ,ro#oundly in#luenced %y the idea that acti"e ,er#ormance' as 4ell
as ,assi"e o%ser"ation' is o# great use in studying a musical culture outside oneDs o4n
%ac3ground& (e should add that 4hile the ,er#ormance or %imusicality a,,roach is o%"iously
a great hel,' a student 4ho has sim,ly %ecome acce,ted as a nati"e Indian or Ca,anese
musician has not yet' %y "irtue o# this #act' %ecome an ethnomusicologist' #or at that ,oint he
has not yet made a contri%ution to our 3no4ledge o# 4orld music8 he has sim,ly hel,ed to
,re,are himsel# #or ma3ing such a contri%ution in the #uture&
second trend o# the 1.B6Ds 4as the increasing concern o# the ethnomusicologist 4ith
the contem,orary music o# other cultures& The tendency to loo3 #or E,ureE or EauthenticE
$%%
material 4hich had ne"er undergone any in#luence #rom (estern music has gradually gi"en
4ay to an attitude according to 4hich musical material a"aila%le in a culture is the o%<ect to
%e studied' and its ,resumed age or the degree to 4hich it has %een in#luenced %y other
musical cultures' 4hile interesting' is not a criterion #or inclusion in ethnomusicological study&
n interest in the ,rocesses 4here%y the musical in#luence o# the (est is %eing %rought to
%ear on non-(estern musics' and' ultimately' in the ethnomusicological study o# (estern
high culture' is %ecoming increasingly e"ident& Here ethnomusicology has #ollo4ed the trend
in merican anthro,ology ' according to 4hose "ie4s the anthro,ological methods must %e
used to study not only the cultures outside the in"estigatorDs %ac3ground' %ut also his o4n
culture& Since (orld (ar II' anthro,ologists in the +nited States ha"e de"oted increasing
energy to studies o# the merican culture =see #or e:am,le a s,ecial issue o# merican
nthro,ologist' "ol& B9' no&/' 1.BB> ' and in"estigators nati"e to other cultures ha"e 4or3ed
in their o4n %ac3grounds&
The emergence o# musical scholars in those countries inha%ited %y some o# the
nonliterate societies has made it ,ossi%le to acce,t the idea that the student o#
ethnomusicology can 4or3 in his o4n culture& Cust as anthro,ologists ha"e' in #ollo4ing this
3ind o# an interest' collided 4ith sociologists' historians' ,sychologists' etc&' the
ethnomusicologists may %e ste,,ing on the toes o# their %rother historians o# contem,orary
(estern music' o# ,sychologists o# music' etc& But many ethnomusicologists in the +nited
States #eel strongly that the methods and a,,roaches 4hich they learned in dealing 4ith
music outside their o4n culture can use#ully %e a,,lied to (estern art music' and that these
methods can sho4 things 4hich the methods o# musicologists at large cannot& (hether they
are right remains to %e seen; %ut es,ecially in the area o# com,arison and in studies
in"ol"ing music as a uni"ersal conce,t can their ,oint o# "ie4 %e use#ul& Cust as some o# the
early ethnomusicologists came to the study o# #oreign cultures %ecause o# their desire to #ind
out a%out manDs musical %eha"ior at large' 4hich could
$%&
not %e determined on the %asis o# their o4n culture alone' the modern ethnomusicologist'
4ho still 4ants to study manDs musical culture' #eels that he must include also the most
com,le: culture o# all along 4ith the non-(estern and #ol3 cultures traditionally ,art o# his
disci,line&
third trend is the in"estigation o# musical culture 4ithout the analysis and descri,tion
o# musical style' %ut through #ield 4or3 in 4hich the role o# music and o# the indi"idualDs
musical acti"ity is researched& The im,act o# anthro,ology on this attitude has %een
mentioned a%o"e& (e should indicate also another #actor' the sudden gro4th o# the recording
industry' 4hich has made a"aila%le "ast num%ers o# commercial records o# non-(estern and
#ol3 music' much o# it o# e:cellent research ?uality&
One result o# this sudden mushrooming o# a"aila%le sound has %een a #eeling o#
#rustration on the ,art o# the ethnomusicologist 4ho must s,end hours ma3ing a notation o#
one song' and a #eeling that it is ,ossi%le to analyAe a considera%le ,ortion o# musical
%eha"ior 4ithout the use o# notation& Thus the emergence o# mass recordings has tended to
discourage the 3ind o# detailed study o# indi"idual ,ieces 4hich 4as #ormerly characteristic'
and to rein#orce the tendency' already ,resent in anthro,ology' to descri%e musical %eha"ior
rather than musical style& It is to %e ho,ed that the "ery lauda%le stress on the cultural
conte:t o# music 4ill not cause a su%stantial decrease in the technical study o# the music
itsel#&
The three tendencies mentioned here as %eing im,ortant during the 1.B6Ds and early
1./6Ds are most e"ident in North merica& The Euro,ean ethnomusicologists ha"e continued'
largely' to 4or3 in solid traditions de"elo,ed in the 1.76Ds; and their contri%utions ha"e %een
great& n interest in the ty,ology o# music' in the relationshi, o# #ol3 to art music' and in the
geogra,hic distri%ution o# musical style ha"e %een among the noticea%le em,hases in
Euro,ean ethnomusicology since (orld (ar II& But since 1.BB' the amount o# contact and
the interde,endence o# Euro,ean and merican scholars so #ar as theory and method are
concerned ha"e steadily gro4n&
$%'
Bi/liograhy
Chase' 2il%ert =1.B5>& E dialectical a,,roach to music history'E Ethnomusicology 78 1-5&
!orson' Richard M& =1.BB>& EThe #irst grou, o# British #ol3lorists'E Journal of American
Folklore /581-5'@@@-@06&
Ellis' le:ander C& =155B>& EOn the musical scales o# "arious nations'E Journal of the Society
of Arts 155B&
HerAog' 2eorge =1.@/>& MResearch in Primitive and Folk Music in the nited States! a survey&N
(ashington8 merican Council o# *earned Societies' Bulletin 70&
Hood' Mantle =1.B9>& ETraining and research methods in ethnomusicology'E Ethnomusicology
"e#sletter 1187-5&
OOOOO =1./6>& EThe challenge o# %i-musicality 'E Ethnomusicology 08BB-B.&
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1.
Horn%ostel' Erich M& "on =1.@@>& E!as %erliner $honogrammarchi" 'E $eitschrift fur
vergleichende Musik#issenschaft 1806-09&
Kolins3i' MiecAysla4 =1.B9>& EEthnomusicology' its ,ro%lems and methods'E Ethnomusicology
"e#sletter 1681-9&
Kunst' Caa, =1.B.>& Ethnomusicology' @rd edition& The Hague8 M& Ni<ho##& Suggested reading'
,,& 1-//&
Merriam' lan $& =1.BB>& EThe use o# music in the study o# a ,ro%lem in acculturation'E
American Anthro%ology 5-@0&
OOOOO =1./6>& EEthnomusicology' discussion and de#utition o# the #ield'E Ethnomusicology
08169-110&
Merriam' lan $&' and *inton C& 1reeman =1.B/>& EStatistical classi#ication in anthro,ology&
American Anthro%ologist B580/0-97&
Nettl' Bruno =1.B/>& Music in $rimiti"e Culture& Cam%ridge8 Har"ard +ni"ersity $ress&
Suggested reading' Cha,ter 1&
OOOOO =1./1>& Reference Materials in Ethnomusicology& !etroit8 In#ormation Ser"ice&
$uli3o4s3i' Culian "on =1.@@>& &eschichte des 'egriffes (olkslied im musikalischen
Schrifttum& Heidel%erg8 C& (inter&
Rhodes' (illard =1.B/>& ETo4ard a de#inition o# ethnomusicology'E American Anthro%ologist
B580B9-/@&
Sachs' Curt =1.B.>& (ergleichende Musik#issenschaft! Musik der Fremdkulturen' 7nd edition&
Heidel%erg8 Guelle und Meyer&
Schneider' Marius =1.B9>& E$rimiti"e music'E in Egon (ellesA' ed&
OOOOO =1./7>& )he *ells%rings of Music& The Hague8 M& Ni<ho##& Ancient and +riental Music&
*ondon8 O:#ord +ni"ersity $ress =Ne4 O:#ord History o# Music' Jol& I>' ,,& 1-57&
Seeger' Charles =1./1>& ESemantic' logical' and ,olitical considerations %earing u,on research
in ethnomusicology'E Ethnomusicology B899-51&
Stum,#' Carl =155/>& E*ieder der Bella3ula Indianer'E (ierteliahrschrift fur Musik#issenschaft
7806B--07/&
OOOO =15.7> &E$honogra,hierte Indianermelodien'E (ierteliahrschrift fur Musik#issenschaft 58
179-100&
(achsmann' Klaus $& =1./1>& ECriteria #or acculturation'E in International Musicological
Society' Re%ort of the ,th -ongress! "e# .ork /01/& Kassel8 Baerenreiter' ,& 1@.-10.&
M(hither ethnomusicologyHE =1.B.>& $anel discussion& Ethnomusicology @8..-16B&
Chater %
BIB0IOGRAP.ICA0 RESOURCES OF ET.NO1USICO0OG2
The ,u%lications o# the #ield o# ethnomusicology ha"e a,,eared in the %oo3s and
,eriodicals o# a 4ide "ariety o# disci,lines& Since ethnomusicology has e:isted as a se,arate
#ield' 4ith its o4n Society' <ournals' and %i%liogra,hies #or a relati"ely short time' the
%i%liogra,her o# this #ield must %e a%le and 4illing to 4or3 in the areas o# general
musicology ' anthro,ology' #ol3lore' and other #ields& Moreo"er' a great deal o# im,ortant
source material #or the music o# the 4orldDs cultures a,,ears in ,u%lications dealing not 4ith
music ,er se' %ut 4ith "arious as,ects o# culture and language' and these must %e identi#ied
%y %i%liogra,hically uncon"entional means&
The ,ur,ose o# this cha,ter is to ac?uaint the student 4ith the tools #or %i%liogra,hic
location o# ethnomusicological materials' and to re"ie4 %rie#ly those ,u%lications and authors
4ith 4hich each student o# ethnomusicology should ha"e at least an ac?uaintance&
There is no %oo3 4hich could %e called the ethnomusicologistsD Bi%le' and ,erha,s this is
#ortunate' #or orthodo:y is not a good thing #or a young disci,line& Nor is there a standard
encyclo,edic 4or3 4hose authority to4ers o"er the rest& Instead' there are a num%er o#
general %oo3s and articles 4hich ha"e attem,ted to sur"ey all or a selection o# the materials
4hich
$%+
com,rise the #ield' each in a sense a ,ioneer 4or3' in s,ite o# the #act that the earliest o#
them antedates the latest %y some #i#ty years& $erha,s the most use#ul o# the general %oo3s
is Ethnomusicology =@rd edition' 1.B.>' %y Kunst' #irst ,u%lished in 1.BB' the main asset o#
4hich is its "oluminous %i%liogra,hy&
The te:t ,art o# the %oo3 is a solid i# some4hat une"en sur"ey and history o#
ethnomusicology& It contains a good deal o# ad"ice %ased on the authorDs thorough
e:,eriences in Indonesia' %ut its ,oint o# "ie4 is largely the result o# KunstDs o4n interest in
musical instruments and in scales& lthough a ,roduct o# the 1.B6Ds' the ,oint o# "ie4 is
essentially similar to that o# the 2erman musicologists o# the 1.76Ds' Stum,# and Horn%ostel&
KunstDs Ethnomusicology also contains a section de"oted to MTraining $ossi%ilities #or
EthnomusicologistsN 4hich' 4hile its accuracy is im,aired %y its tendency to4ard o%solesence'
ne"ertheless can gi"e the student idea o# the 4ay in 4hich ethnomusicology is taught' and o#
the institutions 4hich s,ecialiAe in it& nd since Kunst 4as an enthusiastic ,hotogra,her' he
included in his %oo3 ,hotogra,hs o# as many scholars as he could& But as already indicated'
this %oo3Ds outstanding #eature is the %i%liogra,hy o# some B'666 items' 4ith inde:es o#
authors' su%<ects' tri%es' and ,eriodicals& In s,ite o# its great "alue' KunstDs Ethnomusicology
cannot occu,y the ,osition o# the standard 4or3 re,resenting the entire #ield& It omits se"eral
im,ortant areas o# music' and' es,ecially neglects those as,ects o# music research 4hich
in"ol"e the role o# music in the cultures o# the 4orld' and 4hich treat music as an as,ect o#
human %eha"ior rather than as an organiAed grou, o# sounds&
T4o early 4or3s' Primitive Music =15.@> %y (allasche3 and 2ie Anf3nge der Musik
=1.11> %y Stum,#' are mainly im,ortant %ecause o# the ,lace they occu,y in the history o#
our #ield& Both deal 4ith the music o# nonliterate cultures as a unit' and %oth "ie4 their
su%<ect as im,ortant mainly %ecause o# the light it sheds on the ,rehistory o# (estern music&
Stum,#s is %y #ar the more use#ul %oo3' #or it ta3es into account a tremendous amount o#
material and manages' des,ite the early date o# its
$%,
,u%lication' to ,resent an acce,ta%le and generally accurate sur"ey o# E,rimiti"e music&E
similarly historical ,oint o# "ie4 is held %y *ach in his 2ie vergleichende Musik#isssenschaft
=1.70>' one o# the early 4or3s 4hich tried to state the ,ro%lems and methods o#
ethnomusicology and as such %elongs to a series o# 4or3s to 4hich se"eral early researchers
contri%uted' %ut 4hich has in e##ect %een continued through the 1.B6Ds in the ,ages o# the
<ournal Ethnomusicology& Similar to *ach in orientation are SachsD (ergleichende
Musik#issenschaft =1.B.>' (allasche3Ds Primitive Music =15.@>' Stum,#Ds 2ie Anfiinge der
Musik =1.11>& SachsD %oo3 #ollo4s a less single-minded a,,roach than the others' treating
the music o# other cultures #irst as an as,ect o# (estem music history' then as a #ield o#
study in its o4n right' and #inally as an aid to the study o# cultural' ,sychological' and
%iological as,ects o# music& But more o# SachsD 4or3 later&
Some Imortant Scholars o( the Past
(hile a large num%er o# early ethnomusicologists tried to set do4n the a,,roaches o#
their #ield-as 4ell as sur"ey its su%<ect matter-in a single "olume' it is curious to #ind that the
most ,rominent and in#luential early scholar did not 4rite such a %oo3& The %i%liogra,hy o# E&
M& "on Hom%ostelDs 4ritings is a large one' co"ering' geogra,hically' more ground than any
other studentDs' and ranging o"er a tremendous "ariety o# a,,roaches and ,ro%lems& But he
ne"er 4rote a %oo3 in 4hich he condensed the "ast amount o# in#ormation 4hich he must
ha"e had at hand' nor one 4hich states his credo o# research and scholarshi,& I# all o# his
4ritings 4ere 4o"en into a single' large %oo3' the result 4ould indeed %e a com,endium o#
4orld music and a statement o# a,,roaches-musicological' ethnological' ,sychological'
,hysical-4hich 4ould e:ceed the most "oluminous sur"eys o# later years& But ,erha,s
%ecause he 4as a4are o# the
$%-
great amount o# material to %e co"ered' and o# the inherent #utility o# sur"eys and
introductory 4or3s 4ith the degree o# o"ersim,lication 4hich is ine"ita%le in them'
Horn%ostel ne"er ,u%lished such a %oo3& It is all the more necessary' there#ore' that the
student ac?uaint himsel# 4ith the landmar3s o# Horn%ostelDs ,u%lishing career& com,lete
list o# his 4ritings a,,eared in the Ethnomusicology Ne4sletter no&7' 1.B0; there it can %e
seen that many o# his 4or3s 4ere 4ritten <ointly 4ith other scholars' ,articularly 4ith Otto
%raham& Horn%ostel and %rahamDs article ETonsystem und Musi3 der Ca,anerE =1.6@> is the
#irst o# a long series o# articles sur"eying the music K mainly #rom the "ie4,oint o# melody K
o# "arious cultures' and setting do4n a method o# descri%ing music 4hich has since %een #ol-
lo4ed %y many& The authors em,hasiAe the scales' distinguish %et4een "ocal and
instrumental as 4ell as %et4een theoretical and actual intonation; they ,ay less attention to
rhythm' #orm' etc& =as the title indicates>' %ut gi"e detailed in#ormation on the measurement
o# inter"als& grou, o# transcri%ed musical e:am,les #ollo4s' 4ith commentary on the
indi"idual ,ieces& #ter se"eral years' during 4hich Horn%ostel =sometimes 4ith %raham or
Stum,#> ,roduced similar studies o# the music o# Tur3ey' India' North merican Indians' Ne4
Cuinea' Sumatra' etc&' the ,u%lished t4o studies o# s,ecial im,ortance& His E#rican Negro
MusicE =1.75> attem,ts to distill' #rom a large "ariety o# styles' the %road characteristics o#
#rican Negro music' a 3ind o# a,,roach not ,re"iously attem,ted %y him& In another 4or3'
E1uegian SongsE =1.@/>' he ,resents the music o# one o# the sim,lest Indian tri%es =on Tierra
del 1uego> in ,re"iously unattained detail& These are the high ,oints in Horn%ostelDs
,resentations o# indi"idual musical styles and cultures&
mong the other landmar3s in Horn%ostelDs %i%liogra,hy 4e must mention t4o 4or3s
4hich are concerned 4ith the ,ro%lem o# transcri,tion8 Horn%ostel and %rahamDs EO%er die
Bedeutung des $honogra,hen #Pr die "ergleichende Musi34issenscha#tE =1.60> and
EJorschlage Aur Trans3ri,tion e:otischer MelodienE =166.>& In Horn%ostelDs EMelodie und
S3alaE =1.17>
$&$
4e #ind a detailed statement o# his theory o# scale and the method o# studying melody& The
close relationshi, %et4een the scale o# a ,iece and its melodic contour' %ut also the ,oints at
4hich these t4o elements are not interde,endent' are %rought out here& lso o# tremendous
im,ortance is Horn%ostel and SachsD ESystemati3 der Musi3instrumenteE =1.10>' 4hich is the
%asic classi#ication scheme #or musical instruments& This classi#ication used the 4or3 o# the
Belgian instrument curator Jictor Mahillon as its %asis' and although Curt Sachs himsel#
indicated to this 4riter his %elie# that it re?uired considera%le re"ision' it is still the only
classi#ication in general use today& #ter SachsD death' and almost B6 years a#ter its
,u%lication' it 4as translated into English' indicating that it had not outli"ed its use#ulness
=See Cha,ter 9 #or a sam,le o# this classi#ication>&
In certain o# his ,u%lications' Horn%ostel del"ed into the ,ro%lems o# musical ,rehistory
and into theoretical ,ro%lems in"ol"ing di##usion and multi,le genesis& Most o# the time he
tended to remain aloo# #rom these #re?uently unre4arding s,eculations' in contrast to most o#
his contem,oraries' 4ho 4ere eager to decide 4hether man 4as more li3ely to %orro4 ideas
#rom his #ello4s or in"ent things inde,endently se"eral times' in di##erent ,laces& But a #e4 o#
his 4or3s did enter into the contro"ersy& 1or e:am,le' his EO%er einige $an,#ei#en aus nord-
4est BrasilienE =1.16> in"ol"es the theory K later to %ecome a catch4ord K o# the E%lo4n
#i#thE =Blas?uintentheorie>' a theory 4hich tries to sho4 the di##usion o# a musical conce,t
through com,arison o# instrument #orms and tunings in the $aci#ic' %ut 4hich has not %een
generally acce,ted& (hile it is di##icult' then' to ,in,oint the 4or3s o# Horn%ostel 4hose
signi#icance is such that they must %e 3no4n to the student' it is im,ortant that students %e
a4are o# this scholarDs tremendous im,act on the #ield o# ethnomusicology' and %e ac?uainted
4ith a sam,ling o# his ,u%lications&
E?ually encom,assing' and more accessi%le to the uns,ecialiAed reader' are the 4or3s
o# Curt Sachs& man e?ually concerned 4ith Euro,ean music history and the study o# non-
(estern
$&!
music' Sachs ,roduced se"eral 4or3s o# a general nature' and their im,act on
ethnomusicology has %een great es,ecially %ecause they a,,eared in English and in a style
suita%le to the laymen&
n early 4or3 4hich concems ethnomusicology as a disci,line is SachsD )he Rise of
Music in the Ancient *orld =1.0@>' a history o# ancient music 4hich ta3es essentially an
e"olutionist "ie4 o# music history and thus traces the course o# musical de"elo,ment #rom
the sim,lest styles o# some South merican Indians and o# the Ceylonese Jedda through the
music o# the Oriental high cultures to the ancient Egy,tians' 2ree3s' and Romans& =By an
e"olutionist "ie4 4e mean one according to 4hich all musical cultures are assumed to ha"e
,assed through the same stages' #rom sim,le to com,le:; and the di##erences among musical
cultures are ,artly re#lections o# the #act that 4e ha"e o%ser"ed them at di##erent stages o#
this de"elo,ment>& To %e sure' such an a,,roach has its great disad"antages' #or the
e"idence #or musical e"olution is circumstantial at %est& But lea"ing aside these
considerations' this 4or3 ,resents a #ine summary o# the styles o# the 4orldDs music& Included
also are some o# SachsD intriguing theories regarding the intimate relationshi, o# music and
culture ,atterns; and 4hile these ha"e not %een generally acce,ted' they are interesting
sidelights&
These theories are %etter de"elo,ed in SachsD *orld 4istory of the 2ance =1.@5>' 4hich
includes a cha,ter on the music o# nonliterate cultures& He %elie"es' #or e:am,le' that the
general tem,erament o# a ,eo,le =and this he ascri%es to the racial %ac3ground> is
s,eci#ically re#lected in that ,eo,leDs music and dance& This is a theory 4hich' in its general
terms' is 4idely acce,ted' #or music and dance are' a#ter all' ,art o# the same ,attem o#
culture 4hich determines other 3inds o# %eha"ior&
But Sachs %elie"es that one can ,redict s,eci#ic dancing and musical %eha"ior #rom the
general characteristics o# a culture =Sachs 1.@58155>& He sho4s' #or e:am,le' that the Funi
Indians use melodies as 4ell as dances 4hich e:hi%it great "igor' 4hile the tran?uility o# the
Mar?uesas Islanders is re#lected in the
$&%
sustained tones o# their music and their sitting ,osture in the dance& lthough (orld History
o# the !ance contains some contro"ersial statements' it must %e considered one o# the
landmar3s in the study o# the interrelationshi, o# the arts&
Sachs' in )he -ommon#ealth of Art =1.0/>' ,ursues these interrelationshi,s #urther'
attem,ting to sho4 that all o# the arts in a gi"en culture or historical ,eriod share the same
%asic characteristics& He also ,ostulates se"eral traits ,resent in all art' #or e:am,le' his
Euni"ersal dualismE conce,t' #rom 4hich he also deri"es his t4o %asic ty,es o# music'
Iogogenic =4ord-%om> and ,athogenic =emotion-%om>& gain 4e see the e"olutionist
a,,roach' ,lacing the nonliterate cultures at the %eginning and e?uating them 4ith
,rehistory' #or the distinction %et4een the t4o %asic musical ty,es a,,ears only in the
sim,lest styles& In more com,le: cultures it is %lurred' and in the 4orldDs high cultures it
disa,,ears&
In his Jergleichende Musi34issenscha#t =1.B.>' #irst 4ritten se"eral decades earlier'
Sachs includes these theories also' %ut on the 4hole it is a much more matter-o#-#act
,resentation o# the #indings o# ethnomusicology& SachsD lo"e o# ty,ology and his e"olutionist
a,,roach are e"ident here again' and his a4areness o# the role o# music in culture is an
im,ortant asset o# this %oo3& But throughout his 4or3 Sachs ta3es a lo#ty a,,roach to the
,ro%lems o# the ethnomusicologist& He rarely goes into a detailed discussion o# one culture
and the "arious and main#old as,ects o# its musical li#e& The "alue o# his 4ritings is in his
"ie4 o# the 4oods K %ut he neglects the trees&
Curt SachsD 4or3 co"ering ethnomusicology as a 4hole is his most recent one' The
*ells%rings of Music' ,u%lished ,osthumously =1./7> and edited %y Caa, Kunst& Here' in
contrast to some o# his other 4or3s' Sachs a,,ears not as the "oice crying in the 4ildemess'
%ut as the leader and coordinator o# his colleagues' 4hom he ?uotes #re?uently and 4hose
"ie4s he ,raises or criticiAes& He e"en a%andons to a degree his e"olutionist inter,retation o#
music history ' although "estiges o# it are still e"ident in his cha,ter headings =EEarly MusicN'
EOn the (ay'E E$rogtessHN>&
$&&
His interest in non-(estem music is still moti"ated %y 4hat it may sho4 o# the early stages
o# (estern music& In this last 4or3' Sachs is less dogmatic and less inclined to ,ro,ound
s,ecial theories o# musical de"elo,ment and o# the relationshi, o# music to culture at large
than he 4as in his earlier 4or3& The #act that he has tumed #rom s,eculati"e to more
descri,ti"e statements is sho4n %y his change o# terminology; ,athogenic music has %ecome
Etum%ling strains'E and logogenic' Eone-ste, melodies&E
di##erent as,ect o# Curt SachsD 4or3 a,,ears in his 4ritings on musical instruments&
Here the 4oods and the trees are gi"en e?ual s,ace' and his "ast detailed 3no4ledge o# the
4orldDs organology comes to the #ore& SachDs Real-*e:i3on =1.1@> is still the authoritati"e
encyclo,edia o# musical instruments' containing as it does etymology and e?ui"alents in
many languages #or each instrument' as 4ell as the e:,ected in#ormation on structure and
geogra,hic distri%ution& nd #inaly' his cola%oration 4ith Horn%ostel in de"ising a uni"ersally
acce,ted classi#ication o# instruments =ESystemati3 der Musi3instrumente'E 1.10> also
%elongs among the great landmar3s o# ethnomusicology& The 4ritings o# this many-sided
scholar must %e #amiliar to the Student o# ethnomusicology; %ut his theories should %e
acce,ted as guides and hy,otheses rather than as hard and #ast #acts&
Since SachsD main 4or3s are sur"eys o# %road areas' it may %e use#ul here to mention
some other general 4or3s& mong the %oo3s 4hich attem,t a co"erage o# the music o#
nonliterate cultures are BoseDs Musikalische (olkerkunde =1.B@> and NettlDs Music in Primitive
-ulture =1.B/>& The latter a,,roaches its #ield %y descri%ing the indi"idual elements o# music
such as melody' rhythm' and #orm' and tends to concentrate on North merican and #rican
e:am,les' gi"ing a sam,ling o# the 3inds o# things 4hich are #ound in these cultures rather
than attem,ting an all-encom,assing theory o# the ty,e #ound in Curt SachsD 4or3s& BoseDs i s
less concemed 4ith rhythm and #orm; it is greatly in#luenced %y the 4or3 o# Boses teacher'
Horn%ostel' re#lecting
$&'
his concern 4ith "ocal techni?ue' melody and scale' and the relationshi, %et4een racial
characteristics and musical style&
Bose also ,resents a theory in 4hich the %asic di##erences %et4een instrumental and
"ocal styles are e:,lored and e:,lained& The tone systems o# the high cultures are contrasted
4ith those styles in 4hich scales 4ithout theoretical e:,lanations or #oundations are used&
Bose states the hy,othesis that truly instrumental styles are #ound only in cultures 4ith a
%ody o# music theory& BoseDs is also one o# the #e4 %oo3s in 4hich the relationshi, o#
language and music is e:,lored' and in 4hich the ,ro%lem o# style' and o# 4hat constitutes Ea
musical styleE is attac3ed&
One o# the early in"estigators o# the music o# Oriental high cultures 4as Ro%ert
*achmann& His 4or3 also should %e 3no4n to the student& His most general %oo3' Musik des
+rients =1.7.>' is the #irst to treat the music o# the Oriental high cultures as a unit& The idea
o# melodic s3eletons' called ,atet in Ca"a' raga in India' ma?am in ra%ic' as the %asic
ingredients o# Oriental com,osition 4as ,ostulated there& *achmannDs is one o# the most
ingenious 4or3s in ethnomusicological literature' #or it succeeds con"incingly in reducing the
"ast detail o# sian music to an intelligi%le #ormula& But a#ter a reading o# *achmann should
come the reading o# 4or3s 4hich del"e into these details&
mong the %rie# treatments o# ethnomusicology 4e should also mention HaydonDs
Introduction to Musicology =1.01>' Cha,ter 9 o# 4hich sur"eys the methods and ,ro%lems o#
the #ield in relation to other su%di"isions o# musicology& The a,,roach is some4hat dated'
ho4e"er' es,ecially since Haydon "ie4s the #ield essentially as an au:iliary science o#
historical musicology&
The #irst "olume o# the "e# +xford 4istory of Music =(ellesA 1.B9> is in a sense a
com,endium o# 3no4ledge in the #ield o# ethnomusicology &lthough it disclaims any intention
o# indicating that non-(estern music is sim,ly a stage in a de"elo,ment 4hich leads to
(estern culti"ated music' the tone o# the %oo3 is largely historical& long section on the
music o# nonliterate ,eo,les %y Marius Schneider ,resents that authorDs
$&)
interesting %ut not al4ays con"incing theories& Schneider' o# course' is a leading scholar
4hose 4or3s should %e 3no4n to the student& He is similar to Curt Sachs in his determination
to see the genesis o# 4orld music as a single' more or less uni#ied de"elo,ment & He is e?ually
interested in the structure o# music and in its role in culture' %ut his 4riting a%ounds 4ith
hy,othetical statements 4hich are not ,ro"a%le and #re?uently are not e"en credi%le& His
interest in historical ,rocesses in non-(estem music is great' as is indicated %y the sections
on MOrigin o# MusicN' MOrigin o# $oly,honyN' and MHistorical !e"elo,mentN =(ellesA 1.B981-
57>& s an introduction to the music o# nonliterate cultures' SchneiderDs essay in this %oo3
can not %e recommended %ecause o# its "ery s,ecialiAed ,oint o# "ie4& The other sections in
the "olume' each %y a s,ecialist' are summaries o# the musical histories o# the sian high
cultures =4ith occasional mention o# #ol3 music>' concentrating on those as,ects o# music
traditionally stressed %y ethnomusicology K melody and scale& There is some "ariation in
?uality among these cha,ters' %ut all together they #orm a good sur"ey o# sian art music&
mong the com,endia o# material' 4e should also mention 2as Euro%iische (olkslied
=!anc3ert 1.@.>' an attem,t to descri%e the #ol3 music o# Euro,e' nation %y nation'
according to the theoretical "ie4 o# a grou, o# 2erman anthro,ologists usually called the
MKultur3reisN school& The descri,tion o# the music is mainly a tool o# the theory' %ut
!anc3ertDs 4or3 is still the %est sur"ey o# its #ield& %rie#er sur"ey o# Euro,ean and merican
#ol3 music' less detailed %ut 4ithout the rather contro"ersial theoretical %ase' is HerAogDs
article ESongE =1.B6>' 4hich summariAes the most common #eatures o# its #ield and the
methods o# dealing 4ith them&
1onograhic 0andmar3s
Ha"ing attem,ted an e"aluation o# the most im,ortant scholars and general 4or3s in
the #ield o# ethnomusicology' 4e
$&*
no4 a,,roach a more di##icult tas3' the selection and summariAation o# some o# the most
im,ortant s,ecialiAed ,u%lications&
lthough many ,u%lications are discussed and re#erred to in this te:t' the #ollo4ing is
an attem,t to sho4 ho4 some o# the %etter monogra,hic treatments are ,ut together' to
designate a #e4 model studies' and to sur"ey %rie#ly the 4or3 o# some o# the im,ortant
ethnomusicologists 4hose 4or3 is not so 4orld K encom,assing as that o# Horn%ostel and
Sachs&
Carl Stum,# has already %een mentioned as the author o# an early sur"ey o# ,rimiti"e
music' 2ie Anf3nge der Musik =1.11>& He is also the author o# 4hat is considered to %e the
#irst article o# signi#icance on the music o# one tri%e' E*ieder der Bella3ula IndianerE =155/>&
In this article' the stage is set #or doAens o# #uture studies 4ith essentially the same
organiAation8 delimitation %y tri%e; em,hasis on the melodic ,henomena' es,ecially the
scales' and inclusion o# transcri,tions& Most o# the mem%ers o# the EBerlin schoolE o#
ethnomusicology K Stum,#' Hom%ostel' Kolins3i' HerAog' and their students K tended to
organiAe their studies in this 4ay& (hile such an organiAation might a,,ear to %e the o%"ious
one to use' 4e should consider that the tri%e is not necessarily al4ays "alid =or e"en
con"enient> as a musical unit' and that melodic ,henomena are no more essential to music
than are rhythmic ones& I# Stum,# had ta3en a di##erent a,,roach to his 4or3 in 155/'
,erha,s the #uture o# ethnomusicology 4ould ha"e %een di##erent&
s a model monogra,h in the Stum,#-Horn%ostel tradition 4e may ta3e HerAogDs E
Com,arison o# $ue%lo and $ima Musical StylesE =1.@5>& Essentially' this study consists o#
se,arate analyses o# the t4o musics' each su%di"ided %y sections on "ocal techni?ue'
melody' rhythm' o"er-all structure' and ty,es& The com,arison is %rie#' and is #ollo4ed %y a
large section o# transcri,tions' 4hich are e"idently considered the main %ody o# the 4or3& The
old em,hasis on scales is indicated %y a 10-,age section at the end' <u:ta,osing the scales o#
the indi"idual songs& HerAogDs 4or3s' among the most im,ortant' tend to #ollo4 the Stum,#-
Hom%ostel tradition rather closely& The em,hasis on the
$&+
transcri,tions' on analysis in terms o# the indi"idual elements o# music =4ithout disregarding
the interactions among those elements>' and the su%di"ision o# the tri%al style' once de#ined'
into se,arate ty,es' is characteristic& HerAog has also re#lected the Hom%ostel tradition in his
%readth or interest& His ,u%lications deal 4ith merican Indian' #rican' Oceanian' and
(estem #ol3 music' and he is less ,rone to e:,lore the historical layers or the acculturational
,rocesses e"ident in the material& 2enerally he has %een less interested in analyAing the
e##ects o# (estem music on the indigenous material 4hich he is studying&
nother student o# Horn%osters' MiecAysla4 Kolins3i' tends to #ollo4 more in the
theoretical #ootste,s o# his teacher K HerAogDs 4or3 %eing re,resentati"e o# the geogra,hic
and ,rocedural a,,roaches o# Horn%ostel& lthough Kolins3i is also the author o# tri%al
monogra,hs' and the ,u%lisher o# innumera%le transcri,tions' he is most im,ortant %ecause
o# his s,eculations in"ol"ing the character o# 4orld music at large and his methods o# dealing
4ith it& Kolins3iDs general theory o# tem,o and o# descri%ing tem,o' EThe E"aluation o#
Tem,oE =1.B.>' Qs ty,ical o# thQs scholarDs 4or3& Kolins3i ,ro,oses to measure this %y
indicating the a"erage num%er o# notes ,er minute& To illustrate his theory ' he com,ares the
music o# se"eral merican Indian tri%es and #inds' #or instance' that the $a4nee ha"e 1@.
notes ,er minute on the a"erage& the )uma' 115' and the (est #rican !ahomeans' o"er
1B6&
lso characteristic is EClassi#ication o# Tonal StructuresE =1./1>' a classi#ication o# scale
and melodic structure in a system 4hich allo4s s,ace #or all ,ossi%le com%inations o# tones
4hich 4ould a,,ear in a chromatic arrangement& Inter"als 4hich do not #it' i&e&' 4hich do not
a,,ear in the tem,ered 17-tone scale' are assimilated to their closest e?ui"alents& (ith this
system o# classi#ication' Kolins3i com,ares merican Indian' #rican Negro' and nglo-
merican #ol3 melodies to sho4 the num%er o# di##erent tone structures a,,earing in each
culture& (hile Kolins3iDs a,,roach is de#initely directed at com,arison o# musical cultures K
one o# the ,rimary aims o# ethnomusicology K it
$&,
has not #ound %road acce,tance %ecause the ,icture o# 4orld music 4hich it yields does not
seem to con"ey meaning %eyond the %are #acts it ,resents& But Kolins3i has contri%uted
greatly and im,ortantly to the methodology o# musical analysis and descri,tion' i# not so
much to the understanding o# musical structure itsel#&
mong the #ollo4ers o# the Berlin school 4ho later de"iated #rom its aims and methods
is Marius Schneider' already mentioned as a scholar 4hose 4or3 claims ardent adherents as
4ell as %itter critics& His cha,ter on the music o# nonliterate cultures in the "e# +xford
4istory of Music =(ellesA 1.B9> has %een discussed a%o"e& lthough his ,u%lications deal
4ith a tremendous "ariety o# su%<ects' his &eschichte der Mehrstimmigkeit =l.@0> K a history
o# ,oly,hony K is' ,erha,s %est 3no4n and most re,resentati"e& It in"ol"es a sur"ey o#
,oly,honic styles in E,rimiti"eE music and an attem,t to sho4 historical layers' some4hat in
the #ashion o# the 2erman EKultur3reisE school& His 4or3s sometimes ,resent theories 4hich'
4hile highly imaginati"e' are di##icult to ,ro"e or e"en to %elie"e& His 4ritings usually include
numerous transcri,tions; and 4hile these are e"idently accurate' they lac3 certain %asic
in#ormation such as the num%er o# ,er#ormers' 4hether the transcri,tion is an e:cer,t or a
4hole com,osition' etc&
nother 2erman scholar o# great im,ortance is (alter (iora' a s,ecialist in 2erman #ol3
music 4hose interests ha"e %ranched out %eyond this area' and 4ho has ,roduced a num%er
o# monogra,hs and articles on %asic ?uestions o# ethnomusicology& *i3e Schneider' (iora is
interested in strati#ying the musical cultures o# the 4orld in the #ashion o# a historian&
$erha,s his main contri%ution is his a%ility to see the 4orld o# music as a unit and to e"aluate
,ro,erly the interaction %et4een the art music and the traditional music o# a culture& (ioraDs
most im,ortant 4or3 is ,ro%a%ly Euro%iiische (olksmusik und a5endliiudische )onkunst
=1.B9>' a history o# music in 4estem Euro,e 4hich stresses the role o# #ol3 music in the #ine
art& His
$&-
main strength is ,ro%a%ly his thorough 3no4ledge o# %oth historical musicology and
ethnomusicology&
*ess e:citing in terms o# theory' %ut e:tremely solid in the ,resentation o# detailed
in#ormation on indi"idual musical cultures' are t4o other ethnomusicologists o# 2erman
schooling8 Kurt Reinhard and Ernst Emsheimer& ReinhardDs contri%utions ha"e %een in Tur3ish
and Chinese music& His largest 4or3' -hinesische Musik =1.B/>' is a historical sur"ey o#
Chinese music %ased on secondary sources& In recent years' Reinhard has de"oted himsel#
es,ecially to the re%uilding o# the Berlin $honogrammarchi"' 4hich 4as %uilt u, %y Stum,#
and Horn%ostel %ut largely destroyed during (orld (ar II& In this ca,acity' Reinhard has
4ritten im,ortant articles on archi"ing methods and set a ,attern #or re,orting holdings and
,rocess in ethnomusicological archi"es =see his E!as Berliner $honogrammarchi"'E1./1>&
EmsheimerDs most im,ortant 4or3s ha"e a,,eared in the ,eriodical Ethnos' a S4edish
anthro,ological <ournal' and concern musical instruments o# ,eo,les li"ing in northern Euro,e
and sia& They are models o# scholarshi,' a,,roaching their su%<ects #rom ,hysical'
organological' and ethnological ,oints o# "ie4' and they include considerations o# musical
style as 4ell as structure o# the instruments& EmsheimerDs largest 4or3' to date' is a
descri,tion' 4ith transcri,tions' o# the music o# some Mongolian tri%es; )he Music of the
Mongols =1.0@>; %ut his later' more s,ecialiAed studies' deal 4ith instruments' and he is the
coeditor o# a ,ro<ected hand%oo3 o# Euro,ean #ol3 music instruments =4ith Erich Stoc3mann>&
to4ering #igure among Euro,ean ethnomusicologists 4as BRla BartS3' the #amed
com,oser' 4ho considered his scholarly 4or3 in musicology e?ual in im,ortance to his
com,ositions& BartS3Ds most im,ortant 4or3s are his monogra,hic collections o# Hungarian'
Ser%o-Croatian' and Slo"a3 #ol3 songs =BartS3 1.@1' 1.B1' 1.B.>& His main interest 4as the
,reser"ation and ,ro,agation o# the songs o# the ,easant communities o# eastern Euro,e'
and his main 4or3s are indeed largely collections
$'$
his o4n transcri,tions& lthough his in#luence 4as great' his theoretical contri%utions are
some4hat limited& They consist o# his great #acility and care in transcri,tion' and o# a system
o# classi#ying melodies& His method o# transcri%ing is discussed in Cha,ter 0' and 4hile the
care BartS3 la"ished on the notations and the a%ility o# his hearing are a4e-ins,iring' the
"ery e:tent o# the detail causes ,ro%lems& The method classi#ying melodies has %een 4idely
acce,ted as 4ell K it is largely %ased on rhythm and on the num%er o# lines and the num%er
o# sylla%les ,er line in the te:t K %ut it has also %een se"erely criticiAed =see re"ie4 %y Bose
in Ethnomu5icology B8/7-/@' 1./1>& BartS3 can %e considered the leader o# a school o#
Hungarian and other eastern Euro,ean #ol3 music scholars' including the eminent Foltan
Kodaly' 4hose 4or3 is ,erha,s o# e?ual or e"en greater theoretical "alue than BartS3Ds&
mong the limitations o# the Hungarian scholarsD a,,roaches 4e may mention a certain
tendency to4ard cultural ,urism =,resent also in the 4or3 o# many collectors o# 4estern
Euro,ean #ol3 song>' i&e&' the #ocusing o# interest on material ,resumed to %e old and
untouched %y in#luences #rom the city' and a degree o# scom #or acculturated material&
num%er o# other scholars are 3no4n mainly %ecause o# the collecting 4hich they did'
and %ecause o# their transcri,tions and analyses o# ra4 material& Each country has a sort o#
#ol3 song collector laureate' and 4e 4ould %e hard ,ut to discuss all o# them and to e"aluate
their collections& Besides BartS3' ho4e"er' the greatest im,act on the English-s,ea3ing 4orld
4as ,ro%a%ly that o# Cecil Shar,' a British collector 4hose im,ortance in merican #ol3 music
is second to none& Shar,Ds in#luence is #elt mainly among the merican and British collectors
4ho 4ished to #ind songs o# great age and 4ere not interested in songs o# recent origin& He is
also among those 4ho de"elo,ed the classi#ication o# #ol3 music according to the modes o#
2regorian chant' %elie"ing that the modal character o# the tunes indicated the early date o#
their origin' and that the modal system ,ro"ided a good scheme #or grou,ing tunes& His most
im,ortant
$'!
4or3' English 1ol3 Songs #rom the Southern ,,alachians =1.@7>' contains a large collection
o# songs' analyAed according to mode %ut not according to other elements o# music' 4ith an
introduction gi"ing his rather s,ecial "ie4 o# the modes& n outgro4th o# Shar,Ds a,,roach
has %een the tendency o# merican collectors to analyAe songs' es,ecially their scales'
indi"idually' 4ithout dra4ing a com,osite ,icture o# an entire cor,us o# music and its style&
n e:cellent collection 4hich goes #urther than Shar,Ds %ut #ollo4s the same general
tendencies is SchinhanDs The Music o# the Ballads =1.B9>& Here the songs are transcri%ed' the
scales are classi#ied' the o"er-all #orm o# each song is gi"en& But rhythm is not included&
!es,ite their limitations' the collections 4hich 4e can consider to ha"e %een ,roduced under
the inHuence o# Shar, and BartS3' 4ith their indi"idual analyses o# the melodic as,ects o#
tunes' are greatly su,erior to the large num%er o# collections' ,roduced e"ery4here' in 4hich
no analysis is attem,ted' and in 4hich songs are not grou,ed in a musically meaning#ul
#ashion&
In our sur"ey o# ty,es o# ethnomusicological ,u%lications 4e should also include an
e:am,le o# historical a,,roach to indi"idual elements o# music& SachsD Rhythm and Tem,o
=1.B@> is an attem,t to #ind logic and to descri%e a 4orld4ide historical de"elo,ment in 4hat
is actually a rather neglected element o# music& similar 4or3 in the #ield o# melody is
SAa%olcsiDs 'austeine 6u einer &eschichte der Melodie =1.B.>' in 4hich it is assumed that
certain %asic la4s go"ern the history o# melodic mo"ement e"ery4here& SAa%olcsiDs 4or3 is
characteriAed %y its attem,ts to e:,lore musical history and to create a rather e:act ,icture
o# the ,ro%a%le se?uence o# e"ents' and %y the authorDs thorough use o# the e:tant literature
on the su%<ect& Some o# SAa%olcsiDs conclusions must %e dis,uted' %ut his %oo3 is =<ne o# the
#e4 4hich treats (estem and non-(estem music together and as such should %e considered
a classic in ethnomusicology&
(e ha"e attem,ted to mention those ethnomusicologists o#
$'%
largely Euro,ean residence 4hose 4or3s the student o# ethnomusicology should 3no4' and to
single out a #e4 o# their outstanding ,u%lications& O%"iously this ,rocedure has its dangers8
4e ha"e omitted some scholars 4ho ,erha,s should ha"e %een included' and #or this
omission 4e can only a,ologiAe and re,eat that 4e ,resent only a sam,ling& !ra4ing lines is
al4ays di##icult& (e ha"e %een guided %y t4o things8 1> the e:tent to 4hich a scholar co"ered
relati"ely large areas o# ethnomusicology' and 7> the e:tent to 4hich he' through a sQngle
im,ortant 4or3' has in#luenced other scholars& 1or a more detailed enumeration o#
ethnomusicologists 4e re#er the reader to Kunst =1.B.8/@-//>&
Imortant American Contri/utions
The #ollo4ing ,aragra,hs attem,t to do #or merican scholars 4hat 4as done a%o"e #or
Euro,ean ones& $erha,s the outstanding #igure in terms o# ,u%lication is 1rances !ensmore&
!ensmore s,ecialiAed in North merican Indian music and 4or3ed 4ithout %eing greatly
in#luenced %y the Euro,ean and merican ethnomusicologists 4ho 4ere her contem,oraries&
Through a long li#etime o# research' her methods and "ie4s did not change a,,recia%ly' and
as a result o# the isolation #rom other scholars in 4hich she carried on her studies' her
,u%lications do not ha"e the degree o# authority 4hich they other4ise might& Ne"ertheless'
!ensmoreDs many %oo3s and articles =o# 4hich Teton Siou: Music' 1.15' is ,erha,s the %est>
,resent a 4ealth o# notations' %ac3grounds o# indi"idual songs' and general in#ormation a%out
Indian music& Her transcri,tions are not as relia%le as those o# BartS3' Horn%ostel' and
HerAog =see Cha,ter 0>' and she is 4ea3est in her o"er-all conclusions and in her statistical
summaries o# Indian styles =see Cha,ter 9>& But students o# ethnomusicology are %ound to
use her ,u%lications&
$'&
mong the consistently im,ortant merican students o# ethnomusicology is Charles
Seeger' 4hose 4or3' li3e that o# Curt Sachs' attem,ts to #ormulate theories on the music o#
all o# the 4orldDs cultures' and' more im,ortant' to de"ise methods #or studying all music& His
interest in transcri,tion and notation is discussed in Cha,ter 0& His other theoretical 4ritings
in"ol"e the relationshi, %et4een historical and synchronic studies o# music' %et4een the
music itsel# and the 4ords 4hich must %e used to descri%e music' and %et4een the musician
and the researcher& Se"eral merican ethnomusicologists ha"e come #rom the #ield o#
anthro,ology; they ha"e %een interested mainly in the role 4hich music ,lays in culture' and
in the study o# music as human %eha"ior& !a"id $& Mcllester' a ,u,il o# 2eorge HerAog' has
,roduced monogra,hs in the #ield o# North merican Indian music 4hich can ser"e as models
#or the ty,e o# study 4hich concentrates on a %ody o# music more limited than an entire tri%al
re,ertory& McllesterDs Enemy *ay Music =1.B0> is a study o# cultural "alues as re#lected in
music %eha"ior and music in one Na"aho ceremony' the Enemy (ay& lthough transcri,tions
are included here' they ser"e ,rimarily as illustrations #or the ethnological a,,roach 4hich
the author #ollo4s&
McllesterDs Peyote Music =1.0.> is a study o# a musical style K the $eyote style K #ound
in a s,eci#ic selection o# songs in each o# a large num%er o# North merican Indian tri%es&
lthough the music itsel# is some4hat more in the #oreground here' this monogra,h also
stresses the relationshi, o# music to other acti"ities and to the IndiansD "alue systems&
lan $& Merriam has %een among the most ,roli#ic and in#luential merican
ethnomusicologists& Mainly an #ricanist' he has also contri%uted ,u%lications on the music o#
the merican Negroes' on <aAA' on North merican Indian music' and on ?uestions in"ol"ing
the ,ro%lems o# ethnomusicology as a science' as 4ell as %i%liogra,hies& ll o# his ,u%lications
are ?uite sound and authoritati"e' %ut it is di##icult to ,ic3 out landmar3s among them& One
re,resentati"e 4or3 o# his =Merriam' 1.BB> is an attem,t not only to use anthro,ological
methods #or ethnomusicological
$''
,ur,oses' %ut to use musical material #or the ,ur,ose o# sol"ing ,ro%lems in the #ield o#
anthro,ology& Merriam =1.B5> is also the author o# the %est summary o# #rican music
,u%lished thus #ar&
Richard & (aterman' a <aAA musician turned anthro,ologist and ethnomusicologist' has
made im,ortant contri%utions to the study o# (est #rican and merican Negro music as 4ell
as ustralian a%original culture& n im,ortant contri%ution o# (atermanDs =1.B7> is a theory
e:,laining the reasons #or the ,artial acce,tance o# #rican musical traits in the merican
Negro re,ertory 4hich has %een 4idely <udged as the #undamental statement on the su%<ect&
mong the merican scholars acti"e in ethnomusicology 4e should also mention B& H&
Bronson' a s,ecialist in British-merican #ol3 music 4ho has also ,ioneered in the o%<ecti"e
classi#ication and the e:act study o# genetic relationshi, among "ariants o# #ol3 tunes& The
Traditional Tunes o# the Child Ballads =1.B.>' %y Bronson' is a most im,ortant 4or3' a
tremendous com,endium o# the tunes collected #or the so-called Child %allads K the British-
merican %allads ,resuma%ly o# ,o,ular =anonymous> origin K %oth in Britain and North
merica& 1or some %allads he gi"es o"er 166 tunes' and he indicates the genetic relationshi,
o# each tune to the rest as 4ell as gi"ing an analysis o# scale and mode' %ut not o# rhythm or
#orm& Other ,u%lications o# BronsonDs in"ol"e the use o# I&B&M& techni?ues =4ith ,unched
cards> to sort melodies according to their characteristics&
(illard Rhodes' a student o# merican and #ol3 music and o# #rican music' has had
considera%le in#luence on the de"elo,ment o# ethnomusicology in the +nited States& Besides
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology @6
,roducing a num%er o# ,u%lications' he stands out as the teacher o# many o# this countryDs
scholars and as the #irst ,resident o# the Society #or Ethnomusicology &
mong the monogra,hs 4hich should %e 3no4n to the student 4e should include
Ja%anese Music and Musical Instruments =1.B.> %y Malm& This "ery %eauti#ul1y illustrated
%oo3 should ,erha,s %e considered the %est o"er-al1 sur"ey o# the music o#
$')
one high culture; its main 4ea3ness is its lac3 o# musical e:am,les& Rather than a,,roach
the su%<ect chronologically or geogra,hically' Malm gi"es %rie# historical s3etches and
descri,tions indi"idually o# se"eral ty,es o# Ca,anese music K religious music' 2aga3u'
Nohga3u K and then o# se"eral im,ortant instruments K Bi4a' Sha3uhachi' Koto' Shamisen K
and ends 4ith a discussion o# #ol3 music& This rather contrasts 4ith ReinhardDs -hinesische
Musik' 4hich is similar in siAe and includes se,arate discussion o# instruments %ut is
essentially chronological in its a,,roach' and 4hich does include a large num%er o# e:am,les&
MalmDs 4or3 is characteristic o# merican ethnomusicology o# the 1.B6Ds in its interest in the
contem,orary scene' e"en though it does not neglect the history o# Ca,anese music& Thus'
Malm e"en gi"es a list o# ,laces E(here to Hear Ca,anese Music in To3yo'E as 4ell as other
use#ul a,,endices&
)he "uclear )heme as a 2eterminant of Patet in Javanese Music =1.B0> %y Hood is
another monogra,h o# im,ortance& It is a "ery detailed study o# one as,ect o# Ca"anese music
K $atet' a conce,t some4hat similar to mode in 2ree3 and medie"al Euro,ean music& This
%oo3 is %ased on the authorDs o4n ,ractical study o# Ca"anese musicianshi,' rather than
mainly on in#ormants or Jlitten Ca"anese sources& HoodDs a%ility to ,er#orm the material is
3eenly #elt; there is ,erha,s no other 4or3 analyAing a musical style o# the Orient 4hich
sho4s the author to %e so intimately #amiliar 4ith the style&
ty,e o# study 4hich is %eginning to a,,ear in increasingly large num%ers is the sur"ey
o# ,ast research' theory' and method& n authoritati"e re,resentati"e o# this 3ind o#
,u%lication is Anglo7American Folksong Scholarshi% Since /,0, =1.B.> %y (ilgus' a searching
study o# scholarshi, in merican #ol3 song %y merican scholars in the t4entieth century&
lthough most sur"eys o# research are shorter and more strictly %i%liogra,hical' (ilgusD
stands out as a model %ecause o# its li"ely treatment o# the interrelationshi, o# "arious ideas
and theories& It reads' at times' li3e a ,lay-%y-,lay descri,tion o# a s,orts e"ent&
Concentrating on scholarshi, in"ol"ing the "er%al te:ts o# #ol3 song'
$'*
(ilgus ne"ertheless considers also the music and es,ecially also those studies in"ol"ing %oth
4ords and music&
Periodicals
The student o# ethnomusicology should %e ac?uainted not only 4ith the most im,ortant
,eriodicals in the #ield' %ut also some o# those in ad<acent #ields 4hich #re?uently include
articles and re"ie4s o# ethnomusicological im,ortance& Inde:ing ser"ices and other
%i%liogra,hies o# the contents o# ,eriodicals are descri%ed %elo4 in the section on
EBi%liogra,hies&E
The most im,ortant <ournals are Ethnomusicology =Cournal o# the Society #or
Ethnomusicology> and the Journal of the International Folk Music -ouncil =a%%re"iated I1MC>&
Ethnomusicology %egan in 1.B@ as a mimeogra,hed letter edited %y lan $& Merriam'
designed to esta%lish contact among the scholars o# this country and the 4orld& 2radually it
tumed into a ne4sletter and' in 1.B5' into a #ull-Hedged <ournal 4hich a,,ears three times
,er year& Its articles ha"e dealt 4ith the music o# nonliterate and Oriental cultures and 4ith
?uestions o# general im,ort in the #ield' and occasionally 4ith (estem #ol3 music& grou, o#
articles outlining the ,ro%lems and ,ur,oses o# ethnomusicology' culminating in a s,ecial
issue in Se,tem%er' 1./@' de"oted entirely to these matters' ha"e %een one o# its main
contri%utions& The inclusion o# many musical e:am,les is one o# its #eatures& Boo3 re"ie4s'
record re"ie4s' and a su%stantial dance section are 4orth mentioning' as are its s,ecial
%i%liogra,hies& The ENotes and Ne4sE section contains in#ormation on 4or3 in ,rogress' ne4
,u%lications' organiAations' #ield tri,s' and con#erences&
The Cournal o# the I1MC is an annual ,u%lication de"oted a%out hal# to (estem #ol3
music and hal# to the music o# nonliterate cultures& Its articles tend to %e a%stracts o# ,a,ers
read at the CouncilDs meetings' although 4ith the 1./1 "olume they
$'+
ha"e %ecome more su%stantial in siAe& n im,ortant #eature is the re"ie4 section' 4hich is
much more com,rehensi"e than that o# Ethnomusicology' #or it includes' %esides %oo3
re"ie4s' descri,tions and e"aluations o# the contents o# <oumals in the #ield and o# indi"idual
articles #rom other ,eriodicals& mong the ,eriodicals in ethnomusicology no4 e:tant 4e
should also mention the African Music Journal' ,u%lished %y the Intemational *i%rary o#
#rican Music and edited %y Hugh Tracey& It contains articles and re"ie4s on #rican and
other Negro music' some 4ritten in ethnomusicological #ashion' others concerned 4ith
?uestions such as the use o# #rican material %y #rican and (estem com,osers and 4ith
Ea,,liedE ,ro%lems such as the #uture o# the #rican Negro music&
mong the earlier ,eriodicals 4e should mention t4o8 $eitschrift f3r vergleichende
Musik#issenschaft' a s,iritual #orerunner o# Ethnomusicology' 4hich 4as ,u%lished #rom 1.@@
to 1.@B %y a 2erman society' E2esellscha#t iur Edorschung der Musi3 des Orients'E and 4hich
includes articles K in 2erman' English' and 1rench K %y such leading #igures as Horn%ostel'
*achmann' HerAog' and BartS3; and another serial ,u%lication 4hich had only a %rie# li#e' %ut
great im,ortance' Sammel5ande f3r vergleichende Musik#issenschaft' 4hich lasted only #rom
1.77 to 1.7@ %ut 4hich re,rinted some o# the im,ortant early 4or3s in the #ield&
Three #urther contem,orary serial ,u%lications are de"oted to ethnomusicology'
including material o# a s,ecialiAed nature& )he -ollo8ues de *egimont contains occasional
"olumes =t4o at the time o# 4riting> de"oted mainly to ,roceedings o# sessions held at
(egimont' Belgium' under the leadershi, o# $aul Collaer& )he Folklore and Folk Music
Archivist is a small <ournal ,u%lished %y Indiana +ni"ersity and de"oted to ne4s and
,ro%lems o# ethnomusicological and #ol3loristic archi"es& Many ,eriodicals in other #ields ha"e
included in#ormation on the music o# non-(estem and #ol3 cultures& These should %e 3no4n
to the student o# ethnomusicology' 4hate"er the disci,line #rom 4hich he a,,roaches his
#ield& mong the musico-
$',
logical ,eriodicals' the merican and 2erman ones ha"e %een the most im,ortant8 Musical
9uarterly' Journal of the American Musicological Society' the Music *i%rary ssociationDs
"otes' and' in 2ermany' Musikforschung& Some o# the early 2erman music <ournals contain
the early classics in our #ield8 in the nineteenth century' (iertel:ahrschrift f3r
Musik#issenschaft; later $eitschrift f3r Musik#issenschaft' and' during the 1.@6Ds' Archiv f3r
Musikforschung& Some organs o# intemational societies should also %e mentioned8 the
$eitschrift and the Sammel5ande o# the Intemationale Musikgesellschaft' and the
contem,orary <ournal o# the Intemational Musicological Society' Acta Musicologica&
nthro,ological ,eriodicals ha"e not as #re?uently included articles on
ethnomusicological su%<ects as ha"e music <ournals& Ne"ertheless' some im,ortant 4or3s
ha"e a,,eared in these organs' es,ecially in the merican ones' most im,ortant o# 4hich are
American Anthro%ologist and South#estem Journal of Anthro%ology& The intemationally
oriented Anthro%os =1ri%ourg' S4itAerland> and the 2erman $eitschrift f3r Ethnologie' as 4ell
as the S4edish <oumal Ethnos' ha"e had im,ortant contri%utions& More im,ortant than the
anthro,ology <ournals' ho4e"er' ha"e %een those in the #ield o# #ol3lore& gain' the merican
ones stand out in their interest in musicological su%<ect matter& Most im,ortant has %een the
Journal of American Folklore' 4hich has contained many o# the landmar3s o# research on
merican #ol3 and Indian music in the last #i"e decades& iso to %e mentioned are (estern
1ol3lore' Mid4est 1ol3lore' Southern 1ol3lore Guarterly' and the Bulletin o# the Tennessee
1ol3lore Society& The Bulletin o# the 1ol3 Song Society o# the Northeast =1.@6-@9> contains
many o# the articles %y $hilli,s Barry' a ,ioneer scholar in British-merican #ol3 music&
Euro,ean #ol3lore <oumals ha"e not %een as interested in musical #ol3lore as ha"e the
merican ones& But the British ,eriodicals de"oted to more ,ractical as,ects o# singing and
#ol3 dance should %e mentioned8 Journal of the Folk Song Society =155.-1.@1> and English
2ance and Song =since 1.@/>&
$'-
O# course many other ,eriodicals ha"e included occasional contri%utions o# an
ethnomusicological nature& This has %een only a summary o# high ,oints' 4ith a listing o#
those <ournals 4hich the scholars in our #ield regularly scan&
Bi/liograhies
Cust as ethnomusicologists must %e ac?uainted 4ith the <ournals o# se"eral #ields' so
must they %e ,re,ared to use the general %i%liogra,hies o# musicology' anthro,ology' and
#ol3lore& But increasingly they 4ill #ind that %i%liogra,hies including only ethnomusicological
materials are %ecoming a"aila%le& There are' indeed' a considera%le num%er o# s,ecialiAed
%i%liogra,hies on hand already&
Kunst =1.B.' 4ith 1./6 su,,lement> gi"es the largest and most com,rehensi"e
%i%liogra,hy& It contains some B'666 items' inde:ed %y author' instrument' su%<ect o# a
musical nature' tri%e and nation' and ,eriodical& It is strongest in sian music and in the
music o# nonliterate cultures' and 4ea3est in (estern #ol3 music& Bi%liogra,hic in#ormation is
#airly com,lete' though at times certain details are omitted& Beyond Kunst' articles in
magaAines and <ournals can %e located in Music Inde: =!etroit>' 4hich co"ers music
,eriodicals in many languages #rom 1.05 on' and 4hich gi"es entries #or authors and titles&
1or earlier materials' and #or ,eriodicals outside the #ield o# music' the general ,eriodical
inde:es are use#ul8 Reader;s &uide #or general and ,o,ular articles' International Index #or
more scholarly ones&
$sychological %stracts includes some material' as do the large 2erman inde:es'
'i5liogra%hie der deutschen $eitschriften - literatur and 'i5liogra%hie der fremds%rachigen
$eitschriften literatur& nother general source o# ,eriodical in#ormation is the annual E1ol3lore
in $eriodical *iteratureE in the su,,lement o# Cournal o# merican 1ol3lore& Some ,eriodicals
gi"e lists o# the contents o# other <ournals; most use#ul here are t4o anthro,ological
$'-
<ournals' Anthro%os and -urrent Anthro%ology& The %i%liogra,hic sources o# ethnomusicology
are also outlined and %rie#ly e"aluated %y Nettl =1./1>&
Bi%liogra,hies o# s,eci#ic su%<ects K usually limited geogra,hically K are #ound #or a
num%er o# areas only& The %est one in terms o# ?uality done so #ar is that o# North merican
Indian music com,iled %y Cose,h Hic3erson =M&& thesis' Indiana +ni"ersity' 1./6; to %e
,u%lished %y the Bureau o# merican Ethnology>& It gi"es annotations' lists musical e:am,les
and their sources' and K "ery im,ortant K locates material on Indian music in ,u%lications
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology @@
de"oted to %roader ethnogra,hy& The location o# such musical in#orrmation in general
discussions o# culture' tri%al monogra,hs' #ield re,orts' etc&' is one o# the di##iculties o#
ethnomusicological %i%liogra,hy& But this ty,e o# material is o# great im,ortance as it is
usually the %est source #or indicating the cultural conte:t o# music& Thus Hic3ersonDs 4or3
could ser"e as a model %i%liogra,hy #or our #ield&
#rican music is co"ered %y Jarley =1.@/>; his 4or3 4as %rought u, to date %y Merriam
=1.B1>& ,redecessor-less detailed %ut more inclusi"e =records and sheet music areincluded>
- o# Hic3ersonDs 4or3 is a monumental %i%liogra,hy o# North merican #ol3lore %y Hay4ood
=1.B1>' 4hich 4as re,rinted in 1./1 4ith corrections& Rhodes =1.B7> gi"es a sur"ey o# the
trends in North merican Indian music research& Thus' the areas in nonliterate cultures %est
co"ered %i%liogra,hically are North merican and Negro #rica&
There has %een' ho4e"er' an e:cellent %i%liogra,hy in the #ield o# sian music mainly
de"oted to the culti"ated music o# the Oriental high cultures' %ut including also the #ol3 music
o# these countries& Cited here as (aterman =1.09>' it a,,eared as a series o# articles in the
Music *i%rary ssociationDs "otes' and 4hile co"ering largely the (estem ,u%lications' it
includes also a good many 4hich a,,eared in sia itsel#& There is no o"erall %i%liogra,hy o#
Euro,ean #ol3 muslc' although there are %l%liogra,hies #or indi"idual nations& Nor are there
com,lete %i%liogra,hies #or Oceanian and *atin merican music =#or the latter'
$)!
ho4e"er' see the music section in the annual 4and5ook of Latin American Studies>& 2il%ert
ChaseDs 2uide to the Music o# *atin merica =$an merican +nion' 1./7>' in its second
edition' is also e:cellent #or ethnomusicology&
1or 3ee,ing a%reast o# the current ,u%lications in ethnomusicology ' se"eral ,eriodicals
are "ery use#ul& The %est co"erage is in the <ournal Ethnomusicology& Here a ECurrent
Bi%liogra,hyE section o# some 066 items ,er year is gi"en& Co"erage is not "ery e"en'
ho4e"er' #or ,er#erence is gi"en to the music o# nonliterate cultures and' secondarily' the
high cultures o# sia&
1ol3 music is rather neglected& But Ethnomusicology has made %i%liogra,hical 4or3
something o# a s,ecialty' ,resenting so-called Es,ecial %i%liogra,hiesE o# material on certain
su%<ects and areas' or o# the 4or3 o# certain indi"idual scholars' as a recurring #eature&
lso o# use in 3ee,ing a%reast o# current ,u%lications are certain ,eriodicals 4hich gi"e
the contents o# other <ournals& The Journal of the IFM- is most intensi"e in this 3ind o#
co"erage it e"en gi"es %rie# re"ie4s o# the articles K %ut since it a,,ears only once a year it is
not really "ery current& (e ha"e already mentioned the lists o# current articles gi"en in
Anthro%os and -urrent Anthro%ology =since 1./7>& )he Journal of Music )heory also lists
current articles o# theoretical interest' and some o# these ha"e ethnomusicological content&
1or %oo3s in our #ield the %est continuing list a,,ears a#ter the %oo3 re"ie4 section in the
Music *i%rary ssociation "otes&
+n,u%lished theses should also %e co"ered %y the care#ul %i%liogra,hical searcher& The
most com,rehensi"e source is lan $& MerriamDs list in Ethnomusicology =Merriam 1./6'
su,,lemented %y 2illis 1./7>& lso o# great use are the occasionallists ,u%lished %y the Joint
-ommittee of the Music )eachers "ational Association and the merican Musicological
Society' entitled 2octoral 2issertation in Musicology' edited %y Helen He4itt =@rd edition'
1./1' ,u%lished %y the merican Musicological Society>& Here the dissertations are classi#ied
%y su%<ect' and ethnomusicological materials ha"e a section o# their o4n&
$)%
+n#ortunately' only a #e4 musical dissertations done in anthro,ology de,artments are
included& O# course the e:cellent 2issertation A5stracts ,u%lished %y +ni"ersity Micro#ilms
=nn r%or' Michigan> is an indis,ensa%le tool in any #ield&
$ersonal %i%liogra,hies' i&e&' lists o# all o# the ,u%lications o# certain indi"idual authors'
are sometimes use#ul #or the ethnomusicologist& Such lists ha"e %een com,iled #or some o#
the most ,rominent scholars in our #ield' and 4e mention the #ollo4ing as most use#ul8 E& M&
"on Horn%ostel' com,iled %y lan $& Merriam =Ethnomusicology "e#sletter no&7' ug& 1.B0'
,& .-1B>; 1rances !ensmore' com,iled %y lan $& Merriam and others =i%id& no&9' ,ril 1.B/'
,& 10-7.>; 2eorge HerAog' com,iled %y Bar%ara Krader =i%id& no&/' Can& 1.B/' ,& 11-76>;
ndre Schae##ner' com,iled %y Bar%ara Krader =Ethnomusicology 7879-@0' 1.B5>; and Curt
Sachs' com,iled %y Kurt Hahn =Acta Musicologica 7.8.0-16/' 1.B9>; also a %i%liogra,hy o#
the 4or3s o# Caa, Kunst' issued in mimeogra,hed #orm %y the Royal Tro,ical Institute'
msterdam' in 1./1&
Related to the ,ersonal %i%liogra,hies are directories o# "arious sorts' gi"ing location o#
institutions' addresses and other in#orrmation a%out scholars' etc& There is no com,rehensi"e
directory #or the #ield o# ethnomusicology& Kunst =1.B.> descri%es institutions in a section on
ETraining $ossi%ilities #or Ethnomusicologists'E as 4ell as gi"ing %rie# s3etches and
,hotogra,hs o# selected scholars& Ethnomusicology o##ers occasional sur"eys o# courses
taught in the +nited States and other countries' and some in#ormation on institutions& The
1ol3lore and 1ol3 Music rchi"ist gi"es sur"eys o# the history and contents o# im,ortant
collections o# recordings& The International !irectory o# nthro,ological Institutions and the
,ro<ected International !irectory o# nthro,ologists are "alua%le& 1inally' *a4less =1./6>
gi"es %iogra,hies o# ,ro#essional ,er#ormers o# #ol3 music in the +nited States-and some o#
these are also scholars and researchers&
(hile the dance is not a s,eci#ic su%<ect o# this %oo3' the close relationshi, %et4een
dance and music can hardly %e ignored&
$)&
Thus 4e should mention at least the %est sur"ey o# dance research a"aila%le' an article %y
2ertrude $& Kurath =1./6>' 4hich contains an e:cellent %i%liogra,hy& The ECurrent
Bi%liogra,hyE in Ethnomu5icology includes a s,ecial section on current ,u%lications dealing
4ith dance research&
4iscograhy
long 4ith %i%liogra,hy' the science o# discogra,hy is increasing in im,ortance to
ethnomusicologists& The ra4 material o# ethnomusicology is %est ,reser"ed' a#ter all' not in
%oo3s %ut as recorded sound& Thus a 3no4ledge o# commercial recordings and the a%ility to
locate non,rocessed #ield recordings in archi"es or ,ri"ate collections is an essential
com,anion s3ill to %i%liogra,hic #acility&
There is not' and there ,ro%a%ly ne"er 4ill %e' a com,rehensi"e central guide to the
contents o# ethnomusicological archi"es& Occasionally this 3ind o# in#ormation a,,ears in
,rint' %ut to a large e:tent the student must locate material o# tri%es' cultures' instruments'
and song ty,es in 4hich he is interested through ,ersonal contact' or through the e:change
channels o# scholarly societies& Each o# the im,ortant archi"es o# #ol3 and non-(estern music
is 4ell cataloged' and direct in?uiry 4ill normally ,roduce the desired in#ormation& In the
+nited States' the *i%rary o# CongressD rchi"e o# 1ol3 Song is certainly the %est source #or
#ield recordings o# merican #ol3 music' and a good one #or other 3inds& The rchi"es o# 1ol3
and $rimiti"e Music at Indiana +ni"ersity contains one o# the %est collections o# North
merican Indian music' as 4ell as rich sam,lings #rom all other ,arts o# the 4orld; it is
,erha,s the %est all-around collection& The *a%oratory o# Ethnomusicology at North4estem
+ni"ersity contains' among other collections' a great deal o# #rican and Ne4 (orld Negro
music& The Ethnomusicology rchi"e at the +ni"ersity o# Cali#omia at *os ngeles s,ecialiAes
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology @B
$)'
in Oriental music& The $honogrammarchi" in (est Berlin contains a large general collection
es,ecially strong in Tur3ish and other Near Eastem music& nd other' only slightly less
im,ortant archi"es also ha"e their s,ecialties& Here The 1ol3lore and 1ol3 Music rchi"ist
gi"es use#ul in#ormation&
2eorge HerAog =1.@/> ,u%lished a sur"ey o# research in ethnomusicology in 4hich the
most im,ortant #ield collections made u, to that time are enumerated' and their locations
gi"en& This sur"ey is still "alua%le' although it should %e realiAed that many o# the collections
listed do not ha"e the "alue they had in 1.@/' ha"ing %een su,erceded %y others o# greater
sco,e and acoustic #idelity& lso' the location o# many has changed& Reinhard =1./1> gi"es a
listing o# the contents o# the Berlin $honogrammarchi" as it 4as %uilt u, a#ter (orld (ar II&
The International 1ol3 Music Council in 1.B0 ,u%lished an International -atalog listing
archi"es& nd the ne4s sections o# Ethnomusicollogy and the Bulletin =not the Cournal> o# the
lnternational 1ol3 Music Council gi"e in#ormation on im,ortant ac?uisitions o# ' some o# the
large archi"es&
The location o# commercial records o# #ol3 and non-(estem music is' o# course' less
di##icult' %ut their e"aluation is e?ually hard& +ntil a%out 1.B7' #e4 recordings o# this sort
4ere a"aila%le; since then' the industry has mushroomed' and e"ery month sees the release
o# se"eral recordings intended to ser"e scholar and student' as 4ell as many 4hich are
intended only as entertainment' %ut 4hose titles do not distinguish them #rom the more
serious one& The #irst im,ortant attem,t to ,ro"ide the ,u%lic 4ith authentic material #or
oriental music 4as made %y Horn%ostel in 1.75; a set o# records' edited %y Carl *indstrom'
illustrating sian and North #rican high cultures' 4as issued and entitled Musi3 des Orients&
%out 1.B5 it 4as reissued %y !ecca 4ith the title Music o# the Orient; and in s,ite o# the
great com,etition #rom ne4er recordings' it is ,ro%a%ly still the %est sur"ey o# its area'
containing as it does ,ieces 4hich are 4ell suited to attracting the layman to the large area o#
non-(estem music&
$))
The student o# ethnomusicology 4ill not de"ote much time to his su%<ect %e#ore %eing
con#ronted %y the Ethnic 1ol34ays *i%rary' a series ,u%lished %y the 1ol34ays Cor,oration
4hich contains that com,anyDs out,ut o# greatest authenticity' in contrast to its large num%er
o# entertainment issues& This series contains many #ine *$ records accom,anied %y notes o#
"arying ?uality& But it also contains some se"ere disa,,ointments&
mong the outstanding records o# the Ethnic 1ol34ays *i%rary 4e should mention three
#rom its early days8 Siou: and Na"aho Music; Music o# E?uator' #rica; and Hungariun 1ol3
Music' made #rom recordings ta3en %y BRla BartS3 and accom,anied %y a %oo3let o# his
transcri,tions& Besides sur"eys o# the music o# nations and tri%al areas' 1ol34ays has also
,resented records o# a more s,ecialiAed nature' such as !rums o# the )oru%a o# Nigeru'
edited %y (illiam R& Bascom' in 4hich the "arious uses and styles o# drumming are
illustrated& nother series o# im,ortance is the (orld *i%rary o# $rimiti"e and 1ol3 Music
edited %y lan *oma: and issued %y Colum%ia& The Sound o# #rica' a large set o# *$ records
issued %y the International *i%rary o# #rican Music and edited %y Hugh Tracey' illustrates
many #rican styles and is accom,anied %y detailed notes on cards& The ,am,hlets
accom,anying commercial records are sometimes tremendously use#ul' %ut sometimes they
ha"e %een 4ritten %y indi"iduals 4ho 3ne4 little a%out the conditions under 4hich the
recordings 4ere made& The use#ulness o# a record is ,ro,ortionate to the ?uality and amount
o# %ac3ground in#ormation gi"en in the accom,anying notes& This ,oint is #urther discussed in
Cha,ter @; %ut it %ehoo"es us here to s,ea3 %rie#ly o# the ,ro%lems o# e"aluating commercial
,roduction o# #ield recordings&
Record re"ie4s in the general record magaAines' such as High 1idelity are only
moderately use#ul in most cases& These magaAines do not include many recordings o#
ethnomusicological interest' and their re"ie4s tend to em,hasiAe the acoustic #idelity and the
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology @/
?uality o# the ,er#ormance rather than cultural authenticity& The record re"ie4 inde: sec&tion
in the Music
$)*
*i%rary ssociationDs "otes contains #ol3 and non-(estem music once each year =see
"otes 15' no&0' Se,t& 1./1>& 2ood re"ie4s o# records' 4ritten #rom the ethnomusicological
,oint o# "ie4' a,,ear in Ethnomusicology' Cournal o# merican 1ol3lore =usually essays gi"ing
concise o,inions on each o# a large grou, o# records>' and' %eginning 4ith its 1./7 "olumes'
the Journal of the IFM-& #ine list o# records 4as also ,u%lished %y Kunst =1.B.870-@/>&
E"aluating records 4ithout the aid o# re"ie4s %y s,ecialists is di##icult& (e can' o#
course' ascertain 4hether a record contains a re,resentati"e sam,ling o# a cultureDs music or
4hether only a #e4 nonre,resentati"e e:am,les a,,ear; %ut this does not hel, us in
e"aluating the use#ulness o# the indi"idual ,ieces o# music on a record& mong our criteria
must %e the #ollo4ing8 (as the ,iece recorded in the #ield' or in a la%oratoryH By nati"e
musicians' 4hose ,er#ormance 4ould %e acce,ted %y others in their cultureH Has the music
%een arranged #or (estem consum,tion %y ,ro#essional musiciansH These ?uestions cannot
easily %e ans4ered %y sim,ly listening& Thus' the "alue o# the record and the ,ossi%ility o#
e"aluating it are largely de,endent on the ,resence and ?uality o# the accom,anying notes&
These should gi"e detailed in#ormation on the circumstances o# recording and on the 3inds
and num%ers o# instruments and ,er#ormers' and there should %e at least a cursory
descri,tion o# the musical styles and o# the #orms o# the com,ositions& *ac3ing such notes'
e"en an e:cellent collection can %e rendered useless& s *aurence $ic3en says in a re"ie4 o#
the "ES-+ Musical Anthology of the +rient' Ean anthology that includes much interesting
and %eauti#ul music is reduced to a #raction o# its ,otential "alue %y sli,shodness in
documentation =Journal of the IFM- 1B8107' 1./7>&
Mere lists o# recordings' 4ithout discrimination as to ?uality' are #ound in many ,laces&
*a4less =1./6> lists a large num%er o# merican #ol3 song records& The Intemational 1ol3
Music CouncilDs International -atalogue of Recorded Folk Music =1.B0' 4ith su,,lements
,u%lished at inter"als>' is a list 4hich'
$)+
though large' can %e considered to ha"e the CouncilDs recommendation& The *i%rary o#
CongressD Catalogue o# $rinted Boo3s8 Music and $honorecords contains re,rints o# catalog
cards o# recordings and a su%<ect inde:' ma3ing it ,ossi%le to locate the music o# s,eci#ic
indi"idual cultures& The *i%rary o# Congress catalog %egan including records in 1.B@& 1inally'
the Sch4ann *$ record catalog' a listing o# records a"aila%le on the merican mar3et' has a
s,ecial section on E#ol3 musicE 4hich also contains the music o# non-(estem cultures' all
arranged %y country &
In s,ite o# these many aids' there is no dou%t that the #ield o# ethnomusicological
discogra,hy is not nearly so 4ell de"elo,ed as that o# %i%liogra,hy& It is e"ident that there
are a great many im,ortant %i%liogra,hical aids' 4hich 4ere necessitated %y the #act that
ethnomusicological ,u%lications a,,ear in the annals o# se"eral disci,lines& But it is necessary
#or the student to %e ac?uainted directly 4ith the ,rocedures #or #inding %i%liogra,hic
in#ormation' 4ith the most im,ortant landmar3s in the history o# research' and 4ith the most
im,ortant scholars in the #ield&
Bi/liograhy
BartS3' BRla =1.@1>& 4ungarian Folk MSic& *ondon8 O:#ord +ni"ersity $ress&
BartS3' BRla and l%ert B& *ord =1.B1>& Ser5o7-roatian Folk Songs& Ne4 )or3' Colum%ia
+ni"ersity $ress&
OOOOOO =1.B.>& SlovenSk< l;udov< %iesne! vol= /& Bratisla"a8 cademia Scientiarum Slo"aca&
Bose' 1ritA =1.B@>& Musikalische (>lkerkunde& Ftirich8 tlantis&
Bronson' Bertrand Harris =1.B.>& )he )raditional )unes of the -hild 'allads& $rinceton' N& C&8
$rinceton +ni"ersity $ress&
!anc3ert' (erner =1.@.>& 2as euro%iiische (olkslied& Berlin8 C& Bard&
!ensmore' 1rances =1.15>& )eton Sioux Music& (ashington8 Smithsonian Institution&
=Bulletin /1 o# the Bureau o# merican Ethnology>
Emsheimer' Ernst =1.0@>& )he Music of the Mongols& Stoc3holm8 The Sino-S4edish
E:,edition' $u%lication 71&
2illis' 1ran3 C& =1./7>& En annotated %i%liogra,hy o# theses and dissertations in
ethnomusicology and #ol3 music acce,ted at merican and #oreign uni"ersities' su,,lement
IN' Ethnomusicology /81.1-710&
Haydon' 2len =1.01>& Introduction to Musicology& Ne4 )or38 $rentice-Hall& Re,rinted %y
+ni"ersity o# North Carolina $ress =Cha,el Hill> ' 1.B.&
Hay4ood' Charles =1.B1>& A 'i5liogra%hy of "orth American Folklore and Folksong& Ne4 )or38
2reen%erg& 7nd re"ised edition' Ne4 )or3' !o"er $u%lishers' 1./1' 4ith added inde: o#
,er#ormers and arrangers&
HerAog' 2eorge =1.@/>& Research in Primitive and Folk Music in the nited States&
(ashington8 merican Council o# *earned Societies' Bulletin 70&
OOOOOO =1.@5>& E com,arison o# $ue%lo and $ima musical styles'E Cournal o# merican
1ol3lore 0.8 75@-019&
OOOOOO =1.B6>& MSongN' in 1un3 and (agnallDs Standard 2ictionary of Folklore! Mythology!
and Legend' "ol& 7& Ne4 )or38 1un3 and (agnall&
Hood' Mantle =1.B0>& )he "uclear )heme as a 2eterminant of Patern in Javanese Music&
2roningen8 C& R& (olters&
OOOOOO =1./@>& EMusic' the un3no4nE in Harrison' Hood and $alisca& Musicology& Engle4ood
Cli##s' N& C&8 $rentice-Hall&
Horn%ostel' Erich M& Jon =1.16>& M+%er einige $an,#ei#en aus nord4est-BrasilienN in Theodor
Koch-2ruen%erg' $#ei Jahre unter den Indianem& Berlin8 E& (asmuth' Jol& 7&
OOOOOO =1.17> &EMelodie und S3ala'E Jahr5uch der Musik5i5liothek= $eters 768 11-7@
=,u%lished in 1.1@>&
OOOOOO =1.75>& M#rican Negro musicN' Africa 18@6-/7&
OOOOOO =1.@/>& E1uegian songs'E American Anthro%ologist @58 @B9-@/9&
Horn%ostel' Erich M& "on' and Otto %raham =1.6@>& ETonsystem und Musi3 der Ca,anerN&
Sammel5iinde der internationalen Muikgesellschaft' 08@67-@/6&
OOOOOO =1.60>& M+%er die Bedeutung des $honogra,hen #Pr die "ergleichende
Musi34issenscha#tN' $eitschrift f3r Ethnologie @/8 777-7@@
OOOO =1.6.>& MJorschlage Aur Tans3ri,tion e:otischer MelodienN' Sammel5iinde der
internationalen Musikgesellschaft 1181-7B&
Horn%ostel' Erich M& "on' and Curt Sachs =1.10>& MSystemati3 der Musi3instrumenteN'
$eitschrift f3r Ethnologie 0/8BB@-B.6& English translation %y nthony Baines and K& $&
(achsmann in 2al,in Society Cournal 108@-7.' 1./1&
Kolins3i' MiecAysla4 =1.B.>& EThe e"aluation o# tem,o'E Ethnomusicology @80B-B/&
OOOOOO =1./1>& EClassi#ication o# tonal structuresE' Studies in Ethnomusicology 18@5-9/&
Kunst' Caa, =1.B.>& Ethnomusicology' @rd edition& The Hague8 M& Ni<ho##&
Kurath' 2ertrude $& =1./6>& E$anorama o# dance ethnologyE' Current nthro,ology 187@@-
7B0&
*ach' Ro%ert =1.70>& 2ie vergleichende Musik#issenschaft! ihre Methoden und Pro5leme=
(ien8 3ademie der (issenscha#ten&
*achmann' Ro%ert =1.7.>& Musi3 des Orients& Breslau8 Cedermanns Blicherei&
*a4less' Ray M& =1./6>& Folksingers and Folksongs in America= Ne4 )or38 !uell' Sloan and
$earce&
Mcllester' !a"id $& =1.0.>& $eyote Music& Ne4 )or38 Ji3ing 1und $u%lications in
nthro,ology' no&1@&
OOOOOO =1.B0>& Enemy *ay Music& Cam%ridge8 $ea%ody Museum $a,ers' "ol& 01' no&@&
Malm' (illiam $& =1.B.>& Ja%anese Music and Musical Instruments= To3yo and Rutland' Jt&8 C&
E& Tuttle&
Merriam' lan $& =1.B1>& En annotated %i%liogra,hy o# #rican and merican deri"ed music
since 1.@/'E Africa 718@1.-@@6&
OOOOOO =1.BB>& EThe use o# music in the study o# a ,ro%lem o# acculturation'E American
Anthro%ologist B9 875-@0&
OOOOOO =1.B5>& E#rican musicE in Bascom' (illiam R&' and Mel"ille C& Hers3o"its' -ontinuity
and -hange in African -ultures& Chicago8 +ni"ersity o# Chicago $ress' ,,& 0.-5/&
OOOOOO =1./6>& En annotated %i%liogra,hy o# theses and dissertations in ethnomusicology
and #ol3 music acce,ted at merican uni"ersities'E Ethnomusicology 0871-@.&
Nettl' Bruno =1.B/>& Music in Primitive -ulture& Cam%ridge8 Har"ard +ni"ersity $ress&
OOOOOO =1./6>& An Introduction to Folk Music in the nited States= !etroit8 (ayne State
+ni"ersity $ress& Re"ised edition' 1./7&
OOOOOO =1./1>& Reference Materials in Ethnomusicology& !etroit8 In#ormation Ser"ice&
Reinhard' Kurt =1.B/>& Chinesische Musi3& Kassel8 E& RTth&
OOOOOO =1./1>& E!as %erliner $honogrammerchi"'E Baessler-rchi"' "eue Folge' .85@-.0&
Rhodes' (illard =1.B7>& ENorth merican Indian music' a %i%liogra,hical sur"ey o#
anthro,ological theory'E "otes =Music *i%rary ssociation> 168@@-0B&
Sachs' Curt =1.1@>& Real7Lexikon der Musikinstrumente& Berlin8 C& Bard& Re,rinted %y Olms
=Hildesheim>' 1./7' and %y !o"er =Ne4 )or3> 1./@&
OOOOOO =1.@5>& *orld 4istory of the 2ance= Ne4 )or38 Norton&
OOOOOO =1.@0>& )he Rise of Music in the Ancient *orld! East and *est= Ne4 )or38 Norton&
OOOOOO = 1.0/>& )he -ommon#ealth of Art= Ne4 )or38 Norton&
OOOOOO =1.B@>& Rhythm and )em%o& Ne4 )or38 Norton&
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology @.
OOOOOO =1.B.>& (ergleichende Musik#issenschaft? Musik der Fremdkulturen' 7nd edition&
Heidel%erg8 Guelle and Meyer&
OOOOOO =1./7>& )he *ells%rings of Mus@c& The Hague8 M& Ni<ho##&
Schinhan' Can& $& =1.B9>& )he Music of the 'allads& !urham' N& C&8 !u3e +ni"ersity $ress
=The 1ran3 C& Bro4n Collection o# North Carolina 1ol3lore' "ol& 0>&
Schneider' Marius =1.@0>& &eschichte der Mehrstimmigkeit' "ol& 1& Berlin8 C& Bard&
Shar,' Cecil C& =1.@7>& English Folk Songs from the Southern A%%alachians= *ondon8 O:#ord
+ni"ersity $ress& Re,rinted' O:#ord +ni"ersity $ress' 1.B7&
Stum,#' Carl =155/>& E*ieder der Bella3ula Indianer'E (ierteliahrschrift fur Musikfissenschaft
780B6-07/&
OOOOOO =1.11>& 2ie Anfiinge der Musik& *ei,Aig8 C& & Barth&
SAa%olcsi' Bence =1.B.>& 'austeine 6u einer &eschAchte der Melodie& Buda,est8 Cor"ina&
Jarley' !ouglas H& =1.@/>& African "ative Music? An Annotated 'i5liogra%hy= *ondon& Royal
Em,ire Society&
(allasche3' Richard =15.@>& Primitive Music& *ondon8 *ongmans&
(aterman' Richard & =1.09> and others& EBi%liogra,hy o# siatic musics'E "otes =Music
*i%rary ssociation> 0-5' 1.09-B1&
OOOOO =1.B7>& M#rican in#luence on merican Negro music'N in Sol Ta: ed& Acculturation in
the Americas& Chicago8 +ni"ersity o# Chicago $ress&
(ellesA' Egon =1.B9>' ed& Ancient and +riental Music& *ondon8 O:#ord +ni"ersity $ress& =Ne4
O:#ord History o# Music' "ol& 1>&
(ilgus' !& K& =1.B.>& Anglo7American Folksong Scholarshi% Since /,0,& Ne4 Bruns4ic38
Rutgers +ni"ersity $ress&
(iora' (alter =1.B9>& Euro%3ische (olkmusik und a5endl3ndische )onkunst& Kassel8 C& $&
Hinnenthal&
Chater &
FIE04 "OR5
Ha"ing indicated something o# the nature and sco,e o# ethnomusicology in Cha,ter 1'
and ha"ing sur"eyed the most im,ortant o# its ,u%lished ,roducts in Cha,ter 7' 4e are no4
ready to discuss the "arious acti"ities o# the ethnomusicologist& Our order o# ,rocedure is that
4hich the scholar himsel# must normally ,ursue K #rom gathering the ra4 material through
the 4or3 o# transcri,tion and analysis to descri,tion o# musical style and the study o# music
in culture& Thus 4e %egin 4ith the most %asic and logically the #irst o# these acti"ities' #ield
4or3&
Curt Sachs =1./781/> di"ides ethnomusicological research into t4o 3inds o# 4or3' #ield
4or3 and des3 4or3& 1ield 4or3 denotes the gathering o# recordings and the #irst-hand
e:,erience o# musical li#e in a ,articular human culture' 4hile des3 4or3 includes
transcri,tion' analysis' and the dra4ing o# conclusions& The distinction %et4een these t4o
3inds o# 4or3 is shrin3ing& $erha,s it should not %e made in the #irst ,lace' #or as 4e shall
see' a great deal o# the #ield 4or3 done %y ethnomusicologists does actually re?uire the use
o# a 4riting ta%le and o# the 3ind o# seclusion im,lied %y the term des3 4or3' 4hile the des3
4or3 is increasingly done as ,art o# a #ield tri,& $ossi%ly the distinction came a%out at a time
4hen the ethnomusicologist himsel# rarely 4ent into the E#ield'E lea"ing this to %e done %y a
,ro#essional anthro,ologist 4ho %rought home material #or the music s,ecialist to 4or3 4ith
at his des3&
$*%
E"idently it 4as once thought that #ield 4or3 is sim,ly the gathering o# ra4 material'
done 4ith a recording machine %y a ,erson 4ho need 3no4 little more than ho4 to s4itch on
a recorder& It 4as an essential %ut hardly digni#ied ,ortion o# the ethnomusicological
o,eration& But increasingly it has %een recogniAed that much can %e gained i# the
ethnomusicologist himsel# goes into the #ield' and #ailing that' i# the ethnological #ield 4or3er
can learn 4hat he needs to do in order to ,ro"ide the music s,ecialist 4ith really use#ul
material&
Cust 4hat is this M#ieldN 4hich the ethnomusicologist is to "isitH In the days o# idealiAed
tri%al li#e' 4e may ,resume that the #ield 4or3er #ound out' %y reading and here say' the
location o# a tri%e' and that he 4ent there %y 4hate"er means o# trans,ortation 4as a"aila%le
and then #ound his tri%e' neatly clustered in its grou, o# "illages' untouched %y any contact
4ith the e"il (est and its con"entional music; he made #riends' as3ed them to sing and ,lay'
and turned on his recording machine& #ter his #riends had assured him that they had sung all
they 3ne4' he #olded u, his materials and 4ent home again' his #ield tri, com,leted&
+n#ortunately' it rarely 4or3s this 4ay& The ethnomusicologistDs M#ieldN is a com,licated
situation' 4ith more e"idence o# mi:ture 4ith other cultures than o# an ancient' undistur%ed
cultural lineage& It may consist o# indi"iduals un4illing or una%le to sing' o# inhi%ition'
ignorance' and technical di##iculty' and dece,tion %y commercialism& On the other hand' i# the
ethnomusicologist considers himsel# the student o# music in all cultures' his M#ieldN may also
%e his o4n en"ironment' and he is ,art o# it& Thus the conce,t M#ield 4or3N includes more
than <ust a rather standardiAed "isit to a ,rimiti"e "illage&
Because the 4orldDs cultures are com,licated and %ecause musical li#e in the 4orld
consists o# many di##erent 3inds o# ,henomena' the studentDs a,,roach to #ield 4or3 must %e
care#ul and circums,ect& He must ,re,are himsel#' and he must ha"e some ideas o# 4hat he
4ill do' e"en i# on arri"al he may change these ideas& (ith the amount o# em,hasis ,laced %y
recent scholars on the ?uality o# #ield 4or3 =see Merriam 1./68116-11>'
$*&
one 4ould thin3 that a great deal o# literature regarding the methods to %e #ollo4ed and the
,it#alls to %e a"oided 4ould ha"e a,,eared& ctually there are #e4 such guides' ,erha,s
%ecause ethnomusicological #ield 4or3' in addition to %eing a scienti#ic ty,e o# acti"ity' is also
an art& It in"ol"es the esta%lishment o# ,ersonal relationshi,s %et4een the in"estigator and
the ,eo,le 4hose music he 4ishes to record and 4hose thoughts a%out music he 4ishes to
unco"er' and such relationshi,s cannot %e %uilt %y resorting to 4ritten instructions& It might
seem ad"isa%le' there#ore' to urge students to go into the #ield and to do the %est they can'
4ithout #urther outuning their %eha"ior #or them& But this 4ould ,ro%a%ly yield' #or most
students' rather ,oor results& *et us instead outline the 3inds o# #ield 4or3 4hich ha"e %een
and can %e done in ethnomusicology' the 3inds o# things 4hich should %e o%ser"ed and
gathered' and let us indicate some tools K technical and intellectual K 4hich may %e o# hel,&
These directions should %e ta3en as hints; no outline or ho4-to-do-it guide can %e gi"en #or
this most ,ersonaliAed as,ect o# ethnomusicological research&
The usual assum,tion is that the ethnomusicological #ield 4or3er 4ill %ring %ac3 #rom a
tri, some ,hysical material recordings' and ,erha,s notes& In one ty,e o# #ield 4or3'
ho4e"er' the most im,ortant ,roduct o# the 4or3 4ill not %e a ,hysical record %ut the #ield
4or3erDs a%ility and 3no4ledge in the musical culture 4hich he is "isiting& This 3ind o# ,roduct
is en"isioned in the ty,e o# ethnomusicological 4or3 4hich has the de"elo,ment o#
%imusicality as its immediate goal& The indi"idual 4ho 4ishes to learn to %e a com,etent
musician in another culture must ordinarily a,,roach his #ield 4or3 in a 4ay ?uite di##erent
#rom that o# the anthro,ological #ield 4or3er 4ho 4ants to de"elo, a high degree o# insight
4ithout going nati"e& nd it is the 4or3 o# the latter ty,e o# #ield in"estigator 4hich 4e shall
discuss on the #ollo4ing ,ages&
Some com,onents o# #ield 4or3 are the same in e"ery ty,e o# culture' %ut in ,ractice
there ha"e %een great di##erences in the a,,roaches ta3en to4ard #ol3 cultures' non-literate
cultures'
$*'
and sian high cultures K to say nothing o# the a,,roaches to #ield 4or3 in the realm o#
(estern culti"ated music& It 4ould seem that the ideal o# a #ield 4or3er is to learn all =or as
much as ,ossi%le> a%out all musical as,ects =or as many as,ects as ,ossi%le> o# a culture&
This ideal is clearly %eyond our reach' and thus it is necessary to limit the ,ro<ected 4or3& It
is ,ro%a%ly easier to come close to the ideal in a tri%al community than in a #ol3 or a high
culture& Thus the ethnomusicologist 4ho s,ends one or t4o years 4ith an Indian tri%e stands
a %etter chance o# learning something a%out all ,hases o# musical culture than the student o#'
say' Ca,anese music or S,anish #ol3 music&
It may %e ,ro,er to say that limitation o# #ield 4or3 in a tri%al culture is mainly
geogra,hical and demogra,hic; the area to %e in"estigated is small' and so is the ,o,ulation&
E"en so' only the luc3iest o# #ield 4or3ers can say' a#ter s,ending a year 4ith a small tri%al
community' that he has recorded sam,les o# all ty,es o# music' has made o%ser"ations on all
ty,es o# musical %eha"ior' and' in a 4ord' has com,leted the musical research 4hich can %e
done on that tri%e at that time& In a (estern #ol3 culture the chances o# accom,lishing such
e:hausti"e co"erage are much smaller' %ecause the culture usually contains more
communities' indi"iduals' and contacts 4ith other cultures& Only in a #e4 cases' then' 4ould
#ield ,ro<ects 4ithout some 3ind o# ,re,ared limitation seem ad"isa%le& There are ,ro,onents
o# a school o# thought according to 4hich the %est a,,roach is sim,ly to turn on the ta,e
recorder and %ring home 4hate"er sounds occur; %ut the chance o# ,ro"iding good cultural
%ac3ground in#ormation 4ith such an a,,roach is not great' nor is that o# ,ro"iding a
meaning#ul collection o# recordings 4hich re,resents some ,hase o# culture& On the other
hand' it is not es,ecially ad"isa%le to come into the #ield 4ith ,reconcei"ed ideas o# 4hat 3ind
o# recordings one 4ill ma3e' and 4hat 3inds o# songs 4ill %e a"aila%le& Thus' the student o#
old British %allads 4ho tries to collect such material in Ne4#oundland 4ould #ind some
a,,ro,riate songs' %ut he 4ould ,erha,s %e disa,,ointed; and i# he 4ere determined to
record only old English
$*)
%allads he 4ould %e missing a "ast treasure house o# sea shanties and Irish songs& Thus'
4hile a collector should ha"e some 3ind o# ,rogram #or his 4or3' he should not allo4 it to
%lind him to une:,ected 3inds o# material 4ith 4hich he could also concern himsel#&
Tyes o( Field Tris
The most common 3ind o# #ield tri, is that 4hich has as its goal the ma3ing o# a general
sam,ling o# a communityUs musical culture& +sually K in tri%al cultures K this can %e e:tended
%eyond a single community' ,ossi%ly to the entire area inha%ited %y the tri%e& The general
sam,ling a,,roach is mani#ested in the ,u%lications o# 1rances !ensmore' 4ho #ollo4ed it in
her 4or3 4ith some t4enty tri%es& Thus' !ensmoreUs study o# Teton !a3ota music =1.15>
includes' according to her ta%le o# contents' songs o# ceremonies' old ceremonial songs'
songs collected 4ith dreams or "isions' songs %elonging to societies' modern 4ar songs'
council and chie# songs' dance songs' game songs' childrenDs songs' lo"e songs' and honoring
songs& O# course' some categories o# music are not included =no 2host !ance' $eyote' or
#lute songs>' %ut the ma<ority seem to %e re,resented& To some e:tent' !ensmore also
collected material in"ol"ing the role o# music in the culture' %ut this 4as done in a manner
more incidental to the recording than as an o%<ect in itsel#&
n o"er"ie4 o# the role o# music in culture is gi"en in McllesterDs study o# the Na"aho
Enemy (ay ceremony =1.B0>& Here' although the musical e:am,les gi"en are ta3en #rom
only one Na"aho ceremony' a considera%le ,ortion o# the monogra,h is de"oted to a study o#
Na"aho cultural "alues as e:,ressed in music' indicating that the latter as,ect 4as stressed
in McllesterDs #ield 4or3& (e can imagine #ield tri,s in 4hich a general treatment o# one o#
se"eral ,hases o# musical li#e is
$**
sought K the musical material itsel#' the role o# music in the culture' or musical instruments&
But e:ce,t #or in"estigations in 4hich only recordings are sought' such sectional o"er"ie4s
seem to %e rare' <udging #rom the e:tant literature& It is more common to #ind in"estigators
trying to limit their acti"ities %y the ty,e o# music or in#ormant they 4or3 4ith&
The o,,osite o# the cultural o"er"ie4 a,,roach is one in 4hich the entire musical
re,ertory' or ,erha,s the entire musical e:,erience' o# one indi"idual is collected& Many #ield
4or3ers 4ho attem,ted to collect a sam,ling #rom an entire tri%e or an entire #ol3 community
#ound that their mainstay 4as a single in#ormant K a ,layer or a singer& But #e4 ha"e
consciously gone into the #ield 4ith the ,ur,ose o# using one in#ormant as their unit o# 4or3'
4ithout concerning themsel"es 4ith other mem%ers o# the culture e:ce,t to #ind out more
a%out the one main in#ormant& In anthro,ology' the idea o# learning a%out a culture #rom
detailed auto%iogra,hical data o# indi"iduals has long %een "alued =see *o4ie 1.@981@B>;
ca,turing the musical %iogra,hy o# an indi"idual through his reminiscences as 4ell as through
recording his musical content' as it 4ere' has %een #ollo4ed occasionally Schi<isrring =1.B/>
,ro"ides an e:am,le o# such an a,,roach' though it did not =and ,erha,s no such study can>
result #rom only a single #ield tri,& $arenthetically' recording the musical %iogra,hies o#
ordinary indi"iduals in (estern culture 4ould seem to %e one 4ay in 4hich ethnomusicology
methods could %e a,,lied to (estern ci"iliAation to #ind in#ormation 4hich con"entional
musicology has not made a"aila%le&
Sachs =1./7> K and e"eryone 4riting a%out the su%<ect K stresses the im,ortance o#
,rolonged contact 4ith mem%ers o# another culture& To say that the ,ur,oses o#
ethnomusicology cannot %e accom,lished %y tourist-li3e "isits is une:ce,tiona%le& But there
are ty,es o# #ield 4or3 #or 4hich short "isits' ,articularly series o# short "isits' are "ery
use#ul& 1or e:am,le' in studying the material o# one in#ormant' it 4ould seem use#ul' a#ter a
,rolonged "isit' to "isit the indi"idual re,eatedly' #irst in order
$*+
to collect material 4hich may ha"e sli,,ed his memory on the #irst occasion' and second' in
order to o%ser"e the changes 4hich may' o"er the years' ha"e %een im,osed on this
re,ertory and style o# ,er#ormance& There ha"e %een cases in 4hich the in#ormants o#
deceased or retired #ield 4or3ers 4ere re"isited %y younger scholars' 4ith most interesting
results&
Concentration on s,ecial as,ects o# a musical culture is characteristic o# relati"ely short
#ield tri,s' o# in"estigations in the music o# high cultures' and o# tri,s #ollo4ing an initial'
general in"estigation& 1or e:am,le' one might underta3e a tri, sim,ly to record the songs o#
children or o# 4omen; or to in"estigate a s,eci#ic instrument and the ,eo,le 4ho ,lay it =this
has %een done' #or instance' #or the 2uatemalan marim%a and its marim%eros>& Or one might
in"estigate the music o# one ceremony' as 4as done %y Mcllester #or the $eyote songs o# the
Comanche&
(hile a great many #ield tri,s ha"e %een underta3en #or the study o# one %ranch o# a
cultureDs music' and 4hile this 3ind o# limitation seems to %e ad"isa%le' 4e should mention
another ty,e o# selecti"e collecting 4hich' 4hile on the sur#ace it may %e similar to the 3ind
o# tri, <ust descri%ed' is really o# a di##erent nature and may result in the de#eat o# the #ield
4or3er& This is the 3ind o# in"estigation in 4hich one ty,e o# material is selected #rom among
others' %ut the di##erence %et4een it and the cultureDs other material is e"ident only to the
collector' not to the mem%ers o# the community 4hich ,ro"ides the in#ormants&
n e:am,le is the search #or EoldE material& (hile most non-literate cultures ha"e %een'
in recent years' in#luenced %y either the (estern or another high ci"iliAation' and 4hile the
,rocess 3no4n as acculturation is "ery much in e"idence in most areas o# the 4orld' some
collectors ha"e tried to segregate the material 4hich e:isted in a tri%e %e#ore acculturation
too3 ,lace& Some cultures recogniAe the distinction %et4een this EoldE material and the ne4'
4hich 4as created under the in#luence o# other cultures' %ut others ignore it& To as3
in#ormants #or old material may not ,ro"ide results' and to dis,arage the ne4 material'
$*,
4hich to an in#ormant may seem much su,erior com,ared to the old' may cause ,ro%lems in
the in"estigatorDs ,ersonal relations 4ith his in#ormants& Moreo"er' a #ield 4or3er may'
contrary to his o4n %elie#s' not %e in a ,osition to identi#y the old material' and certainly in
im,osing his o4n distinction K ,re-acculturated "ersus acculturated K he may %e doing
"iolence to or ignoring the distinctions 4hich e:ist in the culture itsel#&
The 3ind o# selecti"e #ield 4or3 not %ased on the in#ormantDs o4n criteria o# distinction
has %een ,racticed in great ?uantity %y collectors o# the #ol3 music o# (estern cultures& Many
collectors' 4ho ha"e %een termed the E,uristsE o# the ,ro#ession' ha"e urged their in#ormants
to a"old gi"ing them songs 4hose com,osers are 3no4n' or songs 4hich 4ere %rought #rom
ur%an sources' etc& In British-merican collecting' the search #or %allads in contrast to other
song ty,es has led to a curious con#usion =see (ilgus 1.B.81/9-9@>& In#ormants cannot
de#ine %allads' and e"en scholars cannot do this easily& Thus' 4ithin the %allad Ecanon'E
,articularly that o# Cames 1rancis Child' are some songs 4hich can only %y a stretch o# the
imagination %e considered %allads' 4hile similar %allad-li3e songs languish outside the select
circle& 2oing a%out the countryside collecting only the Child %allads and searching #or
in#ormants o# 4hom it is said that they 3no4 "ersions o# E*ord RandallE or the much sought-
a#ter EEd4ardE is e:citing' %ut does not tell us much a%out the #ol3 music culture o# the rural
+nited States' nor a%out the musical idiolect o# indi"idual in#ormants& Thus' 4hile "ast
num%ers o# Child %allad "ersions ha"e %een recorded and ,u%lished' 4e 3no4 "ery little
a%out the other songs in these singersD re,ertories' or a%out their thoughts on music and #ol3
song&
There are t4o ty,es o# collecting 4hich are done under circumstances di##erent #rom the
con"entional E#ield tri,&E One in"ol"es the ethnomusicological in"estigation o# the scholarDs
o4n surroundings' either the #ol3 culture 4hich e:ists in the country-side neigh%oring his
academic institution or the ethnic grou,s 4hich ,o,ulate his city& Such 4or3 K in 4hich the
scholar li"es'
$*-
as it 4ere' right ne:t to his #ield K can ,roduce e:cellent results' although it has not %een
carried out in large "olume& Some Euro,ean scholars 4hose academies are located in small
to4ns ha"e maintained constant contact 4ith in#ormants o"er a ,eriod o# years& Others ma3e
regular "acation "isits to the "illages and are acce,ted %y their in#ormants as a ,art o# li#e&
#ol3lore ,ro<ect =4hich included #ol3 song> carried out at Indiana +ni"ersity in 1./6 in"ol"ed
a series o# short tri,s to in#ormants in Bro4n County' t4enty miles #rom the cam,us& (or3 o#
this sort is es,ecially recommended to students %e#ore underta3ing more e:tensi"e #ield tri,s&
1ield 4or3 in 4hich the #ield is ,art o# the 4or3ers regular and more or less constant
en"ironment is in"ol"ed in a study o# the in"estigatorUs o4n culture& *ittle has %een done in
this ne4est %ranch o# ethnomusicology' and many 4ould surely deny that in"estigation o#
oneUs o4n culture is ethnomusicology at all' since the idea o# com,aring other cultures and
styles 4ith oneUs o4n' and the ,rinci,le that one can %e more o%<ecti"e a%out other cultures
than a%out oneUs o4n' are im,ortant #undamentals o# our #ield& But nati"e students o# non-
(estern music ha"e %een acce,ted as ethnomusicologists #or some time %y their (estern
colleagues and their 4or3 has #re?uently %een o# great "alue&
E"en in the nineteenth century' 1ranA Boas =*o4ie 1.@98 1@B> e:,erimented 4ith
merican Indians' 4hom he trained in anthro,ological method and theory' and 4ho ga"e
im,ortant and o%<ecti"e accounts o# their nati"e cultures& cce,ting the descri,tions o#
Ca,anese scholars' such as Shigeo Kishi%e' o# Ca,anese music' or the studies o# (est #rican
tri%al music %y #rican scholars' such as C& H& K4a%ena N3etia' has %ecome ,er#ectly
acce,ta%le to (estern ethnomusicologists& Indeed' N3etia =1./7> seems to %elie"e that the
outsider' i&e&' (esterner' does not ha"e as good a chance o# %ringing out the essentials o# a
musical culture as a trained' nati"e' insider& I# this is the case there certainly does not seem
to %e any reason 4hy a (estern ethnomusicologist should not ma3e a #ield in"estigation o#
his o4n surroundings& In doing this he must' o# course' maintain the
$+$
same standards and sa#eguards 4hich he 4ould ha"e to acce,t i# he 4ere 4or3ing in another
culture& He must %e critical o# his o4n o%ser"ations' ma3e com,lete records o# his #indings'
and ,reser"e =in his o4n thin3ing> the distinction %et4een himsel# as in"estigator and his
neigh%ors as in#ormants&
second 4ay o# collecting 4hich does not in"ol"e #ield tri,s is collecting %y mail& This
,ractice has limited "alue in a grou, o# #ol3 cultures' and ,ro%a%ly has no "alue at all unless
rein#orced %y real #ield 4or3& But some im,ortant collections ha"e %een made ,artly through
the mail' so that this a,,roach is 4orth a %rie# commentary&
1ol3lore societies and academic institutions ha"e #rom time to time s,onsored collecting
,ro<ects %y mail& Indi"idual scholars 4ho are 4idely 3no4n to the general ,u%lic are also in a
,osition to do such collecting& The ,rocedure is sim,ly to ,u%liciAe the #act that material o# a
certain nature is desired K #ol3 songs in general' %allads' etc& Indi"iduals 4ho ha"e such
material #re?uently res,ond 4ith great enthusiasm& O# course it is di##icult to #ind out 4hether
the material thus collected is in oral tradition' 4hether' in some cases' it is not co,ied directly
#rom ,u%lished sources' or 4hether it 4as 4ritten do4n %y a relati"e o# the corres,ondent
%ut is 3no4n to the corres,ondent only in 4riting' etc& The #amous merican collector Jance
Randol,h recei"ed some material in this #ashion' as did 1ran3 C& Bro4n' 4ho amassed a "ast
?uantity o# North Carolina material& Collecting only %y mail is ,ro%a%ly not ad"isa%le& In the
case o# music' #e4 o# those 4ho 4rite in gi"ing material are com,etent transcri%ers' and
4hile they may 4rite in the a,,ro,riate 4ords' the melody may %e ta3en #rom a %oo3&
In#ormants %y mail may get local musicians' music teachers' etc&' to transcri%e tunes #rom
their singing' %ut such musicians may not %e com,etent to transcri%e #or ethnomusicological
research& Collecting %y mail may' ho4e"er' ser"e as an a,,roach to in#ormants 4ho might
other4ise %e hard to locate in a community o# thousands& Jisiting the in#ormants a#ter they
ha"e indicated %y letter that they 3no4 material 4ould seem the 4isest solution' and the
collector 4ho
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is interested in #inding "ersions o# one ,articular song' say o# the %allad EEd4ard'E or o#
certain ty,es o# instrumental music' may #ind that the initial a,,roach %y mail or through
radio or tele"ision may %e the most com,rehensi"e& On the other hand' ,u%lished collections
4hich contain a great deal o# material sent %y mail are ,ro%a%ly use#ul mainly inso#ar as they
indicate the ty,es o# songs a"aila%le rather than in the accuracy 4ith 4hich the "ersions are
re,roduced&
com%ination o# la%oratory and #ield conditions e:ists 4hen in#ormants are %rought
#rom their homes to the ethnomusicologistDs recording la%oratory& +nder such circumstances'
it is o#ten ,ossi%le to get more o# an in#ormantDs time and attention #or recording' and there
is greater o,,ortunity #or re-recording' eliciting o# s,ecial 3inds o# in#ormation and music'
discussion o# musical terms and ideas' ,ossi%ly 4ith the use o# other in#ormantsD recordings'
etc& On the other hand' %ringing an in#ormant to the la%oratory has the disad"antages o#
ma3ing him ,er#orm under unaccustomed conditions' o# #ailing to ha"e a"aila%le the 3inds o#
instruments re?uired and the correct 3inds and num%ers o# ,er#ormers' and o# ma3ing him
,er#orm materials 4hich he might' at home' not normally sing or ,lay& gain' it 4ould seem
that in"estigation o# this sort is most e##ecti"e 4hen com%ined 4ith actual #ield 4or3; it
might' #or e:am,le' %e use#ul to %ring to the la%oratory some o# the %est in#ormants a year or
t4o a#ter their community had %een "isited %y a collector& Some o# the most im,ortant
archi"es' ho4e"er' ha"e %een %uilt to a su%stantial degree 4ith materials collected in the
la%oratory; this is true mostly o# #ol3 music archi"es' and includes the rchi"e o# 1ol3 Song in
the *i%rary o# Congress&
s 4e ha"e seen' there is great "ariety in the a,,roaches to #ield 4or3 and in the ty,es
o# #ield in"estigations 4hich can %e carried out in ethnomusicology& (e should mention %rie#ly
also the a,,roach 4hich ta3es a single "illage as its unit' 4ith all o# the com,le:ities that the
musical li#e o# a community can ,resent; an e:am,le is the 4or3 o# Brailoiu =1./6>& (e
should also mention the general ethnogra,hic #ield tri,s o# anthro,ologists
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4ho gather in#ormation on musical culture and instruments 4ithout recording any music on
ta,e&
Some Suggestions (or Field "or3
Our ne:t ,aragra,hs attem,t to discuss some o# the essential in#ormation 4hich non-
musicological anthro,ologists can %ring home a%out music' and 4hat 3inds o# recordings can
%est ser"e the des3-4or3ing ethnomusicologist& Needless to say' it is im,ossi%le to guide the
#ield 4or3 o# any indi"idual 4ithout 3no4ing in detail the culture 4hich he 4ill study& The
#ollo4ing ,aragra,hs' then' gi"e the 3inds o# in#ormation 4hich' under ideal conditions' 4ould
%e desired #or thorough ethnomusicological research&
1&2eneral material on a musical culture& mong the ?uestions on music 4hich could %e
ans4ered %y %oth a s,ecialist and a general ethnogra,her are the ones listed %elo4; their
general nature and their ,lace in this outline does not indicate' ho4e"er' that their
ans4ers should %e sought #irst; on the contrary' it may %e necessary to do more detailed
4or3 on indi"idual 3inds o# music' and the recording 4or3 itsel#' %e#ore the %roader
?uestions can %e %roached&
=a>(hat is musicH Is there a 4ord 4hich encom,asses all musicH (hat is the ,ur,ose o#
musicH
=%>(hat 3inds o# music are thereH (hat is singing used #orH
=c>Ho4 is music e"aluatedH Is there good and %ad musicH Is it ,ossi%le to distinguish
%et4een the ?uality o# a song and the ?uality o# the ,er#ormanceH (hat ma3es a good
songH nd 4hat ma3es a good singer or instrumentalistH
=d>!o all ,eo,le 3no4 songsH (ho ,er#orms most o# the musicH
=e>(here did the ,eo,leDs music come #romH !oes anyone ma3e u, songsH Ho4 are they
made u,H
=#> Ho4 are indi"idual com,ositions identi#iedH Is the com,oser o# a song remem%eredH Is
there a distinction %et4een the 4ords and music o# a songH !o ,eo,le 3no4 ho4 the
4ords and the music se,arately came a%outH !o di##erent ,eo,le sing in di##erent 4aysH
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=g>!oes anyone o4n a songH (ho is allo4ed to learn songsH re there certain songs 4hich
may %e sung only %y certain indi"idualsH Can one inherit or %uy songsH
=h>Ho4 do ,eo,le learn songsH !o they rehearseH (hat ha,,ens 4hen ,eo,le ma3e
mista3es in singing songsH
=i> Is there a 4ay o# telling the old #rom the ne4 musicH (hich is %etterH
=<> !oes the community ha"e contact 4ith the music o# neigh%oring tri%es or communitiesH
Or 4ith (estern ,o,ular or classical musicH (hat do they thin3 o# itH !o they e"er learn
songs #rom neigh%oring tri%esH Can they tell the di##erence %et4een these 3inds o#
musicH Ho4 do they distinguish themH Ho4 do they react to songs sung to them %y the
in"estigator' or ,layed on a ta,eH
=3>!oes anyone get ,aid #or ma3ing musicH (hat are the names o# the %est singers and
,er#ormersH (hat are the names o# the ,eo,le 4ho 3no4 the most songsH
=Many other ?uestions can emerge #rom these' o# course& This section is not intended as
a ?uestionnaire #or in#ormants' %ut rather #or the in"estigator himsel#& Besides these general
3inds o# ?uestions a%out musical culture' the #ollo4ing more s,eci#ic as,ects should %e
considered>&
7&%out each 3ind o# music or the music in each nati"e category' the #ollo4ing in#ormation
should %e made a"aila%le8
=a>+se and ,ur,ose o# the ty,e o# music& (hen may it %e ,er#ormedH
=%>mount o# material; is there a set num%er o# songsH re all o# the ,ieces o# the grou,
,er#ormed on each occasionH
=c>(ho may and 4ho may not ,er#orm this musicH
=d>!oes the culture ha"e a 4ay o# descri%ing the style o# this music and o# distinguishing it
#rom its other stylesH
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=e>(hat indi"idual or indi"iduals are the %est ,er#ormers o# this musicH
=#> In 4hat other 4ays is this music distinguished #rom the other 3inds o# music 4hich are
used in this cultureH
=g>Some o# the ?uestions gi"en in the a%o"e section' on the musical culture as a 4hole'
should also %e used here&
@&%out each in#ormant' the #ollo4ing in#ormation should %e included8
=a>Name' age' se:& Some general o%ser"ations a%out ,ersonality and some %iogra,hical
in#ormation&
=%>(hat 3inds o# music or songs does he 3no4H (hat 3inds does he li3e %estH
=c>(hat instruments does he ,layH
=d>!oes he ma3e u, musicH Ho4 does he go a%out itH
=e>(here does he learn songsH !oes he learn any #rom anyone outside his communityH
!oes he e"er EdreamE songsH
=#> Ho4 does he remem%er songsH (hat does he use to hel, himH (hen he learns songs'
does he ,ractice themH !oes he change songs a#ter he learns themH Can he sing songs
in a ,articular 4ay as sung %y other ,ersonsH
=g>The ?uestions under no&1 a%o"e' 4hich a,,ly to the culture at large' should in se"eral
cases also %e a,,lied to indi"idual in#ormants& Indeed' the ans4ers to those ?uestions
are largely de,endent on the ans4ers to the ?uestions a%out the indi"idual in#ormants&
0&%out each in#ormant' %ut #rom ,ersons other than himsel#&
=a>Is he a good musicianH (hat ma3es him soH
=%>!oes he do anything di##erent #rom other singers or ,layersH
B&%out each song or ,iece&
=a>Nati"e designation; and o%ser"erDs designation' i# di##erent&
=%>Time and ,lace o# recording& S,eed o# recording machine&
=c>(as music ,er#ormed es,ecially #or recording' or 4as recording made during an
ordinary ,er#ormanceH
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=d>Name=s> o# ,er#ormer=s>& Num%er o# ,er#ormers ,er ,art' or num%ers o# instruments o#
each ty,e used&
=e>(as any s,ecial eliciting techni?ue usedH
=#> (here 4as the ,iece learnedH
=g>Re#er to other recordings o# the same com,osition made %y the same or other
in"estigator' i# 3no4n&
=h>I# a song' 4hat are the 4ordsH These should %e dictated in a s,o3en "ersion to the
in"estigator' or recorded on ta,e' 4ith translation& Can the in#ormant tell anything
a%out the di##erence %et4een the 4ords as s,o3en and as sungH
=i> I# the instruments used ha"e #i:ed ,itch =such as :ylo,hones' ,an,i,es' 4ind
instruments 4ith #inger holes' etc&>' indicate all ,ossi%le ,itches %y ha"ing the
in#ormants K i# this is ,ossi%le K ,lay all o# the notes o# each instrument' in scale #orm'
on a recording&
=<> (hat does the song mean to the in#ormantsH To the listenersH Is it a good songH !oes
one e"er ,er#orm it di##erentlyH Is the ,er#ormance 4hich 4as recorded a good oneH
=3>(hat 3ind o# acti"ity accom,anied the ,er#ormanceH I# a dance' detailed in#ormation is
necessary' and a sound #ilm is ideal& Other4ise a descri,tion including notes on the
ste,s' gestures' costumes' etc&' should %e ,ro"ided& Some 3no4ledge o# dance notation
is o# great "alue to the ethnomusicologist as 4ell as to the general ethnogra,her;
material on this su%<ect is ,ro"ided %y Kurath =1./6>&
/&Musical instruments& =!etailed in#ormation a%out instruments' 4hether they are used in
recordings made %y the in"estigator or not' is highly essential&>
=a>(hat 3inds o# instruments are thereH !oes the culture ha"e a classi#ication o# themH Is
there any sym%olism in the terminologyH
=%>The linguistic as,ects o# instrumentsD names should %e in"estigated& Guestions cannot
%e listed here' %ut 4e re#er the readers to studies in 4hich the structure' etymology'
and cultural %ac3ground o# Haussa instruments are in"estigated& =See Hause 1.05>&
$+*
=c>Name' general descri,tion %y ethnogra,her o# each instrument&
=d>$hotogra,hs #rom "arious sides o# the instrument' 4ith a ruler ,laced ne:t to the
instrument in the ,icture' so that siAe can %e easily ascertained&
=e>The tuning o# the instrument should %e recorded&
=#> !o neigh%oring cultures ha"e similar instrumentsH (hat are their names #or the
instrumentH (here did the ,eo,le %eing in"estigated learn to ma3e itH
=g>Ho4 is the instrument madeH Here' i# the in"estigator can 4atch the entire ,rocess o#
ma3ing an instrument he may come u,on "alua%le in#ormation& Other4ise' a detailed
descri,tion %y an in#ormant must su##ice& re there any s,ecial rituals in"ol"edH (hy
may ma3e such an instrumentH To 4hom does it %elongH Ho4 long 4ill it lastH
=h>(ho may ,lay the instrumentH (hyH (ho may hear itH
=i> Ho4 is it ,layedH re there "arious styles o# ,laying itH (hat ma3es #or a good
,er#ormanceH (ho are the good ,er#ormers on the instrumentH
=<> Can it %e ,layed 4ith other instrumentsH (ith others o# its 3indH (ith singingH
=3>(ho ma3es u, music #or the instrumentH Is it ,ossi%le to im,ro"iseH Is there a set
re,ertoryH Can one ,lay on it any com,ositions 4hich can also %e sung' or ,layed on
other instrumentsH
It is e"ident that a tremendous amount o# in#ormation must %e gathered in order #or a
clear and detailed ,icture o# e"en a sim,le musical culture to emerge& Many as,ects o# a
musical culture might esca,e scrutiny i# this ?uestionnaire 4ere the only means used #or
ac?uiring in#ormation; it is intended only as a guide to the #ield 4or3er' and as an indication
to the student o# the 3inds o# material 4hich are needed& Other in#ormation 4ill also %e
#ound' and many o# the ?uestions gi"en here 4ill ,ro%a%ly not %e ans4ered in any indi"idual
community& (e ha"e omitted com,letely the 3inds o# theoretical ?uestions one might as3 o#
an in#ormant in a high culture 4ho is a trained
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musician& The ?uestions are most a,,lica%le' ,erha,s' to non-literate and #ol3 cultures; to an
e:tent' ho4e"er' they can also %e a,,lied to art music' es,ecially i# directed to4ard
in#ormants 4ho are not ,ro#essional musicians& I# an in#ormant is a ,ro#essional musician' the
in"estigator is ,erha,s %etter o## in the role o# a ,u,il than o# a ?uestioner&
"ery use#ul ?uestionnaire 4hich is directed to the in#ormant' unli3e the one a%o"e'
4hich is directed to the collector' 4as de"ised %y !a"id Mcllester =1.B08.1-.7> #or 4or3
4ith the Na"aho& The use o# a ?uestionnaire 4ith in#ormants certainly seems 4ise inso#ar as
it allo4s the in"estigator to control the ?uestions and their order 4ith each in#ormant& I# he is
in a culture 4hose mem%ers are not distur%ed %y this techni?ue' or i# he is not de,endent
entirely on random con"ersation' such a ?uestionnaire may %e use#ul& Mcllester e"idently
#ound the ?uestionnaire "alua%le e"en though Ethe ?uestionnaire itsel# %ro3e do4n as #ar as
any strict control o"er the inter"ie4 4ent&
O#ten se"eral ?uestions yet to come 4ere ans4ered in res,onse to an earlier ?uestionE
=1.B08.1>& But i# a ?uestionnaire is de"ised' it should ,ro%a%ly %e #ormulated only a#ter some
contact 4ith the culture has %een esta%lished& Mcllester had indeed had ,re"ious #ield
e:,erience 4ith the Na"aho' and directed the ?uestionnaire s,eci#ically to them' so that the
?uestions 4ould %e rele"ant to their ,articular musical culture& Since #e4 such ?uestionnaires
ha"e %een ,u%lished' it seems rele"ant to re,roduce McllesterDs&
6UESTIONNAIRE
1IRST *EJE* O1 S$ECI1ICIT)
1& !o you li3e to singH (hyH
7& Some ,eo,le %eat a drum 4hen they sing; 4hat other things are used li3e thatH
@& (hat %ody ,arts are used in singingH
SECON! *EJE* O1 S$ECI1ICIT)
1& (hen and 4here is a drum =rattle' etc& K 4hate"er the in#ormant has listed> usedH
$+,
7& In 4hat 4ays may a drum =rattle' etc&> %e %eaten =sounded>H
@& Ho4 do you #eel 4hen you hear a drum =rattle' etc&>H
0& Ho4 old are children 4hen they learn to use a drum =rattle' etc& >H
B& Is the drum =rattle' etc&> %eaten the same 4ay no4 as in the old daysH
/& (hat ma3es you #eel li3e singingH t 4hat timesH
9& Is there any time 4hen you are not su,,osed to singH =(hen you do not #eel li3e singingH>
5& Ho4 many di##erent 3inds o# songs are thereH
.& !o these 3inds sound di##erent #rom each otherH
16&Ho4 do the di##erent 3inds o# songs ma3e you #eel 4hen you hear themH
11&re some 3inds o# songs hard to learn and others easyH
17&Ho4 old 4ere you 4hen you learned to singH =Ho4 old 4ere you 4hen you could sing
4ellH>
1@&(hat did ,eo,le say 4hen you learned to singH
10&!o you 3no4 some old songs that most ,eo,le ha"e #orgottenH
1B&re there ne4 3inds o# songs %eing sung todayH =(hat do you thin3 o# themH>
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology B6
1/&re songs changing no4H =(hyH>
19&(hat do you thin3 o# merican =Me:ican> songsH =(hyH>
15&!o you 3no4 any o# eitherH =!o you 4ish you didH>
1.&re there other Na"ahos 4ho doH =re there any 4ho did not go to school 4ho doH>
76&(hy do you thin3 they =no%ody> learned themH
71&re there di##erent 4ays o# ma3ing the "oice sound 4hen 4e singH
77&(hen do you use these di##erent 4aysH =I# any 4ere descri%ed>
7@&!o ,eo,le ma3e their "oices sound in ne4 4ays no4adaysH =(hatH>
70&(hat do you thin3 o# the 4ay merican "oices soundH
7B&re there any Na"ahos 4ho ma3e their "oices sound that 4ay 4hen they singH
THIR! *EJE* O1 S$ECI1ICIT)
1& Is there a 3ind o# singing %esides ceremonial singingH =(hat is itH> Suggest8 lulla%ies'
gam%ling songs' 4or3 songs' etc&
7& Is there a di##erence %et4een the 4ay ceremonial songs and other songs soundH
@& re there ceremonial songs that can %e used outside the ceremonyH
0& (ould you hear the sho4-o## 4ay the young men sing in a ceremonialH
B& !o you ha"e a di##erent #eeling 4hen you hear ceremonial songs and 4hen you hear songs
that are not ceremonialH
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/& !o you #eel di##erently a%out it 4hen you hear a song in a ceremony and the same song
outside the ceremonyH
9& re there s,ecial songs #or 4or3ingH re there s,ecial songs #or riding alongH re there
s,ecial songs that go 4ith gamesH
5& re there songs ,eo,le sing <ust to %e #unnyH
.& re there dirty songs the Na"ahos singH =(hat do you thing o# themH>
16&re there s,ecial songs #or good luc3H
11&re there songs to ma3e ,eo,le sto, 4hat they are doing and %eha"e %etterH =Songs #or
teasing ,eo,leH>
17&re there songs that ma3e you #eel ha,,yH
1@&re there songs that ma3e you #eel angryH
10&!id you e"er ma3e u, a songH =(as it a ha,,y songH SadH ngryH>
1B&=Here an e:,eriment in mood and music 4as introduced& I sang' 4ithout 4ords' and 4ith
as nearly identical #acial and "ocal e:,ression as ,ossi%le' t4o songs' EThe Ha,,y
1armer'&& and E$ore Cudd is !aid&&& O# course' the #ormer is #ast in tem,o and the latter is
slo4& In#ormants 4ere as3ed to identi#y 4hich 4as su,,osed to %e the ha,,y song and
4hich the sad one& They 4ere then as3ed to gi"e their reasons>&
1/&!o you 3no4 any songs a%out lo"eH
19&(hat do you thin3 o# merican songs a%out thisH
15&re there songs that are es,ecially ,rettyH
1.&(hat is it a%out a song that ma3es it sound ,rettyH
76&re there songs you thin3 sound uglyH =(hyH>
71&Can you say a song is ,retty the 4ay you say a girl or a good rug or a %racelet is ,rettyH
77&(hat 3ind o# singing do you li3e %etter8 =illustrate 4ith narro4; and 4ide "i%rato' ,lain
and nasal tone>&
7@&(hat 3ind o# melody do you li3e %etter8 =illustrate 4ith a chant li3e melody and a more
"aried melody>&
70&re there songs you li3e <ust %ecause o# the melodyH =(hat is it a%out the melody that
you li3eH>
7B&re there songs you li3e <ust %ecause o# the 4ordsH %out the 4ords that you li3eH>
7/&re there songs #or children onlyH
79&re there songs #or men onlyH
75&re there songs #or 4omen onlyH
7.&re there songs #or old ,eo,le onlyH
@6&Is it a good thing #or you to 3no4 songsH =(hyH>
@1&!o you teach songs to your childrenH
@7&Ho4 do you teach themH
@@&!o you gi"e them something #or learning songsH
@0&!o you scold them i# they do not learn songsH
$,$
@B&!id your ,arents act li3e that 4ith youH
@/&Ho4 old are children 4hen they learn to singH
@9&(hy do you 4ant children to learn to singH
@5&!o the children around here singH =(hat do they singH>
Eliciting
The #ield 4or3er 4ho records music as it is ,er#ormed in a ceremony' at a dance' or
other4ise in its normal cultural setting' has no ,ro%lem in eliciting music #rom his in#ormants&
He needs only to s4itch on his recorder and let it a%sor% the music& But the acoustic results
are not o#ten satis#actory in this ,rocedure' and 4hile the #ield 4or3er is urged to ma3e
recordings o# the music as it is actually ,er#ormed in its conte:t' it seems ad"isa%le also to
ma3e recordings in 4hich la%oratory conditions o# a sort are a,,ro:imated in the #ield& #ter
all' the conditions #or certain ceremonies may not %e ,resent at the time the collector is in
the #ield' %ut he may 4ish to record this material ne"ertheless& Or a certain chant may %e
,er#ormed 4hile the ,er#ormers 4al3 or dance o"er a large amount o# s,ace' and the collector
may not %e a%le to #ollo4 them 4ith his micro,hone& *a%oratory conditions can %e
a,,ro:imated in a small hut or house' and indi"idual in#ormants as 4ell as grou,s can %e
recorded& This 3ind o# #ield 4or3' ho4e"er' re?uires the use o# elicitation' and the degree o#
re#inement 4ith 4hich the collector elicits may ha"e great %earing on the su%stance o# his
collection& It %ehoo"es us' there#ore' to discuss the ,ro%lem o# eliciting&
The collector 4ho is #aced %y an in#ormant 4ho is said to %e a%le to ,er#orm songs may
%e in the ,osition o# the adult 4ho is as3ing his child to sing #or grand,a& The child 3no4s the
song' %ut he may %e un4illing to sing it' and e"en 4hen he does #inally sing' it is in a manner
?uite di##erent #rom that o# his usual rendition& Thus it is necessary to ma3e the in#ormant
#eel at ease' to gi"e him con#idence' to allo4 him to sing in his normal 4ay' and to recogniAe
4hen he is not doing so& The collector
$,!
may #ind' #or e:am,le' that the in#ormant does not 3no4 ho4 to %egin& It may %e necessary
to <og his memory or to stimulate it %y mentioning ty,es o# songs& It may %e necessary #or
the collector to sing songs #rom his o4n culture #or the in#ormant' and to %egin s4a,,ing
songs' as it 4ere' so that the in#ormant #eels at ease& In some cultures' #inancial re4ard #or
singing is "ery acce,ta%le to in#ormants; in others it is a dishonor& Its use should %e
understood %y collector and in#ormant&
,it#all in eliciting is engendered %y the collectorDs desire #or a certain ty,e o# material
or #or a certain song& Thus an in#ormant may %egin singing' instead o# Indian songs 4hich
sho4 no in#luence o# (estern music' some o# the recent songs 4hich ha"e English 4ords; or'
instead o# Child %allads' "ersions o# music hall songs& To sho4 dis,leasure to an in#ormant
may mean to seal a good source o# material& In#ormants may #re?uently %egin %y singing
recent material e"en though they 3no4 older songs; and only gradually do they realiAe that
the collector is more interested in those older ones 4hich other4ise stand in disre,ute 4ith
the in#ormantDs #ello4s& So' 4hile a collector is ,ro%a%ly %etter o## %y limiting his ,ro<ect and
thus searching #or certain ty,es o# material' he must %e ,atient 4ith his in#ormants and
acce,t 4hate"er they ha"e to o##er' guiding them 4ithout ,ressure' ne"er arguing e"en 4hen
he 3no4s that an in#ormant is misin#ormed& nthro,ologists ha"e long %elie"ed in the adage'
Ethe in#ormant is al4ays rightN&
Some im,ortant in#ormation a%out musical cultures can %e o%tained %y re-recording
material ,re"iously recorded& 1or e:am,le' the collector may 4ish to record songs collected
,re"iously #rom other in#ormants& In a ty,ical Euro,ean or merican #ol3 culture' he can elicit
such songs sim,ly %y re#erring to their titles or #irst lines' or %y gi"ing the su%<ect matter o#
the te:t& In some cultures' ho4e"er' there seems to %e no s,eci#ic 4ay o# re#erring to a
musical com,osition& Indeed' there may not %e such a conce,t as a E,ieceE o# music' 4hich is
the %asic unit in (estern musical culture& In such cases' eliciting songs may %e ,ro%lematic
one solution is to ,lay #or the in#ormant some
$,%
recordings o# the same song as it 4as ,re"iously collected' or to sing %its o# the song #or him'
and then as3 the in#ormant to sing his o4n "ersion o# the song& The results thus o%tained are
sometimes %a##iing' #or 4hat the in#ormant considers "ariants o# the same song may not at
all %e 4hat the collector e:,ects; and in#ormants may re#er to t4o e"idently similar songs as
di##erent entities' 4hile insisting that t4o o%"iously di##erent tunes are really "ersions o# the
same song& Ne"ertheless' eliciting 4ith the use o# recordings or 4ith singing may in#luence
the in#ormant un#a"ora%ly; he may %elie"e that "ersions o# songs es,ecially similar to those
,layed are desired %y the collector' and he may omit others 4hich e:hi%it greater degrees o#
"ariation&
good 4ay o# eliciting is to %ring together t4o or more in#ormants and to stimulate
them to sing #or each other' gi"ing di##erent "ersions o# the same song; this %rings a%out
renditions in 4hich the in#ormant sings #or his #ello4s' not #or the collector& Re-recording and
#inding "arious "ersions o# one musical item ma3es ,ossi%le studies o# the degree o#
standardiAation in musical ,er#ormance' in the conce,t o# musical units' o# musical memory'
o# communal re-creation' and o# many other as,ects o# musical culture&
Eliciting can also %e used to e:,lore the di##erence %et4een signi#icant and meaningless
distinctions in a musical style' and the ,oints at 4hich legitimate "ariation %ecomes
unacce,ta%le error& In matters o# intonation' #or e:am,le' each culture ,resuma%ly has a
range 4ithin 4hich "ariation is tolerated& E"en in (estern ci"iliAation' in 4hich e:actitude o#
melodic and harmonic inter"als is stressed and an ideal o# correct intonation e:ists in theory'
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology B@
a great deal o# "ariation in ,itch is acce,ta%le' %ut inter"als outside this range are said to %e
out o# tune& This sort o# distinction ,resuma%ly also e:ists in non-literate cultures' although
the amount o# ,ermissi%le "ariation may %e greater&
$ossi%ly the amount o# ,itch "ariation allo4ed correlates 4ith the siAe o# the inter"als'
more e:actness %eing re?uired 4here the inter"als are smaller& t any rate' the study o# such
distinctions 4here a theoretical system is a%sent can %e a,,roached
$,&
%eha"iorally %y ascertaining the actual ,itches used and the degree o# "ariation ,resent in
the actual recordings& It may also %e studied =%ut 4ith great di##iculty and 4ith a need #or
great care> %y in"iting the in#ormantDs criticism o# the collectorDs renditions o# songs& One can
,erha,s train the in#ormant to %e the collectorDs teacher& The collector 4ill sing %ac3 to the
in#ormant the songs 4hich the latter has recorded' %ut 4ith mista3es intentionally inserted at
controlled ,oints& This may ena%le the in#ormant to state 4hich mista3es' that is' 4hich
de"iations #rom his o4n "ersion are acce,ta%le to him& The techni?ue is di##icult to use' #or it
re?uires an in#ormant 4ho is 4illing to %e honest in e"aluating the collectorDs ,er#ormance'
and it re?uires a collector 4ho is a%le to control his ,er#ormance ade?uately so that he can
ma3e mista3es only 4here and to the e:tent to 4hich he 4ishes to& This 3ind o# techni?ue
has %een used in linguistics' %ut only rarely in ethnomusicology&
S,ecial ,ro%lems in eliciting a,,ear 4hen the musical structure is com,le:' es,ecially i#
a ,er#ormance is %y se"eral singers' instruments' etc& The collector may 4ish to clari#y the
structure #or ,ur,oses o# analysis and transcri,tion %y allo4ing his recording machine to do
some o# the ,reliminary analysis or %rea3ing do4n o# the com,le:ities into their com,onents&
1or e:am,le' it is almost im,ossi%le to transcri%e a record on 4hich se"eral :ylo,hones o#
e?ual siAe are ,laying together i# one does not 3no4 the num%er o# :ylo,hones& E"en 4hen
the num%er and siAe o# the instruments is 3no4n' it is e:tremely di##icult to notate 4hat each
indi"idual one is ,laying& It may %e ,ossi%le to re,roduce the o"er-all acoustic im,ression'
%ut this may %e misleading& Thus it is ,ossi%le that the melodic line is ,er#ormed not %y one
o# the instruments K 4ith the others accom,anying K %ut %y all o# them' alternately' in
hoc3et techni?ue' that is' each ,er#orming only one tone and ,laying only 4hen it is time #or
that tone to %e heard& The collector can try to mo"e his micro,hone near each o# the ,layers
in re,eated renditions' or in a ,iece 4hich consists o# many re,etitions o# a short %it o# music&
This
$,'
is li3ely to ,roduce recorded material 4hich has at least a good chance o# %eing authentic'
i&e&' ,er#ormed as it 4ould %e 4ere the collector not ,resent& The acoustic results may not %e
as satis#actory #or the transcri%er' %ecause there 4ill still %e the %ac3ground o# the other
instruments' 4hich are not %eing #eatured in the recording at hand' to con#use him&
Moreo"er' in some cultures it might %e di##icult to record three renditions o# a ,iece o# music'
each 4ith the micro,hone near a di##erent ,er#ormer' 4hich are close enough to identical to
%e used as indi"idual ,arts o# a single com,osition& n acoustically %etter rendition' %ut one
more di##icult to o%tain and less relia%le in terms o# authenticity' can %e ,roduced %y as3ing
each ,er#ormer se,arately to ,er#orm his o4n ,art& Many singers and instrumentalists in non-
(estern and #ol3 cultures cannot do this %ecause they are so accustomed to ,er#orming only
as ,artici,ants& E"en i# they can ,er#orm their o4n ,arts indi"idually' they may not %e a%le to
do so in a 4ay 4hich is close to identical 4ith the 4ay they 4ould ,er#orm in ensem%le& But
either o# these 4ays o# eliciting ,arts is desira%le in a collection' i# recordings o# the entire
ensem%le ,er#orming the same music are also made& Besides %eing a hel, to the transcri%er'
they may ,ro"ide clues to the cultureDs musical thin3ing&
1inally' in the area o# eliciting' 4e should mention the ,ractice o# recording 4ithout the
in#ormantDs 3no4ledge or consent& This is not recommended& In some cultures' #or e:am,le'
it is %elie"ed that a song taught to another ,erson re,resents loss or harm to the song
o4nerDs soul; recording seems to %e "ie4ed similarly in such cultures& In a more rationalistic
setting' mem%ers o# a community may 4ish to discuss 4ith a chie# or elder the ad"isa%ility o#
recording #or a #ield 4or3er' and these 4ishes should %e res,ected& Throughout' dealings 4ith
in#ormants must %e honest' and 4hat they do not understand must %e ,atiently e:,lained&
Communities and ,riAe in#ormants ha"e %een rendered silent %y the im,ro,er or un#air
treatment accorded them %y certain #ield 4or3ers&
$,)
Simle Collecting 7ersus Comrehensi7e Field "or3
In ethnomusicological thin3ing there seem to %e t4o main a,,roaches to #ield 4or3&
One stresses the conce,t o# collecting' the other that o# e:,erience 4ith a 4hole musical
culture& Collecting' as such' im,lies an em,hasis on the musical 4or3s 4hich are collected
and %rought %ac3 to the la%oratory& The 3ind o# thin3ing 4hich engenders the McollectingN
conce,t may also %e concerned 4ith the in#ormants as mem%ers o# a culture' and 4ith the
role o# music in culture' %ut it need not %e& The %asic notion o# a collector is to #ind music
,re"iously not #ound and to hold on to it& His attitude im,lies the e:istence' in the 4orld' o# a
limited cor,us o# tri%es and communities' or' more #re?uently' o# songs and ,ieces' and his
<o% is to collect as many o# them as ,ossi%le& He is interested in organiAing his 4or3 so that it
4ill contain as large a ,ro,ortion o# the limited cor,us as ,ossi%le' and he #eels strongly the
,reser"ati"e role o# the #ield 4or3er& He is most interested in older material' and he realiAes
that many musical items 4ill either disa,,ear or change greatly almost %e#ore his eyes i# he
does not ma3e recordings o# them& This ty,e o# #ield 4or3er is mainly #ound in the area o#
#ol3 music' although the sian high cultures and the non-literate cultures also ,ro"ide a #ield
#or him&
The other a,,roach em,hasiAes music as %eha"ior& The #ield 4or3er still collects songs
and is a4are o# his im,ortance as a ,reser"er& But he also %elie"es that the 4orldDs musical
cor,us is not limited' that music is constantly %eing created' and that the chances o# ma3ing
e:hausti"e collections is small& He is more interested in o%ser"ing all o# the musical
,henomena in a gi"en en"ironment&
In these t4o a,,roaches 4e can #ind em%odied the t4o main ,ur,oses o# #ield 4or38 the
,reser"ation o# a cultural heritage %e#ore it changes' and the o%ser"ation o# cultural #orces
4hether they remain constant or change& The second o# these a,,roaches
$,*
is much more recent and has not ,roduced a great "olume o# collectanea& Techni?ues #or
studying musical culture are not 4ell de"elo,ed' and at any rate they are %ound to %e more
com,le: than those 4hich in"ol"e merely collecting& The ,reser"ati"e a,,roach to #ield 4or3'
on the other hand' has yielded "ast collections o# #ol3 song' as 4ell as o# the music o# certain
non-literate cultures such as the North merican Indians and some o# the tri%es o# southern
#rica& Theory and method #or this a,,roach is to a great e:tent de,endent on the disci,line
o# #ol3lore' 4hich has al4ays em,hasiAed the collecting as,ect o# #ield 4or3' and 4hich K in
contrast to ethnomusicology K has a %ody o# literature on collecting& mong the most
interesting readings a%out the collecting o# #ol3lore is the #irst o# 1our Sym,osia on 1ol3lore
=Thom,son 1.B@>& Here the ,ro%lems o# Euro,ean' merican' and some sian collectors are
#ran3ly and in#ormally discussed' and the s,ecial de"ices 4hich some o# them ha"e de"elo,ed
#or dealing 4ith in#ormants' eliciting' and assuring e"en and e:hausti"e co"erage' are stated
and criticiAed& Most e"ident in this sym,osium is the em,hasis on collecting' on #inding the
arti#acts rather than on o%ser"ing a culture and one o# its as,ects in action& The idea o#
ma,,ing a geogra,hical area to %e co"ered' o# collecting systematically #rom all in#ormants'
"illage %y "illage or %loc3 %y %loc3' is e:tensi"ely discussed as a desideratum; again' such
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology BB
co"erage has %een gi"en only in the #ield o# Euro,ean #ol3 music' and there only in a #e4
isolated areas& !uring the last decade' collectors in Hungary' Romania' and some other East
Euro,ean areas ha"e %een collecting in teams in order to co"er their nations ?uic3ly and
com,rehensi"ely' largely 4ith the idea o# ,reser"ing the materials rather than studying them
in their settings& In some o# these nations' ethnomusicological #ield 4or3 has %ecome a
go"ernment concern& (here this is not the case' the organiAation o# #ield 4or3 and
systematic collecting has not usually %een ,ossi%le& On the other hand' the entry o#
go"ernment agencies into the collecting acti"ity may tend to %e detrimental to the ,roduct
4hich is collected and to the attitude o# the in#ormants' es,ecially
$,+
i# the go"ernment is interested #or reasons other than scholarly ones&
E8uiment (or Collecting
The recording e?ui,ment 4hich ethnomusicologists ha"e used has usually lagged' %y a
#e4 years' %ehind the ,roducts de"elo,ed #or commercial recording #irms& 1or e:am,le' in the
1.76Ds' 4hen cylinders 4ere no longer used commercially' some #ol3 music collectors 4ere
still using them; in the early 1.B6Ds' 4hen 4ire recording 4as no longer generally used'
collectors 4ere still de,ositing 4ire recordings in ethnomusicological archi"es& But on the
4hole' the history o# #ield recording de"ices #ollo4s that o# recording in general&
Recommending e?ui,ment to the collector is di##icult at a time 4hen ne4 ,roducts are
constantly %eing ,laced on the mar3et& t the time o# 4riting' and #or some years no dou%t'
ta,e recording 4ill %e the most e##icient& Recording on dis3s is cum%ersome and %oth #idelity
and dura%ility are lo4er& Some scholars still ,re#er transcri%ing #rom dis3 to using ta,e' and a
good ethnomusicological la%oratory should ha"e e?ui,ment #or cutting dis3s; %ut #or most
transcri%ers' ta,e has ,ro"ed to %e a great %oon %ecause o# the ease o# locating s,ots %y
means o# the measuring de"ice on most recorders' and %ecause re,eated ,laying does not
harm the #idelity&
(ire recordings ha"e ad"antages o"er dis3s' %ut they ha"e lo4er #idelity than either
dis3s or ta,es and are most use#ul #or con"ersation& The ad"antage o# 4ire o"er dis3 is the
greater length o# recording time a"aila%le #or recording %e#ore changing the su,,ly o# the
medium& (hile it is di##icult to list s,eci#ic ta,e recorder %rands 4hich are most use#ul' ,artly
%ecause such a list 4ould %e outdated "ery ?uic3ly' it seems desira%le to list some o# the
re?uirements 4hich an ethnomusicological #ield 4or3er 4ould ,lace on his e?ui,ment;
3no4ledge o# these re?uirements 4ill ma3e selection o# e?ui,ment easy& detailed
$,,
discussion o# such re?uirements a,,ears in Merriam 1.B0; and 4hile this discussion is a
decade old' it is still almost com,letely rele"ant&
The s,eed at 4hich the recorder #eeds the ta,e is im,ortant& There are recorders 4hich
#eed ta,e as slo4ly as 1 9V5 inches ,er second' %ut this s,eed is usually not satis#actory' so
#ar as the #idelity o# the re,roduction is concerned' #or music recording& 1or s,eech and
,erha,s #or mono,honic music @ W inches ,er second is satis#actory' %ut not #or more
com,le: material& $ro%a%ly the most satis#actory ser"ice is gi"en %y ta,e running at 9 X
inches ,er second& *arge ta,e recorders' used in ,ro#essional recording la%oratories' are
sometimes geared to 1B inches ,er second' %ut this s,eed usually consumes the ta,e too
?uic3ly #or economy& T4o-s,eed recorders are common' and it seems ad"isa%le to use a
machine 4hich #eeds ta,e at @ W and 9 X inches ,er second&
Merriam =1.B08/> em,hasiAes the im,ortance in #ield 4or3 o# getting a recorder 4hich
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology B/
is sim,le to o,erate and to set u,& 1re?uently it is necessary to ,re,are #or recording "ery
?uic3ly' and the sim,ler a machine is' the more li3ely it can %e re,aired %y the #ield 4or3er
himsel#& Sim,ler machines also tend to %e more dura%le in the #ield& Be#ore going into the
#ield' the in"estigator should %ecome thoroughly ac?uainted 4ith his recording e?ui,ment' so
that he can re,air minor damage; #ield tri,s ha"e %een ruined %ecause e?ui,ment %ro3e
do4n and could not %e re,aired %y the #ield 4or3er himsel#&
Many recorders ha"e a,,aratus #or recording on t4o edges o# the ta,e' 3no4n as dual-
trac3 recording& (hile the use o# such a recorder is not itsel# harm#ul' it is not ad"isa%le to
use %oth trac3s in recording unless a%solutely necessary& The ,ossi%ility o# the sound #rom
one trac3 %eing audi%le' in the #orm o# Eghosts'E is still considera%le' and ha"ing to s,lice the
ta,e at a ,oint 4here the %rea3age is hardly noticea%le on one trac3 may create a gra"e
transcri,tion ,ro%lem on the other trac3& Other ,oints o# im,ortance in a recorder are the
,resence o# high-s,eed re4ind and #or4ard mechanisms =most models ha"e
$,-
these> and a good erasing mechanism& The latter ena%les ta,e to %e used many times; i# it is
inade?uate' sounds #rom one recording may still %e audi%le 4hen the ne:t recording is made
on the same s,ot& Some ,oor machines ma3e it ,ossi%le #or the recordist to turn on the
erasing mechanism %y mista3e; this sort o# error 4ould o%"iously %e a calamity to a #ield
4or3er' so he should ,rotect himsel# against it %y using a machine on 4hich a s,ecial e##ort
must %e made to turn on the erasing mechanism& Micro,hones are usually included in ta,e
recorders' %ut the lo4er ,riced models are #re?uently #urnished 4ith in#erior micro,hones' so
that the ,urchase o# a %etter micro,hone =4ith the ta,e recorderDs o4n one a"aila%le #or
emergencies> seems ad"isa%le& *ong e:tension cords K a minimum o# B6 #eet o# ca%le K are
also "ery use#ul' since the source o# ,o4er and the strategic ,lacement o# the recorder or the
micro,hone may %e some distance a,art&
source o# ,o4er may not %e a"aila%le in the #ield' so it is ad"isa%le #or the collector to
%ring his o4n& E"en 4hen ,o4er is a"aila%le' a con"erter may %e needed to a,,ly merican
machinery to #oreign outlets& n electric generator is usually %ul3y and noisy' so that it must
%e ,laced a good distance #rom the micro,hone& It does' ho4e"er' ,ro"ide a degree o#
steadiness not ?uite as easily #ound in car %atteries' 4hich areV the second alternati"e& I# a
regular car %attery is used' it must %e #itted to a con"erter 4hich changes the / or 17 "olts to
the 116 normal in merican recorders& The %attery must' o# course' %e recharged
,eriodically; this can %e done 4ith an automo%ile generator' i# a car is a"aila%le' or %y a
ser"ice station 4ith a charger' i# this is not too distant& In most cases' the %attery 4ith
con"ertor seems more con"enient than the generator&
Recently' %attery-o,erated ta,e recorders ha"e come into use& The %attery su,,lies
,o4er #or the magnetic recording head' %ut the reels are o,erated %y a s,ring 4hich is 4ound
manually& These recorders are e:cellent #or 4or3 in 4hich a small or moderate amount o#
recording is done& They do ha"e some disad"antages K #idelity is not so high' s,eed is not
?uite as constant
$-$
- %ut their mo%ility ma3es them e:cellent tra"eling com,anions& The tiny' transistor-,o4ered
recorders do not seem ade?uate #or ethnomusicological use as yet& But their de"elo,ment
,romises to %roaden the "ariety o# e?ui,ment a"aila%le and to ma3e a 4ider selection o#
ty,es #or the s,ecial needs o# the #ield 4or3er&
mong the 3inds o# ta,e a"aila%le' ,lastic-%ac3ed is to %e ,re#erred to ,a,er-%ac3ed
=4hich is no longer a"aila%le in most ,laces> %ecause o# its greater #idelity and dura%ility&
Jarious 3inds o# ta,e o# e"en greater strength ha"e %een made a"aila%le 4ithin the last #e4
years& The #ield 4or3er must %alance ?uality against cost; he may not %e a%le to a##ord the
%est 3inds o# ta,e' 4hich are consumed mainly %y radio stations and record com,anies; %ut
he should guard against acce,ting the least e:,ensi"e %rands since these' %ecause o# their
lac3 o# #idelity and their tendency to tear' ma3e %oth ,reser"ation and transcri,tion
,ro%lematic&
Techni?ues o# recording 4ith ta,e are not di##icult to master& The amateur has a
tendency to hold the micro,hone too close to a singerDs mouth; it should %e no less than
t4el"e inches a4ay' much more i# an instrument or a grou, o# singers is in"ol"ed& Ta,es
should %e num%ered' and items on each ta,e num%ered as 4ell8 a num%er arrangement #or
the ta,es com%ined 4ith a letter arrangement #or indi"idual items 4ill yield notations such as
@d' /#& I# dual-trac3 ta,e is used' it is necessary to s,eci#y' #or each item' on 4hich trac3 it is
recorded& It is ad"isa%le to note such matters in good order as soon as recordings are made'
and to 3ee, 4ritten records collated 4ith the recordings& 1ield 4or3ers may %e tem,ted to
lea"e such details until later' %ut they are ris3ing the #railty o# memory& Each item on a ta,e
should %e recorded on ,a,er and an announcement gi"ing its num%er should a,,ear %e#ore it
on the ta,e& In#ormation a%out an item can %e s,o3en onto the ta,e as easily as 4ritten& The
collector should 3ee, care#ul trac3 o# the s,eed o# the ta,e #or each reeI' and he may #ind it
use#ul to record some standard #or ,itch measurement-4ith a tuning 4histle or #or3-%e#ore
each
$-!
recording' #or control o# the s,eed' 4hich may %e su%<ect to "ariation de,ending on the ,o4er
su,,ly& In order to ,er#ect his recording techni?ue the collector should ,ractice recording his
o4n "oice %e#ore a,,roaching in#ormants' and he should %e thoroughly ac?uainted 4ith the
"arious controls on his machine so that he need not %e em%arrassed %y #ailures 4hen the
time #or actual recording is at hand&
Archi7ing and Storage
Many #ield 4or3ers 4ill 4ish to 3ee, their collected recordings in their o4n homes or
o##ices' and to study' transcri%e' and analyAe them& Those 4ho are not s,ecialists in
ethnomusicology' or 4hose collections are too e:tensi"e #or one ,erson to transcri%e and
analyAe' and those 4ho #or some reason 4ish to ma3e their recordings a"aila%le to others'
may 4ish to ,lace them in one o# the "arious archi"es esta%lished #or the ,ur,ose o#
assem%ling #ield recordings& Some o# the great archi"es in the +nited States and in Euro,e
ha"e %een mentioned in Cha,ters 1 and 7& Smaller archi"es are ,resent in many institutions
4hich ha"e an interest in ethnomusicology' and indeed' an archi"e o# some sort is almost
indis,ensa%le to an institution 4hich teaches ad"anced courses and acce,ts graduate 4or3 in
our #ield& Thus the #ield o# ethnomusicology has had to de"elo, certain techni?ues 4hich are
loosely termed as Earchi"ing'E and 4hich ha"e gradually de"elo,ed so as to ha"e a small
degree o# standardiAation& In some 4ays these are a3in to the techni?ues o# li%rarianshi,; in
others they are uni?ue&
The %asic unit o# an archi"e is usually the collection' 4hich is normally the ,roduct o# a
single #ield in"estigation %y one collector in one culture' recorded on one medium& It is
su%di"ided' o# course' into a num%er o# items' such as songs or ,ieces& The sim,lest
,rocedure' %eyond ma3ing a listing o# the collection itsel# and de,ositing it as a unit in the
storage s,ace
$-%
a"aila%le' is sim,ly to acce,t the collectorDs o4n num%ering and arrangement& n archi"e o#
this sort 4ould' ultimately' consist o# a num%er o# collections' each 4ith its o4n system o#
num%ering the songs& Beyond 3ee,ing the collection as a unit' there is a great "ariety in the
num%er o# things 4hich can %e done in an ethnomusicological archi"e; those 4ith modest
means may #ind it %est to lea"e the materials as cataloged %y the collector himsel#' ma3ing
only a sim,le catalog listing collectors' tri%es' and languages' and 3ee,ing 4hate"er notes
the collector #urnishes 4ith his recordings& rchi"es 4ith more ela%orate #acilities 4ill 4ish to
do a great many more things& The #ollo4ing ,rocedures may %e inter,reted to %e in order o#
,riority8 the things mentioned #irst should %e done %y all archi"es' those gi"en later %y those
4hich #ind it ,ossi%le a#ter #ul#illing the #irst o%ligations&
1& Materials should %e stored in a cool' dry ,lace& $lastic-%ac3ed ta,es de"elo, stic3iness in
4arm tem,eratures' and e"entually the ad<acent ,ortions o# ta,e %egin to stic3 together&
Storage in a steel ca%inet should ,rotect ta,e or 4ire #rom the accidental rearrangement o#
the magnetiAed ,articles 4hich is occasionally =%ut K rarely> caused %y an electric storm&
7& Notes' transcri,tions o# te:ts' and other 4ritten material %ased on a collection should %e
3e,t 4ith the collection or in a #iling ca%inet' %ut la%eled so that their relationshi, to the
recordings is clear&
@& ll material should %e clearly num%ered and la%eled&
0& Catalogs K usually on #iling cards K should %e 3e,t according to the #ollo4ing entries8
collector' language or tri%e' and shel#' i&e&' according to location&
B& S,eci#ic agreements 4ith the collectors' stating 4hat rights the archi"e has and 4hat
rights the collector reser"es #or himsel#' must %e made& 1ailure to do this has caused
institutions considera%le em%arrassment and e"en legal di##iculties& Some collectors are
,re,ared to gi"e their material to an archi"e outright; others ma3e an inde#inite loan or
lend the material #or a s,eci#ied ,eriod& In either case' the collector should ha"e the
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right to use the material himsel# #or research' and to ha"e ,rior rights o# ,u%lication& Some
archi"es re?uest de,ositors o# material to #ill out a #orm on 4hich they indicate 4hether
their recordings are a"aila%le only #or listening K this is o# great "alue to students-and #or
classroom use' 4hether they may %e used %y students to ,ractice transcri,tion' and
4hether such transcri,tions may %e ,u%lished& It should %e s,eci#ied' also' 4hether the
materials may %e du,licated =some collectors insist that they %e du,licated i# any intensi"e
listening or transcri,tion is to %e done>' 4hether co,ies may %e gi"en to other institutions
in e:change' and to 4hom the material re"erts i# the archi"e should %e dis%anded& In the
a%sence o# co,yright la4s #or recordings and #or materials in the ,u%lic domain' it is
necessary to ,rotect the ethnomusicological #ield 4or3er so that he may ha"e ma:imum
control o# the ,roducts o# his 4or3 e"en 4hile he ma3es them a"aila%le to others&
$rotection o# in#ormantsD rights is an e"en more com,licated ?uestion; usually it is a
contractual matter %et4een the collector and his in#ormant' and it is u, to the collector to
see that the in#ormantsD moral and legal rights are not a%used&
/& I# an archi"e is a%le to go %eyond the %asic ste,s gi"en a%o"e' it may 4ish to ma3e a
du,licate recording o# its entire collection; the du,licate collection 4ould %e used #or
listening' transcri%ing' and all other o,erations' so that the originals 4ould remain
untouched as much as ,ossi%le' and 4ould %e a"aila%le #or return to the collector i# this
4ere necessary& !u,lication o# a collection 4hose originals are on dis3' cylinder' and 4ire'
onto ta,e is li3ely to cause ,ro%lems in la%eling and cataloging& Once the entire collection
is du,licated on ta,e' it %ecomes ,ossi%le to standardiAe the cataloging to a greater degree
than 4hen the collection e:ists on "arious media&
9& The archi"e may 4ish to go %eyond the cataloging su,,lied %y the collectors' uni#ying the
entries and ma3ing se,arate entries #or each o# the indi"idual musical items included&
Then it %ecomes ,ossi%le to ha"e a catalog o# ty,es o# songs and music' such as 4ar
songs' lo"e songs' etc&' another #or instruments'
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Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology B.
a third #or stylistic categories such as ,oly,hony' and e"en one #or #irst lines or titles o#
songs K es,ecially in collections #eaturing (estern #ol3 culture&
5& In order to ma3e the archi"esD holdings e"en more use#ul to researchers and teachers' it
might %e ad"isa%le to analyAe songs %rie#ly so that a catalog o# s,eci#ic stylistic #eatures K
es,ecially unusual or une:,ected ones' such as ,eculiar scales and rhythmic ,atterns K
could %e set u,& Such analysis has not' to my 3no4ledge %een carried out at any archi"e&
Only a collection containing a large "ariety o# material could ,ro"ide the %asis #or the
com,arati"e 4or3 needed to esta%lish such a catalog& (ith it' the archi"e could single out
recordings 4ith s,eci#ic musical traits #or demonstration and #or the com,arati"e 4or3 o#
s,ecialists in "arious areas o# ethnomusicology' much as a li%rary' through its su%<ect
headings' can identi#y ,u%lications according to their content and character&
.& 1inally' o# course' an archi"e could ma3e a"aila%le ,art o# its content in ,u%lished
recordings& gain' archi"es are in a uni?ue ,osition to ma3e the selection o# a,,ro,riate
items %ecause they ha"e at their dis,osal large amounts o# ra4 material #rom 4hich to
choose the most characteristic or the most attracti"e&
rchi"ing is' then' a middle ground %et4een #ield 4or3 and des3 4or3& s 4e ha"e seen'
much des3 4or3 is done in the #ield' and much #ield 4or3 is done close to the des3& Some
archi"es' %esides %eing middle ground' engage in #ield 4or3 themsel"es& nalysis o# the ty,e
indicated in num%ers 9 and 5 a%o"e is o%"iously already in the category o# ,ost-collecting
research& The archi"e 4hich does this is ,er#orming some o# the 4or3 normally carried on %y
the indi"idual researcher' %ut it can o#ten do this %etter than the indi"idual i# it has a
com,etent sta##& Many archi"es also engage in collecting on their o4n' and' indeed' some
consist largely o# collections made %y their o4n sta##s =this is true o# the !eutsches
Jol3sliedarchi" in 1rei%urg> or under its o4n instigation =*i%rary o# Congress rchi"e o# 1ol3
Song>& The ste,s outlined a%o"e are intended #or an
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archi"e 4hich contains all sorts o# ethnomusicological materials& But o# course many archi"es
s,ecialiAe' acce,ting only materials in a gi"en area =again' the !eutsches Jol3sliedarchi"'
4hich contains 2erman #ol3 song and little else> or see3ing certain ty,es o# material 4hile
acce,ting others as 4ell =the rchi"e o# 1ol3 Song' 4hich see3s merican materials %ut
acce,ts others i# they are o##ered>& Such archi"es 4ould certainly use ,rocedures 4hich
s,eci#ically #it the 3ind o# material 4hich they include& Some archi"es contain' in addition to
recordings' manuscri,t transcri,tions o# music; cataloging these and integrating them 4ith
recordings ,oses s,ecial ,ro%lems& So does the inclusion o# commercial recordings along 4ith
#ield recordings' although commercial records may contain material o# great use& The #ield o#
archi"ing in ethnomusicology and in #ol3lore at large is a relati"ely ne4 one& The student
interested in learning a%out the contents and arrangements o# "arious archi"es is ad"ised to
read the issues o# The 1ol3lore and 1ol3 Music rchi"ist' a small ,eriodical' ,u%lished since
1.B5 %y the Research Center #or nthro,ology' 1ol3lore' and *inguistics o# Indiana +ni"ersity'
4hich descri%es a se,arate archi"e in each issue& 1or #urther readings 4e suggest
Thom,sonDs 1our Sym,osia =1.B@> and the descri,ti"e %rochure issued %y the !eutsches
Jol3sliedarchi" in 1.B/&
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Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology /6
Bi/liograhy
Brailoiu' Constantin =1./6>& (ie musical d;un village& $aris8 Institut uni"ersitaire roumain
Charles ler&
!ensmore' 1rances =1.15>& )eton Sioux Music& (ashington8 Smithsonian Institution& Bulletin
/1 o# the Bureau o# merican Ethnology&
2as deutsche (olksliedarchiv =1.B/>& Brochure descri%ing the archi"e& 1rei%urg&
Hause' Helen E& =1.05>& ETerms #or musical instruments in Sudanic languages'E Su,,lement
9 to the Joumal of the American +riental Society /5' no&1' Canuary-March 1.05&
Kurath' 2ertrude $& =1./6>& E$anorama o# dance ethnologyE' -urrent Anthro%ology 187@@-
7B0&
*o4ie' Ro%ert H& =1.@9>& )he 4istory of Ethnological )heory& Ne4 )or3& Rinehart&
Mcllester' !a"id $& =1.B0>& Enemy *ay Music& Cam%ridge8 $ea%ody Museum $a,ers' "ol& 01'
no&@&
Merriam' lan $& =1.B0>& EThe selection o# recording e?ui,ment #or #ield use'E Broe5er
Anthro%ological Society Pa%ers no&16& Ber3eley' Cali#&
OOOOOO =1./6>& EEthnomusicology; discussion and de#inition o# the #ield'E Ethnomusicology
08169-110&
N3etia' C& H& K4a%ena =1./7>& EThe ,ro%lem o# meaning in #rican music'E Ethnomusicology
/8 1-9&
Schirring' Nils = 1.B/>' Selma "ielsens vicer& Co,enhagen8 Mun3sgaard&
Slot3in' C& S& =1.B7>& Menomini Peyotism& $hiladel,hia8 Transactions o# the merican
$hiloso,hical Society ' ne4 series' "ol& 07' ,art 0&
Sachs' Curt =1./7>& )he *ells%rings of Music& The Hague8 M& Ni<ho##& Recommended reading'
,,& 1/-76&
Thom,son' Stith =1.B@>& Four Sym%osia on Folklore= Bloomington8 Indiana +ni"ersity
$u%lications' 1ol3lore series' No&5& Recommended reading' ,,& 1-55&
(ilgus' !& K& =1.B.>& Anglo7American Folksong Scholarshi% Since /,0,& Ne4 Bruns4ic3' N&
C&8 Rutgers +ni"ersity $ress& Recommended reading' ,,& 17@-7@.&
Chater '
TRANSCRIPTION
There are t4o main a,,roaches to the descri,tion o# music8 1> 4e can analyAe and
descri%e 4hat 4e hear' and 7> 4e can in some 4ay 4rite it on ,a,er and descri%e 4hat 4e
see& I# human ears 4ere a%le to ,ercei"e alI o# the acoustic contents o# a musical utterance'
and i# the mind could retain alI o# 4hat had %een ,ercei"ed' then analysis o# 4hat is heard
4ould %e ,re#era%le& Reduction o# music to notation on ,a,er is at %est im,er#ect' #or either a
ty,e o# notation must select #rom the acoustic ,henomena those 4hich the notator considers
most essential' or it 4ill %e so com,le: that it itsel# 4ill %e too di##icult to ,ercei"e& But since
human memory is hardly a%le to retain' 4ith e?ual detail' 4hat 4as heard ten seconds ago
along 4ith 4hat is %eing heard in the ,resent' notation o# some sort has %ecome essential #or
research in music& This does not im,ly that analysis and descri,tion %ased on sound-on 4hat
the researcher hears-is unessential; ?uite the contrary &But such analysis must almost al4ays
%e su,,lemented %y analysis o# the material as it a,,ears in notated #orm& In
ethnomusicology ' the ,rocess o# notating sound' o# reducing sound to "isual sym%ol' is called
transcri,tion& The idea o# ,utting music on ,a,er is %ased on certain assum,tions 4hich need
not %e generally acce,ted& ccording to Charles Seeger =1.B5a8150>8
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Three haAards are inherent in our ,ractices o# 4riting music& The #irst lies in an assum,tion
that the #ull auditory ,arameter o# music is or can %e re,resented %y a ,artial "isual
,arameter& &&u,on a #lat sur#ace& The second lies in ignoring the historicallag o# music-4riting
%ehind s,eech-4riting' and the conse?uent traditional inter,osition o# the art o# s,eech in the
matching o# auditory and "isual signals in' music 4riting& The third lies in our ha"ing #ailed to
distinguish %et4een ,rescri,ti"e and descri,ti"e uses o# music-4riting' 4hich is to say'
%et4een a %lue-,rint o# ho4 a s,eci#ic ,iece o# music shall %e made to sound and a re,ort o#
ho4 a s,eci#ic ,er#ormance o# it actually did sound&
Seeger = 1.B5a > has distinguished %et4een t4o ,ur,oses o# musical notation'
,rescri,ti"e and descri,ti"e& The #ormer has as its aim the direction o# a ,er#ormer' and the
ade?uacy o# ,rescri,ti"e notation is <udged %y the ade?uacy o# the ,er#ormance' or %y the
degree to 4hich a ,er#ormer ,ercei"es' through the notation' the com,oserDs 4ishes& The
sym%ols o# ,rescri,ti"enotation may %e no more than mnemonic de"ices' as seems to ha"e
%een the case in the medie"al neumes 4hich indicate little %eyond the general direction in
4hich the melody is to mo"e& E:act ,itches and rhythms 4ere ,resuma%ly 3no4n to the
,er#ormers' or they 4ere le#t to their discretion& The (estem system o# notation-and the
"arious Oriental systems as 4ell-4as de"elo,ed in order to %e ,rescri,ti"e' and 4hile the
amount o# detail 4hich it sho4s has gradually increased' it is still essentially a mnemonic
de"ice& There are many things 4hich a com,oser e:,ects the ,er#ormers to 3no4 and to ta3e
#or granted& Curiously' o# course' the #act that com,osers do ta3e certain ,er#ormance
,ractices #or granted is res,onsi%le #or the many disagreements among scholars regarding
the ,recise manner o# ,er#ormance o# early music& I# com,osers had %een' or could ha"e
%een' more s,eci#ic' the 4or3 o# many music historians 4ould %e unnecesssary &In this
cha,ter 4e are concerned not 4ith ,rescri,ti"e %ut 4ith descri,ti"e notation& Historically'
descri,ti"e notation de"elo,ed along 4ith the ,rescri,ti"e& !escri,ti"e notation' a#ter all' is
intended to con"ey to a reader the characteristics and the details o# a musical com,osition
4hich the reader does not already 3no4& The Baro?ue com,osers
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4ho used #ol3 songs as the %asis o# ,oly,honic com,ositions ,er#ormed %oth descri,ti"e and
,rescri,ti"e notation& s long as notators o# #ol3 songs insisted on #ltting the #ol3 styles into
,attems o# culti"ated musical styles' there 4as not much di##erence %et4een the t4o 3inds o#
notation& Only 4hen the great di#Ierences among the 4orldDs musical cultures %egan to %e
e"ident' and 4hen the ,ur,oses o# the t4o notations %ecame distinct in the thin3ing o#
musicians and scholars' did e:ternal di#Ierences %et4een the t4o also %egin to a,,ear& nd
these di#Ierences are not great' since most transcri,tion' #or %etter or 4orse' is ,roduced in
(estem notation& The ad"antages and disad"antages o# this are discussed %elo4&
Transcri,tion is ,er#ormed in se"eral 4ays& Earliest' and ,erha,s least ade?uate' is #leld
transcri,tion' that is' 4riting do4n a song as one hears it; it is di##icult to 4rite do4n a song
e"en in musical shorthand in one hearing' es,ecially i# it is in a musical style 4hich is strange
to the in"estigator and inimical to (estem notation& But early students o# non-(estem music
had to use this "ery moderately accurate method' and e"en a#ter the in"ention o# recording'
#leld 4or3ers 4ithout recording c?ui,ment %rought home #leld transcri,tions& In s,ite o# all
the o%"ious disad"antages o# notating an #rican song 4hile it is %eing sung and danced to'
4ith all o# the con#usion o# the situation tending to distract the transcri%er' such a method is
,resuma%ly %etter than that o# the anthro,ologist 4ho tried' in an a,ocry,hal story' to leam
an ustralian a%original song and& through long ,ractice on the 4ay home to Euro,e' made
such changes in it that it 4as trans#ormed into a 2erman #ol3 song& Such a lamenta%le #ate
4ould not ha"e o"erta3en this song i# the anthro,ologist had %ecome E%i-musical&E But #or
the #leld 4or3er 4ho did not s,ecialiAe in mYsic' or 4hose ,eriod o# contact 4ith the culture
he 4as in"estigating 4as short' #leld transcri,tion 4as the %est 4ay o# %ringing home musical
material& ReIated to transcri,tion o# music as it is ,er#ormed in a %ona #ide cultural conte:t is
the transcri,tion o# a ,iece #rom an in#ormant in the Ia%oratory&In such a situation it
is,ossi%le
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to as3 a singer to re,eat songs many times' or e"en to single out ,arts o# songs #or
re,etition& nd 4hile a singer cannot = %y ,hysical and ,hysiological necessity> sing a song
t4ice in e:actly the same 4ay' he can come reasona%ly close' and he 4ill usually %e accurate
in those matters 4hich are' to him' the most signi#icant in the song& This is ,resuma%ly 4hat
4as done %y Carl Stum,# in his 1550 study o# Bella Coola music&
(ith the in"ention o# recording' transcri,tion done directly #rom ,er#ormance' in the
#ield or the la%oratory' %ecame o%solete& Ne"ertheless' techni?ues de"elo,ed #or la%oratory
transcri,tion 4ith an in#ormant may still %e used ,ro#ita%ly in con<unction 4ith transcri,tion
#rom recordings& Transcri%ing in"ol"es consideration o# 4hat is signi#icant and 4hat is
incidental in a music-considerations 4hich are related to ,ro%lems #aced in the study o#
language& Ethnomusicologists ha"e made some use o# the theory and techni?ues o# linguistics
#or a,,roaching some o# these ,ro%lems' and the use o# an in#ormant #or transcri,tion in the
la%oratory is one o# these& The in#ormant may %e as3ed to comment on the accuracy o# the
recorded ,er#ormance' and to identi#y insigni#icant or unintended sounds' #or e:am,le& s
recording ,rogressed #rom the relati"ely ,rimiti"e #orms o# cylinder and dis3 in the late
nineteenth century to the more so,histicated 4ire and ta,e recordings in the ,ost-(orld (ar
II era' transcri,tion %ecame more con"enient as 4ell& The main ad"antage o# transcri%ing
#rom recordings is' o# course' the ,ossi%ility o# hearing a ,iece many times in a single
rendition' o# com,aring sections 4hich are se,arated %y inter"ening material' and o#
returning' day a#ter day' to the same ,iece&
more #undamental re"olution than the de"elo,ment o# recording has %een the
in"ention o# electronic de"ices 4hich ,er#orm transcri,tion automatically& Such de"ices ha"e
al4ays %een %oth the dream and the terror o# many ethnomusicologists& They 4ould sa"e the
ethnomusicologist hours o# la%or and agoniAing decisions 4hile increasing his accuracy' %ut
they 4ould also allo4 him less control o"er his o4n 4or3 and ma3e him the sla"e o# ela%orate
machinery 4hich ,roduces gra,hs and similar
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology /@
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communications o# no interest to musicians' and they might' incidentally' ,ut some o# the
techni?ues 4hich he has la%oriously leamed out o# %usiness& t the time o# 4riting' these
de"ices ha"e #ul#illed neither their ,romise nor their threats' %ut they are %eing im,ro"ed'
and there is no dou%t that they 4ill soon ,lay a considera%le role& They are discussed %elo4'
%ut 4e mention them here %ecause their e:istence leads us to e:amine some "ery
#undamental assum,tions regarding transcri,tion %y humans&
Transcri%ing music %y hand and ear' as it 4ere' is hindered %y the situation in 4hich the
transcri%er is a nati"e o# one musical culture trying to 4rite do4n the music o# another
culture' a transcri%er using a notation system de"ised #or one culture and #oreign to the
styles in others& Thus' a conce,t such as the note' 4hic&h #orms the %asis o# (estem musical
thin3ing' might %e erroneously a,,lied to another musical culture in 4hich the glides %et4een
notes are the essential #eature& Slight de"iations #rom ,itch' hardly audi%le to (estem ears
used to the tem,ered scale' might %e essential distinctions in another music& gain' se"eral
o%"iously distinct ,itches could %e considered merely di##erent "ersions o# a single tone& The
,oint is that human transcri%ers' using a notation 4hich is al4ays to some e:tent selecti"e o#
the musical ,henomena it re,roduces' and ha"ing a %ac3ground in a s,eci#ic musical culture
4hich is also selecti"e o# the musical ,henomena 4hich it uses as communication' might
ha"e great di##iculty in #irst ,ercei"ing and then re,roducing on ,a,er the music o# another
culture in such a 4ay that the essential distinctions are indicated in a 4ay com,ara%le to that
4hich 4ould %e re?uired %y descri,ti"e notation& ssuming that no human transcri%er could
re,roduce a11 o# the acoustical ,henomena o# a musical utterance' he should re,roduce
those 4hich are essential' and deciding this is ,ro%a%ly the most agoniAing ,art o#
transcri,tion& Electronic de"ices 4hich transcri%e ,ro%a%ly cannot %e made selecti"e in this
4ay& They record e"erything regardless o# its im,ortance' and selection o# the essentials
must %e made later %y the scholar& Thus'
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e"en 4ith machine transcri,tion' the in#ormed human inter,reter must %e a"aila%le;
con"ersely' e"en the %est human transcri,tions can %e im,ro"ed %y machines&
Aroaches to Transcrition
The inade?uacy o# (estem notation as descri,ti"e notation is readily admitted %y most
authors on the su%<ect' and its #ailures are "igorously attac3ed %y Seeger = 1.B5a >
&Ne"ertheless' e"en as strong a cham,ion o# change as Seeger 4as ,re,ared to recommend
that (estem notation and gra,hs =see ,& 17/> %e used concurrently& The ,ractical
ad"antages o# transcri%ing in a system at least %ased on (estem notation are considera%le&
Transcri%ing music is itsel# an e:cellent 4ay #or the scholar to leam the details o# a musical
style& There are other 4ays o# doing this -studying %y means o# ,er#ormance is one -%ut
transcri%ing im,oses on the student a 3ind o# disci,line 4hich could hardly %e e:acted %y
mere listening to recordings& Thus transcri%ing has also an educational #unction& +ntil
electronic notation de"ices are readily a"aila%le and ,er#ected' transcri,tion 4ith some sort o#
manual notation system remains one o# the indis,ensa%le tools o# the ethnomusicologist& nd
although attem,ts at ,ro"iding other notation systems ha"e %een made' the (estem system
has traditionally %een ,re#erred&
The transcri%er is usually #aced %y musical ,henomena too detailed to %e notated' and
%y others 4hich do not #it the notation system& 1or the latter' s,ecial sym%ols ha"e %een
de"ised; #or the #ormer' ho4e"er' there is %asically no solution& #ter all' musical sound = as
it a,,ears in the stro%osco,e' #or e:am,le> is e:tremely com,le:& The slight Buctuations in
,itch 4hich occur 4hen a singer ,er#orms one tone-the "i%rato; the tones he mo"es through
4hen gliding #rom one note to the ne:t; the slight di##erences in length among notes o#
a,,ro:imately the same "alue8 alI o# these should %e ,ercei"ed %y the
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transcri%er& (hether they should %e 4ritten do4n or not de,ends on the ,ossi%ility o#
distinguishing' in a musical style' %et4een the essential and the nonessential ,henomena&
ssuming that music is a #orm o# communication' there must' in each musical style' %e
signals 4hich communicate something to the initiated& Cust 4hat it is that is communicated
4e need not discuss here; it may %e a nonmusical message or something intrinsically
musical& But 4e can assume that a song sung' say' %y a Blac3#oot Indian and heard %y one o#
his #ello4 tri%esmen communicates something to the latter' and that this EsomethingE is not
,ercei"ed %y an outsider 4ho is totally unac?uainted 4ith Blac3#oot songs& No4 4e may also
assume that certain as,ects o# that song must remain as they are in order #or the song to
retain its identity #or the singer and the nati"e listener' %ut that there are other as,ects o#
the song 4hich can ,erha,s %e "aried in a 4ay 4hich 4ill not distur% the songDs identity&
The ,ro%lem is similar to one in linguistics' 4here the distinction %et4een ,honetics and
,honemics has long %een recogniAed' the #ormer %eing the study o# s,eech sounds as they
occur and the latter %eing concemed 4ith those distinctions among s,eech sounds 4hich
,roduce' in a gi"en language' distinctions in meaning& transcri,tion o# s,eech may %e
,honetic or ,honemic-and there is a theoretical ,ossi%ility that it could %e %oth& The student
o# an un4ritten language 4ill normally %egin %y ma3ing a ,honetic transcri,tion' i&e&' noting
all distinctions in sound 4hich he can' and then try to deduce the ,honemic system o# that
language #rom the distri%ution o# and relationshi,s among the ,honetic sym%ols& $resuma%ly
a similar a,,roach could %e #ollo4ed in transcri%ing music& It should %e ,ossi%le to mo"e #rom
transcri,tion o# all musical ,henomena ,ercei"ed %y the transcri%er to another transcri,tion
4hich gi"es only the essentials& But one element o# language 4hich is a great aid to the
linguist is a%sent here8 meaning' in the le:ical sense& 1or in transcri%ing music' one can
usually do little to ,ersuade an in#ormant to distinguish %et4een = to him> correct and
incorrect renditions o# songs' ,hrases' or inter"als& Ne"ertheless' linguists
!$'
can sometimes deduce the ,honemic system o# a language 4ithout recourse to meaning;
they can identi#y ,articles o# s,eech #rom their structure and distri%ution alone& Similar
,rocedures ought to 4or3 #or music' at least to a degree&
ctually' little ,rogress has %een made to4ard de"elo,ing a ,honemic method o#
transcri,tion #or music& But in e:amining transcri,tions %y authoritati"e scholars it is ,ossi%le
to distinguish those 4ho ha"e tried to notate alI as,ects o# a musical utterance in detail #rom
those 4ho e"idently 4ere 4illing to commit themsel"es to the di##erence %et4een essential
and unessential distinctions& To %e sure' one cannot %landly assume that a transcri,tion #ull
o# detail is E,honeticE 4hile one 4ith less detail is E,honemic&E The #ormer one may indicate a
style 4hose minute distinctions are essential' 4hile the latter one may %e disregarding
im,ortant details 4ithout ha"ing deduced a EsystemE #or the style& 1inally' %e#ore e:amining
s,eci#ic e:am,les and methods' 4e must em,hasiAe that details 4hich are not E,honemicE in
a language or a music are not' o# course' unim,ortant& They may %e unessential to
communication' %ut they stil1 contri%ute to the character o# the style& Their non-,honemic
?uality-and their omission in a transcri,tion 4hich is %ased on ,honemic ,rinci,les-is the
result only o# the #act that their ,resence can %e ,redicted #rom their en"ironment&
Those ethnomusicologists 4ho ha"e 4ritten a%out the methods and ,ro%lems o#
transcri,tion ha"e not' to this 4riterDs 3no4ledge' identi#ied themsel"es 4ith the so-cal1ed
E,honemicE a,,roach' that is' they ha"e not omitted #eatures o# music %ecause these 4ere
unessential; at any rate' they ha"e not cal1ed such #eatures unessential& That many ha"e
= consciously' 4e must assume> made such omissions is e"ident #rom their transcri,tions&
mong the %est transcri,tions done K e"idently - 4ith the ,honemic a,,roach are those o#
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology /B
2eorge HerAog' 4ho' 4hile not neglecting details 4hich characteriAe a musical style' a"oids
including such a mass o# detail as to ma3e a song unintel1igi%le to the eye& n o,,osite
a,,roach a,,ears to ha"e %een ta3en %y BRla BartS3' 4ho included al1 o# the details he
could'
!$)
and 4ho %elie"ed that it 4as the small' %arely audi%le e##ects ,roduced %y the "oice 4hich
actually characteriAed a musical style& Here o# course 4e encounter a #la4 in the analogy
%et4een music and language as o%<ects #or "isual transcri,tion& 1or 4hile those elements in a
language 4hich are so characteristically ,resent as to %e ,redicta%le in their occurrence and
location are considered non,honemic' in a musical style it may %e those "ery elements 4hich
gi"e the style its character and 4hich must %e re,resented in a transcri,tion& 1or
transcri,tions o# music must do t4o things8 they must include the elements 4hich ser"e to
distinguish musical utterances so #ar as their communicated content is concerned 4ithin their
style or their musical culture; and they must contain those #eatures 4hich distinguish a 4hole
musical style #rom another& Only the #irst o# these needs is ,resent in transcri,tion o#
language& t any rate' Bart/3Ds transcri,tions are e:ceedingly di##icult to com,rehend' and
they are e:am,les o# descri,ti"e notation 4hich could at the same time %e used as
,rescri,ti"e notation& There seem to %e times 4hen Bart/3 4as conscious o# the ,honetic-
,honemic distinction& In at least one o# his 4or3s = Bart/3 and *ord 1.B1> he gi"es detailed
transcri,tions a%o"e 4hich he ,laces less detailed "ersions o# the melody 4hich ,resuma%ly
re,resent songs as they a,,ear in the listenerDs #irst im,ression&
Instructions and ad"ice to the %eginning transcri%er are not lac3ing in the literature'
and much o# this ad"ice may 4ell %e heeded today& Otto %raham and Erich M& "on
Horn%ostel = 1.6.V16 > ' in an early ,a,er' admit the de#iciencies o# (estern notation %ut
ad"ise the ethnomusicologist to use it %ecause it is so 4idely 3no4n& They recommend
modi#ication o# that system 4here it de#initely does not #it the musical style 4hich is %eing
transcri%ed' and they ,resent a ta%le o# su,,lementary sym%ols 4hich ha"e since %een
4idely used and generally ado,ted& The main contents o# that ta%le are re,roduced in 1ig& 1;
some sym%ols generally used %ut not included in %raham-Horn%ostel are also gi"en&
!$*
a%o"e a note-a,,ro:imately a ?uarter tone higher than 4ritten
a%o"e a note-a,,ro:imately a ?uarter tone lo4er than (ritten
These t4o signs used ne:t to a 3ey signature mean that the modi#ication occurs
consistently throughout the song; i# they are in ,arentheses ne:t to a signature' the
modi#ication is only occasional&
,itch uncertain
,itch ?uite inde#inite' in the neigh%orhood o# 4here
the stem ends
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology //
grace note
dynamically 4ea3 tone
long ,ulsating tone 4ithout actual %rea3s
strong tie
glide' glissando
a%o"e a note-tone slightly longer than n&oted' the lengthenQng %eing no more
than hal# o# the "alue indicated
a%o"e a note-tone slightly shorter than noted' %ut shortened %y no more than
one-third o# the "alue indicated
ma<or structural su%di"ision
or minor structural or rhythmic su%di"ision
Su,,lementary sym%ols #re?uently used in transcri,tion&
!$+
Hom%ostel and %raham also suggest some ,rocedures& 1or instance' 4hen a tune or
,hrase 4ith three tones is identi#ied' %ut the inter"als among the tones are not clear' they
suggest using a sta#l o# only one line and ,lacing the three notes' res,ecti"ely' a%o"e' on'
and %elo4 it' until more e:act measurements can %e made& In transcri%ing ,oly,honic music'
they say it is sometimes ad"isa%le to gi"e the o"er-all melodic im,ression' e"en 4hen this is
not the ,roduct o# a single "oice& They also recommend' #or indication o# small inter"als' the
insertion o# additional lines 4ithin the sta##8
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nd in s,ite o# the early date o# their 4or3' they recogniAe the im,ortance o# gra,hs as
they 4ere then used %y the merican scholar B& I& 2ilman&
In a ,am,hlet designed to standardiAe transcri,tion o# #ol3 music' the Committee o#
E:,erts o# the Intemational 1ol3 Music Council = International Music Council 1.B7> gi"es
directions& Recommending the use o# the (estem sta#l' the ,am,hlet suggests the use o#
s,ecial sym%ols identical or similar to those o# Hom%ostel and %raham& It suggests di"iding
the inter"als in a song into t4o grou,s' those 4hich remain constant' Eim,lying the e:istence
o# a de#inite scale'E and Ethose that "aryE =,& 1>& Here one might as3 4hether 4e can <ustly
ma3e this distinction& T4o inter"als 4ill a,,ear as se,arate units in either arrangement' and
in the case o# inter"als 4hich remain constant there 4ill still' in most cultures' %e
considera%le "ariation among di##erent renditions& The Council recommends a #ootnote
arrangement #or "ariation among the diHerent stanAas o# a song' and it urges the transcri%er
to retain the original ,itch o# the
!$,
,er#ormance rather than trans,osing to a more con"enient ,itch le"el&
Caa, Kunst = 1.B.8@.-01> gi"es "alua%le ad"ice to the transcri%er& In contrast to the
,resent 4riter' Kunst %elie"es that a%solute ,itch is an im,ortant ,art o# the
ethnomusicologistDs gi#t& He %elie"es' also' that the a"aila%ility o# the 4ords is a great asset in
transcri%ing "ocal music' not only %ecause o# the "alue o# the te:t #or research' %ut %ecause
its structure may illuminate and thus #acilitate ,erce,tion o# the rhythmic structure o# the
song& He cautions the student = 1.B.8@5> to 4or3 4ith the realiAation that the transcri%er
cannot 3no4 4hether a gi"en rendition %y a mem%er o# a nonliterate culture sounds as it 4as
intended to sound' and he ,resuma%ly 4ould not ha"e su%scri%ed to the conce,t o#
E,honemicE descri%ed a%o"e& He %elie"es that the %est ,rocedure is to ,ercei"e the rhythmic
structure o# a ,iece %y re,eated hearings' then to notate all o# the di##erent ,itches 4hich
occur =in a single scale>' and then to ,roceed to transcri,tion o# the ,iece itsel#& lthough
admitting the "alue o# mechanical and electronic de"ices #or transcri,tion' Kunst does not
consider that such de"ices can %e used alone& He considers them rather as occasional aids to
%e used 4hen s,ecial ,ro%lems arise&
Estreicher =1.B9>' in a detailed essay 4hich is ,resented in condensed and translated
#orm %y McCollester = 1./6> ' descri%es some ,ro%lems encountered %y him in transcri,tion'
and ,ro,oses solutions and ,rocedures& Em,hasiAing the need #or ada,ting the ,rocesses o#
transcri,tion to the ,articular characteristics and di##iculties o# the style o# music 4hich is
%eing researched' he recommends the use' essentially' o# the Horn%ostel-%raham
techni?ues descri%ed a%o"e& He ma3es use o# controlled sounds su,erim,osed on the music
to hel, him ,ercei"e details not easily noted %y the (estem-trained listener& 1or e:am,le' he
suggests the use o# a steady tone signal to indicate changes in ,itch le"el' and o# de"ices
such as the metronome to measure changes in tem,o 4hich may other4ise %e too gradual to
%e noticed& He suggests to the transcri%er that he ,re,are the ta,e he is transcri%ing %y
measuring it and indicating the ,oints
!$-
=%y num%er o# #eet> at 4hich certain 3ey e"ents o# the music are heard& He thin3s ta,e
essential and 4ill not 4or3 4ith dis3s& He ma3es considera%le use o# slo4ing do4n the ta,e to
hal# s,eed; this trans,oses the music do4n an octa"e and causes some distortion o# sound
and tim%re 4hile clari#ying some o# the details 4hich occur too ?uic3ly #or gras, at ordinary
s,eed& $arenthetically' 4e should say that the slo4ing-do4n techni?ue is more use#ul #or
instrumental than #or "ocal music& In the case o# music in 4hich a single moti# a,,ears
re,eatedly' Estreicher recommends 4riting these "arious "ersions o# the moti# %elo4 each
other #or easier com,arison&
Ethnomusicologists certainly "ary in their a,,roaches to transcri,tion& (hile the
techni?ues o# one scholar may not %e use#ul to another' it is interesting = and unusual> to
#ind the ,rocedures #ollo4ed %y one indi"idual descri%ed in detail in ,rint& Estreicher = 1.B9>
does gi"e us a record o# his o4n 4or3' and students 4ho are #aced 4ith the tas3 o#
transcri%ing and are ha"ing di##iculty in deciding ho4 to attac3 the <o% may ,ro#it #rom his
statements& Estreicher = as ?uoted %y McCollester 1./681@6>
,re#ers 4or3ing 4ith stylistically homogeneous recordings 4here"er ,ossi%le in order to
,ic3 u, early in the game ty,ical traits 4ithin the musical style& He suggests 4or3ing at the
same time each day #or se"eral hours o# intense concentration' and arranging the musical
sections to %e transcri%ed that day into homogeneous grou,ings #rom the sim,lest' that is to
say easiest to gras, and most elementary stylistically' to the most com,le:' o#ten the
%eginning o# ,ieces 4here one #inds statements more richly omamented and ra,id #or
e:am,le than interior ,assages& He ad"ises the researcher to listen to the se,arate sections
many times %e#ore arranging them in a 4or3ing order &
Estreicher also suggests 4or3ing #irst 4ith the ta,e recorder at regular s,eed to get
%road outlines' then at hal# s,eed #or chec3ing details' and #inally retuming to the regular
s,eed& He is concemed also 4ith the transcri%erDs ,sychological reactions to his o4n 4or3;
s,ending many hours on 4hat 4ould a,,ear I to %e a sim,le and tri"ial matter can greatly
discourage
!!$
scholar' and the use o# autocriticism' constant re"ision' and ,atience are essential& It goes
4ithout saying that a transcri%er 4ill use a ,encil 4ith an eraser rather than a ,enl *aying
aside a transcri,tion #or days or 4ee3s and returning to it is also a use#ul techni?ue&
ltogether' EstreicherDs techni?ues are ,ro%a%ly similar to those o# most ethnomusicologists&
ll may not' ho4e"er' agree 4ith his theoretical assum,tions in 4hich there may %e
con#usion %et4een 4hat he calls Ere,roducing an acoustical ,henomenonE and transcri,tions
4hich Ecould re"eal the #ull musical styleE =McCollester 1./681@1>& He does #ace' o# course'
the ,ro%lem o# re,roducing all acoustical details as against ,ro"iding a transcri,tion 4hich
can %e understood %y the (estern-trained listener ac?uainted only 4ith (estern notation&
But he does not indicate the relationshi, %et4een the essentials o# a musical style' that is'
the ,henomena 4hich communicate and 4hich corres,ond to the ,honemes o# languages on
the one hand' and to the nonessential' E,honeticE ones' on the other& $erha,s an orientation
to4ard this use#ul distinction 4ould hel, to sol"e the dilemma' #or it is a dilemma 4hich
gro4s as the ,ossi%ility o# an a%solute transcri,tion o# ,honetic-musical ,henomena gro4s
4ith the increased use o# machine transcri,tion&
.ints (or the Transcri/er
EstreicherDs recommendations are o# great "alue; a #e4 directions should %e added to
them& It is use#ul' 4hen transcri%ing a ,iece' to listen to it or to ,ortions o# it se"eral times
%e#ore setting ,encil to ,a,er' and &to note the o"er-all #orm' ,ossi%ly 4ith the use o# letters&
The latter can %e ,ut on the music ,a,er' s,aced a,,ro:imately' so that the details o# the
transcri,tion - the notes-can %e #illed in& s transcri%ing %egins' it is o#ten good to transcri%e
the #irst ,hrase or short section in great detail' so that many o# the 3inds o# ,ro%lems to %e
met in the ,iece can %e encountered and sur"eyed early in the game& The use
!!!
o# descri,ti"e notes and 4hate"er in#ormation accom,anies a recording is o# course
indis,ensa%le' and the in#ormation included should %e digested %e#ore transcri,tion %egins in
earnest&
#ter doing one ,hrase in detail' the transcri%er may 4rite do4n the remainder o# the
,iece in more schematic #orm so that the outline o# the entire structure emerges& #ter that'
the details should %e 4or3ed out& In the case o# mono,honic music 4ith rhythmic
accom,animent' it is #re?uently ad"isa%le to transcri%e the accom,animent #irst& In general'
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology /.
short %its o# music = ,erha,s si: or eight notes> should %e transcri%ed at a time and re,layed
many times in the ,rocess&
mong the mechanical aids 4hich can easily %e used %y anyone is the ta,e loo,& I# a
short section = not more than t4o seconds at 9Y in& ,er sec& > is "ery di#Iicult to com,rehend'
it can %e cut out tem,orarily and made into a loo, 4hich continues to re,lay so that the
,auses caused %y re4inding are a"oided& Transcri%ing' as is no4 o%"ious' is a "ery time-
consuming tas3& E"en a sim,le song lasting #rom ten to t4enty seconds may easily ta3e one
or t4o hours' distri%uted o"er se"eral sittings' to transcri%e& The #irst ,iece in a style is li3ely
to %e %y #ar the most di#Iicult #or the transcri%er' and students are ad"ised to leam the
techni?ue %y 4or3ing on a %ody o# com,ositions in one musical style rather than trying to
sam,le the 4orldDs musical cultures in indi"idual ,ieces& Students should also %e cautioned
against 4or3ing too long at a time; there seems to %e -at least #or this 4riter-a decrease in
accuracy a#ter one or t4o hours o# 4or3&
I# the student is %eginning transcri,tion 4ithout ha"ing a cor,us o# material 4hich he
collected in the #ield' he 4ould do 4ell to %egin 4ith a Euro,ean #ol3 style& This should %e
#ollo4ed %y one o# the relati"ely sim,le' mono,honic styles #rom a nonliterate culture' such
as North merican Indian& s a start' styles 4ith stro,hic song structure are more easily
transcri%ed than others& The student leaming transcri,tion should try to do so %y
concentrating' #or a year or t4o' on a #e4 contrasting musical styles' and %y 4or3ing on each
one intensi"ely& $oly,honic
!!%
material should not %e attem,ted until a#ter a good deal o# mono,honic music has %een
transcri%ed&
Here the a"aila%ility o# #ield notes is e:tremely im,ortant' and the student should not
thro4 himsel# at ,oly,honic material #or 4hich he does not 3no4 the num%er o# singers or the
3inds and num%ers o# instruments& coustic distortions' o"ertones' com%ination tones' etc&'
are li3ely' in the case o# "ocal ,oly,hony es,ecially' to ,ut haAards in the 4ay o# the
transcri%er unless he 3no4s a good deal a%out the circumstances o# a ,er#ormance& In alI
cases' transcri,tion 4ith ta,e recordings is to %e ,re#erred to 4or3 4ith to other media& Ta,e
does not 4ear out 4ith constant re,laying' as do dis3s& It is easier to #ind oneDs ,lace on a
ta,e than %y dro,,ing the needle on a dis3; and 4hen it %rea3s' ta,e can %e s,liced rather
easily& Some o# the slo4er-mo"ing recorders tend to %rea3 ta,e less easily than those 4hich
re4ind at high s,eeds& +sing single-trac3 recordings and machines is usually ,re#era%le to
those 4ith dual trac3s' since the #ormer a"oid the ,ossi%ility o# EghostsE #rom the other trac3
%eing audi%le on the trac3 %eing transcri%ed& nd s,ea3ing o# the ,ro%lems in"ol"ed in
%rea3ing and s,licing ta,es' ,lastic-%ac3ed ta,e is more dura%le than ,a,er ta,e' some o# the
,ro#essional %rands de"elo,ed since 1.B5 %eing almost im,ossi%le to tear& The e:act
measurement o# ,itches and inter"als is a s,ecial ,ro%lem 4hich has long interested
ethnomusicologists& Identi#ication o# the indi"idual tone in terms o# cycles ,er second is the
#irst ste,& In the la%oratory' the oscillosco,e and the stro%osco,e are time honored de"ices'
%ut they are not #re?uently a"aila%le to the ,ri"ate ethnomusicologist or student&
Horn%ostelDs Reisetonometer 4as a 4histle 4ith a slide 4hich 4as graduated in terms o#
cycles& Here the a%ility o# the scholar to <udge the identity o# simultaneous or successi"e
,itches is an essential #actor& This is true also o# Caa, KunstDs monochord =see 1ig& 7a>' 4hich
consists o# a stretched steel string o"er a %oard 4hich is cali%rated to "i%ration rates' and a
mo"a%le %loc3 o# 4ood used #or sto,,ing the string& $itch can %e identi#ied %y ear and then
Emeasured&E The monochord 4as also e:,anded into a com,osite
!!&
Figura
!!'
de"ice consisting essentially o# t4el"e suc0 monochords so that a scale or tone system
can %e re,roduced& The monochord seems to %e a de"ice o# only moderate use to the
transcri%er' %ut success#ul transcri,tions ha"e resulted #rom its use = see' #or e:am,le'
Brandel 1./7> &nd it is "ery use#ul to the teacher 4ho 4ishes to demonstrate scales and
inter"als&
Ha"ing #ound the "i%ration rates o# tones %y any o# these methods-the Melogra,h'
KunstDs monochord' Horn%ostelDs Reise-tonometer-the transcri%er 4ill need to con"ert his
#igures to e:- ,ressions in terms o# inter"als& The system most 4idely used is the cent5
system de"ised %y & C& Ellis& Con"ersion o# cycles to cents ma3es necessary the use o#
logarhythmic ta%les& cent is one-hundredth o# a tem,ered semitone' so that a minor third
4ould %e @66 cents' a ,er#ect #i#th' 966 cents' and an octa"e' 1'766 cents& Since the series o#
"i%ration rates ,rogresses according to the logarhythmic ,rinci,le' Sachs =1./787B-7/> gi"es
a ta%le according to 4hich the log o# an inter"al as e:,ressed in cycles can %e con"erted to
cents& The su,eriority o# cents as a means o# e:,ressing inter"als is o%"ious& T4o num%ers
must %e used to e:,ress inter"als in terms o# cycles' 4hile in the cents system a single
num%er is used& More"er' a di#lerence in "i%ration rates such as 066 could %e any inter"al'
de,ending on the a%solute ,itch le"el' 4hile a num%er o# cents e:,resses a s,eci#ic inter"al'
i&e&' the same ratio o# cycles' at any ,itch le"el& But
!!)
con"ersion %y means o# SachsD ta%les' 4hile e:ceedingly accurate' is com,licated& Se"eral
shortcuts ha"e %een de"ised; among them' that o# Bose =1.B7a87.9> is ,erha,s the most
ade?uate =see 1ig& 7%>' though it is a %it too gross #or "ery detailed calculation& But since the
human ear e"idently does not discriminate %eyond ,erha,s 1V10 o# a tone' the margin o#
error inherent in BoseDs shortcut is ,erha,s insigni#icant&
BoseDs method re?uires the use o# a ruler 4ith centimeters and millimeters mar3ed&
Each centimeter indicates a tem,ered hal#-tone' i&e&' 166 cents& Thus' i# 4e 4ish to #ind the
inter"al %et4een t4o cycles' 4e sim,ly measure the distance in terms o# centimeters& 1or
e:am,le' 4e may 4ish to #ind the inter"al %et4een @96 and B6B cycles; measuring' 4e #ind
that it e?uals B1C@ cm&' or B@@ cents' 4hich is "ery slightly more than a ,edect #ourth& gain'
4e may 4ish to #ind the "i%ration rate #or a neutral third' i&e&' @B6 cents =hal#-4ay %et4een a
ma<or third' 066 cents' and a minor third' @66 cents>' a%o"e middle-c =7B/ cycles > &(e
measure @Y cm& #rom 7B/ and arri"e at @17& method o# transcri%ing %y ear' measuring
inter"als %y the use o# KunstDs monochord' and con"erting these measurements to cents' has
%een used %y Brandel = 1./7> &Her transcri,tions' 4hich use ordinary notation augmented %y
the con"entional sym%ols' are accom,anied %y charts 4hich gi"e the s,eci#ic distances
%et4een the tones in terms o# cents& Thus' #or the one transcri,tion =BrandeI1./787B7>' she
uses the ,itches g' #' e-#lat' c' and a' %ut #inds that the distances among these tones are
actually 1.1' 779' 75@' and 79. cents' res,ecti"ely& I# the inter"als 4ere those o# the
(estem tem,ered scale' they 4ould ha"e e?ualled 766' 766' @66' and @66 cents'
res,ecti"ely& Here' then' 4e ha"e a method 4hich uses (estem notation %ut &assigns to each
tone a ,itch 4hich di##ers #rom that 4hich it 4ould ha"e had in the tem,ered scale' and 4hich
indicates e:actly the ,itch actually used in the ,iece& But de"iation #rom a EtoneE is not
accounted #or in Brande1Ds method& Thus 4e must assume that the distance %et4een a and c
is' in this ,iece' al4ays 79. cents;
!!*
this o%"iously cannot %e the case' %ut 4e ha"e no indication o# the amount o# "ariation #rom
this standard&
It is o#ten di##icult to distinguish %et4een #ormal di"isions o# a ,iece and the larger
metric units& Thus' #ull %ar lines are' in many transcri,tions' intended #o se,arate the small
di"isions o# the o"er-all #orm& !i##erentiation %et4een ma<or di"isions and su%sidiary ones can
%e made' and %oth 3inds o# %ar lines ta3en together 4ould then ,ro"ide a ,ro,er ,icture o#
the metric structure o# the com,osition in"ol"ed& %o"e all' care must %e ta3en not to #orce
&the music into an isometric structure o# the ty,e common in (estem culti"ated music& I# the
transcri%er encounters di##iculty in deciding on the location o# rhythmic di"isions' he may do
%est %y omitting %ar lines entirely& In (estem notation' %ar lines are' a#ter all' among the
most o%"iously ,rescri,ti"e #eatures& The indi"idual di##erences among transcri%ers' their ears
and methods' and e"en the di##erences %et4een the 4ays in 4hich a recording 4ill sound to a
transcri%er at di##erent times' are translated into considera%le discre,ancies 4hen di##erent
transcri,tions o# one ,iece are attem,ted& Thus' the song in 1ig& @a and @% is gi"en in t4o
transcri,tions' one = @a > made %y the collector' 1rances !ensmore =1.@.8775>' the other
=@%> %y the ,resent 4riter& This e:am,le sho4s the need #or recourse to de"ices 4hich are
more accurate than the human ear stee,ed in one musical tradition& But in transcri%ing into
(estem notation' the student can at least eliminate some o# the de"ices 4hich are use#ul
only #or (estem high culture music' #or e:am,le' the use o# 3ey signatures 4hich indicate
shar,s or #lats #or tones 4hich do not occur during a song& Thus' the 1 -shaY in the
!ensmore transcri,tion o# 1ig& @ is ?uite unnecessary&
Since rhythm in"ol"es the relationshi, among small segments such as note "alues %ut
also the tem,oral relationshi,s among larger #ormal di"isions' it is di##icult sometimes to
identi#y
!!+
rhythmic and metric di"isions and to dra4 %ar lines at sensi%le ,laces& It is ad"isa%le to
use small #ormal units as 4ell as stresses in dra4ing %ar lines' and it is essential to ma3e
clear to oneDs sel# the criteria %eing used #or each ty,e o# %ar line&
A Suggested Procedure
(hile indi"idual di##erences among transcri%ers and among musical styles to %e
transcri%ed re?uire modi#ication o# any set ,rocedure' the #ollo4ing one might ,erha,s ser"e
as a ,oint o# de,arture&
1& *isten to the ,iece care#ully; read all notes and a"aila%le material a%out it' determine
the num%er o# singers' instruments' etc& I# the ,iece is stro,hic in structure =i&e&' i# it
consists o# re,etitions o# a #airly short segment o# music>' determine the stro,he to
%e transcri%ed #irst& The #irst one on the recording may not %e the %est one #or
starting' since it may de"iate mar3edly #rom the rest&
7& !ecide on the %road structural di"isions' and note them 4ith the use o# some 3ind o#
letter scheme& =!oing this is more ,ro,erly ,art o# the descri,tion o# style' %ut it is
use#ul as a ,reliminary ste, to transcri,tion %ecause the transcri%er %ene#its #rom
ha"ing the o"erKall outline o# a ,iece in mind %e#ore %ecoming immersed in its
details&>
@& !etermine the num%er o# ,itches and 3inds o# inter"als& Trans,ose the ,iece to a 3ey
re?uiring #e4 accidentals or ledger lines' %ut indicate the actual starting ,itch
some4here&
0& Notate the #irst ,hrase in detail& Ma3e s,ecial note on ,oints 4hich ,resent unusual
di##iculty&
B& Notate the rest o# the ,iece or stanAa in less detail& I# se"eral stro,hes are recorded'
"ariations o# the later ones #rom the #irst can %e indicated %y a 3ind o# #ootnote
arrangement&
/& I# 4ords are a"aila%le' #ill them in& Then use them' 4here"er ,ossi%le' to hel, sol"e
,ro%lems o# rhythmic detail&
!!-
9& Slo4 the ta,e to hal# s,eed' and chec3 the entire transcri,tion' es,ecially the ,oints
#ound to %e ,ro%lematic in ste, 0&
5& +sing normal s,eed' chec3 the transcri,tion again; then go on to another ,iece&
.& day or t4o later' chec3 the transcri,tion again' %ut %egin at a ,oint other than the
%eginning& $ossi%ly one should start 4ith the ,arts 4hich ,resented di##iculty' or 4ith
the ending& Rechec3ing o# this sort should' ideally' %e underta3en se"eral times& But
care should %e ta3en not to negate' at a momentDs notice' 4hat 4as done at the
%eginning o# the transcri,tion ,rocedure& This 4riter has occasionally made changes
in a transcri,tion and continued re"ising it until he #inally returned to 4hat he had
originally transcri%ed&
Sometimes it is use#ul to ma3e a rough' undetailed transcri,tion o# se"eral songs or
,ieces in a style' and then to return #or more thorough 4or3& c?uaintance 4ith a style in
ad"ance o# transcri%ing is' o# course' im,ortant; this can %e gained in the #ield or %y thorough
listening to the collected recordings 4hich are to ser"e as the %asis #or transcri,tion&
Automatic Transcrition
mong the o%<ections to the use o# (estern notation #or transcri,tion is the "ie4 that it
4as in"ented as a tool #or ,rescri,tion' and that ,ossi%ly the conce,t o# EnoteE is not a "alid
one either #or descri,tion o# music or e"en #or ,rescri,tion o# music in other cultures& s a
remedy' the use o# hand gra,hs has %een ad"ocated& Seeger =1.B5a8155> cites the
ad"antages o# gra,hs o"er notes in detail& ccording to him' gra,hs ha"e #ar greater ,otential
#or achie"ing accuracy e"en 4hen they are dra4n %y hand 4ith the use o# the same methods
as those ordinarily a,,lied %y the transcri%er in ma3ing notation& E:act measurement o#
tem,o' rhythm' and ,itch can %e more easily a,,roached i# the transcri%er can cast aside the
conce,t o# the
!%$
articulated note as the main ,oint o# order& Rhythm can %e re,resented %etter in a system
4hich does not de,end on di"iding units into hal"es as does (estern rhythmic notation& The
,henomena %et4een the EnotesE can %e %etter indicated in gra,hs than 4ith notes& 1ig& 0
sho4s a hand gra,h&
But a hand gra,h 4ould not indicate the musical #eatures such as tim%re and "i%rato
4hich (estern notation also #ails to include& Here the use o# electronic or automatic
transcri%ers is im,ortant& The t4o reasons #or using gra,hs K the #ailure o# the (estern
notation system as a descri,ti"e tool' and the ease o# ada,ting gra,hic techni?ues to
automatic transcri,tion K should not %e con#used& The second reason is res,onsi%le #or a
long' and it %y #ar not yet com,lete' history o# technical de"elo,ment to 4hich
ethnomusicologists' ,sychologists' ,hysicists& and engineers in se"eral countries ha"e
contri%uted&
mong the #irst attem,ts to transcri%e 4ith electronic a,,aratus 4as that o# Milton
Met#essel =1.75>' 4ho 4or3ed in the 1.76Ds in association 4ith the #amed music ,sychologist
Carl Seashore& By using a stro%osco,e 4hich indicated "i%ration rates and ,hotogra,hing the
oscillation o# the ,itch against a control #re?uency' and #inally su,erim,osing a gra,h against
the ,hotogra,h' he 4as a%le' %y calculating each ,itch' to arri"e at a sort
!%!
o# gra,h notation& The method 4as com,licated and e:,ensi"e' and e:ce,t #or the 4or3 o# a
#e4 scholars' it 4ent largely unnoticed& nother attem,t' using an oscillogra,h 4hich
eliminated the need #or detailed calculations' 4as made %y Cuichi O%ata and Ryu<i Ko%ayashi
=1.@9>&ccording to !ahl%ac3 =1.B58 5>' this a,,aratus registered ,itch' rhythm' and
intensity' %ut 4as unsatis#actory #or lo4er #re?uencies&
In the case o# Met#essel and some other attem,ts' the automatic transcri,tion de"ice
4as in"ented not #or the ,ur,ose o# transcri%ing ,er se' %ut #or studying some s,ecial as,ect
o# music ,er#ormance& Met#essel 4ished to sho4 signi#icant di##erences %et4een Negro and
4hite singers' an idea also ,ursued in a ,ro<ect initiated %y 1ritA Bose =1.B7>&In the latter' an
attem,t 4as made to measure di##erences in "ocal tone color 4ith the use o# a,,aratus
similar to that used %y O%ata and Ko%ayashi =1.@9>&Bose =1.B7> descri%es his a,,aratus in
some detail& His de"ice' e"idently a rather ,rimiti"e one' does not seem to ha"e ,layed an
im,ortant role in the later and more success#ul de"elo,ments in machine transcri,tion&
The t4o most im,ortant de"elo,ments in automatic transcri,tion during the 1.B6Ds
4ere those resulting #rom the 4or3 o# Charles Seeger and o# the Nor4egian 1ol3 Music
Institute' Oslo' under the 1eadershi, o# Ola" 2ur"in& Seeger' 4ho has ,ioneered merican
4or3 in this area since Met#essel' %egan his attem,ts in the 1.@6Ds' and in 1.B6 he ,resented
a ,a,er descri%ing a rudimentary Einstantaneous music notatorE =Seeger 1.B1>& He descri%es
the structure o# the a,,aratus' 4hich is %ased on the ,rinci,le o# a #re?uency net ,ro"ided %y
an oscillogra,h& ccording to !ahl%ac3 =1.B589>' SeegerDs 4or3 is %ased on ,rinci,les similar
to those used %y O%ata and Ko%ayashi& The recorder ,roduces se,arate cur"es #or
#re?uencies and am,litude =melody and rhythm>&The recorder in SeegerDs #irst model 4as a
Brush !e"elo,ment Cor,& !ou%le Channel Magnetic Oscillogra,h' B* K 767& The ,en o# the
oscillogra,h mo"ed u, to 176 cycles ,er second& This model' 4hich could re,roduce only
4histling' ser"ed as the %asis o# a more ad"anced ty,e8 the
!%%
addition o# #ilters has made ,ossi%le the transcri,tions o# singing as 4ell& ccording to
Seeger' his de"ice' later named the Melogra,h' is su,erior to the Nor4egian a,,aratus
discussed %elo4 in its Edirectness' s,eed' and sim,licity o# handlingE =Seeger 1.B@8 /@>&But
according to another statement o# his' the de"ice a4aits "arious de"elo,ments& Its accuracy
and discrimination are much greater than those o# the ty,ical (estern K oriented ear' and its
recording o# material on gra,hs allo4s much greater accuracy than does (estern notation&
Indeed' the Seeger #re?uency analyAer has Ea to, discrimination o# a%out 1V10 tonesE
=Seeger 1.B5a8155 K 5.>& Rhythm and tem,o can %e re,roduced in 4ays 4hich also sho4
changes 4ith a margin o# error o# only 1V166& ccentuation can' on the grarh' %e indicated
#or the time %eing only %y Emanual su,erscri,tion o# notational sym%ols' such as' #or
e:am,le' o# meters' %ars' etc& But it can sho4' 4ith sur,rising accuracy' the #luctuations o# a
%asic ,ulse so sym%oliAedE =Seeger 1.B5a8 155-5.>&
The Nor4egian method is descri%ed %y !ahl%ac3 =1.B589-19> in 4hat is so #ar the most
detailed re,ort on a ,ro<ect in"ol"ing machine transcri,tion& The ,ro<ect 4as an attem,t to
study the singing style o# 17B Nor4egian #ol3 singers& 1or this cha,ter' the e?ui,ment used in
the ,ro<ect is o# greatest interest; %ut the im,ortance o# the ,ro<ect in the history o#
ethnomusicology should %e em,hasiAed as 4ell' #or it is uni?ue in its detailed co"erage o#
,ersonal singing style and in its de,endence on automatic transcri,tion a,,aratus& The
Nor4egian de"ice consists o# a dou%le cathode ray tu%e' the lo4er ray o# 4hich measures
#re?uencies and the u,,er' am,litude& The series is ,ro<ected on a screen' 4hich has
logarhythmic gradations to a,,ro:imate the tem,ered scale' and is then #ilmed& ,eriod
meter mar3s seconds& Three #ilters allo4ed the #undamentals to ,ass %ut cut out other
#re?uencies& It is the #iltering system o# the Nor4egian method 4hich ena%les it K in contrast
to the early Seeger Melogra,h K to record singing as 4ell as 4histling& nd it is the ,ro%lem
o# distinguishing %et4een #undamentals and other #re?uencies =o"ertones> on a machine
4hich is the main stum%ling
!%&
!%'
%loc3 in the de"elo,ment o# really ,ractical automatic transcri,tion& ccording to Seeger
=1./6807>' the su,eriority o# the Nor4egian de"ice consists largely o# the ela%oration o# the
#ilter system& 1ig& B is a sam,le o# automatic transcri,tion made %y the Nor4egian method&
In s,ite o# the "ery considera%le accom,lishments made to date' the #ield o# automatic
transcri,tion must %e said to %e in its in#ancy' a4aiting great achie"ements 4hich are %ound
to come in the near #uture& Ethnomusicologists ha"e reacted "ariously to these
de"elo,ments& Seeger hails them as %ringing a%out a re"olution in musicology' saying that
Z#rom no4 on' #ield collection and study o# music o# 4hate"er area' occidental or oriental' and
o# 4hate"er idiom o# ,rimiti"e' #ol3' ,o,ular' or #ine art cannot a##ord to ignore the means
and methods o# the 4or3 outlinedE =Seeger 1./6807>&HerAog' 4hile admitting the im,ortance
o# the Seeger Melogra,h' 4rites in a some4hat less enthusiastic "ein8 ZBut the ,ro#usion o#
detailed "isual data 4ill ha"e ne4 ,ro%lems o# their o4n&&&and all this 4ill ha"e to %e re K
translated into musical reality and musical senseE =HerAog 1.B98 9@>&He also ?uestions the
utility o# gra,hs in ,u%lications 4hich are intended to con"ey in#ormation a%out non K
(estern and #ol3 music to readers 4ho are mem%ers o# a ,u%lic ac?uainted 4ith (estern
notation %ut 4ho 4ould %al3 at the idea o# reading gra,hs& Kunst =1.B.8@5> is e"en less
o,timistic8 It is ,ossi%le' %y a,,lying a mechanical K "isual method o# sound K registration&&&
to carry the e:actitude o# the Yanscri,tion to a ,oint 4here one cannot see the 4ood #or the
trees' so that the structure o# the ,iece transcri%ed has got com,letely out o# hand& In my
o4n "ie4' the transcri,tion %y ear' in Euro,ean notation' as nearly e:act as ,ossi%le'
com%ined 4ith the measurement o# the actually used inter"als' is nearly al4ays su##icient #or
ethnomusicological ,ur,oses&
The ZCommittee o# E:,ertsE o# the International 1ol3 Music Council too3 a decisi"e
stand in 1.B6 in #a"or o# (estern notation8 The de#iciencies 4hich this system ,resents #or
the notation o# #ol3 music can %e o"ercome %y the use o# su,,lementary signs& This is all the
more necessary %ecause a notation tending to mathematical
!%)
e:actitude must necessarily de,end on ,hysical ,rinci,les and 4ould there#ore entail the use
o# signs intelligi%le only to the s,ecialists =International 1ol3 Music Council 1.B781>&
The Future o( Transcrition
S,ea3ing "ery %roadly' one cannot assert that the automatic transcri,tion de"ices ha"e
made a great or o%"ious im,ression on the ethnomusicological literature o# the 1.B6Ds&
E:ce,t #or the !ahl%ac3 study and SeegerDs ,a,ers' 4hich are ,rimarily descri,tions o#
a,,aratus' there ha"e %een #e4 ,u%lications %ased on these de"ices and techni?ues& It is
,ossi%le that the de"elo,ments in automatic transcri,tion ha"e had a negati"e e##ect on the
,u%lication o# transcri,tions' #or there has %een' since a%out 1.B6' a decrease in the amount
o# ,rinted music ,u%lished %y ethnomusicologists in their research ,a,ers& $ossi%ly this is
also due to the increased e:,ense o# ,rinting music' %ut there is at least a ,ossi%ility that the
degree o# ,er#ection in transcri,tion 4hich is ,romised %y the in"entors o# automatic de"ices
has discouraged scholars #rom ma3ing transcri,tions %y ear& Such discouragement is not
4arranted& To %e sure' the automatic de"ices cannot %e ignored; they must %e used
4hene"er and 4here"er ,ossi%le& The Seeger Melogra,h ,romises e"entually to %e only
moderately e:,ensi"e' so that many institutions could o%tain it 4hen it is generally a"aila%le&
Ne"erthless' at the time o# 4riting only one institution in the +&S&& ,ossesses the Melogra,h&
Seeger himsel#' the most outs,o3en cham,ion o# machine transcri,tion' recommends that
the t4o 3inds o# notation K con"entional and gra,h =%y 4hich he ,resuma%ly means %oth
hand-gra,hs and automatic gra,hs> K %e used concurrently #or the #oreseea%le #uture
=Seeger 1.B5a8 155>&The "alue o# transcri%ing as a Ieaming de"ice has %een mentioned
a%o"e' and its im,ortance in this #unction should %e stressed in "ie4 o# the ,ossi%ility that
students o# the #uture 4iII rely on the relati"e ease o# the automatic a,,roach& In a sense'
transcri,tion %y ear amounts to care#ul listening 4hich is organiAed so that "arious
!%*
as,ects o# a musical style can %e ,ercei"ed in some 3ind o# order& *istening to a ,iece 4ithout
the aid o# transcri%ing it is' in a sense' li3e hearing a lecture 4ithout ta3ing notes K
something 4hich has its "alues %ut 4hich results in a more general' su,er#icial im,ression
than does the intensi"e listening 4ith the hel, o# ,a,er and ,encil& Thus 4e can' #or all times'
recommend the use o# the long esta%lished custom o# transcri%ing %y ear as a method #or
students to a%sor% styles o# music e"en i# they 4ill later transcri%e the same ,ieces 4ith
automatic de"ices& Transcri%ing %y ear does not' o# course' ,reclude using a handKgra,hing
techni?ue rather than that o# con"entional notation& But #e4 ,u%lications o# the ,ast ha"e
made use o# hand gra,hs to a signi#icant degree& Some o# those 4hich ha"e done so ha"e
used the gra,h not as a de"ice to in<ect greater accuracy and greater detail into the
transcri,tion %ut in order to reduce to its essentials and thus to sim,li#y the ,icture gained
#rom the use o# con"entional notation& =See !ensmore 1.158B1. as an e:am,le> Besides the
t4o main ,ur,oses o# transcri,tion' as a 4ay o# ,utting music do4n on ,a,er #or #acilitating
analysis and as a 4ay o# enhancing the in#ormation gained #rom listening' 4e must ta3e into
consideration a third ,ur,ose' the ,resentation o# material in ,u%lished #orm #or consum,tion
%y the non-s,ecialist& This is ,erha,s the most ,ro%lematic o# the tas3s #aced %y the
transcri%er& In the early days o# ethnomusicology' transcri,tion 4as the main "ehicle #or
,resenting the music o# the 4orldDs cultures to the musician' the music historian' and the
music K lo"ing %ut not ethnomusicologically s,ecialiAed anthro,ologist' #ol3lorist' linguist'
,sychologist' and interested layman& Today' much o# this #unction is ta3en o"er %y good
commercial recordings& The layman can satis#y his interests through such recordings much
more easily than %y la%oriously reading notations 4hich do not' a#ter all' re,roduce some o#
the most o%"ious #eatures o# the sound such as tone color =though these can sometimes %e
descri%ed in 4ords>& But the layman or the musician 4ho 4ishes a closer ac?uaintance than
recordings can a##ord could gain great insight #rom a notated transcri,tion& He can
!%+
analyAe the material #rom "ie4,oints 4hich cannot %e accommodated %y listening& Thus the
,u%lication o# transcri,tions in (estern notation is o# use here& There is' moreo"er'
considera%le demand #or ,u%lished notations o# a com%ined ,rescri,ti"e and descri,ti"e
character' i&e&' collections o# #ol3 songs 4hich can %e %oth analyAed and sung& Here the
ethnomusicologist can render considera%le ser"ice' #or his transcri,tions' arri"ed at %y ear
and limited in accuracy and discrimination' are still o# "astly greater "alue than the notations
o# certain laymen 4ho ha"e no interest in re,roducing a song as it 4as collected #rom an
in#ormant& Regarding transcri,tion as a 4hole' 4e may' then' conclude %y saying that
automatic transcri,tion is ideal' %ut that it does not allo4 the student to ma3e the detailed
,ersonal disco"ery o# a music 4hich can come only #rom transcri,tion %y ear& It also does not
,ro"ide the nons,ecialist 4ith material he can readily a%sor%; this a,,lies' o# course' to the
s,ecialist as 4ell' %ut it is u, to the ,ro#essional ethnomusicologist to train himsel# ra,idly to
a%sor% the in#ormation #rom automatic gra,hs& Transcri,tion %y ear can also %e done 4ith the
use o# the hand gra,h' %ut no gra,h system is as ela%orate or as 4idely understood as the
(estern notation system; thus the use o# hand gra,hs can %e recommended only #or s,ecial
,ro%lems& (estern notation' on the other hand' incor,orates sortle o# the characteristics o#
(estern culti"ated music and tends to accommodate the transcri%erDs su%<ecti"ity 4hich is
usually rooted in (estern culti"ated styles& But (estern notation can %e modi#ied and'
%ecause o# the #acility 4ith 4hich it can %e used' it o##ers the most ,ractical method o#
,resenting ne4 musical data in "isual #orm& It #orms the %est %asis #or analysis and
descri,tion o# music&
Each ethnomusicologist should %e 4ell "ersed in the art o# transcri,tion %y ear' %ut he
should %e a4are o#' and ma3e clear in his ,u%lications' the limitations o# this techni?ue& nd
he should ac?uaint himsel# also 4ith the a,,aratus and techni?ues o# automatic transcri,tion
4hich' in the decades to come' 4ill ha"e to %ecome increasingly ,rominent in his 4or3&
!%,
Bi/liograhy
%raham' Otto' and Erich M& Jon Hom%ostel =1.6.-16>& EJorschlage #Pr die Trans3ri,tion
e:otischer MelodienN' Sammel%Pnde der Internationalen Musi3gesellscha#t 118 1-7B&
BartS3' BRla' and l%ert B& *ord =1.B1>& Ser%o-Croatian 1ol3 Songs& Ne4 )or38 Colum%ia
+ni"ersity $ress&
Bose' 1ritA =1.B7>& EMess%are Rassenunterschiede in der Musi3N' Homo 7' no&0&
OOOOOO& =1.B7a>& EEin Hil#smittel Aur Bestimmung der Schrittgrosse %elie%iger Inter"alleN'
Musi3#orschung B876B-765&
Brandel' Rose =1./7>& The Music o# Central #rica& The Hague8 M& Ni<ho##&
!ahl%ac3' Karl =1.B5>& Ne4 Methods in Jocal 1ol3 Music Research& Oslo8 Oslo +ni"ersity
$ress&
!ensmore' 1rances =1.16>& Chi,,e4a Music& (ashington8 Smithsonian Institution =Bulletin
0B o# the Bureau o# merican Ethnology>&
=1.15>&Teton Siou: Music& (ashington8 Smithsonian Institution =Bulletin /1 o# the Bureau o#
merican Ethnology>&
=1.@.>& Noot3a and Guileute Music& (ashington8 Smithsonian Institution =Bulletin 170 o# the
Bureau o# merican Ethnology>&
Estreicher' Fygmunt =1.B1>& +ne techni?ue de transcri,tion de la musi?ue e:oti?ue&
Neuchatel8 Bi%liothe?ues et MuseRs de la Jille de Neuchatel& =See McConester 1./6 #or
translation in summary #orm&>
2ur"in' Ola" =1&.B@>&E$hotogra,hy as an aid to #ol3 music researchN' Nor"eg @8 151-1./&
HerAog' 2eorge =1.B9>& EMusic at the #i#th international Congress o# anthro,ological and
ethnological sciences'[ Cournal o# the International 1ol3 Music Council .891 K 9@&
International Music Council =1.B7>& MNotation o# 1ol3 MusicN' Recommendations o# the
Committee o# E:,erts& 2ene"a&
Kunst' Caa, =1.B.>& Ethnomusicology' @rd edition& The Hague8 M& Ni<ho##& =$,& 9-11 and @9-
0/ are suggested reading&>
McConester' Ro:ane =1./6>& E transcri,tion techni?ue used %y Fygmunt EstreicherN'
Ethnomusicology 08 1&7.-1@7&
Met#essel' Milton E& =1.75>& $hono,hotogra,hy in 1ol3 Music& Cha,el Hill8 +ni"ersity o# North
Carolina $ress&
O%ata' Cuichi' and Ryu<i Ko%ayashi =1.@9>& E directKreading ,itch recorder and its
a,,lication to music and s,eech'E Cournal o# the coustical Society o# merica .81B/-1/1&
OOOOOO& =1.@5>&E n a,,aratus #or direct-recording the ,itch and intensity o# sound'E Cournal
o# the coustical Society o# merica 168109-10.&
Sachs' Curt =1./7>& The (ells,rings o# Music& The Hague8 M& Ni<ho##& $,& 76-@@ are
suggested reading #or this cha,ter&
Seeger' Charles =1.B1>& En instantaneous music notatorN' Cournal o# the International 1ol3
Music Council @8 16@ K 16/&
OOOOOO& =1.B@>&ETo4ard a uni"ersal music sound-4riting #or musicology'E Cournal o# the
International 1ol3 Music Council B8/@K//&
OOOOOO& =1.B5>& ESinging style'E (estern 1ol3lore 198@-11&
OOOOOO& =1.B5a>&E$rescri,ti"e and descri,ti"e music 4riting'E Musical Guarterly 008150-1.B&
OOOOOO& =1./6>& Re"ie4 o# !ahl%ac3 =1.B.> in Ethnomusicology 0801-07&
Chater )
4ESCRIPTION OF 1USICA0 CO1POSITIONS
nalysis o# music in the merican music curriculum denotes mainly the descri,tion o#
the o"er K all structure o# a ,iece o# music' and o# the Interrelationshi, o# its "arious
sections& In most cases' indeed' it is the #itting o# this structure Into a ,reconcei"ed mold&
The ty,ical te:t%oo3 o# analysis does not set out to teach the student the ,rinci,les and
,rocedures used In descri%ing music; rather' it attem,ts to teach him the characteristics o#
certain s,eci#ic #orms and then to sho4 ho4 4ell K or ho4 %adly K Indi"idual com,ositions #it
these #orms& The #act that relati"ely #e4 ,ieces #it the #ormal outlines 4hich they are
su,,osed to has not deterred the 4riters o# te:ts and some teachers o# E#orm and analysisE
#rom continuing this a,,roach& The result is that there is little methodology a"aila%le #or
analysis o# the o"er K all #orms o# musical com,ositions' and e"en less #or descri,tions o#
smaller segments o# music such as scale' melody' and rhythm' and hardly any #or the
descri,tion o# tim%re' dynamics' and tem,o& The a%sence o# methodology In this case 4ould
seem& to %e a great handica, In the study o# (estern musical culture' In 4hich com,osers
ha"e 4ritten a%out their o4n methods and Intentions' and in 4hich a %ody o# music theory in
4riting has long e:isted to guide the inter,reter o# music& Ho4 much greater a handica, must
%e the a%sence o# such methodology to the student o# music
!&!
in other cultures' in 4hich ,reconcei"ed ideas as to the intention o# com,oser or ,er#ormer
are li3ely to do in#initely more damage than they do in the descri,tion o# (estern music& This
cha,ter does not attem,t to ,ro"ide the methodological #oundations 4hich 4e need& It 4ill
attem,t to sur"ey the a,,roaches 4hich are e"ident in ethnomusicological descri,tions o#
music' to e"aluate the contrasting 4or3 o# a #e4 scholars' and to ,ro"ide some guidelines #or
the student 4ho 4ishes to underta3e the descri,tion o# indi"idual ,ieces o# music and o#
entire musical styles&
(e are #aced 4ith descri,tion o# t4o 3inds o# musical units8 the indi"idual com,osition'
and the cor,us o# se"eral com,ositions& O# course the descri,tion o# the single com,osition
comes #irst' %oth logically and methodologically& Be#ore underta3ing the discussion o#
descri,tions o# %odies o# music' 4e must study the ,ro%lems o# descri%ing indi"idual
com,ositions& nd %e#ore a scholar can descri%e' statistically or im,ressionistically' a %ody o#
music' he must descri%e the indi"idual com,ositions in that %ody& To do other4ise 4ould %e
to in"ite gross errors and #alse conclusions& The ,ro%lem is' o# course' that an in#inite num%er
o# things could %e said a%out a ,iece o# music' and that 4e 4ould li3e to restrict our
statements to those things 4hich are someho4 rele"ant to disco"ering the essentials o# a
style' and to distinguishing it #rom that o# other com,osers' nations' historical ,eriods' or
cultures& (e are #aced 4ith t4o ,rocesses8 #irst' the ins,ection and analysis o# the material'
in 4hich o%<ecti"ity and relia%ility are the ,rimary re?uisites; second' the descri,tion o# the
music' 4hich results #rom the analysis' and 4hich must' a%o"e all' %e communicati"e' and
4hich must ma3e some concessions to the readerDs #rame o# re#erence&
In recent years #e4 ha"e %een so concerned 4ith the ,ro%lems in"ol"ed in the
descri,tion o# music as Charles Seeger& His ,u%lications =1.B1' 1.B@' 1./7> ha"e ,ro%ed the
#undamental ,ro%lems and the underlying assum,tions o# musical analysis' and 4hile they do
not ,resent %lue,rints #or the ,ractical side o# our 4or3' they are in"alua%le as criti?ues o#
the thought
!&%
,rocesses o# musicology& Seeger is concerned 4ith the distinction %et4een music as an e"ent
and music as ,art o# tradition =1.B1>' and %et4een the 3no4ledge 4hich one may gain #rom
music directly =Emusic K 3no4ledgeE> and the 3no4ledge 4hich comes #rom tal3ing or 4riting
a%out music =Es,eech K 3no4ledgeE>& He sho4s a healthy degree o# ,essimism a%out the
,ossi%ility o# using language to ma3e musical sense8
There ha"e' 1 must say' al4ays seemed to %e e:cellent grounds #or a hearty distrust o#
all tal3ing a%out music& On the other hand there is the inesca,a%le mandate o# modem
scholarshi, that there is nothing that cannot %e tal3ed a%out' ,ro"ided only it %e done in the
right 4ay& The musicologist is the one 4ho o%eys this mandate and tries to #ind the right
4ay& =Seeger 1.B@8@96>&
Seeger summariAes a set o# 71 4or3ing hy,otheses #or descri%ing music' hy,otheses
4hich seem lo#ty and remote #rom the mundane 4or3 o# counting notes and inter"als' %ut
4hich hel, to ,resent the musicologistDs 4or3 In %road ,ers,ecti"e& mong these hy,otheses
are such sa#eguards o# logic as his direction to e:,loit& the "arious ,ossi%le a,,roaches In
terms o# o,,osites'' i&e&' to ma3e a EstructuralE as 4ell as a E#unctionalE analysis; to use
?uantitati"e as 4ell as ?ualitati"e criteria #or data&
Seeger =1./7> is also concerned a%out the ,ro%lem o# "oca%ulary in musical descri,tion&
(hile his ,u%lication o# Conce,ts and conce,tual o,erating techni?uesE necessary #or
descri%ing musical tradition does not Include terms 4hich can %e used In musical descri,tion
itsel#' it does em,hasiAe the need #or clear thin3ing and #or de#ining the %asis and the limits
o# the 4or3 under consideration& It is hard to disagree 4ith Seeger' #or it cannot %e denied
that the terminology o# musical descri,tion is Inade?uate& Based on terms used %y
com,osers' and a,,roaching its o%<ect #rom a ,rescri,ti"e rather than a descri,ti"e "ie4' this
terminology has %ecome ho,elessly muddled so that communication among musicologists has
su##ered greatly& nd In ethnomusicology' a #ield In 4hich no ,rescri,ti"e terminology #rom
cultures under In"estigation is to %e e:,ected' the use o# terms and distinctions %ased on the
thin3ing o# (estern ,ractical
!&&
musicians seems to ma3e e"en less sense than in the study o# (estern music history& It is a
tem,tation to thro4 u, oneDs hands' to say' Mne"er mind descri%ing the music' <ust let it
s,ea3 #or itsel#N& nd this may %e a solution #or those 4ho 4ish to understand indi"idual
musical e"ents 4ithout re#erence to their cultural en"ironment' and 4ithout re#erence to the
other musical e"ents in the same and in other cultures& But 4here com,arison' and e"en the
,ossi%ility o# com,arati"e 4or3' are intended' it is necessary to reduce the musical
in#ormation to a #orm o# communication 4hich is readily understood and in 4hose terms
com,arison can %e made& Thus SeegerDs distinction %et4een Emusic K 3no4ledge[ and
Es,eech K 3no4ledge[ may ,erha,s %e a,,lied as #ollo4s8 Music K 3no4ledge may %e
su##icient #or the understanding o# a ,iece or a %ody o# music in itsel#; s,eech-3no4ledge is
necessary #or com,arison&
Instead o# using s,eech' 4e might #ind the use o# mathematical sym%ols a use#ul
,ossi%ility' and' to %e sure' the use o# nonlinguistic sym%ols' such as letters and gra,hs' #or
musical descri,tion is 4ides,read and should %e encouraged& But mathematics as a 4ay o#
communicating is not nearly as 4idely understood as language and' in the same 4ay that
music-3no4ledge must %e translated into s,eech' mathematical sym%ols might ha"e to %e
transl\1ted again' ma3ing it necessary to resort' as %e#ore' to the use o# 4ords& Inade?uate
as language may %e #or descri%ing a nonlinguistic #orm o# communication such as music' 4e
#ind that it is still the most ,romising tool&
The ty,ical te:t%oo3 in analysis does not intend to gi"e the student a tool 4here%y he
can descri%e music ho4e"er he may #ind it& Rather' it descri%es a %ody o# music in terms
4hich are a,,lica%le es,ecially to it' assuming that the %est 4ay to introduce a student to
musical structure is to allo4 him to see descri,tion o# one 3ind o# music in terms 4hich a,,ly
to the style o# that music& It seems to %e ta3en #or granted' in the %est o# these %oo3s' that
di##erent styles 4ill cause the student to e"ol"e di##erent terms and methods& This seems
une:ce,tiona%le; %ut students o# other musics must %e %lamed #or ha"ing used
!&'
the methods deri"ed #rom se"eral Euro,ean styles on the non-(estern musics #or 4hich they
should ha"e deri"ed =,resuma%ly #rom their Emusic-3no4ledgeE o# these musics> terms and
methods a,,ro,riate to them& It 4ould seem to %e the tas3 o# the ethnomusicologist to deri"e
a method 4hich is e?ually a,,lica%le to all music&
Three Aroaches to 4escrition o( Style
In the ne:t grou, o# ,aragra,hs 4e 4ill descri%e three a,,roaches to the descri,tion o#
music& These three' la%eled here Esystematic'E Eintuiti"e'E and Eselecti"e'E a,,ear in many
,u%lications' yet it is o#ten di##icult to identi#y them& The reason #or this di##iculty is that 4e
cannot al4ays tell' #rom a ,u%lished descri,tion o# style' 4hat a,,roach the author actually
too3 in analyAing' and that com%inations o# a,,roaches are ,erha,s the o"er4helming
ma<ority& The a,,roaches as outlined here are' to an e:tent' a%stractions' %ut it is use#ul to
distinguish among them as an introductory ,rocedure&
)he Systematic A%%roach& One a,,roach to descri%ing music is to identi#y all ,ossi%le'
or many' or' #or ,ractical ,ur,oses' a selected grou, o# as,ects o# music' and to descri%e
each o# these as,ects in an indi"idual com,osition' or in a %ody o# musical com,osition 4hich'
#or one reason or another' are assumed to ha"e something in common <usti#ying their
descri,tion as a unit&
The usual ,rocedure in this method is to di"ide music into a num%er o# so K called
elements& In the teaching o# music theory these are' most #re?uently' melody' rhythm'
meter' #orm' and harmony or ,oly,hony& In musicological studies a less ,ractical %ut more
o%<ecti"ely scholarly arrangement can %e made; none is generally agreed on' %ut the
#ollo4ing outline re#lects the tendencies #ound in the ma<ority o# descri,tions o# musical style8
!&)
$itch Rhythm Interrelation o# ,itch and rhythm
scale =enumeration o#
scale o# tones>
Scale o# note "alues
=enumeration>
relationshi, o# ,arts
inter"als =melodic and
scaler>
meter thematic material
melodic contour se?uences o# "alues ,oly,hony
#ormulas tendencies te:ture
tim%re tem,o
Many studies o# %odies o# music are de"oted to only a #e4 o# the elements o# music
enumerated here; %ut the e:hausti"e studies touch on all o# these =e:ce,t 4here a gi"en
musical style does not contain material rele"ant to such descri,tion' such as a style 4ithout
,oly,hony' or a study %ased on 4ritten notations in 4hich no indication o# tim%re is gi"en>&
Many scholars are o# the o,inion that one 4ould %e a%le to ,roduce an ade?uate
descri,tion o# a 4hole com,osition %y religiously descri%ing the elements o# music o# the
com,osition in the #orm o# this outline& Since the ,ossi%ility o# the analystDs %eing a%solutely
e:hausti"e is remote' there ha"e %een some attem,ts to analyAe music 4ith electronic
com,uters& No dou%t such an analysis 4ould %e e:hausti"e i# ,ro,erly ,rogrammed' %ut it
4ould' in turn' ha"e to %e translated into ordinary musicological language& There is'
moreo"er' no 4ay o# 3no4ing 4hether a com,uter could distinguish %et4een characteristic
and non-characteristic as,ects o# the music unless the ,rogrammer 4ere a%le' in ad"ance' to
ma3e the distinction himsel#& IBM ,unch cards ha"e %een used to identi#y tunes in the British
#ol3-song re,ertory 4hich are genetically related =Bronson 1.0.>' and this a,,roach indicates
that com,uters and other in#ormation K storing de"ices could %e o# limited use in the
descri,tion o# music& It is necessary to remem%er that descri,tion o# the indi"idual elements
o# music' 4ithout a consideration o# the interrelationshi,s and the ,oints o# correlation'
among them' could gi"e a misleading total im,ression& This a,,lies' o# course' 4hether
mechanical aids are used or not& It is concei"a%le' #or e:am,le' that t4o musical
com,ositions ,roduce e:actly the
!&*
same descri,tion 4ithout %eing identical e:ce,t in certain su,er#icial 4ays& Similarly' it is
,ossi%le to #ind' in a statistical analysis' that /6 ,er cent o# the com,ositions in a gi"en
cor,us ha"e a certain ty,e o# scale' and that /6 ,er cent ha"e a certain ty,e o# rhythm& But
this statement 4ould not indicate that only 76 ,er cent o# the com,ositions ha"e %oth the
rhythm and the scale indicated' and that the ,resence o# %oth in the same song is an
e:ce,tion rather than a rule&
)he Intuitive A%%roach& n alternati"e to the systematic' elements K o# K music
a,,roach is one 4hich attem,ts to identi#y the most stri3ing' the most im,ortant as,ect o# a
,iece o# music' or o# a musical style& This ,rocedure seems to %e most re4arding in (estern
music' in 4hich one can sometimes identi#y the com,oserDs 4ishes and intentions& The
?uestion E(hat 4as the com,oser trying to doHE can %e ans4ered either %y recourse to the
com,oserDs o4n statements or %y the in#ormed listener 4ho' as a mem%er o# the com,oserDs
o4n culture' may %e in a ,osition to ma3e "alld statements a%out his music& To ado,t the
,rocedure o# descri%ing the most stri3ing #eature o# the music 4ould seem less ad"isa%le #or
non K (estern music =or any music outside the studentDs #rame o# re#erence>' since one
4ould ine"ita%ly %e struc3 %y #eatures in the music 4hich either con#lict or coincide 4ith his
o4n #rame o# re#erence& 1or e:am,le' he
may %e struc3 %y the ,eculiarity o# the scale' 4hich may sound out K o# K tune to him;
or he may %e struc3 %y the #act that the 3ind o# ,oly,hony #ound is similar to a 3ind 4hich he
3no4s' etc& It is dou%t#ul that a relia%le descri,tion o# non-(estern music can %e ,roduced
4ith this method; moreo"er' it 4ould %e di##icult to %e sure that such a descri,tion is correct&
On the other hand' the intuiti"e a,,roach may #unction as a chec3 on the more relia%le' %ut
,erha,s im,ersonal' systematic a,,roach&
Thus the student 4ho has descri%ed the elements o# music in a com,osition' one %y
one' could then ,roceed intuiti"ely to #ind im,ortant #eatures in the music 4hich may ha"e
%een omitted&
)he Selective A%%roach& Many ethnomusicological studies
!&+
do not attem,t to descri%e a ,iece or a %ody o# music in its entirety %ut' instead' analyAe only
one or a grou, o# related as,ects& There are studies o# scale and melody in the music o# a
gi"en tri%e =e&g&' Brandel 1./7>' or o# rhythm =e&g&' Hendren 1.@/>' or o# melodic #ormulae
=e&g&' Hood 1.B0>& Some o# these studies are ,ur,osely selecti"e o# the as,ect o# music
4hich they treat; others are selecti"e %ecause their authors ha"e assumed certain as,ects o#
music to %e more #undamental than others& (hile no scholar can %e %lamed #or studying one
as,ect o# nature or culture 4hich interests him' and nothing else' it is ,erha,s a,,ro,riate to
criticiAe the selecti"e a,,roach as regards its contri%ution to ethnomusicology at large& The
student 4ho is %eginning to 4or3 in the #ield o# ethnomusicology' or the scholar 4ho is trying
to get a %road "ie4 o# the musical culture o# a ,eo,le' #ares %etter 4ith a systematic' holistic
a,,roach to descri,tion o# music& His great interest in rhythm should not allo4 him to neglect
descri,tion o# the melodic as,ects o# music' and the #act that a ,eo,le e:hi%it in their music
an une:,ected 3ind o# ,oly,hony should not %lind the student to the intricacies o# the
melodic #ormulae& The interrelationshi, among the "arious elements o# music should %e
constantly 3e,t in mind& #ter ,ractice in systematic descri,tion o# all as,ects o# a musical
style' the student may 4ish to go into yet more detail in an indi"idual as,ect o# the style& But
this should' in my "ie4' %e done only as a ,art o# 4hat must' at least ideally' constitute a
%roader a,,roach& I# scholar descri%es the scales o# a music and lea"es all else' he should
at least a,,roach these scales #rom the ,oint o# "ie4 that either he or scholar B 4ill some day
also study the rhythm o# that music& To assume that success#ul and rele"ant study o# one
element o# music can %e accom,lished is to neglect the o"er4eening #act o# the close
interrelationshi,s among the "arious as,ects o# music& Thus a descri,tion o# only the scales
o# a musical culture tells us "ery little a%out that music& Scales do not li"e %y themsel"es'
and selecti"e a,,roaches to musical descri,tion should %e considered selecti"e #or ,ractical
reasons only' not on the %asis o# scholarly ,rinci,le& The
!&,
manner in 4hich selecti"e descri,tion 4as done during the #irst decades o# ethnomusicology
indicates the great interest o# the early scholars in melodic as,ects o# the music& nd 4hile
considera%le light 4as thro4n on the music o# non-(estern cultures %y this a,,roach' the
#act remains that a some4hat #alse im,ression 4as #re?uently gi"en& Notions such as the
ine"ita%le sim,licity o# rhythm in non-literate cultures' the lac3 o# classi#ication o# ,oly,honic
styles' and the almost com,lete a%sence o# terminology #or descri,tion o# tim%re are ,artly
the result o# this selecti"e a,,roach to descri,tion o# musical style&
Some Pu/lished E9amles o( 4escritions o( Style
One 4ay o# learning a%out the descri,tion o# music is to e:amine some o# the analyses
o# and commentaries on non-(estern and #ol3 styles& Thus' %e#ore discussing the
terminology o# musical descri,tion and ,ro,osing some s,eci#ic ,rocedures' 4e should ha"Y a
loo3 at some o# the ,u%lications 4hich descri%e musical style& (e are mainly concerned'
here' 4ith descri,tions o# style in 4hich attention is ,aid to the indi"idual com,osition;
descri,tions o# the styles o# grou,s o# com,ositions is the su%<ect o# Cha,ter /& Our tas3 in
this section is to see ho4 descri,tions o# style in indi"idual songs ha"e %een ,resented and
ho4 some scholars arri"ed at their techni?ues o# descri,tion& The ty,e o# descri,tion 4ith
4hich 4e are concerned has %een made almost e:ce,tionally #or "ocal music; #or that reason
4e are omitting the discussion o# descri,tions o# instrumental music' %ut these could %e
e:,ected to #ollo4 the same ,rinci,les&
It is ,ossi%le that an e:amination o# ,u%lished descri,tions o# musical style may not %e
indicati"e o# the 3ind o# 4or3 4hich is generally done in musical analysis& #ter all' #e4
scholars are a%le' #or reasons o# s,ace' to ,u%lish the com,lete results o#
!&-
their musical analysis& 1e4 scholars 4ould e"en 4ish to ,u%lish their com,lete analyses8 a
great deal o# musical analysis =done %y the student 4ith the ,ur,ose o# sim,ly understanding
the music> in"ol"es #eatures 4hich can easily %e seen or heard' and the ,ur,ose o# most
,u%lished descri,tions o# music is the enlightenment o# the reader or listener 4ho 4ill #ind
some o# the sim,ler as,ects o# the descri,tion unnecessary& This is es,ecially the ,ur,ose o#
most analyses o# indi"idual com,ositions& s 4e mo"e #rom analysis o# single songs to
descri,tions o# %odies o# music' less can %e #ound out through sim,le ins,ection o#
transcri,tions' and the results o# analyses' digested' are more essential to the reader& The
#ollo4ing ,aragra,hs are a discussion o# certain selected ,u%lished descri,tions o# music'
%eginning 4ith descri,tion o# indi"idual com,ositions&
The tendency to descri%e each com,osition 4ithin a large collection is most e"ident in
studies o# #ol3 music' ,articularly that o# the British and British K merican traditions& Cecil
Shar, =1.@7> already made use o# this ,ractice' although on a selecti"e %asis& Each o# the
tunes in his classic collection o# English #ol3 songs #ound in the mountains o# Jirginia and
neigh%oring states has the descri,tion o# its mode and scale' in a%%re"iated #orm' according
to Shar,Ds s,ecial system& Other as,ects o# music are not descri%ed' ho4e"er' and it is
o%"ious that Shar,' li3e many o# his contem,oraries' 4as most im,ressed %y the relationshi,
4hich the melodic structure o# these tunes seems to %ear to that o# medie"al music&
more nearly com,lete descri,tion o# indi"idual tunes %y Schinhan a,,ears in a
collection =Schinhan 1.B9> o# songs similar in style to those ,u%lished %y Shar, =1.@7>&
Schinhan' a#ter each tune' gi"es the scale =according to his system o# classi#ication>' names
the tonal center' and gi"es an indication o# the interrelationshi, o# the sections o# each song
4ith the use o# letter K schemes 4ides,read in musical literature& t the end o# his collection'
he goes into greater detail in descri%ing the melodic structure' re,roducing the scale o# each
tune' and indicating the num%er o# times each tone is used in the song&
!'$
This "ery thorough descri,tion o# scale =4ithout accom,anying descri,tion o# melodic
mo"ement' #ormulae' etc&>' #orms a curious contrast to the neglect o# the rhythmic as,ects o#
the music& It is indicati"e o# trends in ethnomusicology that Shar,Ds collection does not go
%eyond descri,tion o# the mode o# each tune' 4hile Schinhan summariAes the indi"idual
descri,tions in ta%les and statistical charts&
1landers =1./6> ,u%lishes analyses modeled largely a#ter SchinhanUs ,rocedure' %ut
4ith some added #eatures& The structure o# each tune is gi"en according to the usual letter K
scheme' and the relati"e lengths o# the indi"idual sections or ,hrases are stated %y #ormula&
Rhythmic structure is classi#ied according to #i"e main ty,es 4hich a,,ear in the British K
merican %allads treated here& com%ination o# note K "alue relationshi,s and meter is used
as the %asis #or this classi#ication& The melodic contour is descri%ed %y a 3ey 4ord' such as
Earc'E E,endulum'D Eundulating&D& The scale' trans,osed so that the tonic 4ill %e 2 is
re,roduced #or each tune&
In each o# these e:am,les' British K merican #ol3 song tradition is in"ol"ed' and the
#orm o# the descri,tion o# the tunes con#orms to the general style o# the music& Thus' it is
,ossi%le to classi#y rhythm and meter as #alling in one o# #i"e main categories =corres,onding
essentially to ,oetic meters> ; it is ,ossi%le to sho4 the interrelationshi, o# sections' since the
songs can easily %e di"ided into sections o# a,,ro:imately e?ual length' corres,onding to
,oetic lines' and since there is considera%le re,etition or recurrence o# indi"idual sections so
that letterKschemes are meaning#ul&
It is more di##icult to descri%e the style o# indi"idual com,ositions in non-(estern
music' in 4hich the conce,ts de"elo,ed in (estern music K theory' 4hich #orm the %asis o#
the descri,tions gi"en a%o"e' are not as easily a,,lied& $erha,s it is #or this reason that
,rinted collections o# non K (estern music are not as #re?uently accom,anied %y the 3ind o#
tune K %y K tune musical descri,tion as are those o# #ol3 songs& Ro%erts =1.BB> has ,u%lished
a collection o# Noot3a Indian songs containing
!'!
4hat is essentially song K %y K song descri,tion' e"en though the arrangement is such that
the analyses do not a,,ear 4ith the transcri,tions& Ninety K nine songs are in"ol"ed& Ro%erts
has concentrated on scale and o"er K all structure' ,aying less heed to rhythm& In contrast to
the students o# merican #ol3 song' she seems to %e most interested in the #orm o# the
songs' gi"ing the letter K scheme #or each tune at least t4ice' #irst in a ta%ular arrangement
in 4hich the num%er o# sections' ,hrases' or ,arts is the main criterion' and again near the
end o# the %oo3' 4here the #orm o# each song is laid out in e"en more detail& 1inally =,& 76.>
a ta%le gi"ing the characteristics o# each o# the ninety-nine songs is ,resented&
nother e:am,le o# non K (estern music descri%ed song-%y-song 4as ,u%lished %y
Christensen =1.B9> in a study o# music in Ne4 2uinea& Rather than relying on the #ormulaic
,resentation o# Schinhan =1.B9>' 1landers =1./6>' or Ro%erts =1.BB>' Christensen gi"es a
commentary on each o# his #i#ty K t4o songs& He includes mention o# o"er K all #orm' melodic
contour' scale' rhythm' and K this is some4hat unusual K manner o# singing' tim%re' and
tem,o& This in#ormation is gi"en again' in terms lending themsel"es more easily to
com,arison' in an a,,endi: consisting o# ta%les&
The e:am,les o# descri,tions o# indi"idual songs discussed here are all more or less in
the systematic category' i&e&' they e:amine "arious as,ects o# the music one %y one' gi"ing
their interrelationshi, %ut a"oiding an im,ressionistic statement o# 4hat is most stri3ing or
4hat the com,oser 4as trying to do& $erha,s a reason is that the intuiti"e a,,roach' a,,lied
to indi"idual songs' may result in statements 4hich ha"e more the ring o# EcriticismE than o#
descri,tion& (hen this a,,roach is a,,lied to a %ody o# music' it may %e more "alld' since it
contains at least the statistical "alidity o# num%ers& n e:am,le o# this critical sort o#
a,,roach to descri,tion o# indi"idual songs is ,ro"ided %y $eacoc3 =1.B0>&Here' a Emusical
analysisE o# nine songs is ,resented& Song no&1 is descri%ed as #ollo4s8
Mode o# 2 =Mi:olydian> ; tonic 2& This is a short song o# a
!'%
#isherman&&&&The melody consists o# a single ,hrase' "ery ,retty' %ut o# a more restricted
sco,e and 4ith #e4er ornaments than the other songs& Its %ucolic color comes #rom the use
o# the Mi:olydian mode =2>E =$eacoc3 1.B081@B>& Rhythm is not mentioned' and the #orm is
gi"en only %y im,lication& Em,hasis is on the mode' 4hich the author o%"iously considers the
essential element o# this song& But his song no&@ is descri%ed in di8##erent terms8 EMode o# !
=!orian>; tonic !& The #orm o# this lo"e song is similar to that o# the song 4hich #ollo4s K B
K & Here ho4e"er the second ,hrase "aries as it is re,eated' 4ith ,retty ornaments' and' at
the end' the theme comes %ac3 slightly altered&E side #rom the "alue <udgments
=E,rettyE>' this descri,tion is o%<ectiona%le %ecause o# the discre,ancy %et4een the elements
o# music descri%ed in the t4o songs& I# song no& lhas %ucolic color caused %y the Mi:olydian
mode' 4hat color is caused %y the !orian mode in song @H Can the author %e sure that he is
descri%ing elements o# music 4hich are actually the im,ortant ones' or is he sim,ly re#lecting
his o4n %ac3ground and interestsH Since he ,ro%a%ly could not tell 4hat the com,oser 4as
trying to do' he might ha"e ,roduced a more success#ul descri,tion %y using a systematic
outline& The intuiti"e analysis in $eacoc3 =1.B0> is' 4e should say' ,ro%a%ly indicati"e o#
earlier ,ractices than his date o# ,u%lication indicates& (hile the intuiti"e a,,roach to
analysis may occasionally sho4 im,ortant #eatures o# music 4hich do not turn u, in more
systematic descri,tions' it is e"ident that' at least in music outside the (estern culti"ated
tradition' it must %e used in con<unction 4ith the systematic&
It is o%"ious' #rom an e:amination o# the systematic' song-%y-song descri,tions o#
musical styles cited here' that each descri,tion is made in a #rame o# re#erence %ased on the
descri%erDs 3no4ledge o# 4hat the style is at least li3ely to contain& Ma3ing a success#ul and
communicati"e descri,tion o# a song 4ithout some ,resu,,ositions' 4ithout some things
4hich are ta3en #or granted %y descri%er and reader ali3e' seems im,ossi%le& ttem,ts 4ould
,ro%a%ly #ounder on the ela%orate
!'&
terminology needed #or esta%lishing conce,ts and units' %eginning 4ith ?uestions such as
E(hat is a toneHE E(hat is meterHE etc&
That such ?uestions should %e as3ed' and' indeed' that they ha"e not %een as3ed or
ans4ered su##iciently' cannot %e denied& But i# the tas3 at hand is the descri,tion o# music'
then such #undamental ?uestions may get in the 4ay& The ethnomusicologist must ta3e
ad"antage o# one o# the uni"ersaIs o# culture8 he must ta3e #or granted that his reader 4ill
3no4 4hat music is' and his descri,tion must #all 4ithin that #rame o# re#erence& But he
should not ta3e #or granted is that he and the reader can correctly identi#y the rele"ant' the
signi#icant units and distinctions in any musical style&
Here again 4e #ace' as 4e did in considerations o# transcri,tion =Cha,ter 0>' the
distinction %et4een music as a conglomeration o# sounds' and music as communication 4ith
meaning#ul and non-meaning#ul units and distinctions' and o,erationally' %et4een the
,honetic and the ,honemic a,,roaches&
There is little that can %e ad"ised in a general 4ay to sol"e this ,ro%lem and to gi"e
direction to the student& It may %e ,ossi%le to di##erentiate %et4een the ,honetic and the
,honemic distinctions in music' %ut such di##erentiation must come %e#ore actual descri,tion'
rather than resulting #rom it& $erha,s one e:am,le o# s8uch di##erentiation may sho4 its
im,ortance in descri,tion o# style& *et us consider the en"ironment o# the indi"idual unit& In
the case o# scales' it is not enough' #or e:am,le' to state the num%er o# di##erent ,itches
4hich occur' or' in the case o# rhythm' the num%er o# note "alues& ttention should %e gi"en
to the en"ironment o# each' to the notes 4hich come %e#ore and a#ter each one' to see
4hether the occurrence o# one cannot %e ,redicted #rom that en"ironment& Thus' in
e:amining certain eighteenth K century ,ieces' 4e #ind that the raised se"enth degree in a
minor scale occurs only 4hen #ollo4ed %y the higher tone' 4hile the lo4ered se"enth is #ound
4hen #ollo4ed %y a lo4er degree& The t4o se"enths' used altemately' could thus %e
considered di##erent mani#estations o# one tone' not t4o se,arate tones' and 4hile each has
its distinct #unction' each is a com,lement
!''
o# the other& O%"iously' #or this reason the t4o se"enths are considered sim,ly the se"enth o#
the melodic minor scale& Similar %ut also much more com,le: situations may %e #ound in
non-(estern musical styles&
General Terminology and Procedure
(hile there is no generally acce,ted set o# terms' or de#inition o# these terms' in
ethnomusicology' a large ,ro,ortion o# the literature does con#orm to an a,,ro:imate
standard in terminology& It seems a,,ro,riate to comment %rie#ly on some o# these terms
and conce,ts&
Tonal Material& The ,rocedures #or descri%ing the tonal material are #airly 4ell
esta%lished& 1irst comes descri,tion o# the scale' i&e&' the tones 4hich a,,ear' 4ithout
consideration o# their role in the melody& =Ethnomusicologists ha"e used the 4ord EscaleE to
mean something rather di##erent #rom 4hat it means in traditional music theory& But since
ethnomusicologists ha"e also used the 4ord to mean se"eral di##erent things' let us #or our
,ur,oses de#ine it as those tones K and the inter"als among them K 4hich are used in one or
a grou, o# com,ositions&> The #irst classi#ication o# scales is sim,ly an enumeration' so that
the terms ditonic' tritonic' tetratonic' ,entatonic' he:atonic' and he,tatonic sim,ly indicate
the num%er o# tones in the scale& Octa"e du,lications are normally omitted' although this
may %e a ?uestiona%le ,rocedure' since all cultures may not consider tones an octa"e a,art
to %e so close in identity as do (estern musicians&
Sim,le enumeration o# tones tells us something a%out the music' %ut not really "ery
much& T4o scales containing #i"e tones may %e as di##erent as . a K #lat % K #lat c d K #lat and
. a % de& n indication o# the inter"als among the tones o# the scale is im,ortant as 4ell&
Terms such as ,entachordal' tetrachordal' and he:achordal indicate the num%er o# tones as
4ell as the
!')
#act that these scales are %uilt out o# successi"e seconds& (e then ,roceed to a descri,tion o#
mode' another conce,t 4hich has %een used and de#ined in a num%er o# di##erent 4ays& 1or
our ,ur,oses' mode is the 4ay in 4hich the tones o# a scale are used in a com,osition& Thus'
4hen 4e say that a song uses certain tones' 4e ha"e gi"en its scale; 4hen 4e say that
certain tones are im,ortant' certain ones a,,ear only %e#ore or a#ter ,articular others' and a
s,eci#ic one #unctions as the tonal center' 4e ha"e gi"en at least a ,artial descri,tion o#
mode& Scale and mode are usually ,resented on a sta##' 4ith the #re?uencies and the
#unctions o# the tones indicated %y note K "alues K a ,ractice; started %y "on Horn%ostel& The
tonic is usually gi"en %y a 4hole note' other im,ortant tones are indicated %y hal# notes'
tones o# a"erage im,ortance %y ?uarters' rarely used or ornamental tones %y eighths and
si:teenths& Brac3ets and arro4s can %e used to indicate other distinctions' such as the tones
used %y each "oice =see ,& 1/7> in a ,oly,honic ,iece or the tones used in the indi"idual
,hrases o# a song&
Here 4e %egin to a,,roach the ,ro%lem o# tonality' 4hich in ethnomusicology is a
di##icult one& =See' #or e:am,le' ,el 1./68@60&> That tonality also ,resents a di##icult
,ro%lem in (estern music' 4ith the e:ce,tion ,erha,s o# the music com,osed %et4een 1966
and 1566' is e"idenced %y the large amount o# literature com,osed o# arguments a%out
de#initions& Ne"ertheless' in (estern culti"ated music one can tal3 a%out this elusi"e conce,t
%ecause the nati"e com,oser and theorist is a"aila%le as a source& 1or music in other styles'
acoustic criteria %ased on the idea that certain inter"allic relationshi,s 4ill %ring a%out in man
a #eeling o# tonal center' sim,ly %ecause o# the ine"ita%le e##ect o# acoustical la4s' ha"e %een
,ostulated =see Hindemith 1.0B>&(hile these may %e "alid' 4e cannot easily test the
mem%ers o# non K (estern cultures #or their reactions to descri,tions o# tonality %ased on
acoustics& I do not 4ish to gi"e the im,ression that I dou%t the "alidity o# the acoustic criteria
o# tonality; %ut I cannot #ind that they ma3e a great contri%ution to the descri,tion o# non-
(estern musical
!'*
styles& I# 4e are to tal3 a%out tonality at all' in ethnomusicological descri,tion' then 4e
should use tonality as a conce,t directly descri,ti"e o# the music& nd 4hile counting the
#re?uency o# the tones in a song' and calculating the interrelationshi,s o# the tones in terms
o# their ,ositions in the song' may ,roduce results 4hich "iolate the acoustical criteria o#
tonality' the in#ormation thus gained does tell something concrete a%out the song itsel#& To
study tonality in any other 4ay seems %oth ris3y and ,otentially meaningless; %ut at the time
o# 4riting' ethnomusicological descri,tions o# tonality 4hich do more than sim,ly enumerate
the tones in the scale and indicate their relati"e #re?uency are rare&
1ollo4ing are some methods 4hich ethnomusicologists ha"e used to identi#y tonal
centers and to distinguish a hierarchy o# tones in a ,iece8 1> 1re?uency o# a,,earance is
,erha,s the most 4idely used criterion& 7> !uration o# notes is sometimes used' that is'
those tones 4hich are long K 4hether they a,,ear #re?uently or not K are considered tonal
centers& @> ,,earance at the end o# a com,osition or o# its su%di"isions is thought to gi"e
tonic 4eight to a tone& Initial ,osition is also a criterion& 0> ,,earance at the lo4 end o# the
scale' or' again' at the center o# the scale' may %e a criterion& B> Inter"allic relationshi, to
other tones K #or e:am,le' a,,earance at t4o octa"e ,ositions =4hile other tones a,,ear only
once>' or a,,earance a #i#th %elo4 a #re?uently used tone K is another criterion sometimes
used& /> Rhythmically stressed ,osition is a #urther one& 9> (e must ne"er neglect the
,ossi%ility that a musical style 4ill contain a system o# tonality 4hich can only %e identi#ied
%y means other than those already 3no4n and used& n intimate ac?uaintance 4ith the music
o# such a style 4ould seem to %e the %est insurance against ignorance o# such a system&
lthough the a%o"e criteria o#ten con#lict' most scholars' in their identi#ication o# tonal
centers' seem to rely on a com%ination rather than a single one&
Other as,ects o# melody ha"e %een less #ormaliAed in descri,tion than scale and
tonality& Melodic contour' #or e:am,le'
!'+
is usually descri%ed %y "ery general terms' such as Earc'E E,endulum'E Egradual descent'E etc&
(hile a more com,rehensi"e system o# classi#ication 4ould %e hel,#ul here' the use o#
generally understood terms has ad"antages o"er s,ecialiAed and rigid systems 4hich K as in
the case o# scales K sometimes o%scure rather than am,li#y the music to %e descri%ed&
Rhythm& Since ethnomusicologists ha"e ,aid less attention to rhythm than to melody'
the methods #or descri%ing rhythm are much less 4ell de"elo,ed than those #or mo"ement in
,itch& Sachs =1.B@> has attem,ted to ,ro"ide some o# the techni?ues 4hich are re?uired& But
the conce,ts o# intensity and stress in music ha"e ,ro"ed themsel"es so elusi"e that little
real ,rogress has %een made& The study o# length as rhythmic #unction is %etter understood'
and length is easier to descri%e than stress ,atterns& Thus the %est 4ay to %egin a descri,tion
o# rhythm is to count the "arious note "alues and descri%e their #unctions and en"ironments'
much as 4as done #or the indi"idual notes in the descri,tion o# scales& 1ormulas and re,eated
,atterns should %e identi#ied and noted&
Stress ,atterns' and ultimately meter' are more di##icult to descri%e' and ,u%lished
transcri,tions are not al4ays relia%le in this res,ect %ecause o# the desire o# many
transcri%ers to identi#y meter' and to sho4 that their music has some regularity o# meter& It
is use#ul to distinguish among ,ieces 4hich 1> ha"e a single metric unit re,eated throughout'
7> are dominated %y a single metric unit %ut di"erge #rom it occasionally' and @> are not
dominated %y any single ,attern& The terms EisometricE and neterometricE ha"e %een used to
distinguish the #irst #rom the other t4o 3inds&
The de#inition o# meter is %ound to ,lague the ethnomusicologist' since it is a conce,t
essentially con#ined to (estern music and deri"ed #rom s,ecial ty,es o# (estern ,oetry&
Rather than a,,roach meter intuiti"ely' the student is ad"ised to identi#y it %y using such
o%<ecti"e criteria as stress and re,eated ,atterns in note K length& It is true that he 4ill
sometimes turn out to descri%e something 4hich is not e:actly the same as the meter
!',
o# (estern classical music' %ut at least he 4ill %e descri%ing an as,ect o# the music at hand
rather than something 4hich he only assumes to %e ,resent&
Tem,o' a #urther as,ect o# rhythm' has usually not %een descri%ed at all& It is usually
indicated in transcri,tions %y an EM&M&E mar3ing' %ut this is only ,art o# the notation' not o# a
descri,tion& Kolins3i =1.B.> and Christensen =1.B9> ha"e attem,ted to ,ro"ide techni?ues #or
descri%ing the s,eed o# music& Their systems' essentially' e:,ress tem,o in terms o# the
num%er o# notes ,er minute =on the a"erage>' and this a,,roach seems the %est 4or3ed out
so #ar&
It is ,ossi%le to determine the a"erage num%er o# notes ,er minute #rom a transcri,tion
4ith a metronome =M&M&> mar3ing& I#' #or e:am,le' the mar3ing is q]50' one should count
the num%er o# ?uarter K note e?ui"alents in the ,iece and di"ide %y 50& This gi"es the
num%er o# minutes and #ractions there o# 4hich the ,iece too3 to ,er#orm& Then one should
count the num%er o# notes and di"ide %y the num%er o# minutes& The ans4er is the a"erage
num%er o# notes ,er minute& This method o# indicating tem,o does not ta3e into account
changes o# tem,o; i# these occur' and i# each change o# tem,o is easily identi#ied' each
section 4ith its o4n tem,o should %e treated se,arately in the 4ay descri%ed a%o"e& lso' the
as,ect o# tem,o in"ol"ing the length o# %eats' or the ,ulse' is neglected& But %eats cannot
easily %e identi#ied =or distinguished #rom hal# or dou%le %eats> unless the com,oser can
identi#y them #or you' or unless a ,ercussion instrument ,er#orms them' or unless the notes
o# the melody are regularly the e?ui"alent o# %eats&
1orm& 1orm' 4ith the s,ecialiAed meaning as the interrelationshi, o# sections' and the
total structure o# the ,iece including the interrelationshi, o# melodic and rhythmic elements'
has %een classi#ied in se"eral 4ays& +n#ortunately' la%els such as Eminiature sonata'E
Ere,risen%ar'E etc&' ta3en #rom (estern music and not descri,ti"e %ut sim,ly com,arati"e in
their #unction' ha"e #re?uently %een used and ha"e o%scured the #orm as it really a,,ears&
T4o main ,ro%lems #ace the descri%er o# musical #orm8
!'-
1> the identi#ication o# thematic material' on 4hich the rest o# a ,iece is %ased' and 7> the
identi#ication o# di"isions in the music' that is' o# sections' moti#s' and ,hrases& The #irst o#
these' thematic material' tends to occur in longer ,ieces only' and #or the ethnomusicologist
it is ,rimarily o# interest in the study o# Oriental culti"ated music& The idea that there is a
theme 4hich is stated at the %eginning' and on 4hich the ensuing material K ,erha,s a 4hole
,iece K is %ased' a,,lies mainly to Euro,ean music com,osed a#ter 1966& In the sonata #orm
the distinction is "ery s,eci#ic& But the notion that there is' someho4' a hierarchy o# musical
material in a longer ,iece' that there is ,rimary material 4hich is the com,oserDs %asic idea
and on 4hich other' secondary material is %ased' may %e "alid #or other musics as 4ell& No
s,eci#ic 4ay o# descri%ing this ,henomenon has %een ,u%lished' %ut the ,ossi%ility o# its
,resence should %e 3e,t in mind&
!i"iding a ,iece into sections is necessary #or descri%ing its #orm& Criteria #or di"ision
are re,etitions =i&e&' a ,ortion o# music 4hich rea,,ears can %e considered a unit> ; ,hrasing
and rests =i&e&' rests and dynamic mo"ement such as a decrescendo may indicate endings o#
units> ; modi#ied re,etition such as a re,eated rhythmic ,attern or a trans,osition; units o#
the te:t in "ocal music' such as 4ords or lines&
The relationshi, among sections o# a com,osition in 4hich thematic and nonthematic
materials are not distinguished is usually indicated %y letters& Thus' a ,iece 4hich has #our
di##erent sections 4ould %e designated as B C !& The length o# each section' in terms o#
measures or note "alues' could %e sho4n& Related %ut not com,letely identical sections are
indicated %y su,erscri,t numerals8 l and 7 are "ariants o# the same material; Ba is a ne4
section 4hich contains some material #rom section & It is o#ten con"enient to indicate some
other relationshi, o# a s,eci#ic nature& It is ,ossi%le to indicate the inter"al o# trans,osition %y
#igures in ,arentheses; thus' =B> is trans,osed do4n a #i#th& !e"ices o# this sort are
a,,lica%le
!)$
to s,eci#ic styles o# music' and each style 4ill suggest s,ecial 4ays o# ,resenting its #orm&
!escri,tion o# #orms as a grou, is made %y general statements o# tendencies&
Statements o# this ty,e might %e made as to the num%er o# di##erent sections in a ,iece' the
relationshi, among the lengths o# the sections' the degree to 4hich material ,resented at the
%eginning recurs' the e:tent to 4hich s,ecial techni?ues such as trans,osition or "ariation
are #ound' etc& ll o# these are ,ro,erly ,art o# a descri,tion o# musical #orm' %ut no s,eci#ic
,rocedures or #ormulae #or these statements ha"e %een e"ol"ed or generally acce,ted&
Other element5& Hardly any #rame4or3 is a"aila%le #or the descri,tion o# tim%re and
dynamics; %ut ,erha,s this is no great disad"antage' since ,reconcei"ed systems o#
classi#ication such as those #ound #or scales and meters sometimes tend to o%scure rather
than #acilitate understanding o# the nature o# the musical ,henomena in"ol"ed&
Harmony and ,oly,hony do ha"e some e:isting classi#ications into 4hich these
elements o# music' as #ound in non- (estern music' can %e #itted #or descri,ti"e ,ur,oses&
(hile these classi#ications certainly ha"e their use#ulness' they ,resent the tem,tation o#
%eing made into ,rocrustean %eds& Moreo"er' 4e must not assume that a satis#actory
descri,tion o# harmony or ,oly,hony has %een arri"ed at sim,ly %ecause 4e ha"e classi#ied
the music according to the criteria gi"en %elo4& It is ?uite li3ely that im,ortant as,ects o# the
te:ture might thus ,ass unnoticed& But ,oly,hony is such a com,le: as,ect o# music that
some initial classi#ication is ,ro%a%ly e"en more use#ul here than in other as,ects o# music&
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology .6
(estern music ma3es rather shar, distinctions %et4een ,oly,hony' in 4hich the
interrelationshi, o# t4o or more "oices as melodies is ,aramount' and harmony' in 4hich the
succession o# simultaneous inter"als or chords is more im,ortant =%ut e"en in (estern music
all ,oly,hony has harmonic as,ects 4hile in all harmony there is some interest in the melodic
relationshi, among the "oices>&!istinguishing %et4een harmony and ,oly,hony'
!)!
ho4e"er' de,ends ,artly on the e:istence o# music theory& In non-(estern and #ol3 music'
4e usually cannot ma3e this distinction' since normally 4e can only "ie4 the material as
outsiders 4ithout recourse to the com,oserDs o4n ,oint o# "ie4& (e canDt tell 4hether the
non-(estern musician concei"es o# the music as harmonic or contra,untal' and to
su,erim,ose our o4n "ie4 is irrele"ant& $erha,s 4e should assume that all music in 4hich
more than one ,itch is heard is essentially contra,untal' unless 4e 3no4 that the conce,t o#
chords is actually ,resent' since such music is usually the result o# se"eral instruments or
"oices ,er#orming indi"idual melodies' rather than o# one musician ,er#orming chords&
(hate"er the case is' it seems %est initially to class all non- (estern music in 4hich more
than one ,itch is heard at a time as one ty,e o# music' 4hich 4e may #or con"enience call
,oly,hony&
The t4o sim,lest a,,roaches to descri,tion o# ,oly,hony are e:amination o# the o"er K
all relationshi, among the "oices' and study o# their note-%y-note interrelationshi,& The o"er
K all interrelationshi, can %e descri%ed in terms o# the relati"e im,ortance o# the "oices' and
o# similarity or di##erence o# their content&
T4o "oices may %e o# e?ual im,ortance or one may accom,any the other& One may
ha"e a ,rogressi"e #orm' 4ithout re,etition' 4hile the other has #re?uent or constant
re,etition& One may mo"e through a large range and a scale o# many tones 4hile the other
may %e restricted& gain' the t4o or three "oices may ,er#orm the same musical material at
di##erent times =imitation>' at di##erent ,itches =,arallelism>' or in di##erent "ariants or s,eeds
=hetero,hony>& The num%er o# "oices and the interrelationshi, o# their tone colors K are all o#
the "oices sung or are they ,er#ormed on one 3ind o# instrumentH or is the music ,er#ormed
%y a com%ination o# instrumentsH K are rele"ant to a descri,tion o# ,oly,hony&
The harmonic as,ects o# ,oly,hony are %est studied through an e:act accounting o# the
inter"als #ound among the "oices& I# the ,rogression is note %y note' such calculations are
relati"ely easy& It remains' a#ter sim,ly counting inter"als' to indicate the
!)%
3ind o# ,osition 4hich each occu,ies 4ithin its metric unit' ,hrase' or section' and 4hich
inter"als are its neigh%ors& (e may' %y this 3ind o# consideration' arri"e at structural
de#initions o# consonance and dissonance' %ased not on the acoustic ,ro,erties o# inter"als
%ut on the ,osition 4hich they occu,y in the music& =See Kolins3i 1./7 #or a lucid discussion
o# consonance and dissonance in 4orld music&> I# the ,rogression is not note-%y-note' more
com,le: 4ays o# stating the 3inds o# harmonic inter"als must %e de"ised& In the #ield o#
,oly,hony' the tendency to im,ose the standards o# (estern music theory on descri,tions o#
non-(estern music are ,erha,s the most tem,ting&
Manner o# ,er#ormance has %een recogniAed since the early descri,tions o# non-(estern
music as an essential as,ect o# musical style' %ut it has not al4ays %een ade?uately de#ined&
The assum,tion has %een that a musical ,er#ormance' as an e"ent' consists o# the music
itsel#' 4hich ,ossesses a certain degree o# ,ermanence' and the 4ay it is ,er#ormed' 4hich
can %e su,erim,osed on the music itsel#& This idea' o# course' stems #rom the (estern
culti"ated music tradition' in 4hich it is ,ossi%le to se,arate 4hat the com,oser has indicated
in the notation and 4hat is added %y the ,er#ormer& In traditional music this distinction e:ists
only %y con<ecture' and 4hile some o# the ,henomena usually co"ered in a descri,tion o#
manner o# ,er#ormance are im,ortant' the di##erence %et4een them and the other elements
o# music should not %e ,ushed too #ar& Ordinarily' tim%re' "ocal ?uality' and ornamentation
are included here& The idea that Emanner o# ,er#ormanceE is someho4 not an essential ,art o#
music ,resents ,ro%lems in musical analysis 4hich can %e illustrated in a consideration o#
ornamentation& In some ,eriods in (estern culti"ated music history =the Baro?ue ,eriod' #or
instance>' the insertion o# trills' turns' and other ornaments 4as ta3en #or granted and not
s,eci#ied %y the com,oser& These ornaments could' in a sense' %e considered non-essential'
since their e:act ,lacement and nature 4ere not s,eci#ied' although their e:istence in the
music at large 4as considered essential and is a hallmar3 o# the style& But in non K (estern
!)&
music' it is not usually ,ossi%le to distinguish %et4een ornaments =trills' turns' etc&> 4hich
are essential to the music and others 4hich are su,erim,osed& Com,aring di##erent
,er#ormances o# one song may illuminate this matter' and in#ormants may %e a%le to ma3e
comments& But in a descri,tion o# one ,iece o# music' the only o%"ious di##erence %et4een
ornaments and non-ornaments is length8 ornaments are made u, o# shorter notes than non-
ornaments& In "ie4 o# this #act' 4hile the term EornamentE may %e admitted to indicate
certain melodic #eatures such as trills' %ecause it may %e descri,ti"e to (estern musicians'
the conce,t o# ornamentation as a s,ecial' nonessential or o,tional as,ect o# the music
cannot %e acce,ted 4ithout e"idence #rom the musicDs cultural %ac3ground&
!escri,tion o# "ocal techni?ue lac3s an ade?uate "oca%ulary& !esignations such as
EnaturalE or EunnaturalE are meaningless' since all music is a cultural rather than a natural
,henomenon& 2eneral terms such as Etense'E indications o# the use o# #alsetto and o# the ,art
o# the "ocal range em,loyed' statements o# com,arison 4ith other cultures are use#ul&
Imitations o# animal or instrument sounds can %e noted& O%"iously' ethnomusicologists ha"e
so #ar %een delin?uent in ,ro"iding 4ays o# measuring and descri%ing "arious as,ects o#
music& The EmannerKo#K,er#ormanceE as,ect can e:,ect some hel, #rom the mechanical and
electronic transcri%ing machines' 4hen these are im,ro"ed and more readily a"aila%le& In
se"eral ,a,ers deli"ered orally' lan *oma: has distinguished among a%out ten di##erent
3inds o# "ocal techni?ue& These ,lay a ma<or role in his classi#ication o# the 4orldDs music into
a%out ten areas =*oma: 1.B.>& But there still looms the di##iculty o# communicating to the
reader the character o# a "ocal style& Commonly used terms such as Etense'E Erela:ed'E
E,ulsating'[ E,inched K "oiced'[ etc&' are "ery general and' moreo"er' seem to ha"e meaning
only to those already ac?uainted 4ith di##erent singing styles& One is tem,ted to #ollo4 the
e:am,le o# a student o# South merican Indians 4ho stated that one singer' according to his
com,atriots' sounded li3e a co4' and added' EHe did&E
!)'
Other as,ects o# music remain' %ut the #oregoing are the most o%"ious& Ha"ing commented
on the customary 4ays o# descri%ing them' 4e may ,roceed to some sam,le minimum
descri,tions o# indi"idual musical com,ositions&
E9amles o( Analysis
It is not easy to teach musical descri,tion to the student o# ethnomusicology& Much o#
4hat he may ha"e learned in the theory o# (estern music may %e use#ul' some o# it 4ill ha"e
to %e modi#ied' and nothing should %e ta3en #or granted& !escri,tion o# indi"idual ,ieces o#
#ol3 and non-(estern music' in ethnomusicology' must %e more detailed than con"entional
analysis o# (estern music& 4hole %oo3 could %e 4ritten a%out each song; the sam,les here
,resent only a decent minimum& In general' im,ressionistic statements should %e a"oided or
la%eled& nd 4hether a 4hole ,iece' an e:cer,t' a "ariant o# another ,iece' or an
im,ro"isation are %eing descri%ed de,ends' o# course' on 4hat has %een done in the #ield and
in transcri,tion& Thus 4e see again ho4 closely the "arious techni?ues o# ethnomusicology
are interrelated& (hile %oth listening and reading notation are necessary #or descri,tion' the
#ollo4ing ,aragra,hs gi"e sam,les o# descri,tion o# short ,ieces #rom notation only&
=1igures / and 9 4ere transcri%ed %y the 4riter' and thus the descri,tions include
material on "ocal techni?ue and tim%re&>
No&1& =1ig& /> ra,aho song' not other4ise designated& Sung se"eral times' %ut only one
rendition in the transcri,tion& Original ,itch not gi"en&
Scale' Mode' Tonality8 Tones K g e c 2 E& This scale is considered tritonic' 4ith t4o o#
the tones re,eated at octa"e trans,ositions& The relationshi, o# the tones is triadic' and the
inter"als %et4een them are t4o minor thirds' a ma<or third' and a ,er#ect #ourth& The
#re?uency o# the tones =in terms o# ?uarter-notes K this is one 4ay o# stating #re?uency> is as
#ollo4s8 g K ll' e K 7' c K 0' 2 K 17' E K 7& The #act that the t4o E2DsE and the t4o EEDsE
e:hi%it identical #re?uency is interesting& The note . a,,ears slightly raised in the third
measure' %ut there seems to %e good reason #or considering this ,itch sim,ly a "ariant o# the
tone . rather than an inde,endent tone& The tonal center is 2 %ecause this tone a,,ears
most #re?uently and constitutes the %eginning and the end&
Range8 minor tenth;
Melodic contour8 2enerally descending' 4ith gradual lo4ering' o# the center o# ,itch& I#
the three K ,art #orm indicated %elo4 is acce,ted as the %asic #orm o# this ,iece' the #irst ,art
centers a%out the tone g' the second %egins on . and ends on 2' 4hile the third centers
a%out the lo4er 2&
Rhythm8 One note "alue =?uarter K note> dominates the song' a,,earing 7. times
=counting eighths #ollo4ed %y eighth rests>& 1our eighth-notes and a dotted eighth-si:teenth
#igure are the only other note "alues& The grace-note in the last measure and the ,ulsations
on the notes in the #irst three measures add to the rhythmic "ariety&This "ariety decreases
%et4een the #irst and second hal"es o# the song&
Meter8 +ne"en' 4ith units o# #our' #i"e' and three ?uarters a,,earing& Stresses a,,ear
a#ter %ar lines&
!)*
Tem,o8 Guarter K note e?uals M&M& 176& Thus' according to the #ormula o# Kolins3i
=1.B.> 4hich designates tem,o as the a"erage num%er o# notes ,er minute' the tem,o o#
this song is 106& The duration o# the song is slightly o"er 1B seconds&
Te:ture8 Mono,honic&
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology .@
1orm8 Sections are not easy to se,arate& ccording to the ,oints at 4hich rests occur'
there are three sections' 4hich could %e la%eled Ba C%' indicating that the second section
has material #rom the #irst' and the third' material #rom the second& ccording to the
,resence o# re,eated material' 4hich indicates to some e:tent the length o# inde,endent
units' there are #i"e sections' mar3ed %y #ull %ar K lines8 B C !' 4hich ha"e the lengths'
in terms o# ?uarter K notes' o# B K 0 K B K 9 K ll& Some o# these sections could %e su%di"ided'
a ne4 su%di"isionDs %eginning 4ith each hea"ily stressed note' so that a third 4ay o#
descri%ing the #orm o# the song =according to #ull and hal# %ar lines>' is a B1 C
!)+
B7 ! C B7& Characteristic o# this song is the ,resence o# a closing #ormula #or each o#
the three main sections' la%eled B1 or B7' and the recurrence o# certain #ormula' such as c K
2 K E&
Tim%re8 Considera%le tension on the "ocal chords; #alsetto on the high notes; ,ulsation
on the longer notes in the #irst hal#&
Intensity8 Guite loud' %ut diminishing in the lo4er and later ,ortion&
No&7 =1ig& 9> One stanAa o# a song in British K merican #ol3 tradition' EThe El#in
Knight'E collected in southem Indiana&
Scale and Mode8 He:atonic' 4ith t4o octa"e du,lications8
The center o# the range is used more than the e:tremes& The mode is related to the
he,tatonic !orian and eolian modes&
Range8 Ma<or ninth&
Inter"als8 In scale' ma<or seconds' one minor second' one minor third& In the melody'
7@ unisons' 1 minor second' 5 ma<or seconds' @ minor thirds' @ ma<or thirds' 7 ,er#ect
#ourths' 1 minor si:th' 1 ma<or si:th&
Melodic contour8 2enerally undulating& Sections 1 and 7 ha"e arcs' section @ is
ascending' section 0 an in"erse arc&
Meter8 Tri,le; the notation in /V5 is ,ro%a%ly no more <usti#ied than 4ould %e a notation
in @V5& One measure has an e:tra eighth; other4ise isometric&
Rhythm8 Note "alues' counting each rest as ,art o# the ,receding note =this ,rocedure
may %e <usti#ied here since the ,oint at 4hich a note sto,s and a rest %egins "aries #rom
stanAa to stanAa>8
eighth @B
#ourth 0
dotted #ourth 1
hal# 1
si:teenth 1
dotted eight 1
!),
The song is dominated %y eighths' 4ith longer notes a,,earing near the endings o#
sections&
Tem,o8 "erage o# 1B7 notes ,er minute&
Tim%re8 No indication; no ornamentation&
1orm8 1our sections' coinciding 4ith lines in the ,oetry& The sections are almost e?ual
in length' and their interrelationshi, is e:,ressed %y Ba C !&
!)-
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology .B
Scale' Mode' Tonality8 $entatonic' ma<or seconds and minor thirds among the tones& The
tonality is di##icult to sta%ilish' and may %e descri%ed as changing 4ith each line' %ecause o#
the melodic material is trans,osed in each line& On the %asis o# note length and the
im,ortance o# the cadence' the last tone o# each line could %e considered its tonal center&
$ossi%ly the re,etition o# rhythmic ,atterns and the %asic identity o# the #our sections made
the use o# a strong tonal center =%y the com,oser> unnecessary&
=Num%er o# occurrences' section %y section&>
Thus the tone o# greatest ,rominence could %e the #inal or the ,reK#inal tone o# each
section&
Range8 Minor #ourteenth&
Melodic inter"als8 +nisons =5>' ma<or seconds =1.>' minor thirds =1@>' ma<or thirds =I>'
,er#ect #ourths =17>' ,er#ect #i#ths =/>&
Melodic contour8 Each section is an ascending and then descending arc; the o"erall
relationshi, o# the #our sections also descri%es an arc o# sorts %ecause o# the considera%ly
higher a"erage range o# the third section&
Meter8 !u,le' e"idently 4ith ma<or stress e"ery #ourth ?uarter&
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology ./
Rhythm8 Note "alues K 06 ?uarter K notes' 5 eighths' 5 dotted ?uarters' 0 hal"es&
Hal"es a,,ear only at section endings' dotted rhythms only in middle o# section& The
rhythmic arrangement is a re,etition o# a rhythmic ,attern #or each section' i&e&' isorhythmic&
Tem,o8 "erage o# 1B@ notes ,er minute&
1orm8 1our sections' o# e?ual length and identical rhythmic ,attern&
!*$
Each section is a trans,osition' 4ith some "ariation' o# the #irst& +sing su,erscri,t and
su%scri,t numerals to indicate a,,ro:imate inter"als o# trans,osition u,4ard or do4n4ard'
the #orm can %e e:,ressed as 7 K @ B E K @& I# the inter"al o# trans,osition is
calculated according to the tones in the songDs scale rather than the diatonic scale' the
,entatonic inter"als o# trans,osition 4ould %e 7 @ 7' 4ith the third section a "ariant&
$oly,honic music re?uires the same 3ind o# descri,tion o# the indi"idual "oices as is
done #or mono,honic music& This accom,lished' a s,ecial descri,tion o# the cumulati"e
e##ects o# the com%ined "oices' and o# the interrelationshi, o# the "oices' may %e attem,ted&
The sam,les o# descri,tion %elo4 in"ol"e only the s,eci#ically ,oly,honic as,ects o# the
musical e:am,les e:amined& It is assumed that an analysis o# the indi"idual "oices has
already %een made&
No&0& =1ig& .>&There are three "oices' the %ottom one a re,eated drone' the u,,er t4o
mo"ing in ,arallel thirds =ma<or and minor' in a diatonic scale>' each 4ith a range o# a ,er#ect
#ourth& The middle "oice occasionally reaches the ,itch o# the drone' %ut the u,,er one stays
at least a ma<or third a%o"e the drone& The rhythmic as,ect o# the ,oly,hony is note-against-
note& Since the drone ,ro"ides the note o# greatest #re?uency' it =the note C> can ,erha,s %e
considered the tonic& Since the inter"al C K E' sometimes 4ith 2 added' a,,ears most
#re?uently at section endings =according to the transcri%erDs %ar lines>' it may %e ,ossi%le to
assume e"en a tonic chord' C K E K 2& There is e"idently a hierarchy among the "oices' the
u,,er t4o a melody' the lo4est an anchor&
No&B& =1ig& 16>& There are t4o "oices' e"idently o# e?ual im,ortance' 4ith ranges 4hich
o"erla, on only one note& The rhythmic arrangement is note K against K note' 4ith only
occasional e:ce,tions& The ,iece is ,resuma%ly not com,lete; only an e:cer,t seems to %e
gi"en in the transcri,tion& The harmonic inter"als ha"e the #ollo4ing #re?uency8 octa"e =/>'
ma<or si:th =@>' ,er#ect #i#th =.>' ma<or third =@>' unison =1>& t the %eginnings o# measures'
4hich seem to %e rhythmic as 4ell as #ormal di"isions' octa"es or #i#ths a,,ear&
!*!
1igura . e 16
The t4o "oices do not ,er#orm the same thematic material' and tonality seems to %e
di##icult to de#ine& !istri%ution o# the tones %et4een the "oices is gi"en here8
!*!
It is o%"ious' #rom the com,le: ,ro%lems ,osed e"en %y these "ery sim,le ,oly,honic
,ieces' that the descri,tion o# ,oly,hony is a com,licated and detailed tas3& (e need not
4onder' ,erha,s' that most ,u%lished descri,tions o# ,oly,hony are relati"ely cursory and
im,ressionistic' that statistical e:,ressions o# 4hat trans,ires are rarely a"aila%le' and that
these descri,tions are most #re?uently %ased on a single as,ect o# ,oly,hony' such as the
o"er K all relationshi, among the "oices' or the inter"als' or tonality&
Conclusion
The descri,tions o# musical styles o# indi"idual com,ositions ,resented here also
indicate to ho4 great a degree the student 4ishing to descri%e musical style #rom a 4ritten
notation is de,endent on the ?uallty o# the transcri,tion and the in#ormation 4hich is gi"en
4ith it& Notes on "ocal techni?ue are rarely gi"en' tem,o mar3ings are o#ten omitted'
indications as to the ,ortion o# a ,iece transcri%ed are o#ten not there& In ,oly,hony' the
num%er o# ,er#ormers' the 3inds o# "oices used' rein#orcement 4ith instruments' the
,resence and s,eci#ic rhythms o# accom,anying ,ercussion instruments are o#ten lac3ing&
Thus' 4hile the ethnomusicologist is #re?uently o%liged to descri%e music 4hich he 3no4s
only #rom ,a,er' he is %etter o## i# he can ha"e on hand recordings o# the identical ,ieces' or
at least o# ,ieces in the same musical style&
Basic as the descri,tion o# indi"idual com,ositions is' it is o# much less general interest
than the descri,tion o# %odies o# music& The in#ormed reader o# ethnomusicological literature
is usually a%le to ,ro"ide' at a glance or 4ithin a #e4 minutes' the 3ind o# analysis 4hich 4e
ha"e <ust gi"en& !escri%ing an indi"idual ,iece o# music is' then' only a moderate ser"ice to
the in#ormed reader& It is ,rimarily done as a ste, to4ard descri%ing a %ody o# music' and #or
the %ene#it o# the ,erson 4ho is doing
!*&
the descri%ing& $erha,s #or this reason' descri,tions o# indi"idual com,ositions are not
common in the literature; and ,resuma%ly such descri,tions are much more readily a"aila%le
in an authorDs notes leading to ,u%lication than in manuscri,ts su%mitted #or ,u%lication& O#
course' the longer a com,osition' the more use#ul is a descri,tion o# it; %ut curiously' the
shorter and sim,ler a ,iece is' the more li3ely is a descri,tion o# it to a,,ear in ,rint&
!escri,tions o# the long musical #orms o# oriental culti"ated music are sadly lac3ing' %ut they
are not as rare #or Euro,ean #ol3 tunes& In any case' the ethnomusicologistDs greatest ser"ice
in musical descri,tion is in the statistical or intuiti"e %lending o# indi"idual descri,tions into a
descri,tion o# %odies o# musical creation K o# musical styles as determined %y com,oser'
#unction' community' culture' or historical era&
!*'
Bi/liograhy
,el' (illi and Ral,h T& !aniel =1./6>& The Har"ard Brie# !ictionary o# Music& Cam%ridge8
Har"ard +ni"ersity $ress&
Branrlel' Rose =1./7>&The Music o# Central #rica; an Ethnomusicological Study& The Hague8
M& Ni<ho##&
Bronson' Bertrand H& =1.0.>&EMechanical hel, in the study o# #ol3 song'E Cournal o# merican
1ol3lore /7851 K .6&
Christensen' !ieter =1.B9>& !ie Musi3 der Kate und Sialum& Berlin8 author&
1landers' Helen H& =1./6>&ncient Ballads Traditionally Sung in Ne4 England' "ol& 1&
$hiladel,hia8 +ni"ersity o# $ennsyl"ania $ress&
Hendren' Cose,h (& =1.@/>& Study o# Ballad Rhythm& $rinceton8$rinceton +ni"ersity $ress&
Hindemith' $aul =1.0B>&The Cra#t o# Musical Com,osition' %oo3 1& *ondon8 Schott&
Hood' Mantle =1.B0>& The Nuclear Theme as a !eterminant o# $atet in Ca"ane5e Music&
2roningen8 C& B& (o^ters&
Kolins3i' MiecAysla4 =1.B.>&EThe e"aluation o# tem,o'E Ethnomusicology @80B K B/&
=1./7>&EConsonance and dissonance'E Ethnomusicology /8// K 9B&
*oma:' lan =1.B.>&E1ol3song style'E merican nthro,ologist /18 .79 K .B0&
Nettl' Bruno =1.B/>&Music in $rimiti"e Culture& Cam%ridge8 Har"ard +ni"ersity $ress&
Recommended reading' ,,& 0B K 5.&
=1./6>&Cheremis Musical Styles& Bloomington8 Indiana +ni"ersity $ress&
$eacoc3' Kenneth =1.B0>&ENine songs #rom N e4#oundlandEm Cournal o# mer<can 1ol3lore
/98 17@ K 1@/&&
Ro%erts' Helen H& and Morris S4adesh =1.BB>&Songs o# the Noot3a IndianDs o# (estern
Jancou"er lsland& $hiladel,hia8 Transactions o# the merican $hiloso,hical Society' ne4
series' "ol& 0B' ,art @&
Sachs' Curt =1.B@>& Rhythm and Tem,o& Ne4 )or38 Norton&
Schinhan' Can $hili, =1.B9>&The Music o# the Ballads& !urham' N& C&8 !u3e +ni"ersity $ress&
=The 1ran3 C& Bro4n Collection o# North Carolina 1ol3lore' "ol& 0>&
&Seeger' Charles =1.B1>&ESystematic musicology; "ie4,oints' orientations and methods'E
Cournal o# the mercan Musicological Society 08706 K 705&
=1.B@>&E$re#ace to the descri,tion o# a music'E $roceedings o# the 1i#th Congress o# the
lntemational Musicological Society& The Hague8 Trio&
=1./7>& EMusic as a tradition o# communication'E Ethnomusicology /81B/ K 1/@&
Shar,' Cecil C& =1.@7>& English 1ol3 Songs #rom the Southern ,,alachians& *ondon8 O:#ord
+ni"ersity $ress& Re,rinted' O:#ord +ni"ersity $ress' 1.B7&
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology ..
Chater *
T.E NATURE AN4 4ESCRIPTION OF ST20E: SO1E T.EORIES AN4
1ET.O4S
This cha,ter ,resents ,ro%lems %ut' on the 4hole' esche4s solutions& 1or ,ractical
,ur,oses it is #re?uently im,ossi%le to descri%e a %ody o# music or a style o# music e:ce,t
under the handica,s and disad"antages 4hich are discussed& The ideal descri,tion o# style
may %e a com,letely unattaina%le goal' in "ie4 o# the many ?uestions and ,ro%lems 4hich
must %e sol"ed in the course o# such 4or3& Ethnomusicologists must continue to 4or3 under
these handica,s; to do other4ise 4ould mean to a%andon their 4or3& But they should
constantly %e a4are o# the conditions under 4hich they are 4or3ing' and o# the limitations
4hich these conditions ,lace on their conclusions; thus they can at least e"aluate these
conclusions and ,lace them in their ,ro,er scholarly conte:t&
There is no ade?uate sur"ey o# 4orld music in ethnomusicological literature& There are a
#e4 4or3s 4hich indicate some o# the 3inds o# things #ound' and 4hich di"ide the 4orld into
%road' general areas o# style& Nettl =1.B/> and Bose =1.B@> indicate some o# the tremendous
"ariety' and *eydi =1./1> goes e"en into some4hat greater detail& ll o# these try to sho4
that all music can %e descri%ed in the same general terms' that the music o# any culture can
%e recogniAed as music %y any (estern student&
!**
On the other hand' *ist =1./@> indicates se"eral ,henomena 4hich may or may not %e
music' sho4ing that e"en the %roadest methods o# musical descri,tion may not %e ade?uate
#or all musical ,henomena&
The ultimate ,ur,ose o# descri,tion o# musical style in ethnomusicology is com,arison&
It may %e easy #or a scholar to gras, the style o# an indi"idual com,osition %y ins,ection'
4ithout ha"ing the elements o# music 4hich he sees or hears analyAed in 4riting; and it may
not %e too di##icult #or him to distill the essence o# a homogeneous grou, o# com,ositions But
in com,aring one %ody o# music 4ith another he must ha"e some tools at his command so
that he 4ill %e ena%led to state "er%ally the similarities and the di##erences& nd since he 4ill
4ish to deal 4ith any and ,erha,s all o# the 4orldDs music' it is necessary #or him to ha"e a
system o# musical descri,tion a"aila%le 4hich can %e used #or all 3inds o# music&
(e do not yet 3no4 the limits o# the 4orldDs musical styles& To %e sure' they are
constantly changing' and certainly in (estern ci"iliAation' the ad"ent o# the so K called
electronic music and mu5i?ue concrete heralds the need #or radically ne4 a,,roaches to
musical analysis& But 4e also donDt 3no4 4hat the music o# all o# the 4orldDs other ,eo,les is
li3e& !escri,tions o# musical styles a,,lying to 4hole cultures' tri%es' or nations are still the
e:ce,tion& (e ha"e some idea o# the 3inds o# ,henomena 4hich 4e may e:,ect to #ind in the
non K (estern 4orld' %ut 4e cannot %e sure that com,letely une:,ected things 4ill not also
%e #ound& It is there#ore necessary that the systems o# musical descri,tion used contain as
#e4 as ,ossi%le o# the 3inds o# #eatures 4hich 4ill lead to statements %ased on only one 3ind
o# music& Conce,ts such as tonality' meter' and s,eci#ic 3inds o# #orm should %e used 4ith
care so that they 4ill #acilitate rather than o%scure the ,erce,tion o# musical styles in 4hich
similar %ut genetically unrelated ,henomena are #ound&
One area o# musical descri,tion in ethnomusicology is the ,articular ,ro"ince o# the
s,eciallst in Oriental culti"ated music& This is the analysis and descri,tion o# the theoretical
systems o#
!*+
Oriental music' 4hich may actually di##er considera%ly #rom the music itsel#& The distinction
%et4een the statements o# the musical theorist and the 4or3 o# the com,oser and ,er#ormer
in (estern ci"iliAation is ?uite e"ident& (hether such great distinctions e:ist in Oriental
cultures cannot %e said' %ut this ,ossi%ility must certainly %e #aced& Thus' 4e read o# tone
systems 4hich contain microtones K 77 inter"als =srutI5> to the octa"e in the classical music
o# India& ccording to Ba3e =1.B98 76/> these are im,ortant in Indian musical theory' %ut
they do not occur in actual ,ractice e:ce,t in ornamentation' that is' t4o tones se,arated %y
one sruti do not occur successi"ely& This di##erence %et4een a theoretical system and a
,ractical one in the same culture also ,oints u, the di##erence %et4een a musical system as
#ound in the 4hole cor,us o# com,ositions and as mani#ested in the single com,osition& 1or
e:am,le' the "arious scales and modes #ound in a grou, o# com,ositions' 4hen su,erim,osed
on each other' may yield a he,tatonic scale' in s,ite o# the #act that no single com,osition
uses all se"en tones& In the study o# musical instruments o# ,rehistoric cultures' #alse
conclusions could %e dra4n i# it 4ere assumed that an instrument ca,a%le o# ,roducing' say'
a diatonic scale =such as certain 3inds o# #lutes> must actually ha"e %een used to ,er#orm
melodies 4ith diatonic scales
(e ha"e discussed in detail the ,ro%lems o# descri%ing indi"idual ,ieces o# music' or
,erha,s more ,recisely' single renditions o# indi"idual ,ieces o# music Such descri,tion' 4e
ha"e ,ointed out' is o# use mainly in the com,ilation o# a descri,tion o# a %ody o# these
indi"idual com,ositions& (e ha"e not e"en touched on the ,ro%lems 4hich result #rom the
di##erences %et4een the "arious renditions K %y one or %y se"eral ,er#ormers' %et4een
di##erent stanAas sung successi"ely and renditions gi"en years a,art K o# the same ,iece'
although the consideration o# "ariants o# one song 4ould yield im,ortant in#ormation on 4hat
is signi#icant and 4hat is incidental& But descri,tion o# musical style is most im,ortant 4hen a
grou, o# musical com,ositions 4hich ha"e something in common are e:amined&
!*,
1usical Style and 1usical Content
In musical tenninology' distinction is sometimes made %et4een content and style&
lthough these t4o as,ects o# music are logically inse,ara%le' there are e:am,les ta3en #rom
o%ser"ations o# cultural dynamics 4hich indicate that each may ha"e a 3ind o# li#e o# its o4n'
that each is ca,a%le o# undergoing change %y itsel#& By content 4e mean' o# course' the
indi"idual musical idea K in (estern terminology 4e might call it the theme K as mani#ested
in the s,eci#ic com,osition& By style 4e mean the aggregate o# characteristics 4hich a
com,osition has' and 4hich it shares 4ith others in its cultural com,le:& (hen s,ea3ing o# an
indi"idual culture or a single' uni#ied cor,us o# music' 4e may ha"e no ,articular occasion to
distinguish %et4een the com,osition and the style as a 4hole& O# course' a musical
com,osition cannot e:ist 4ithout ha"ing certain characteristics o# scale' melody' rhythm' and
#orm& nd these characteristics' again' are only a%stractions 4hich must ride' as it 4ere' on
the %ac3s o# the concrete musical items' o# the musical content& It is 4hen 4e study the
musical relationshi, %et4een t4o or more cultural grou,s that the distinction gi"en here is
es,ecially use#ul' %ecause it is ,ossi%le #or musical ideas to mo"e #rom one culture to another
and in so doing to change their character' and it is also ,ossi%le #or characteristics o# a
musical style to mo"e 4ithout %eing accom,anied %y s,eci#ic com,ositions or themes& Thus
4e may distinguish' in music' %et4een content' the com,osition or its theme' and the
stylistic su,erstructure' the nonthematic characteristics or traits& nd the #act that this
distinction is ,ossi%le is o# considera%le "alue not only to the student o# music %ut also to the
student o# culture at large& *et us e:amine the im,lications o# this distinction in some cases
in"ol"ing acculturation&
The greatest ,ro%lem in the study o# the geogra,hic mo"ement and distri%ution o#
com,ositions and themes is the identi#ication o# genetic relationshi,s among com,ositions
and their "ariants& The study o# such mo"ement must usually' a#ter all' %e
!*-
retroacti"e& Since 4e can rarely trace the #amily tree o# a grou, o# "ariants' 4e must %egin %y
collecting musical items 4hich 4e sus,ect o# %eing related' that is' o# coming #rom the same
original #orm' and then demonstrating or dis,ro"ing this relationshi,& nd only 4hen 4e ha"e
"ariants 4hich can sa#ely %e considered related can 4e try to ascertain the e##ects o#
acculturation 1inding genetic relationshi,s in the "ocal music o# a single (estern #ol3 culture'
i&e&' the British' is relati"ely easy' #or here there is a tendency #or the "er%al te:t to
accom,any the tune in its tra"els' and 4hen te:t and tune ty,es coincide in a geogra,hic
distri%ution' genetic relationshi, seems certain& But 4hen a tune mo"es _om one culture to
another' as #rom a grou, s,ea3ing one language to another s,ea3ing a di##erent language'
there is rarely a similar trans#er o# "er%al content&
clari#ication o# the term Egenetic relationshi,E is necessary& #ter all' a man may ta3e
a song he 3no4s or has heard and change it' creating 4hat is usually called a "ariant& This
,resuma%ly occurs 4hen the style K not the content K is changed& E"entually' "ariants may
%ecome "ery' "ery di##erent #rom their original or ,arent #orm& But a man may also ma3e u,
a %rand ne4 song %y co,ying' as it 4ere' the stylistic traits K the su,erstructure' as ID"e
called it K o# songs he already 3no4s& No4 the t4o ,rocesses are o%"iously di##erent8 in one'
the %asic musical content remains constant and the stylistic traits change; in the other' the
musical content is ne4 %ut the style remains more or less the same& )et 4hen 4e #ind similar
musical #orms 4hose relationshi, is not clear' 4e canDt tell 4hether this relationshi, is truly
genetic or 4hether the #orms are similar %ecause o# an identity o# style& Mere similarity
cannot %e automatically ta3en as e"idence o# genetic relationshi,&
There seems to %e greater "ariety in Euro,ean #ol3 music than in the music o# a North
merican Indian cultural and musical area' such as the 2reat $lains& I say EseemsE %ecause
this greater "ariety may %e due to an o%<ecti"ely greater num%er o# di##erent ,henomena in
Euro,ean #ol3 music or it may %e %ecause I K a ty,ical (estern listener' ,erha,s K am more
sensiti"e
!+$
to distinctions in (estern than in Indian music& In either case' the study o# genetic
relationshi,s in the songs o# an Indian tri%e is more di##icult than in a (estern #ol3 style
%ecause a large ,ro,ortion o# the re,ertory may e:hi%it similar or identical #eatures' so that
4e 4ould ha"e to assume genetic relationshi, among all o# these songs; 4e 4ould ha"e to
assume that all o# them stem #rom one original& Or 4e 4ould ha"e to e:,lain the matter %y
assuming a ,ractice o# com,osition 4hich Is e:tremely imitati"e& There is no dou%t' ho4e"er'
that %oth style and content are e:changed in North merican Indian music& (illard Rhodes
=1.B5> has sho4n the di##usion o# a s,eci#ic $eyote song among a grou, o# tri%es& 2eorge
HerAog =1.@/>' on the other hand' has indicated the acculturation o# style elements in the
geogra,hic mo"ement o# the 2host !ance religion& Here a ty,e o# #orm' 4hich he calls the
,aired K ,hrase ,attern' has %y itsel# mo"ed #rom its home' the 2reat Basin' into an area
4ith a 4holly di##erent style' the 2reat $lains&
The style o# the $eyote songs is also di##erent #rom that o# the other songs in the
re,ertories o# the "arious tri%es 4hich use $eyote =Mcllester 1.0.>&Most $eyote songs ha"e
some characteristics similar to those o# the songs o# the ,ache' and it is ,resumed that the
$eyote cult came to the $lains #rom the south (estern +nited States& But in the 2reat $lains'
the $eyote songs ha"e also ta3en on certain s,eci#ic traits o# many older $lains songs8 they
ha"e the cascading melodic contour' the stro,hic #orm o# 4hich t4o long' similar descending
sections #orm the %asis& Ne"ertheless' they ha"e the rhythm o# ,ache music& (e may
s,eculate a%out the reasons #or the retention o# certain ,ache traits as against others 4hich
ha"e gi"en 4ay to their $lains counter,arts& The theory o# syncretism' 4hich (aterman
deri"es #rom his %elie# that #rican musical #eatures 4ere retained %y N egroes in the
mericas %ecause the (estern musical styles 4hich they encountered had certain similar
#eatures' does not seem to e:,lain the $eyote situation& Is it ,ossi%le that there are certain
la4s in the structure o# the music itsel# according to 4hich certain traits' %y their o4n nature'
tend to %e more ca,a%le
!+!
o# %eing retained than othersH Is there some element o# cohesion or integrity in certain
elements o# musical style 4hich ena%les them to remain intact under the strains o#
acculturationH s it ,ossi%le that the greater homogeneity o# #orm and contour on the $lains
made it necessary #or the $eyote songs to ta3e on $lains #orm and contour %e#ore they could
%e acce,ted on the $lainsH nd could it %e that the smaller degree o# homogeneity in rhythm
on the $lains made ,ossi%le the retention o# ,ache K li3e rhythm in the $eyote songsH In
other 4ords' could it %e that the $lains Indians sim,ly cared more a%out retaining their #orm
and melodic contour than their rhythmic structureH
(hen a com,osition ,asses #rom one culture to another' and changes in the ,rocess' it
must retain some characteristic' some s,ar3 or idea or moti# 4hich ena%les us to identi#y it
and 4hich testi#ies to its identity& No dou%t "arious elements may %e in"ol"ed here& Sir"art
$oladian =1.07> %elie"es that melodic contour' the o"er-all direction o# the melody' remains
constant more generally than other elements& Mode and scale' o"er K all #orm' and the
,resence o# s,eci#ic %ut minor earmar3s such as a ,articular inter"al at a characteristic ,oint'
or a ,articular se?uence o# ,hrase endings K 4hich BartS3 considered the most relia%le o#
constants K all o# these could %e the constant #eatures around 4hich re"ol"e the changes
4hich allo4 a com,osition to %e greatly altered and yet to retain its identity& mong $eyote
songs the rhythmic structure' 4hich is related to the ,eculiar meaningless 4ords o# $eyote
songs' is sometimes the 3ey #actor&
Mo"ing to another side o# our general to,ic' the matter o# com,ati%ility' descri%ed in
,u%lications %y (aterman =1.B7> and lan $& Merriam =1.BB>' enters into our consideration&
In order #or acculturation to ta3e ,lace %et4een t4o musical cultures' the musical cor,ora
must in some 4ay %e stylistically com,ati%le& Here the im,lication is that certain common
#eatures in the stylistic as,ect o# music must %e ,resent in %oth cultures %e#ore an e:change
o# material can ta3e ,lace& $resuma%ly' then' once the stylistic and other cultural conditions
4arrant it' there 4ill %e a mo"ement o# musical content' i&e&' songs' #rom one
!+%
grou, to another& 1ollo4ing this s,eculation #urther' 4e should then o%ser"e greater
a,,ro:imation in style %et4een the t4o grou,s& Thus 4e may #ind that musical acculturation
may %e an alternation o# mo"ement o# style and content until the t4o cultures share a single
musical culture& Needless to say' this hy,othesis must %e tested %y o%ser"ation&
(e may as3' then' 4hether a la4 go"erning the e:istence or a%sence o# acculturation in
music could ,erha,s %e disco"ered' or #ormulated' through ?uantitati"e a,,roaches& (e ha"e
stated that 4hile a song can mo"e #rom one culture to another and in the ,rocess ta3e on
characteristics o# the second culture' it must retain some o# its original characteristics& (ould
it %e ,ossi%le to %rea3 do4n a song into a num%er o# traits K scale' melodic contour' mode'
inter"als' meter' etc& K and ma3e a statement regarding the num%er o# these characteristics
4hich remain' and the num%er 4hich are changed' 4hen a song ,asses #rom one culture to
anotherH Is it necessary' #or e:am,le' to ha"e a certain num%er o# traits remain constant in
order #or a ,iece o# music to retain its identityH re certain as,ects o# music more li3ely to %e
these constants than othersH Is there a hierarchy' as $oladian and BartS3 im,lyH 1or
e:am,le' let us imagine a song 4hich mo"es #rom culture to culture B; in ma3ing this
mo"e' it changes in a #undamental 4ay its rhythm' scale contour' etc&' %ut retains the o"er K
all #orm& Is it stiII the same song' or must it retain also a more s,ecialiAed as,ect o# its style'
such as a scale' in order to retain its identityH
similarly ?uantitati"e a,,roach could %e #ollo4ed in "ie4ing the acculturation o#
stylistic #eatures& It has %een ,ointed out' #or e:am,le' that certain #eatures' such as the
,aired K ,hrase #orms o# the 2reat Basin area' ha"e %een ado,ted %y the $lains tri%es' 4hose
music is generally ?uite di##erent& Theoretically' it is ,ossi%le #or a stylistic #eature to %e
,assed #rom one cultural grou, to another 4ithout the simultaneous mo"ement o# s,eci#ic
com,ositions& $ractically' this 4ould seem highly unli3ely in a culture 4ithout a 4ritten
musical tradition& In the case o# the 2host !ance style' 4hich is 4hat the 2reat Basin style is
called
!+&
4hen #ound in the $lains' 4e 3no4 that certain songs 4ere taught to the $lains Indians and
that the $lains Indians then com,osed ne4 songs in that style and ada,ted some o# their old
songs' es,ecially those 4hich already tended in the direction o# the 2host !ance style' to the
,aired K ,hrase #orm& Could 4e #ind out ho4 much actual musical material must %e ,assed
#rom one culture to another %e#ore the second culture 4ill %egin ,roducing its o4n material in
the style o# the #irst cultureH I %elie"e these are ?uestions 4orthy o# #urther study& ns4ers
to them might hel, us to understand some o# the s,eci#ic musical ,henomena 4hich ha"e
resulted #rom acculturation&
4elimitation and Samling
%ody o# music may %e descri%ed at "arious le"els& In the literature on the su%<ect' the
%odies o# music are o#ten not 4ell de#ined' and the 4ord EstyleE is #re?uently used to indicate
a %ody o# music 4hich is descri%ed as ha"ing some homogeneity' 4ithout indications o#
e:actly ho4 this style is culturally delimited& In ,ractice' descri,tions o# music stri"e to4ard
statements o# homogeneity' and the student ta3ing u,on himsel# the tas3 o# descri%ing a
%ody o# music usually tries in ad"ance to delimit it in such a 4ay as to ma3e ,ossi%le an
analysis 4hich 4ill yield a homogeneous ,icture& 1re?uently enough' a %ody o# music as
delimited %y general cultural criteria e:hi%its a homogeneous musical style& But on the other
hand' musicologists ha"e occasionally ,ic3ed' #rom a collection' those musical items 4hich
seemed to them to satis#y some ideas o# musical style' and ha"e neglected others& Such a
,rocedure has' needless to say' limited "alue& less re,rehensi%le' %ut also limited' a,,roach
to descri%ing a %ody o# music is to acce,t a #ield collection as a unit' 4ithout ?uestioning the
degree to 4hich it is re,resentati"e o# the cultural unit o# 4hich it is a sam,le& O# course it is
o#ten im,ossi%le to 4or3 4ith units other than the sam,les com,rising
!+'
#ield collections' %ut these should %e ta3en as sam,les o# cultural units' not as inde,endent
%odies o# music 4ith a "alidity o# their o4n&
(hat 3inds o# %odies o# music' then' are acce,ta%le as units #or musical descri,tionH
There are many' and 4e can only gi"e e:am,les& $erha,s 4e can again ma3e use o# an
analogy 4ith language' 4hich distinguishes %et4een a language' a dialect-dialects o# one
language can %e understood %y s,ea3ers o# the other dialects o# that language K and an
idiolect =the s,ecial character o# the language as s,o3en %y one ,erson>&Then linguists
recogniAe the s,ecial characteristics o# language as used #or s,eci#ic acti"ities =e&g&' scienti#ic
Russian is not "ery intelligi%le to ordinary Russians>' o# the language o# indi"iduals 4ho are
%ilingual and 4hose manner o# s,eech o# each language is in#luenced %y the other' and so on&
nalogously' in music there is the o"er K all style' then regional su%styles' "illage or tri%al' K
styles' and indi"idual ,ersonal styles& Then there are styles used #or s,ecial 3inds o# music'
s,eci#ic ceremonies' instruments' etc&' and also styles 4hich ha"e de"elo,ed under outside
in#luences&
In contrast to language' 4hich is most easily delimited at the highest le"el K *inguists
ha"e an easier time distinguishing one language #rom another than one dialect #rom another
K the greatest di##iculty in musicology is deciding 4hat is Ea music&E It is acce,ted that music
is a #orm o# communication' %ut unli3e language' the listener does not 3no4 as readily
4hether he is or is not understanding a #oreign music; thus the u,,er limits o# it musical
style are usually de#ined ar%itrarily so as to coincide 4ith the %oundaries o# language' culture'
or ,olitics& O# these' language is ,erha,s the most relia%le' since so much o# musical
,er#ormance includes' in "ocal te:ts' linguistic ,er#ormance as 4ell&
In deciding' then' 4hat is Ea music'E ethnomusicologists ha"e most #re?uently used the
music 4hose ,ro"enience is the same as that o# a language as the unit o# musical culture&
This is essentially 4hat the anthro,ologists ha"e done in de#ining Ea cultureE& These linguistic
units in non-literate cultures are o#ten e:actly
!+)
e?ui"alent to tri%es 4hich ha"e a certain ,olitical organiAation K although the conce,t o# tri%e
is a com,le: one' and although some so-called tri%es consist o# se"eral "ery di"erse units
such as %ands or "illages& In the #ol3 music o# high cultures' the national %oundary usually
coincides 4ith the unit o# musical style' or at least it is assumed to do so& Ordinarily' then'
the %roadest musical style units in non-literate cultures are smaller in area and ,o,ulation
than are the analogous units in the #ol3 music o# a literate culture& Thus' consideration o# the
music o# high cultures #re?uently a,,ears in units larger than the linguistic ones& !escri,tions
o# the oriental culti"ated styles are usually in terms o# national musics' %ut descri,tions o#
(estern culti"ated styles usually ta3e (estern Euro,ean culture as a unit des,ite its many
nations and languages& E"idently musicologists tend to %elie"e that Ea musicE at the sim,ler
cultural le"els is the music used %y s,ea3ers o# one language' and at more com,le: le"els'
the music used %y a culture area&
The ,ro%lem at the root o# the di##iculty in deciding 4hat constitutes a unit o# musical
homogeneity is the a%sence o# good measuring de"ices o# musical homogeneity& (e can tell
4hether t4o ,ieces o# music are similar' 4hether they e:hi%it similar musical style' %ut 4e
can only in "ery general terms indicate 4hether t4o ,ieces are more similar to each other
than t4o other ,ieces& The tendency' in ma3ing such decisions' has %een to use 4hat 4as in
Cha,ter B called the intuiti"e a,,roach to descri,tion o# music; certain stri3ing #eatures are
4eighed more hea"ily than others& Thus' Nettl =1.B/8101 K 7> di"ides the 4orld into three
main musical areas' largely on the %asis o# scales and ,oly,hony' and 4ithout consideration
o# rhythm& The Orient and the mericas' %ecause o# their use o# large inter"als' are one area;
the Near East' India' and Indonesia' %ecause o# the use o# small inter"als' are another& nd
(estern Euro,e and #rica' %ecause o# their de"elo,ment o# ,oly,hony' constitute a third
large area& This is an e:am,le o# using s,ecial #eatures o# music to determine musical
homogeneity 4ithout consideration o# other #eatures&
!+*
n alternati"e to using linguistic units as the u,,er le"els o# musical style descri,tion is
the use o# a conce,t called' a#ter its general cultural model' the music area& !escri%ed in
Cha,ter 5' it is more li3ely the result o# musical descri,tion than the %asis o# it& Other units'
similar to tri%es and nations %ut smaller su%-di"isions o# these' are "illages' #amilies' regions
4ithin a tri%al area' %ands& ll o# these %odies o# music ,resuma%ly gi"e an indication o# the
general style o# music in a culture; that is' a good sam,ling #rom each 4ould indicate a style
common to the entire ,o,ulation o# the grou, in"ol"ed&
Bodies o# music e:hi%iting s,ecialiAed styles may also %e #ound& Styles o# indi"idual
in#ormants' #or e:am,le' may not re#lect the general style o# a culture& This is also true o# the
styles o# indi"idual musical #unctions8 ceremonies' 4or3 songs' lo"e songs' %allads' etc& Music
associated 4ith indi"idual instruments may also e:hi%it di"ergent styles' as may the music o#
,ro#essional musicians i# contrasted to the music used %y an uns,ecialiAed ,art o# the
,o,ulation& !escri,tion o# any o# these s,ecialiAed %odies o# music is' o# course' highly
rele"ant to an understanding o# the total musical culture& But #re?uently' music o# a
s,ecialiAed nature has %een erroneously %elie"ed =%ecause other data 4as una"aila%le> to
re,resent the total musical ,icture o# a culture&
There 4as a time 4hen it 4as assumed that mem%ers o# non-literate or #ol3 cultures
4ere una%le to learn more than one 3ind o# music& This has %een dis,ro"ed' es,ecially
through recognition o# the #act that mem%ers o# these cultures ta3e ,art' in a creati"e sense'
in the acculturation 4hich many so K called under-de"elo,ed nations ha"e %een undergoing&
The #act that $lains Indians could learn' %esides their o4n older musical style' also the styles
o# the 2host !ance songs and o# $eyote music and carry them on simultaneously' indicates
that the learning a%ility o# all ,eo,les is a%out the same& The assum,tion that one can #ind
out a great deal a%out the general style o# the music o# an ethnic grou, #rom one ,iece o#
music is o%"iously #alse& On the other hand' there is no dou%t that all o# the music used %y
one
!++
,eo,le must #all stylistically into one' or a #e4' grou,s' and that each o# these grou,s o#
com,ositions has some homogeneity& There is no dou%t that each song tells us something
a%out a large grou, o# songs in its culture& Ho4 many songs' then' do 4e need to descri%e
the style o# the 4hole grou, relia%lyH nd 4hat degree o# homogeneity is re?uired #or us to
classi#y a %ody o# songs as %elonging to one grou,H In other 4ords' ho4 can 4e ,roceed 4ith
the descri,tion o# a %ody o# musicH
The statistical a,,roach is the one most #re?uently encountered& ssuming that the
musical com,ositions in ?uestion ha"e some 3ind o# common ground' %e it that they are used
%y one grou, o# ,eo,le' or #or one ceremony' or are ,layed %y one 3ind o# instrument' it is
,ossi%le to a,,ro:imate a descri,tion o# the 4hole %ody %y descri%ing a re,resentati"e
sam,le& Ho4 large should this sam,le %eH Statistical theory has #ormulae %y 4hich the
relia%ility o# results %ased on a sam,le o# the 4hole are measured& Stated sim,ly' i# the
random sam,le is homogeneous' it 4ill %e relia%le e"en though it com,rises only a small
,ro,ortion o# the 4hole %ody; i# it dis,lays di"ersity' its chances o# %eing re,resentati"e are
not as great' and a larger sam,le is re?uired #or relia%ility& In the study o# traditional musics'
the siAe o# the total %ody is ne"er 3no4n and' indeed' changes constantly; thus the relati"e
siAe o# the sam,le cannot %e accurately estimated& In ,ractice' ethnomusicologists should'
and usually do' e:amine all o# the material in a %ody o# music 4hich is a"aila%le& Since they
cannot 3no4 ho4 much material 4as una"aila%le' they must e"aluate the sam,le on the
%asis o# its a%solute' not relati"e' siAe& In ,ractice' an analysis o# a%out 166 com,ositions 1 in
a homogeneous style 4ould usually %e considered su##iciently large& I# the sam,le turns out
to %e heterogeneous' a much larger sam,le should %e #ound& This 4riter once analyAed o"er
1'666 songs #rom one culture and #ound that the descri,tion %ased on these 4as not really
correct in the light o# additional material #ound later&
But 4hy should 4e e"en %e concerned 4ith the siAe o# sam,lesH Is it not enough to
descri%e 166 songs 4ithout ?uestioning
!+,
the siAe o# the %ody o# music #rom 4hich they are ta3enH The reason #or these considerations'
o# course' is that 4e 4ish to 3no4 Eho4 these or those ,eo,le sing'E or E4hat the music o#
that tri%e is li3e&E ( e 4ish to 3no4 the di##erent musical ty,es #ound in their re,ertory' and
4e assume that the in#ormation 4e gain #rom a descri,tion o# their music 4ill tell us
something a%out other as,ects o# their culture& The orientation o# the ethnomusicologist has
almost al4ays %een directed to4ard a grou, o# ,eo,le' not to4ard musical com,ositions&
Thus it is o# relati"ely little interest to ha"e the descri,tion o# B6 songs unless 4e 3no4 <ust
4hat' in cultural terms' these songs re,resent& This attitude is mar3edly di##erent #rom that
o# some historians o# (estern music 4ho ha"e #re?uently used the descri,tion o# music as an
end in itsel#' and 4ho sometimes analyAe only in order to descri%e the aesthetic e##ect o# a
com,osition&
The ethnomusicologist usually 4or3s 4ith elements o# music' one %y one' or 4ith ty,es
o# com,osition 4ithin one %ody o# music& Both a,,roaches are needed& (or3ing 4ith
indi"idual elements o# music ma3es it ,ossi%le to go into great detail' %ut it does not sho4
the interrelationshi, o# these elements& Ty,ological study #a"ors the stri3ing' o%"ious musical
#eatures o"er the rest& The a,,roach to a cor,us o# music %y musical elements is essentially
the same as that #ollo4ed in the systematic descri,tion o# an indi"idual com,osition& The
study o# ty,es o# com,osition in one re,ertory is related to 4hat 4e la%eled as the intuiti"e
a,,roach' #or the student ,roceeds %y a cursory aural or "isual e:amination o# the material'
di"iding it intuiti"ely into grou,s' and then chec3ing his results %y using a systematic
a,,roach 4ithin these grou,s&
The classi#ication o# musical com,ositions 4ithin&a re,ertory or a %ody o# music is
related to ty,ological descri,tion o# a musical style& The ,resentation o# large collections o#
transcri,tions has #re?uently gi"en rise to discussion o# classi#ication in order that the
material can %e ,resented in some sort o# organiAed se?uence& Thus' #or e:am,le' BartS3 in
se"eral o# his collections uses the structure o# the te:tual lines as the main criterion&
!+-
Classi#ication o# music itsel# is not a matter #or discussion here& But the #act that musical
criteria may %e used sim,ly as a %asis #or ,resenting material in a s,eci#ic order is related to
the intuiti"e a,,roach o# analysis iin 4hich certain elements o# music are selected a%o"e
others as the %asis #or descri,tion&
Authenticity
The theory that a culture or' #or that matter' any grou, o# ,eo,le has its o4n ,ure
musical style 4hich is su%<ect to contamination has ,layed an im,ortant role in
ethnomusicology uthenticity is the 4ord 4hich designates the ?uality' distinguishing ,ure
material #rom that 4hich is not ,ure& Kar,eles =1.B1> ,ro"ides a good statement o# the
,osition& No dou%t the assum,tion o# authenticity is related to the theories 4hich ,ro,ose
s,eci#ic and ,redicta%le musical styles #or "arious ty,es o# culture' or race& There are #acets
to this theory 4hich ma3e its a,,lication dangerous& The tendency on the ,art o# the scholars
interested in studying EauthenticE styles is that they a,,ly a dou%le standard& They consider
the music o# an #rican tri%e 4hich has %een in#luenced %y another #rican tri%e ?uite
authentic' and the same holds true #or 1rench #ol3 songs 4hich ha"e %een in#luenced %y
S,anish #ol3 songs& But they consider as unauthentic the English #ol3 songs as sung %y
trained merican singers' or the songs o# an merican Indian tri%e i# these are songs
originally taught to the Indians %y (estern #ol3 singers& This attitude seems curious in "ie4
o# the #act that such a large ,ro,ortion %ears the unmista3a%le stam, o# recent #oreign
inHuence& On the other hand' there is some "alue in regard #or authenticity& The
ethnomusicologist may %e interested in musical utterances sim,ly as e"ents' 4ithout regard
to their %ac3ground' %ut he is more li3ely to %e interested in music 4hich is someho4
re,resentati"e o# the musical culture and re,ertory o# the singer and o# the singerDs cultural
grou,& Thus'
!,$
in studying the #ol3 culture o# the +nited States' a student 4ill %e ser"ed less %y analyAing
songs as they are sung %y trained #ol3 singers #rom merican colleges than %y studying those
sung %y Kentuc3y mountaineers& On the other hand' he 4ill also ,er#orm a use#ul ser"ice %y
studying the songs sung %y college #ol3 singers& Only he should not con#use the t4o&
In considerations o# musical style' 4e should mention the #act that some
ethnomusicologists %elie"e that authenticity can %e detected through analysis o# a musical
style alone& They thin3 that they can identi#y music 4hich is authentic' and distinguish it
#rom contaminated material 4ithout recourse to historical or cultural 3no4ledge& gain' 4hile
it is ,ossi%le that the so K called authentic styles o# non K (estern music share some traits'
this is only a coincidence& The non-authentic material today usually %ears the characteristics
o# (estern culti"ated or ,o,ular music' and thus music 4hich sho4s no or #e4 (estern traits
is assumed to %e authentic& But to ta3e #or granted that similarity to (estern music is
automatically a mar3 o# non-authenticity or contamination is to im,ose on ethnomusicology
the "ery ethnocentric ,re<udices 4hich it is one o# our tas3s to com%at&
Is there a musical style and a %ody o# music 4hich is es,ecially the ,ro,erty o# each
cultural grou,' and 4hich can %e distinguished #rom music 4hich that grou, also 3no4s' %ut
4hich is o# #oreign originH The interest in the ErealE style o# a ,eo,le stems ,erha,s #rom the
time' around 1.66' 4hen the idea o# #ol3 music 4as closely associated 4ith nation and 4ith
nationalism' and 4hen the students as 4ell as the ,olitical directors o# #ol3-lore 4ere eager to
cleanse their heritage o# #oreign elements& nother root o# the interest in ,ure styles is the
%elie#' #ormerly ?uite common among ethnomusicologists' that the music o# a non-literate
culture does not change readily' and that the student' i# he can only #ind a ,eo,leDs EtrueE or
E,ureE style' is assured o# ha"ing material o# great age& To a degree this ,oint o# "ie4 is
certainly acce,ta%le; %ut ethnomusicologists ha"e no dou%t that e"en in a relati"ely isolated
culture' music does change' and e"en grou,s such as the merican Indians and the
$olynesians de#initely
!,!
ha"e a music history& But the amount o# change 4hich these musical re,ertories ha"e
undergone in recent decades' under the stimulus o# increased communication 4ith each
other' 4ith (estern ci"iliAation' and in certain cases 4ith Oriental high cultures' must greatly
e:ceed the amount o# change ,re"iously e:,erienced& Thus the student o# a contem,orary
non-literate culture may %e con#ronted 4ith a large amount o# material 4hich 4as ac?uired
recently' and he may 4ish to se,arate this #rom the older material o# the culture& 1re?uently
he can do this on the %asis o# statements %y in#ormants' %ut o#ten he must rely on his
analysis o# the musical style to ma3e the distinction& O# course the thorough student o# a
musical culture must %e interested also in the material recently ac?uired' and in the e##ect
4hich this has had on the older music; to disregard the ne4er material %ecause o# its alleged
Eim,urityE 4ould %e to ma3e unsu%stantiated <udgments' and to neglect the o%"ious #act that
the styles 4hich no4 seem so ancient and ,ure 4ould at one time ha"e had the same im,ure
character so #ar as an earlier in"estigator may ha"e %een concerned& nd o# course the study
o# musical change and o# the interaction o# musical styles on each other in a contem,orary
en"ironment is in itsel# a #ascinating one& Ne"ertheless' the descri,tion o# the older styles o#
a culture' and to some e:tent the identi#ication o# older elements' is an im,ortant tas3& But
4e should' I %elie"e' guard against an attitude 4hich ,laces greater "alue on the old' and
4hich assumes the e:istence in the 4or3l o# a grou, o# ,ure musical styles 4hose change' in
recent decades or centuries' is to %e considered a contamination& Many collectors' es,ecially
those o# (estern #ol3 music' ha"e #ailed to descri%e some o# the most interesting musical
,henomena %ecause they insisted on collecting only the old' ,ure songs&
Identi#ication o# the real' true musical style o# a ,eo,le assumes' moreo"er' that each
culture has one main musical style' and a %ody o# music 4hich is %asically homogeneous&
This attitude is at the root o# the many statements in ethnomusicological literature 4hich gi"e
the style o# a ,eo,le on the %asis o# a #e4 songs&
!,%
It may %e true that many non-literate cultures e:hi%it a relati"ely homogeneous musical
style& The need #or 3ee,ing the music sim,le and #or ha"ing it acce,ted %y a large ,ro,ortion
o# the tri%e rather than %y only a #e4 a"ant-garde musicians is ,artly res,onsi%le' as is the
#act that such cultures usually ,lace little im,ortance on artistic originality& But there are
some cultures 4hich ha"e music in se"eral styles' and roughly in e?ual ,ro,ortion& The
Sha4nee Indians' #or e:am,le' ha"e songs in the style o# the Eastern +nited States Indians'
in that o# the $lains' and in that o# the recently de"elo,ed $eyote cult' as 4ell as those o# an
archaic' sim,le layer ,resent in childrenDs songs and lulla%ies& It is ,ossi%le' o# course' to
estimate the relati"e ages o# these grou,s 4ithin the Sha4nee re,ertory' %ut it cannot %e
said that any o# them is more ty,ically the ,ro,erty o# the Sha4nee than o# the others'
es,ecially since n/ne o# them is the result o# direct (estern musical intrusion&
Still there can ,erha,s %e said to e:ist some inherent thread o# relationshi, %et4een a
grou, and the style o# its music& $erha,s there is' a#ter all' one 3ind o# music 4hich is
,articularly the ,ro,erty o# a cultural grou,' in s,ite o# the #act that 4e cannot assume an
inherent relationshi, %et4een the ,hysical characteristics o# a ,eo,le and its musical style'
and in s,ite o# the #act that a cultureDs economic organiAation does not seem to ha"e an
ine"ita%le e##ect on its choice o# music& The reasons 4hy a ,eo,le use a ,articular musical
style are "aried' com,le:' and only "ery ,artially understood; some o# them are e:,lored in
Cha,ters 5 and .& In a consideration o# descri,tion o# musical style' 4e should' ho4e"er'
em,hasiAe the interrelationshi, among the musical elements o# a style as sta%iliAing #orces&
Thus the de"elo,ment o# rhythm and res,onsorial ,er#ormance in #rican music may ha"e
%een res,onsi%le #or the relati"ely lo4er de"elo,ment o# melodic #eatures and #or the sta%ility
o# meter' and also #or the ,eculiarity o# 4hat Merriam =1./7> calls the #rican idiom in music&
(hile no culture can lay claim to e:clusi"e ,ossession o# a musical trait' the structure o# the
musical traits themsel"es can create con#igurations o# musical style
!,&
4hich' %ecause o# the interaction o# the elements o# music' tend to achie"e a degree o#
sta%ility and a uni?ue relationshi, to one grou, o# ,eo,le&
E9amles o( 4escritions
The #ollo4ing ,aragra,hs discuss a selected grou, o# descri,tions o# the style o# %odies
o# music; 4hile certainly not ,resenting a com,rehensi"e ,icture o# ethnomusicological
,rocedure' the ,u%lications discussed here are a re,resentati"e sam,le& The analyses o#
Indian tri%al music %y 1rances !ensmore o##er an e:am,le o# a statistical a,,roach carried
out in a some4hat nai"e and su,er#icial manner; their "ery "olume' and the #act that they
are' in s,ite o# their shortcomings' among the #e4 descri,tions com,rising a large num%er o#
songs' <usti#ies their discussion here& !ensmoreDs Teton Siou: Music =1.15> is the most
detailed o# this inde#atiga%le 4or3erDs studies& She ,resents descri,tions o# the total Teton
!a3ota and Chi,,e4a re,ertories as collected %y her' as 4ell as descri,tions o# indi"idual
song ty,es 4ithin the Teton re,ertory& nd she ma3es considera%le use o# gra,hs to aid the
"isual ,erce,tion o# the data& She classi#ies #irst the tonality o# the songs =according to ma<or'
minor' and EirregularE>' then the inter"al %et4een the #irst note and the tonic o# the song and
%et4een the last and the tonic& She indicates' #or e:am,le' that the #inal tone is the lo4est
tone in .6 ,er cent o# the songs& She gi"es statistics #or the ranges o# the songs' #or the
num%er o# tones =Edegrees&D> o# the scale used in a song' and #or the num%er o# songs
containing accidentals' and she classi#ies the songs according to the 3inds o# inter"als used in
the melody' la%eling them as %eing Emelodic'D& Emelodic 4ith harmonic #rame4or3'E or
EharmonicE in structure& She ta%ulates the num%er o# u,4ard and do4n4ard ,rogressions in
the melody' indicating that ca& /0 ,er cent o# the tones are a,,roached #rom higher tones'
and she ta%ulates the melodic inter"als
!,'
,er cent are ma<or seconds' @6 ,er cent minor thirds' etc&>& She calculates that the mean
a"erage siAe o# inter"als in the re,ertory is slightly larger than a minor third& Rhythm is
treated in terms o# the num%er o# songs %eginning on accented and unaccented ,arts o# the
measure' the meter =du,le or tri,le> o# the #irst measure' and the num%er o# songs =1/ ,er
cent> 4hich ha"e no change o# meter& The drum accom,animents are similarly treated& The
analyses o# the indi"idual Teton song grou,s =4ar songs' recent songs' etc&> and o# the total
Teton re,ertory are carried out similarly' not 4ith gra,hs %ut 4ith ta%les in 4hich the songs
ta%ulated are listed indi"idually& The o"er-all #orm o# the songs is not considered in
!ensmoreDs descri,tion o# the style&
E"idently !ensmore has done a thorough <o% o# counting the ,henomena o# the songs
in her collection& Ne"ertheless' her descri,tion o# the style is in some 4ays meaningless' #or it
contains some things 4hich need not ha"e %een done' 4hile lea"ing others undone&
mong the relati"ely meaningless statements are those di##erentiating %et4een ma<or
and minor tonalities& Here !ensmore has indu1ged in a ,ractice K 4hich it is ,erha,s
unnecessary to 4arn against at this date K o# im,osing the categories intended #or one
musical style on an unrelated one& The essential di##erence %et4een ma<or and minor' a#ter
all' is the di##erence %et4een the 3inds o# third a%o"e the tonic note& In (estern music
%et4een 1/66 and 1.66' com,osers' ,er#ormers' and listeners agreed that this inter"al 4as
o# great im,ortance so that it could <ustly ser"e as a criterion #or classi#ication o# the tonality
o# an entire com,osition& But there is no e"idence' in merican Indian culture' that the
distinction %et4een ma<or and minor thirds a%o"e the tonic is any more im,ortant than some
other distinctions' #or instance' that %et4een the ,resence o# the ,er#ect #ourth a%o"e the
tonic in some songs and its a%sence in others&
Moreo"er' !ensmoreDs classi#ication o# songs as ma<or or minor is intuiti"e in the sense
that she had to classi#y many songs 4hich did not ha"e #ull diatonic scales' and thus had to
decide
!,)
4hat the missing tones 4ould ha"e to %e& This a,,roach' 4hich is re#lected also in the
Ega,,ed scaleE analysis o# (estern #ol3 songs 4ith ,entatonic scales ,u%lished %y some
eminent Euro,ean #ol3 song scholars' has o%"ious dangers& lso among the less use#ul ,ieces
o# in#ormation in !ensmoreDs study =1.158 15> is a statement o# the s,eci#ic 3eys 4hich 4ere
used K E minor' 1 ma<or' etc& gain' these are conce,ts 4hich mean something in (estern
ci"iliAation %ut not else4here& North merican Indian culture does not ha"e the conce,t o#
a%solute ,itch& song 'is not to %e sung %eginning on a s,eci#ic "i%ration rate& Ne"ertheless'
!ensmore might %e gi"ing us use#ul in#ormation i# she sim,ly stated on 4hat tone a song
%egins& Studies in"ol"ing ,itch and "ocal range' etc&' could ma3e use o# this in#ormation&
Similarly' 4e could ma3e use o# the in#ormation 4hich emerges #rom statements classi#ying
songs as ma<or or minor& The ,ro#essional ethnomusicologist can a%sor% 4hat !ensmore
o##ers 4ithout acce,ting 4hat is not use#ul& But there is danger in ,resenting a descri,tion o#
music in terms 4hich im,ly relationshi, to other musical cultures& Thus' e"en a song 4hich
actually has all o# the characteristics o# the ma<or mode should not K i# it is not a Euro,ean
song K %e classed as ma<or' #or such a statement 4ould lead the reader to assume that the
conce,t o# ma<or K minor 4as ,resent in another culture' rather than to realiAe that K as is
,ro%a%ly the case K the structure o# the song is only %y coincidence analogous to that o#
another cultureDs musical theory& 1rom a consideration o# !ensmoreDs descri,tions o# style 4e
may' then' learn the #ollo4ing8 1> It is use#ul to ma3e e:act counts o# musical ,henomena'
and to ,resent the results in statistical statements; 7> it is dangerous to ta3e conce,ts #rom
one musical culture and use them as the %asis o# descri,tion #or another culture; @> e"en
4hen statements o# this sort are technically correct' they may lead to #alse conclusions&
!ensmoreDs analyses o# her o4n transcri,tion indicate that the ?uality and the a,,roach
ta3en in transcri%ing ha"e a tremendous in#luence on the content o# the descri,tion o# these
transcri,tions& Es,ecially in the descri,tion o# rhythm is this
!,*
in#luence #elt' #or there is much less standardiAation in the notation o# rhythmic #eatures than
there is #or melodic ones& Thus the ,lacement o# %ar K lines' the identi#ication o# anacruses'
or the length o# measures in one ,iece as transcri%ed %y se"eral scholars could "ary much
more than the ,lacement o# the ,itches& 1or this reason' statistics on the num%er o# songs in
a cor,us 4hich %egin on an unstressed %eat' or 4hich do not sho4 changes o# meter' may or
may not indicate something signi#icant a%out its style&
The a,,roach ta3en %y !ensmore is' then' a rather undiscriminating one& It is %ased on
the assum,tion that anything one can say a%out a %ody o# music is signi#icant& Many students
o# musical style' es,ecially those #a"oring a more intuiti"e a,,roach to descri,tion' 4ill ta3e
issue 4ith such a ,oint o# "ie4& The main ,ur,ose o# descri%ing %odies o# music is' a#ter all'
to distinguish them #rom each other in 4ays 4hich are signi#icant in the sense that they
re#lect di##erences in cultural and historical tradition& nother ,ur,ose is to tell the listener
4hat ma3es the music sound as it does' or 4hat ma3es it ha"e the ,articular e##ect on him
4hich it has& No4 it is ?uite li3ely that t4o styles as 4idely di"ergent as the Teton !a3ota
and a Euro,ean #ol3 music style ha"e the same 3inds o# inter"als' the same ,ro,ortion o#
ma<or seconds' minor thirds' etc&' 4ithout ha"ing any %asic similarity& O# course any t4o
%odies o# music 4ill di##er in some element o# music& But could not the t4o musical styles
4hich ha"e identical ,ro,ortions o# inter"als di##er greatly so #ar as the actual use o# the
inter"als is concernedH !oes not the #act that certain inter"als a,,ear in a ,articular order' or
that certain ones are #ollo4ed %y certain others' really constitute one o# the essentials o# the
musical styleH Such ?uestions must %e raised i# 4e are to see a statistical a,,roach to the
descri,tion o# music in its ,ro,er ,ers,ecti"e& (e may conclude that an inter"al count in a
%ody o# music can %e signi#icant #or di##erentiating musical styles& The reason #or the
di##erence %et4een t4o musical styles may indeed %e the ,resence o# many ,er#ect #i#ths in
one and their a%sence in the other& But i# the latter style
!,+
has #ourths instead o# #i#ths' the di##erence may %e small or due to another as,ect o# music&
Thus' in order to ,resent a thorough descri,tion o# a musical style 4ith statistical means'
many detailed studies o# a sam,le must %e underta3en& !ensmore has made counts o# a
num%er o# di##erent elements o# music in her Teton Siou: study' %ut there are many more
4hich she might ha"e underta3en; chie#ly' these in"ol"e the relati"e ,ositions o# the musical
,henomena& nd a statistical descri,tion o# a musical style 4hich ,resents all imagina%le
as,ects o# the music has not yet %een made&
Statistics in a more re#ined sense are used %y 1reeman and Merriam =1.B/> in a study
not designed to descri%e musical style ,er se %ut to distinguish musical ty,es on the %asis o#
one #eature or a grou, o# related #eatures& S,eci#ically' their ,rocedure 4as to ta%ulate the
ma<or seconds and minor thirds in the re,ertories o# t4o cults in Ne4 (orld Negro music
deri"ed #rom #rica& The ?uestion ,osed %y 1reeman and Merriam =1.B/80//> is E4hether or
not certain grou,s o# ,ercentages in inter"al usage can %e used as a criterion o# identi#ying a
%ody o# song& In e:tension' i# the measure ,ro"es "alid' it should also %e ,ossi%le to trace
musical in#luences 4hich ha"e ,layed u,on a s,eci#ic grou, or tri%e&E The %asic assum,tion o#
such a study is that the character o# any %ody o# music is uni?ue' and that materials related
to it or deri"ed #rom it can %e identi#ied %y measuring any as,ect o# that music i# the sam,le
is su##iciently large& This ,rocedure is ,romising #or di##erentiating and relating styles o#
music' %ut it does not tell 4hat ma3es a ,articular style sound the 4ay it does&
num%er o# s,ecial de"ices ha"e %een used to di##erentiate musical styles #rom each
other in accordance 4ith single elements o# music' in 4ays similar to the use o# inter"al
counts %y 1reeman and Merriam& mong the most interesting are those descri%ing scales and
tem,o de"ised %y MiecAysla4 Kolins3i& His method #or descri%ing the tem,o o# a single ,iece
has already %een mentioned& Kolins3i =1.B.> also gi"es a method #or descri%ing' statistically'
the tem,o o# a %ody o# music' or rather'
!,,
the a"erage tem,o o# the ,ieces in that cor,us& He sho4s that the music o# "arious areas o#
the 4orld can %e distinguished %y their a"erage tem,i' and' moreo"er' that the ,ro,ortion o#
di##erent s,eeds 4ithin the re,ertories also di##erentiates these musics& Thus' he indicates
that the tem,o structure o# !ahomean Negro and North merican Indian music is "ery
similar' as indicated in 1ig& ll& In the gra,h' songs are classi#ied as %elonging
1I2+RE ll& Com,arison o# !ahomean and North merican Indian tem,o using Kolins3iDs
method&
to di##erent s,eed grou,s& The #igures along the %ottom line indicate these s,eed
grou,s' no&0 re,resenting songs 4ith tem,os o# .1 K 176 notes ,er minute' no&B' 171 K 1B6
notes ,er minute' etc&
The im,ortance o# di"iding the re,ertory into such s,eed grou,s must %e stressed' #or it
is concei"a%le that a re,ertory ha"ing an a"erage tem,o o# 1B6 has all o# its music into the
range o# 106 K1/6' 4hile another re,ertory 4ith the same a"erage might ha"e "ery #e4
songs 4ith a tem,o o# 1B6 %ut might instead di"ide its ,ieces %et4een a slo4 .6 and a ,resto
766& O%"iously' in statistical descri,tions o# musical ,henomena sa#eguards must %e #ound to
guard against too su,er#icial an a,,roach& nd o# course it is o# the utmost im,ortance to
ha"e the units o# the statistical scheme such that they do not con#lict 4ith the meaning#ul
units o# the style itsel#& n e:am,le o# such a ,rocedure
!,-
4ould %e to count inter"als according to their (estern names' lum,ing ma<or and minor
seconds together 4ithout accounting #or the #act that the di##erence %et4een a ma<or and a
minor second is as great as or greater than the di##erence %et4een a ma<or second and a
minor third& In the case o# tem,o' a di##erentiation %et4een signi#icant and nonsigni#icant
distinctions is not 3no4n& Thus Kolins3iUs a,,roach is entirely E,honetic&E He does not ta3e
into account the ,ossi%ility that one culture may consider tem,os o# 1B6 and 176 identical'
ma3ing it ,ossi%le to sing one song either 4ay' 4hile another may #eel them as radically
di##erent' one e:tremely slo4' the other "ery #ast&
Kolins3i =1./1> ,resents a scheme #or classi#ying scales and tone systems& In Cha,ter B
4e discussed the descri,tion o# scales o# indi"idual ,ieces& Here 4e are #aced 4ith a system
o# classi#ying and descri%ing grou,s o# scales' %ased on the circle o# #i#ths& It is ,ossi%le' o#
course' to classi#y single scales in this system' %ut its greatest use is #or descri,tions o# entire
cor,ora' and #or com,arati"e 4or3& Kolins3i ,resents each o# the theoretically ,ossi%le scales
and then indicates' in detailed ta%les' 4hich o# them occur in !ahomean' Surinam' North
merican Indian' and British K merican #ol3 song&
The scheme ,ro,osed in Kolins3iUs classi#ication o# tonal structures ,ro"ides #or the
,lacement 4ithin it o# music according to three criteria8 Ho4 #ar through the cycle o# #i#ths
does one ha"e to go to o%tain an the tones in the com,ositionH Ho4 many tones o# the
resulting segment o# the cycle o# #i#ths are actually ,resent in the s,ecimenH nd 4hich tones
are theyH
The scheme uses t4el"e %asic Etint K com,le:esE =com,lete octa"e-e?ui"alence is
su%sumed in this term>' #rom Mono-ty,e C to He:a-ty,e C2!EB and #rom He,ta-ty,e
1C2!EB to 1C2!EB1`C`2`!``& (ithin each tint K com,le: gamuts are classi#ied
according to the num%er o# tints occurring' and listed systematically therein according to
content& To ,re,are an o%ser"ed scale #or inclusion in the classi#ication it is necessary that it
%e suita%ly trans,osed; and' at this stage' enharmonic and #unctional
!-$
each ,ossi%le tonal con#iguration is listed only at the earliest ,ossi%le ,oint o# its occurrence
in the scheme& Kolins3iUs illustration =1./18@5> sho4s t4o scales' E` K 1` K and 1 K 2% K
' 4hich %elong to the three K tint grou, 1 K 1` K o# the octa-ty,e tint K com,le:
1C2!EB1` =no&// o# a continuous enumeration #rom 6 to @05>&
#ourth criterion mo"es a4ay #rom the systematic to the analytical8 E4ithin each tint K
com,le: se"eral modes are to %e distinguished according to the tint that constitutes the tonal
centerE =Kolins3i 1./1807>& There are se"eral o%<ections to Kolins3iDs method' among them
the di##iculty o# identi#ying a tonic& Kolins3i does not s,eci#y the criteria 4hich he e:,ects to
ha"e tised in identi#ying his tonal center& Moreo"er' his scheme is only a,,lica%le to styles
4hich ha"e inter"als no smaller than minor seconds& Ne"ertheless' it is an interesting
e:,loration o# ne4 4ays o# ,ro"iding descri,ti"e and com,arati"e data on scales and modes&
In the 4or3 o# !ensmore and o# many other scholars 4ho 4or3ed #or relati"ely %rie#
times 4ith a large %ody o# material ta%ular' statistical ,resentation in 4hich each song is
accounted #or is common& $erha,s a su,erior a,,roach is that re,resented %y the stylistic
descri,tions o# 2eorge HerAog' 4ho does not usually gi"e detailed in#ormation on the #eatures
o# each song %ut 4ho ,resents a descri,tion o# the 3ind o# thing #ound most #re?uently' that
4hich is #ound occasionally' and that 4hich is rare& He almost al4ays' li3e !ensmore'
,resents a large num%er o# transcri,tions to su,,ly e"idence o# his statements' and he cites
some o# the s,eci#ic songs 4hich contain the #eatures 4hich he descri%es' so that the reader
can see them in the song itsel#' in addition to reading a%out it& HerAogDs descri,tions o# style
tend to %e %rie# =as in HerAog 1.75>' and they #unction more as ,re#aces to the transcri,tions
than as the #ocal ,oints o# his ,u%lications&
In his 4or3s' HerAog stresses the as,ect o# music 4hich he calls Emanner o# singing'E
and 4hich includes descri,tions o# dynamics' "ocal mannerisms' shouts' tem,o& His
descri,tions o#
!-!
scale and tonality usually ma3e use o# the s,ecial #eatures o# the style rather than o# a
,redetermined system used to classi#y he structures; the same is true o# his discussions o#
rhythm' 4hich are directly descri,ti"e rather than classi#icatory& His discussions o# #orm are
more o# a classi#icatory nature' #or he distinguishes among ,rogressi"e' iterati"e' and
re"erting #orms' de,ending on the ,oints at and degree to 4hich they use material ,resented
earlier in the song =see HerAog 1.@58@6B>& $ro%a%ly his s,ecial treatment o# #orm is due to
the #act that 4hile other elements o# music could already %e classi#ied in terms o# scale'
contour' meter' the o"er K all structure o# songs could not' e:ce,t in so #ar as it corres,onded
to the esta%lished #orms o# (estern culti"ated music& #urther #eature o# HerAogDs
descri,tions o# musical styles is his concern 4ith song ty,es& Ha"ing descri%ed the melody'
rhythm' #orm' etc&' o# all o# the songs in his cor,us through thorough ins,ection' he tries to
di"ide the material into smaller' more homogeneous grou,s =HerAog 1.@58@6/>&
HerAogDs method o# descri%ing style is largely %ased on that de"elo,ed %y E& M& "on
Horn%ostel and Carl Stum,#' and has %een used %y his o4n students as 4ell as %y many
other scholars& Its com%ination o# detailed ins,ection 4ith distillation is res,onsi%le #or an
es,ecially satis#actory 3ind o# ,resentation& Guite li3ely it re?uires a greater ac?uaintance
4ith the material than does the a,,roach %ased on detailed counts& These can' a#ter all' %e
handled mechanically and 4orse yet' as 4e ha"e ,ointed out' they include the ris3 o#
neglecting the im,ortant interrelationshi,s among the elements o# the music& HerAogDs
a,,roach' then' contains some as,ects o# the intuiti"e a,,roach to musical descri,tion
descri%ed in Cha,ter B&
%rie# loo3 at the methods #rom 4hich HerAogDs techni?ue is deri"ed may %e in order
here& Essentially' Horn%ostel and %raham' in a ty,ical study =1.6/>' di"ided music into the
elements used also %y students o# (estern music& Em,hasis is ,laced on scales and inter"als'
4hich are measured in terms o# cents& Rhythm' tem,o' structure' and manner o# singing are
!-%
treated in a cursory 4ay& The a,,roach is a mi:ture o# the statistical and the intuiti"e' and
there certainly is an attem,t to distill the essence o# the style' to state 4hat is ty,ical' rather
than to gi"e a detailed ,icture& Historically s,ea3ing' this method seems to ha"e %een
tremendously e##ecti"e' #or it has %een maintained throughout the "aried and the no4 not so
%rie# history o# ethnomusicology& s recent a 4or3 as Branders =1./7>' 4hich descri%es a
com,le: and "aried style in relati"ely #e4 ,ages' di"ides music into #our main elements8
melody' rhythm' ,oly,hony and #orm' and singing style& (hile melody still ,lays the ma<or
role' the relati"ely greater em,hasis on rhythm' #orm' and "ocal techni?ue in BrandelDs 4or3
is indicati"e o# the trend in musical descri,tion during this century&Those as,ects o# music
in"ol"ing ,itch 4ere u,,ermost in the early scholarsD minds' %ut the others ha"e no4 come to
ta3e their e?ually im,ortant ,lace& BrandelDs descri,tion o# Central #rican music is %ased on
many transcri,tions' %ut e:ce,t #or occasional ?uantitati"e statements' statistics do not ,lay
a role; rather' she ,resents e:am,les o# 4hat she considers essential to the style&
!ensmoreDs statistical a,,roach' re#ined and so,histicated %y the methods ,resented %y
1reeman and Merriam =1.B/>' re,resents' then' one main ty,e o#&the descri,tion o# musical
style; the less rigid' more im,ressionistic' %ut ,ossi%ly more em,athic method' re,resented
%y HerAog =1.75>' is another& These t4o a,,roaches dominate the serious ethnomusicological
literature to the e:tent that its ,ur,ose is sim,le descri,tion o# style& third a,,roach is
re,resented %y the 4or3 o# BartS3 and Kodaly&
It is ,erha,s moti"ated largely %y the need #or #inding a system #or classi#ying melodies
in order to ,lace them in some sensi%le 3ind o# order in large collections& The most #amous
4or3 %y BartS3 =1.7B> may %e used here as an e:am,le& The main criterion o# classi#ication
is the num%er o# lines ,er stanAa' and the num%er o# sylla%les ,er line& Thus' the o"er K all
structure o# the songs recei"es relati"ely more attention than the melodic characteristics&
(ithin each category' BartS3 descri%es also the rhythm and the scale o# the songs in"ol"ed'
and a summary o#
!-&
each large grou, o# songs consists o# a %road characteriAation' in the Horn%ostel K HerAog
style' o# ,resentation' melody' rhythm' ornamentation' etc& But considera%ly more em,hasis
is ,laced on #orm and rhythm than on the other as,ects o# music&
Some "ery res,ecta%le descri,tions o# musical style use terms and conce,ts 4hich'
rather than telling something a%out the music itsel#' descri%e it %y indicating its e##ects on
the (estern listener& Thus Rose Brandel' in descri%ing Central #rican melodic ty,es' s,ea3s
o# the Edescending' motion K ,ro,elled octa"e melodyE o# the (atutsi =BrandeI1./7a85@>'
and o# a E?uality o# intensity and sus,enseE 4hich Ema3es itsel# #elt in a certain ty,e o#
melody constructed on the tritoneE =,& 56>&Statements o# this ty,e actually a%ound in
ethnomusicological literature& They ha"e %een criticiAed %ecause they may cause the reader
to misunderstand the author' 4ho is K in most cases K trying to sho4 the e##ect o# the music
on himsel#' and to use his o4n reaction as a 4ay o# communicating 4ith his colleagues& Only
the most nai"e scholar 4ould assume that a ty,e o# melody 4hich' to him' sounds Eemotion K
,ro,elledE must ha"e the same e##ect on ,ersons in the culture 4hich ,roduced the melody&
Thus' Brandel =1./7a851> ,oints out that chords in #rican music 4hich ha"e the structure o#
(estern dominant K se"enth chords enhance in the listener a #eeling o# unresol"ed harmony'
%ut is ?uic3 to state that Ethere is danger in this 3ind o# thin3ing' %ut it is mitigated %y an
a4areness o# the conte:t 4ith 4hich 4e are concerned&E No dou%t the reader o# BrandelDs
4or3' i# he is su##iciently so,histicated not to con#use the authorDs reaction to #rican music
4ith the #ricanDs o4n ,resumed reaction to his music' 4ill get a %etter idea o# the 4ay the
music sounds than he 4ould #rom an aggregate o# statistical ta%les& On the other hand' the
trend in ethnomusicology is de#initely a4ay #rom such ethnocentric tools o# descri,tion' #or
the 4orldDs music scholars are no longer e:clusi"ely (estern' and there is no longer much
use in sacri#icing scienti#ically acce,ta%le conce,ts and terms #or easier communication&
!-'
Classi(ication
The classi#ication o# com,ositions 4ithin a re,ertory is closely related to the ,ro%lems o#
musical descri,tion& One ,ur,ose o# classi#ying tunes' already stated' is to ,resent them' in a
collection' in a logical and rational order& nother is to #ind those musical items 4hich are
genetically related& Classi#ication #or the #irst ,ur,ose has %een achie"ed in se"eral success#ul
4ays& BartS3Ds classi#ication o# Hungarian #ol3 songs according to the interrelationshi, o# the
musical lines is only one& rrangement according to the range o# the songs' or according to
the 3ind o# scale used' or according to nonmusical characteristics such as the #unction or age
o# a song' are all ,ossi%le' and the characteristics o# the style itsel# should determine 4hich
system is used& The 3ind o# classi#ication in ?uestion here has most #re?uently %een a,,lied
to Euro,ean #ol3 music' #or here is the area in 4hich the largest collections ha"e %een made
and ,u%lished& !uring the #irst ,art o# the t4entieth century' a considera%le amount o#
literature on this su%<ect a,,eared& HerAog =1.B681605 K 0.> ,ro"ides a list o# some o# the
more ,rominent ,u%lications&
Classi#ication o# music according to genetic relationshi, is much more di##icult' and
in"ol"es the #act that it is not really ,ossi%le to ,resent concrete ,roo# that t4o tunes are
actually deri"ed #rom the same ,arent& Since music in oral tradition is easily changed' and
since 4e usually 3no4 only contem,orary "ersions o# songs rather than their original #orms'
4e must rely on e:ternal e"idence' ,rimarily that o# sim,le similarity' to hel, us esta%lish the
genetic relationshi,& Here 4e should consider' again' the di##erence %et4een the actual
musical content o# a ,iece' i&e&' that ,art 4hich distinguishes it #rom all other ,ieces' e"en i#
these ha"e similar or' ,erha,s' identical elements o# music' and the style&
Classi#ication o# com,osition 4ithin a re,ertory may itsel# #unction as a 3ind o# stylistic
descri,tion& 1or e:am,le' 2eorge HerAogDs descri,tions usually end In a di"ision o# the cor,us
into Ety,esE&
!-)
(hat he is doing in esta%lishing them is something analogous to 4hat the music
historian does in descri%ing ,ieces o# music sim,ly %y classing them according to certain
,re"iously descri%ed ty,es' e&g&' sonata' rondo' #ugue' etc& HerAogDs ,rocedure is to de"elo,
in each re,ertory a classi#ication' %ased on his cor,us o# material' and to descri%e the style o#
each grou, systematically =see HerAog 1.@58@69 K 5>& O# course all o# the songs in a gi"en
grou, do not e:hi%it similarity in style in all elements o# music' %ut they are identical in
certain #eatures&
Selection o# these #eatures ,resu,,oses an intuiti"e a,,roach on the ,art o# the
student& Ha"ing esta%lished his ty,es' ho4e"er' the ethnomusicologist ho,es that he 4ill %e
a%le to class #uture com,ositions in the re,ertory 4ith 4hich he is concerned 4ithin the
ty,ology& Classi#ication' then' %ecomes a su%stitute #or descri,tion&
Such a ,rocedure is' o# course' %oth acce,ta%le and ,ractical' %ut criticism o# the
classi#ication itsel# is essential& Historians o# (estern music ha"e sometimes #allen u,on the
error o# o"erem,hasiAing the classi#ication& Thus' they ha"e classed rondos o# the eighteenth
century together and neglected the "ast di##erences among indi"idual #orms o# this genre&
They ha"e esta%lished a model #or the #orm o# Yugue' and 4ithout su##icient em,hasis o# the
degree to 4hich indi"idual #ugues di"erge #rom this model' they ha"e #ruitlessly s,ent time
t;rying to #it the #ugues o# "arious com,osers into their ,reconcei"ed mold& Moreo"er' they
ha"e sometimes con#used descri,ti"e classi#ication 4ith the classi#ication gi"en to 4or3s o#
music %y the com,osers o# these 4or3s& nd 4hile it is' #or instance' o# great interest to #ind
that certain 4or3s %y Haydn and Hindemith carry the same title' Sonata'E this does not
a%sol"e the scholar #rom analyAing these 4or3s indi"idually' and #rom noting that the #orms
o# the t4o sonatasE ha"e "ery little in common& The lessons to the ethnomusicologist are
o%"ious&
*oma: =1./7> has de"ised a system 4hich he calls cantometrics' and 4hich' %y an
ela%orate system o# classi#ication' attem,ts to descri%e the chie# traits o# %odies o# music'
!-*
it can also %e used to descri%e indi"idual ,ieces& By an ela%orate coding system' using
recordings K not transcri,tions K *oma: assigns to s,aces on a gra,h the mani#estations o#
@9 di##erent criteria& Out o# these emerges a E,ro#ile'E 4hich he then uses to dra4 certain
conclusions a%out the relationshi, %et4een the musical style and the culture ty,e o# the
,er#orming grou,& 1or e:am,le' his #irst criterion is EorganiAation o# the "ocal grou,E; this is
rated Ein terms o# increasing grou, dominance and integration& The line as3s the ?uestion8 DIs
the ,er#ormance a solo %y a leader 4ith a ,assi"e audience&&&or is the grou, in some 4ay
acti"e in relation to the leaderHD'& I# ,oint 7 on the gra,h is chec3ed' this means that the
leader dominates com,letely& E$oints @ and 0 re,resent other solor singing situations&
&&&$oints B and / denote sim,le unison singing&&&&$oints 16' 11' and 17 denote 4hat 4e
term interloc3ed relationshi,' i&e&' 4hen a ,art o# a singing grou, o"erla,s another or
,er#orms a su,,orti"e #unctionE =*oma: 1./7807.>& Intermediate num%ers indicate
intermediate stages in the degree o# dominance o# the leader& nd in this manner "arious
elements o# musical ,er#ormance K relation o# orchestra to singer' tonal %lend' melodic
sha,e' ty,e o# ,oly,hony and many others K are rated&
The main criticism le"eled at *oma:Us cantometrics is the su%<ecti"ity o# the rating
,rocedure' and this no dou%t 4ill ,re"ent its general acce,tance& The ad"antages o# the
system are that it can %e used %y indi"iduals 4ith little technical training in music' and that it
stresses as,ects o# musical ,er#ormance 4hich do not usually emerge #rom transcri,tions&
But there is a ?uestion K since the <udgments are admittedly E?ualitati"eE =*oma: 1./78079>
K 4hether the gra,hs tell us the same things 4hich ha"e in the ,ast %een e:,ressed in ,rose'
and 4hether they are a %etter #orm o# communication&
4eterminants o( 1usical Style
$erha,s the most #undamental ?uestions 4hich ethnomusicologists ha"e tried to ans4er
are E(hat ma3es the musical style
!-+
o# a ,eo,le the 4ay it isH (hy do certain ,eo,les sing in one style' others in a di##erent style'
etc&HE These are ?uestions 4hich in"ol"e not only descri,tion and study o# the musical styles
themsel"es' %ut also K and ,erha,s ,rimarily K study o# the cultural %ac3ground and conte:t
o# the music& Some o# the theories 4hich attem,t to ans4er these ?uestions rely ,rimarily on
the characteristics o# musical style itsel#' and it is these 4hich 4e should consider here&
One 3ind o# theory is e"olutionistic in orientation' assuming that all musical cultures
,ass' ine"ita%ly' through certain stages& The di##erences among the 4orldDs musical styles'
according to this theory' are due to the #act that "arious cultures are #ound at "arious le"els
o# e"olution' %ut that all o# these' i# le#t alone and unin#luenced %y each other' 4ould ,ass
through the same stages' including e"en the 3inds o# styles #ound in (estern ci"iliAation& 1e4
ethnomusicologists 4ould claim adherence to this theory at its most %latant le"el' %ut traces
o# it are #ound in many studies& E"en so distinguished a scholar as Curt Sachs' in his "arious
4or3s =e&g&' Sachs 1./7> seems to %elie"e that di##erent le"els o# culture ,roduce di##erent
3inds o# music' and that each musical style is %ound to change into the ne:t one& His di"ision
o# music into earliest' later' and latest styles' mainly on the %asis o# the num%er o# tones in
the scales' indicates this&
There are' no dou%t' many cultures 4hose music history re#lects an e"olutionary scale&
#ter all' the e"olutionary schemes ,ostulated usually assign the earliest s,ot to the least
com,le: material and mo"e on' #rom sim,le to com,le:; and no dou%t the musical
de"elo,ment o# many cultures has mo"ed in this direction& The o%<ection to e"olutionist
theories is sim,ly that there is no e"idence that all cultures ine"ita%ly ,ass through a
,redetermined series o# stages' and that the style o# a music is determined %y its ,osition in
the e"olutionary scale& Moreo"er' there are instances o# cultures mo"ing #rom more to less
com,le: music' #or e:am,le' the change #rom com,le: counter,oint to homo,hony in
eighteenth K century Euro,e& lso' 4e must not #orget that our measuring de"ices #or
degrees o# com,le:ity in
!-,
music are "ery ,oorly de"elo,ed& Ne"ertheless' the idea that a ,eo,leDs musical style is
determined %y its le"el o# de"elo,ment has had a tremendous im,act on ethnomusicological
research and 4riting&
Some4hat related is the ty,e o# theory according to 4hich the 3ind o# culture 4hich a
grou, ,ossesses determines the style o# its music& Surely there is much to %e said #or this
theory' #or the relationshi, %et4een the musical e:,erience and other as,ects o# li#e is so
close that 4e must ta3e #or granted the ,ossi%ility o# such determination& Some o# these
theories' o# course' go #urther' stating that all grou,s 4hich ha"e one ty,e o# culture 4ill
ine"ita%ly ha"e one 3ind o# musical style&
1or e:am,le' some anthro,ologists =mainly o# the early t4entieth century> ha"e di"ided
the 4orldDs non-literate cultures into three ty,es' according to the %ases o# their economies-
hunters' herders' and culti"ators& Schneider =1.B98 1@> gi"es a corres,onding musical
classi#ication' saying that Mamong the hunters' musical ,er#ormance is inters,ersed 4ith
much shoutingN' that among the culti"ators' Man arioso style o# ,er#ormance ,re"ailsN' 4hile
the ,astoral ,eo,les occu,y a 3ind o# middle ground %et4een these t4o& E"olutionist
o"ertones are #ound here as 4ell' #or the ine"ita%le historical de"elo,ment' according to this
theory' is #rom gathering to hunting and on to herding and #arming' and so on to high ur%an
ci"iliAation& The ,ro%lem encountered %y those 4ho 4ish to ma3e use o# this theory is that it
is on the one hand di##icult to classi#y cultures and on the other hand di##icult to classi#y the
musical styles& nd 4hile many e:am,les may sho4 the 3ind o# correlation sho4n %y
Schneider' there is still no ,roo# that this correlation is ine"ita%le&
similar theory o# Curt SachsD has also ,layed a ,rominent role in ethnomusicological
literature& ccording to him' cultures are di"ided into matriarchal and ,atriarchal' according
to the relati"e ,ositions o# men and 4omen& Those cultures 4hich are matriarchal' that is' in
4hich 4omen occu,y a ,osition o# greater im,ortance' ha"e ?uieter singing styles' and use
smaller inter"als
!--
in melody and smaller ste,s in dancing' than do the ,atriarchal cultures& gain' this theory'
4hile o# great interest' does not seem to %e %orne out %y a su##icient num%er o# e:am,les&
Related to this a,,roach is another "ie4,oint o# Marius SchneiderDs =1.B98 1@>'
according to 4hich men ,lay a greater role in hunting cultures 4hile 4omen ,lay more o# a
,art in agricultural grou,s& Correlated is the ,redominance o# meter and o# counter,oint
among hunters =men>' as o,,osed to the im,ortance o# melody and chordal harmony among
culti"ators =4omen>&This theory cannot %e ,ro,erly e"aluated 4ithout considera%ly more
accurate descri,tions o# musical styles than are no4 a"aila%le& But the di##iculty o# deciding
4hether a culture is mainly a hunting one' or 4hether men are actually more im,ortant' is
e:ceeded only %y the di##iculty o# deciding' in a ,iece o# music' 4hether meter ,redominates
o"er melody' and 4hether the harmonic or the contra,untal as,ects in a ,oly,honic ,iece are
more im,ortant& Ne"ertheless' 4e cannot a%andon the notion that the ty,e o# culture 4ill
gi"e us some indication as to the ty,e o# music& Most ethnomusicologists' #or e:am,le' acce,t
a "ery general correlation %et4een com,le:ity o# culture at large and com,le:ity o# musical
style& But they also ta3e #or granted the many e:ce,tions to this correlation&
The relationshi, o# musical style and race is one o# the earliest theories in
ethnomusicology& The idea that mem%ers o# one racial grou, 4ill ine"ita%ly sing in a certain
4ay is not generally credited any more' and it is ta3en #or granted that mem%ers o# any race
are a%le' i# e:,osed to it' to learn any musical style& But the idea that each race has a
musical style 4hich is most natural to it is still acce,ted %y some scholars& Thus' Schneider
=1.B981@> says' Erace sho4s itsel# %y tim%re' %y the general rhythm o# mo"ement' and %y
ty,es o# melody'E and Eracial characteristics in music are easily detected 4hen one actually
hears a singer' %ut they cannot %e descri%ed in 4ords&E The similarity o# music e:hi%ited %y
cultures 4hich share racial characteristics is usually e:,lained %y the geogra,hical and
cultural ,ro:imity o# these grou,s& But since there are' indeed'
%$$
,hysical characteristics 4hich set o## one racial grou, #rom another' 4e cannot re<ect the
,ossi%ility that di##erences in musical style can come a%out through racial di##erences alone&
*ittle conclusi"e research has %een done %ecause it is so di##icult to remo"e cultural #actors&
Bose =1.B7> attem,ts to sho4 that there are di##erences %et4een the singing o# Negroes and
4hites e"en 4hen these are mem%ers o# the same cultural grou,; %ut these di##erences are
#ound in "oice ?uality' not in the style o# the music itsel#& Met#essel =1.75>' an early attem,t
to transcri%e music ,hotogra,hically' is similarly inconclusi"e& There#ore 4e cannot' #or the
time %eing' acce,t the theory that race determines musical style&
Clearly 4e are not in a ,osition to decide 4hy musical styles ha"e de"elo,ed in certain
directions and 4hat ma3es them the 4ay they are& (e can identi#y a num%er o# #actors' %ut
4e can only s,eculate a%out la4s and 4e certainly cannot ,redict musical %eha"ior& Some o#
the attem,ts to #ormulate la4s as the %asis #or such ,rediction are discussed in Cha,ter 5&
(e should mention here' ho4e"er' the idea that musical #actors themsel"es' in relationshi,
to certain uni"ersals in the ,sychology o# music' may determine the direction in 4hich a style
de"elo,s& 1or e:am,le' in cultures 4hose musical material must %e ,assed on through oral
tradition alone' it may %e necessary #or certain uni#ying de"ices to %e maintained in order to
ser"e as mnemonic aids&
Music in such cultures can ,erha,s %ecome com,le: in one or t4o o# its elements' %ut
not simultaneously in all o# them' #or com,le:ity at too many le"els might ma3e it im,ossi%le
#or this material to li"e in the memories o# ,eo,le 4ho cannot use notation as an aid to
memory& This theory' ho4e"er' li3e all o# those in"ol"ing the determinants o# musical style'
remains to %e tested against the hard #acts& (e must conclude that ethnomusicology' so #ar
as its understanding o# the nature o# musical style and its a%ility to descri%e style %eyond
that o# the indi"idual com,osition are concerned' is only scratching the sur#ace o# its ultimate
tas3&
%$!
Bi/liograhy
Ba3e' rnold =1.B9>& EThe Music o# India'E in Egon (ellesA' ed&' ncient and Oriental Music&
*ondon8 O:#ord +ni"ersity $ress' ,,& 1.B-779& =The Ne4 O:#ord History o# Music' "ol& 1&>
BartS3& BRla =1.7B>& !ie +ngarische Jol3smusi3& Berlin& English translation8 Hungarian 1ol3
Music& *ondon8 O:#ord +ni"ersity $ress' 1.@1&
Bose' 1ritA =1.B7>&EMess%are Rassenunterschiede in der Musi3'E Homo 7' no&0&
=1.B@>& Musi3allsche Jol3er3unde& Ftirich8 tlantis&
Brandel' Rose =1./7>& The Music o# Central #rica; n Ethnomusicological Study& The Hague8
M& Ni<ho##&
=1./7a>&ETy,es o# melodic mo"ement in central #rica'E Ethnomusicology /89B-59&
!ensmore' 1rances =1.15>& Teton Siou: Music& (ashington8 Smithsonian Institution&
=Bulletin /1 o# the Bureau o# merican Ethnology&>
1reeman' *inton C&' and lan $& Merriam =1.B/>&EStatistical classi#ication in anthro,ology8 an
a,,lication to ethnomusicology'E merican nthro,ologist B580/0 K 097&
HerAog' 2eorge =1.75>& EThe )uman musical style'E Cournal o# merican 1ol3lore 01815@ K
7@1&
=1.@/>& Research in $rimiti"e and 1ol3 Music in the +nited States& (ashington8 merican
Council o# *earned Societies' Bulletin 70&
=1.@5>& E com,arison o# $ue%lo and $ima musical styles'E Cournal o# merican 1ol3lore
0.875@ K 019&
=1.B6>&ESong'E in 1un3 and (agnalUs Standard !ictionary o# 1ol3lore' Mythology' and *egend'
"ol& 7& Ne4 )or38 1un3 and (agnall&
Horn%ostel' Erich M& "on' and Otto %raham =1.6/>& E$honogra,hierte Indianermelodien aus
Britisch Colum%ia'E in Boas nni"ersary Jolume& Ne4 )or38 C& C& ugustin&
Kar,eles' Maud =1.B1>& EConcerning authenticity'E Cournal o# the International 1ol3 Music
Council @816-10&
Kolins3i' MiecAysla4 =1.B.>& EThe e"aluation o# tem,o'E Ethnomusicology @80B-B9&
=1./1>&EClassi#ication o# tonal structures'E St+die5 in Ethnomusicology 18@5-9/&
*eydi' Ro%erto =1./1>& *a Musica dei ,rimiti"i& Milano8 Il Saggiatore&
*ist' 2eorge =1./@>& EThe %oundaries o# s,eech and song'E Ethnomusicology 981-1/&
*oma:' lan =1./7>&ESong structure and social structure'E Ethnology 1807B-B1&
nthro,ology' no&10&
Merriam' lan $& =1.BB>& EMusic in merican culture'E merican nthro,ologist B98 119@-51&
=1./7>&EThe #rican idiom in music'E Cournal o# merican 1ol3lore 9B8 176-1@6&
Met#essel' Milton =1.75>& $hono,hotogra,hy in 1ol3 Music& Cha,el Hill8 +ni"ersity o# North
Carolina $ress&
Nettl' Bruno =1.B/>&Music in $rimiti"e Culture& Cam%ridge8 Har"ard +ni"ersity $ress&
$oladian' Sir"art =1.07>&EThe ,ro%lem o# melodic "ariation in #ol3 song'E Cournal o# merican
1ol3lore BB8760 K 7ll&
Rhodes' (illard =1.B5>&E study o# musical di##usion %ased on the 4andering o# the o,ening
$eyote song'E Cournal o# the International 1ol3 Music Council 16807-0.&
Sachs' Curt =1./7>&The (ells,rings o# Music& The Hague8 M& Ni<ho##&
Schneider' Marius =1.B9>&E$rimiti"e music'E in Egon (ellesA' ed&' ncient and Oriental Music&
*ondon8 O:#ord +ni"ersity $ress =The Ne4 O:#ord History o# Music' "ol& 1>' ,,& 1-57&
Seeger' Charles =1.B@>&E$re#ace to the descri,tion o# a music'E $roceedings o# the #i#th
Congress o# the International Musicological Society& The Hague8 Trio&
(aterman' Richard & =1.B7>&E #rican in#luence on merican Negro music'E in Sol Ta:' ed&'
cculturation in the mericas& Chicago8 +ni"ersity o# Chicago $ress&
Chater +
INSTRU1ENTS
Most o# 4hat has %een said a%out ethnomusicological theory and method in the ,ast
se"eral cha,ters a,,lies to all music' "ocal and instrumental& Since the ma<ority o# the
4orldDs music is "ocal' the methods o# ethnomusicology are most #re?uently directed to4ard
"ocal music' and e:am,les o# analysis are songs& Instruments K and ,erha,s e"en more so'
instrumental music K are #re?uently neglected& It is indeed true that singing is much more
common than instrumental music& There are cultures 4hich ha"e no instruments' and there
are others 4hich ha"e only instruments 4hich ,ro"ide rhythmic accom,animent to singing
and are ne"er used 4ithout song& (hile the (estern ur%an man tends to thin3 o# music as
,rimarily an instrumental underta3ing' the student o# #ol3 and non K (estern music
sometimes #orgets that non-(estern ,eo,les also ,lay& nd curiously' ethnomusicologists
ha"e ,aid much more attention to the structure and distri%ution o# instruments themsel"es
than to instrumental music& O# course it is o#ten easier to collect "ocal rather than
instrumental music e"en in those cultures 4here instruments a%ound& Most indi"iduals can
sing and 3no4 some songs' %ut not e"eryone can ,lay' and instruments are not al4ays
a"aila%le& In recent decades' the indi"iduals 4ho could ma3e nati"e instruments ha"e
decreased in num%er& nd o# course it may not %e easy to #ind the re?uired ,layers #or an
ensem%le& lso' once instrumental music is collected it is' as a rule' much more di##icult to
transcri%e
%$'
than is song& 3no4ledge o# the structure o# the instrument and o# the techni?ue o# the
,layer is re?uired' and this in#ormation may not %e a"aila%le #rom the notes accom,anying a
recording& This e:,lains 4hy instrumental music is not #re?uently transcri%ed or analyAed in
the ethnomusicological literature& Instruments themsel"es' on the other hand' are #re?uently
a"aila%le #or descri,tion e"en i# their condition is such that they cannot %e ,layed' and e"en i#
no ,layer is at hand& Thus descri,tions o# instruments are #ound in the ethnomusicological
literature as 4ell as in studies o# other %ranches o# culture&
Instruments are' indeed' o# much more than ethnomusicological interest' and any
student o# culture should ma3e himsel# com,etent to deal 4ith them e"en i# he must neglect
other as,ects o# musical li#e& In the #irst ,lace' instruments are one o# our #e4 clues to the
history o# traditional musical cultures& (hile recordings are almost entirely more or less
contem,orary' instruments or their ,ictorial re,resentations are #re?uently #ound in
archeological sites and may %e e:cellent indications o# musical li#e in %ygone days&
In the 4orldDs cultures themsel"es' instruments usually ha"e signi#icance %eyond the
strictly musical& Thus' as indicated in many ,u%lications' es,ecially %y Sachs =1./78 .0 K
..>' they #re?uently #unction as se: sym%ols K es,ecially the #lute and the drum #or male anH
#emale res,ecti"ely& Thus' Sachs states that Emasculinity' in unim,aired ,urity' is the
trum,et'E and that Ethe #lute seems to %e a lo"e charm e"ery4here&E String instruments are
considered %y him to %e #eminine' as are drums' 4hile some instruments ha"e Econ#licting
characteristics o# either se:&E n e:am,le o# the latter is a Etrum,et made %y cutting o## the
a,e: o# a conch shell'E 4hich is masculine %ecause o# its Eaggressi"e' #rightening sound; %ut
as it deri"es #rom a 4ater animal and in its slit and li,s reminds o# a 4omanDs se: organs' it
is #eminine as 4ellE =,& ./>&The o%"ious similarities %et4een #lutes' drumstic3s' and male se:
organs may lead the in"estigator to gi"e more 4eight than is necessary to the sym%olic
connection& I# 4e ado,t a ,sychoanalytic "ie4 o# the sym%ols' 4e
%$)
4ould %e in a ,osition to say that the sym%ols e:ist in the minds o# the ,eo,les 4hether they
ac3no4ledge them or not& I# the in"estigator con#ronts an in#ormant 4ith a sym%olic
inter,retation o# the instruments' he may #ind that the in#ormant corro%orates his theory& The
?uestion 4hich is #re?uently neglected is 4hether the se:ual sym%olism o# the instruments
,lays an im,ortant ,art in musical li#e' 4hether it is something to 4hich in#ormants gi"e li,
ser"ice' or 4hether it is more su%stantial& Thus' the #act that drums' ,layed in ,airs' may %e
called E#emaleE and EmaleE may or may not indicate that these are se:ual sym%ols' e&g&' that
they ma3e the ,layer or listener thin3 o# the a,,ro,riate se: or se:ual acti"ity 4hen they are
,layed& Terms such as EmaleE and E#emaleE #or t4o drums may %e used sim,ly #or the sa3e o#
con"enience& The 4ay these terms are used' ho4e"er' may gi"e us insight into some o# the
"alues o# a culture& Thus' as Sachs ,oints out' (estern culture 4ould ,ro%a%ly call the larger
o# t4o drums Emale'E and the smaller' E#emale&E Some non K (estern cultures re"erse this'
ho4e"er' ,ossi%ly %ecause the higher tone o# the smaller drum sounds aggressi"e' or
%ecause a matrilineal culture may consider 4omen' as the carriers o# descent more closely
associated 4ith the large things in li#e' or #inally' ,erha,s' %ecause drums K i# they ha"e a
#eminine connotation K should %e classi#ied according to the degree o# #emininity <n them&
Thus a large drum is Emore o# a 4omanE than a small one 4hich' %eing Eless o# a 4oman'E
must %e Emore o# a man&E (hile there may certainly %e some <usti#ication #or assuming that
some instrument sym%ols are 4orld K 4ide or at least 4ides,read' others are limited to
indi"idual culture areas or tri%es&
But it is not only the non-literate cultures 4hich ,artici,ate in this 3ind o# sym%olism& In
contem,orary merican culture' #or e:arr1,le' the ,ossession o# a s,inet ,iano indicates a
moderate degree o# intellectual re#inement' 4hile the ,ossession o# %ongo drums identi#ies
the o4ner as a noncon#ormist' and a dulcimer hanging on the 4all sym%oliAes the a"ant-
garde intellectual& $ossession o# a Hammond organ' on the other hand'
%$*
identi#ies the 4ell K to K do %usiness man 4ho 4ishes to sho4 a slight K %ut not too great K
interest in Eculture&E Instruments =as 4ell as "ocal music> can %e used to study cultural "alue
systems and sym%olism& In some cases' as ,erha,s in the e:am,le o# the Hammond organ'
the ,eo,le 4ho o4n and ,lay the instruments are not a4are o# the sym%olism& But in some
cultures' the instruments are recogniAed and identi#ied as sym%ols o# things su,ernatural'
natural' or cultural&
Es,ecially in the 4orldDs sim,ler cultures' instruments are among manDs most com,le:
achie"ements o# technology& (e 3no4 that music occu,ies a ,osition o# high "alue in most
cultures' es,ecially in the sim,ler ones; thus it is not sur,rising to #ind that a high degree o#
technical and creati"e energy is la"ished on their structure& To a great e:tent' this com,le:ity
does not in"ol"e only those #eatures o# the instruments 4hich ,roduce sound' #or artistic
4or3 4hich has nothing to do 4ith music is #re?uently included and may ,lay a role in the
instrumentDs sym%olism& In (estern ci"iliAation' o# course' instruments as 4or3s o# art or
,ieces o# #urniture ha"e design and ornaments 4hich go #ar %eyond musical #unction& 1or this
reason' study and descri,tion o# instruments is im,ortant to the student o# "isual art' o#
material culture and technology' and again %ecause instruments are sometimes ,reser"ed in
archeological sites' to the historian o# culture at large&
The #act that instruments are relati"ely so com,le: ma3es it ,ossi%le to use them as
indicators o# cultural contact %et4een ,eo,les& I# identical #orms o# instruments are #ound in
se,arated areas' and i# these #orms are #airly com,le:' there is a strong ,ossi%ility that they
4ere %rought #rom one area to the other' or to %oth #rom a third area& The sim,ler the
instrument' the greater the chance that it 4as in"ented se,arately in each area& #amous
attem,t to connect t4o areas in this 4ay 4as made %y Horn%ostel =1.16>' 4ho #ound that the
tuning o# some ,an,i,es in north4est BraAil and in $olynesia 4as identical' thus
strengthening the theory o# contact %et4een $olynesia and South merica&
%$+
In linguistics' too' instruments can ,lay an im,ortant role& Since names o# instruments
are #re?uently di##used and %orro4ed along 4ith the instruments themsel"es' studies o# these
names may %e use#ul to the researcher in linguistic %orro4ing& nd since the terminology o#
musical instruments' their ,arts' and their ma3ing is one o# the rare instances o# technical
terminology in non-literate societies' it o##ers the linguist an o,,ortunity to e:,lore this side
o# s,eech %eha"ior& n e:am,le o# research into musical instrument names and terms in one
language is a study %y Hause =1.05>' in 4hich all 4ords relating to instruments in the Haussa
language are analyAed and their deri"ations e:,lored& Curt Sachs' historyDs greatest e:,ert
on instruments' made much use o# instrument names as historical e"idence; thus the
%ene#its are reci,rocal8 the student o# instruments ma3es use o# linguistic 3no4ledge to learn
a%out the origin and history o# instruments; the linguist ma3es use o# instrument names and
techni?ues to study a ,articular side o# language de"elo,ment& But 4hile the instrument o#
,re-historical times are o# tremendous use to scholars in se"eral #ields' their im,ortance to
ethnomusicologists in #inding out a%out the musical styles o# the ,ast should not %e
o"erstressed& The sounds K ,erha,s 4e should say scales K 4hich can %e ,roduced on
instruments indicate the limits 4ithin 4hich a tonal structure must ha"e %een #ounded' %ut it
is %y no means certain that the o4ners o# the instruments actually a,,roached these limits&
Thus' Mead =1.70> gi"es detailed measurements o# the ,itches 4hich can %e ,roduced %y a
num%er o# #lutes and reed ,i,es o# the Inca' and includes se"eral 4hich ha"e chromatic
scales' %ut this' o# course' does not ,ro"e that the ,ieces ,layed on them used chromatic
,rogressions& It must %e remem%ered that instruments' since they are in many cultures
im,ortant as ,ieces o# "isual art' may %e constructed 4ith "isual designs in mind' and not
necessarily in order to ,roduce a ,articular 3ind o# scale& 1or e:am,le' (ead =1.67> has
indicated that the distances %et4een the #inger K holes on #lutes is #re?uently not determined
so much %y the ,itches o# the tones 4hich they ,roduced or %y the need to accommodate
%$,
the structure o# the human hand' as %y the "isual e##ect o# the s,acing&
Instruments occu,y a some4hat s,ecial ,lace among the concerns o# ethnomusicology&
The "arious theories o# the origin o# music' and the moti"ations o# musical %eha"ior' such as
the logogenic K ,athogenic theory o# Sachs in 4hich music is the result o# either s,eech or
emotion' tend to stress "ocal music& Sachs himsel# =1./78ll6> and also Bose =1.B@> stated
the %elie# that instrumental music is o# a di##erent origin than "ocal music' and that the
instrumental music o# a culture al4ays di##ers greatly #rom its "ocal music; moreo"er' that
instrumental music throughout the 4orld has certain common #eatures& Instrumental music is
%elie"ed to originate in magic and in the need #or s,ecial o%<ects o# ritual 4hich emit sounds&
(hile 4e need not acce,t this theory as a,,lying to all cultures' 4e must agree that the
instrumental and "ocal styles o# a ,eo,le o#ten di##er greatly&
One reason' o# course' is the structure o# the instruments& The 3inds o# things 4hich the
human hands can do 4ith an instrument' the 3inds o# things 4hich random ,lay 4ill emit'
may sha,e the style to a large e:tent& Bose =1.B@871B>' ho4e"er' considers a #urther reason'
namely' that instruments tra"el #rom culture to culture more easily than "ocal ,ieces' and
that the instruments tend to carry 4ith them' as it 4ere' their musical styles& Thus' he cites
the Tu3ano Indians o# north4est BraAil' 4ho use #lutes and ,an,i,es 4hich ,ro%a%ly
originated 4ith some o# the more ad"anced South merican Indian cultures such as the
Chi%cha; the $olynesians 4ho use mouth organs 4hich originated in East sia; and the
#ricans 4hose ,resuma%ly ty,ical marim%as and :ylo,hones came to them a #e4 centuries
ago #rom the East& In each case' Bose says' the instrumental styles di##er greatly #rom the
"ocal styles %ecause the instruments are not nati"e to the cultures mentioned& He %elie"es
that these cultures ha"e 3e,t "ocal styles o# much greater anti?uity %ut that they learned
#rom the %earers o# the instruments the music ,layed on these instruments&
The essential unity o# the 4orld o# instruments is em,hasiAed
%$-
%y Sachs =1.7.>&The similarity o# #orms' es,ecially o# those ,arts 4hich are not
essential to sound ,roduction' and the similarity o# certain cultic #unctions o# instruments the
4orld o"er' led Sachs to %elie"e that there 4ere t4o main centers in 4hich instruments
originated and #rom 4hich they diHused8 the ancient Near East =Meso,otamia and Egy,t> and
China& In turn' these may ha"e recei"ed their stimulus #rom an archaic central siatic source&
Related to the theory that instrumental music has a de"elo,ment se,arate #rom "ocal
music throughout the 4orld is another "ie4' stated %y Sachs =1./78.1 K ..>' that
instruments #ul#ill roughly the same #unctions in all o# the 4orldDs cultures& The se:ual
sym%olism o# instruments is stressed %y him and is assigned 4orld K 4ide signi#icance&
Classi(ication
mong the theoretical ,reoccu,ations o# ethnomusicologists has %een the classi#ication
o# musical instruments& $utting things in categories is ,erha,s a "ice characteristic o# most
#ields o# research' %ut in the case o# instruments there are some ,ractical reasons #or
classi#ication& Com,arati"e 4or3 in organology de,ends on sim,le' accurate descri,tions o#
instruments' #or each culture has its o4n terminology' sometimes %orro4ed #rom other
cultures' and #re?uently there is con#usion in the nati"e terminologies so that a ,articular
name a,,lies to one instrument here and to another one there& Thus' the one K stringed
#iddle o# the southern Sla"s' the gusle' is only remotely related to the Russian gusli' a 3ind o#
,saltery& nd the #rican marim%a is not too similar to the North merican one& gain' in
(estern culture' the <e4Ds har, is not a har, at all' and the #iddle K li3e hurdy K gurdy is not
li3e that hurdy K gurdy 4hich is similar to a %arrel organ& Moreo"er' instruments in non K
(estern and #ol3 cultures do not ha"e the degree o# standardiAation 4hich is #ound in the
%!$
machine K made instruments o# (estern ci"iliAation' and indeed' the Euro,ean instruments
%e#ore ca& 15B6 also e:hi%it a %e4ildering degree o# "ariety& Thus it is not uncommon to #ind
in museums instruments 4hich ha"e no ,ro,er designation' e:ce,t ,erha,s the nati"e name&
ty,ical instrument o# Negro #rica is called' in the literature and on museum la%els' m%ira'
sansa' AanAa' 3allm%a' #inger :ylo,hone' thum% ,iano' 3a##ir har,' etc& *utes' mandolins' and
guitars are con#used' as are drums' log-drums 4ithout mem%ranes' rattles' and scra,ers&
Classi#ications o# instruments are #ound in the early literature o# China and India =see
Kunst 1.B.8BB K B/>& The Chinese classi#ied the instruments according to the material o#
4hich they 4ere made& The Indian system distinguished #our grou,s8 cym%als and rattles'
drums and tam%ourines' stringed instruments' and 4ind instruments& (estern Euro,ean
classi#ications are %ased on the musical style 4hich is ,roduced %y an instrument' or on the
4ay in 4hich sound is ,roduced on the instrument& The latter ty,e o# classi#ication is li3e the
Indian one' and curiously' the classi#ication system 4hich 4as #inally acce,ted as standard is
remar3a%ly similar to that o# ancient India&
Classi#ying instruments in accordance 4ith their musical style cannot' o# course' yield a
system o# uni"ersal "alidity& 2rou,ing (estern instruments as strings' 4ood K 4inds'
%rasses' and ,ercussion re#lects only the roles 4hich these instruments ,layed in orchestral
music o# the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries& But such classi#ications are o# considera%le
"alue #or understanding the cultural conte:t o# music Nor should 4e disregard classi#ying
instruments according to the 4ay in 4hich they are ,layed& Sachs and Horn%ostel =1./18 5>
?uestion the ,ro,riety o# this' saying that a "iolin remains a "iolin 4hether it is ,luc3ed'
%o4ed' or struc3' and a dulcimer remains one 4hether it is %eaten or ,luc3ed& But #uture
classi#iers o# instruments should consider this as,ect o# instruments along 4ith the structure
and sound K ,roducing mechanisms&
The standard classi#ication 4hich 4e ha"e mentioned is'
%!!
course' that de"ised %y Curt Sachs and E& M& "on Horn%ostel in 1.10' %ased on the catalogue
o# a large instrument collection com,iled %y the Belgian' Jictor Mahillon =15.@> and
translated into English =Horn%ostel and Sachs 1./1>&The "alidity o# this system is attested to
%y the large num%er o# 4or3s 4hich ha"e used it' and %y the #act that only "ery #e4 attem,ts
ha"e %een made to su,,lant it or to add to it& It has the ad"antage o# using a decimal
system' similar in structure to the !e4ey decimal system used %y li%rarians and ins,ired %y
Mel"il !e4ey' so that additional su%di"isions can %e made 4ithout di##iculty& Kunst suggests
adding a class o# Eelectro,honesE to the system&
Basically' the Sachs K Horn%ostel classi#ication di"ides the #ield into #our grou,s8
idio,hones' mem%rano,hones' chordo,hones' and aero,hones& These should not %e
considered as grou,ings 4hich im,ly genetic relationshi,& Thus' the so K called earth drum'
4hich consists o# a mem%rane co"ering a hole in the ground' could' %y the addition o# a stic3
and a string' %ecome a musical %o4' 4hich is a chordo,hone =the drum ,art no4 #unctions as
resonator>&No e"olutionist ideas should %e su,erim,osed on the system& It is sim,ly a
descri,ti"e one' 4hich attem,ts to ,lace' in logical order' the instruments o# the 4orld K
along 4ith some other instruments 4hich ha"e ne"er yet %een disco"ered %ut 4hose
e:istence can %e ,ostulated as earlier #orms o# instruments 4hich ha"e %een #ound& Museum
e:hi%its no4 #re?uently use terms such as Eaero,hones'E and the scholarly literature on the
su%<ect ma3es great use o# them& Boo3s on instruments usually ,roceed in the order used %y
Sachs and Horn%ostel& But curiously' their num%ering system has not %een generally
ado,ted& It 4ould %e o# considera%le "alue to ha"e descri,tions o# instruments gi"e the
a,,ro,riate num%ers #rom the Sachs K Horn%ostel ta%le& Thus' Merriam =1.B9> could indicate
that the Bashi muliAi' an end K %lo4n' o,en Hute 4ith #inger holes' corres,onds to num%er
07l&lll&l7& The ta%les are detailed and 4ill not %e discussed here; a sam,le #rom that
classi#ying chordo,hones is gi"en %elo4&
%!%
@ CHOR!O$HONES One or more strings are stretched %et4een #i:ed ,oints
@1 Sim,le chordo,hones or Aithers The instrument consists solely o# a string %earer' or o# a
string %earer 4ith a resonator 4hich is not integral and can %e detached 4ithout destroying
the sound K ,roducing a,,aratus
@11 Bal Aithers The string %earer is %ar K sha,ed; it may %e a %oard ,laced edge4ise
@11&1 Musical %o4s The string %earer is #le:i%le =and cur"ed>
@11&11 Idiochord musical %o4s The string is cut #rom the %ar3 o# the cane' remaining
attached at each end
@11&111 Mono K idiochord musical %o4s The %o4 has one idiochord string only Ne4 2uinea
=Se,i3 R&>' Togo
@11&117 $oly K idiochord musical %o4s or har,-%o4s& The %o4 has se"eral idiochord strings
4hich ,ass o"er a toothed stic3 or %ridge (& #rica =1an>
@11&17 Heterochord musical %o4s The string is o# se,arate material #rom the %earer
@11&171 Mono K heterochord musical %o4s The %o4 has one heterochord string only
@11&171&1 (ithout resonator NB I# a se,arate' unattached resonator is used' the s,ecimen
%elong to @ll&171&71& The human mouth is not to %e ta3en into account as a resonator
@11&171&11 (ithout tuning noose #rica =ganAa' Samuius' to>
@11&171&17 (ith tuning noose #i%re noose is ,assed round the string' di"iding it into t4o
sections
South K e?uatorial #rica =nD3ungo' uta>
@1+71&7 (ith resonator
@11&171&71 (ith inde,endent resonator Bomeo =%+5Oi>
@11&171&77 (ith resonator attached
@11&171&771 (ithout tuning noose S& #rica =hade' thomo>
@11&171&777 (ith tuning noose
S& #rica' Madagascar =gu%o' hungo' %o%re>
@11&177 $oly K heterochord musical %o4s The %o4 has se"eral heterochord strings
@11&177&1 (ithout tuning noose Oceana =3alo"e>
@11&177&7 (ith tuning noose Oceania =,agolo>
The su%di"ision o# each o# the #our ty,es is not made on the same %asis& Idio,hones and
mem%rano,hones are di"ided according to the 4ay in 4hich they are ,layed; chordo,hones'
according to e:ternal #eatures such as the sha,e o# the %ody; and aero,hones' according to
the 4ay in 4hich air is made to act on the instrument& This inconsistency is %ased on the
authorUs
%!&
desire to su%di"ide the classes in 4ays 4hich are internally meaning#ul' %ut it is ne"ertheless
a minor #la4 in the classi#ication& second criticism could %e le"eled at the desire to
distinguish %et4een instruments 4hich are E,ureE and those 4hich ha"e undergone
Econtamination'E i&e&' %een in#luenced %y unrelated instrument ty,es& I# the classi#ication is
,urely descri,ti"e' the history o# an instrument should ,lay no ,art in determining its
,osition&
In s,ite o# the #act that the Sachs K Horn%ostel classi#ication 4as translated 4ithout
changes a#ter %oth authors had died' there is reason to %elie"e that Sachs' es,ecially' %egan
to #eel some4hat dissatis#ied 4ith it a#ter it had %een in use #or some decades& I ha"e a letter
#rom Sachs' dated 1.B7' in 4hich he discourages the idea o# translating the classi#ication'
saying that a thorough re"ision 4as needed %e#ore any attem,t at re,u%lication should %e
attem,ted& Com,le: as the Sachs-Horn%ostel ta%les are' they are insu##icient #or certain
ty,es and areas' and ha"e %een e:,anded on se"eral occasions& Thus' Hugh Tracey' in a
hand%oo3 accom,anying records o# the International *i%rary o# #rican Music' ,ro"ides
additional categories #or the great "ariety o# #rican m%iras or #inger :ylo,hones& The num%er
o# manuals' ,osition o# the %ass notes' and num%ers o# inter"als in the scale are all indicated&
system o# e"en greater com,le:ity 4as de"ised %y Hans-HeinA !raeger
=1.05>&lthough it does not ha"e the ,ractical "alue o# the Sachs K Horn%ostel system' it
,ro"ides a thorough e:amination o# the theory o# descri%ing musical instruments'
a,,roaching them #rom the "ie4,oint o# structure' manner o# ,laying as it in"ol"es the ,layer
and the relationshi, o# the ,arts o# the instruments' as 4ell as the rudiments o# the musical
style =mono,hony' ,oly,hony' harmony' etc&> and the "ariety o# sound ty,es and tone colors
4hich can %e ,roduced on it&
!raegerDs system cannot %e used to order instruments in a museum or a catalog' %ut it
,ro"ides a theoretical %asis #or ordering thoughts a%out an instrument' its music' and its
cultural conte:t&
%!'
Tyes o( Studies o( Instruments
%rie# descri,tion o# the most ty,ical 3inds o# studies o# musical instruments #ollo4s&
Guite common is the study 4hich attem,ts to descri%e all o# the instruments o# a tri%e'
nation' culture area' or continent& model o# these is IAi3o4itA =1.@/>' 4hich co"ers all o#
South merican Indian culture in the order o# the Sachs K Horn%ostel classi#ication&
detailed descri,tion o# each instrument and a statement o# its distri%ution =including its
e:istence in North merica> are included' and re#erences to the instrument in the
ethnogra,hicalliterature are assem%led in ta%ular #orm& (ays o# ,laying the instruments'
techni?ues o# construction and o# tuning are descri%ed& Occasional discussion o# the cultural
%ac3ground is #ound' %ut the musical styles themsel"es are not included& O# s,ecial interest
is the #act that %oth archeological and ethnogra,hic materials are used to gi"e a "ery
com,rehensi"e ,icture& IAi3o4itADs study has ser"ed as a model #or other 4or3s o# the same
nature' #or e:am,le' STder%ergDs =1.B/>' 4hich ,roceeds essentially along the same lines as
IAi3o4itADs #or an area 4ith a much richer cor,us o# instruments& gain' 1ischer =1.B5>
descri%es the instruments o# Oceania in much the same 4ay' %ut stressing more the
geogra,hical distri%ution and the role o# the instruments in the culture& (hile IAi3o4itA and
STder%erg use ,hotogra,hs' 1ischer uses a large num%er o# dra4ings to indicate the structure
and method o# ,laying&
O# course the study o# instruments can K and should K %e integrated 4ith descri,tions
o# musical culture and musical style at large& Ho4e"er' since the instruments can more easily
%e handled %y scholars not trained in musicology than can the musical style' 4e #ind them
a,,earing in a some4hat se,arate ,lace in the literature' and the tendency has %een to 4rite
descri,tions o# instruments 4ithout including their musical style 4hile concentrating' in
descri,tions o# music' on "ocal music alone& n im,ortant e:ce,tion to this is MalmDs sur"ey
o# Ca,anese music =1.B.> 4hich is more than hal# de"oted to musical
%!)
instruments and their styles& Thus there are cha,ters on %i4a' sha3uhachi' 3oto' and
shamisen music' and sections on instruments in the cha,ters on Noh and 2aga3u& Malm
a,,roaches the instruments as ,roducers o# musical style' not so much as o%<ects o# material
culture' and descri,tions o# the instruments themsel"es are gi"en only #or the ,ur,ose o#
understanding their music&
O# course the %ul3 o# the literature on musical instruments in"ol"es indi"idual #orms as
they are #ound in single or related grou,s o# cultures& classic o# this sort is !ie
#ri3anischen Trommeln =1.@@> %y (iescho##&' 4hich descri%es and gi"es the distri%ution o#
#rican drums and o# related #orms in other continents& He is more concerned than IAi3o4itA
4ith geogra,hical distri%ution' #or he adheres' in his theoretical a,,roach' to the Kultur3rei5
theory' according to 4hich distri%ution o# culture traits indicates not only #ormer cultural
contacts %ut strata o# cultural history& (iescho## includes a num%er o# ma,s o# drum
distri%ution; these indicate only the ,resence or a%sence o# ty,es in "arious tri%al areas
rather than #unction' musical style' or degree o# ,rominence& Rather than #ollo4ing the
Sachs-Horn%ostel system' (iescho##& #ollo4s his o4n' discussing' in order' the material and
ty,es o# drum heads' the manner o# attaching them to the %ody o# the drum' and the sha,e
o# that %ody&
sam,le study o# one instrument and its musical style is MerriamDs descri,tion o# the
Bashi muliAi =1.B9>; here Merriam is actually more concerned 4ith the music ,er#ormed and
4ith the techni?ue used in ,laying than 4ith the distri%ution o# the instrument& nother such
study' %y Cam, and Nettl =1.BB>' discusses the musical %o4 in southern #rica' gi"ing the
ty,es' distri%ution' and manner o# ,laying along 4ith a %rie# analysis ,# the musical style o#
selected ,ieces' %ut the role o# the instruments in the culture is not touched on& use#ul
#eature is' ho4e"er' a glossary o# musical %o4 terms in some o# the *anguages s,o3en in
southern #rica& Here again 4e see the im,ortance o# understanding nati"e terminologies #or
studying
%!*
the inter K tri%al and inter K cultural di##usions o# instruments& It 4ould %e the ideal o#
organologists to ha"e a com,lete glossary o# musical instrument terms in all languages o# the
4orld& Considering that there are se"eral thousand languages s,o3en %y man' and that these
are constantly changing' such a glossary 4ill ,ro%a%ly ne"er %e com,iled& But the closest
thing to it is Curt SachsD Real K *e:icon =1.1@>' 4hich does gi"e the names #or instruments in
many languages' to the degree to 4hich they 4ere a"aila%le in the literature used %y Sachs&
This early 4or3' a tremendous achie"ement' has ne"er %een su,erseded' and 4as re,rinted
almost #i#ty years a#ter its #irst ,u%lication& +nli3e some o# the other %ranches o#
ethnomusicology' organology has al4ays ,ro"ided a lin3 %et4een this #ield and the historical
study o# (estern music& No4here is the historic contact %et4een Euro,e and other
continents' also %et4een (estern #ol3 and ur%an music' more e"ident than in the
instruments& nd o# course' in the ma<or 4or3s o# Curt Sachs' %oth areas are treated e?ually&
Ene4 a,,roach to organologyE is e:,lored %y 2rame =1./7>' #or here the im,ortance
o# ra4 materials K %am%oo in this case K #or the de"elo,ment o# instruments is stressed& The
#act that the material o# 4hich instruments are made may %e o# great im,ortance in the
thin3ing o# the 4orldDs ,eo,les =as in the Chinese classi#ication o# instruments> and the
sym%olism o# the "arious materials is 4ell %rought out&
Catalogs and 1useums
mong the im,ortant ,u%lications in organology are the catalogs o# musical instrument
collections& Such catalogs are %asic source material #or the com,arati"e study o# instruments'
#or the student o# this #ield cannot "isit all collections 4hich contain instruments o# the ty,e
he is studying& The de"elo,ment o# detailed catalogs o# collections is' then' an im,ortant
%!+
desideraturn in ethnomusicology& Most o# the catalogs no4 a"aila%le are only moderately
use#ul' #or they tend to %e directed to the layman alone and ha"e ,u%licity as their main
ralson dDetre& com,rehensi"e catalog should arrange the instruments according to some
classi#ication scheme K that o# Horn%ostel and Sachs' or geogra,hically K and gi"e' #or each
instrument' the e:act ,lace o# collection or origin' the time it 4as collected' the siAe o# the
indi"idual ,arts' the materials used' the tuning' i# ,ossi%le' and one or more detailed
,hotogra,hs& Notes on the cultural conte:t o# the instrument should %e included as 4ell&
Mahillon =15.@>' the 4or3 on 4hich Horn%ostel and Sachs %ased theirs' is a detailed
catalog 4hich could ser"e as a model' as could that o# the Cros%y K Bro4n collection
=Metro,olitan Museum o# rt 1.67 K 10>& mong the catalogs de"oted to one instrument
ty,e' 4e should mention that o# the !ayton C& Miller Collection =2illiam and *ichten4anger
1./1>&Here the arrangement is not classi#ied' %ut a detailed inde: o# ty,es' trade names' and
#inger K hole arrangements ma3es it ,ossi%le to locate the "arious 3inds o# Hutes in the
collection& But in recent decades #e4 catalogs o# great use#ulness ha"e %een ,u%lished&
small %oo3let ,u%lished %y the Homiman Museum =1.B5> is interesting in so #ar as it
com%ines the #unction o# an introductory te:t on instruments and a catalog o# the museumDs
collection& It does not go into great detail on the indi"idual instruments' %ut it ,resents them
in Sachs K Horn%ostel order' e:,lains their construction and the 4ay they are ,layed' and
gi"es some in#ormation' including ma,s' on their distri%ution& Boo3lets o# this sort could 4ell
%e used %y museums to direct the lay ,u%lic; they are not' ho4e"er' the detailed catalogs
4hich the ,ro#essional organologist 4ould need& The 3ind o# in#ormation 4hich should %e
included in a catalog should also' o# course' %e made a"aila%le to the "ie4er o# a collection o#
instruments&
The care o# instruments in a collection or a museum is a s,ecial #ield 4hich 4e cannot
discuss here& !e Borhegyi =1./6> gi"es a use#ul and moderately com,rehensi"e %i%liogra,hy
o#
%!-
museology' including materials on the care o# art o%<ects& The restoration o# instruments is
also a #ield o# great im,ortance' es,ecially since many instruments in collections are old'
reach the museum in ,oor condition' and 4ere collected %y indi"iduals 4ho could not
e"aluate the condition o# the instrument& Restorers o# historical Euro,ean musical
instruments are highly ,aid s,eciallsts' and some o# the more signi#icant instrument
collections' such as that in the Museum o# Music History in Stoc3holm or the
Musi34issenscha#tliches Institut Berlin' em,loy #ull K time restorers& Restoring non K (estern
instruments has its o4n ,ro%lems& The structure o# the instruments themsel"es may %e less
com,licated' %ut the restoring o# ,arts 4hich are to %e tuned is most di##icult& dding strings
to a (atutsi har,' or mo"ing the tongues o# a m%ira so that the correct scale a,,ears' is
almost im,ossi%le& There are no theoretical #oundations to guide the restorer' and all he can
do is to use his intuition or co,y similar instruments in his or other collections& O# course
there are collections in 4hich no attem,t is made to 3ee, instruments in ,laya%le condition&
This is true o# some o# the ethnogra,hical museums' such as the merican Museum o#
Natural History in Ne4 )or3& Here instruments K es,ecially o# the North merican Indians K
are ,reser"ed in large num%ers' %ut they are usually le#t in 4hate"er condition they are
%rought& Such collections are' o# course' still "ery use#ul' and there is no dou%t that a
collection 4hich contains thousands o# instruments 4ould not %e a%le to #ind the resources to
restore all o# them& Collections 4hich 3ee, instruments in ,laya%le condition are usually
small; the Royal Tro,ical Institute in msterdam' 4hich has a %eauti#ul Ca"anese gamelan
orchestra in e:cellent condition' is o# this nature& But #or the student o# com,arati"e #orms'
large collections are essential' and i# these can %e %uilt only at the e:,ense o# 3ee,ing the
instruments in ,laya%le condition' so %e it&
O# course' the collector o# instruments can ,lay an im,ortant role in ,ro"iding
s,ecimens 4hich are in good condition and re,resentati"e&
%!-
No dou%t many collectors ha"e %ought in#erior or toy instruments #rom nati"es' and
surely there are cases in 4hich collectors ha"e had their legs ,ulled& & M& Jeenstra o#
Cohannes%urg tells o# an instrument in the British Museum 4hich 4as la%eled a #lute %ut
4hich' on closer e:amination' turned out to %e a to%acco ,i,e& The admonitions gi"en to
collectors in Cha,ter @ #or music in general are a,,lica%le' o# course' to instruments& The
collector should get e:hausti"e in#ormation' he should #ind out not only 4hat the in#ormants
tell him a%out an instrument' %ut he should' i# ,ossi%le' o%ser"e one %eing made' and ma3e
#ilms o# the techni?ues o# ,laying& Instruments ,layed in grou,s should' i# ,ossi%le' %e
ac?uired in grou,s& nd once an instrument is ac?uired %y a collector' he should ,lay the
notes 4hich it ,roduces onto a ta,e K es,ecially i# strings are in"ol"ed& Then he should ta3e
care o# the instrument' 3ee, it in cool' dry ,laces' i# ,ossi%le' and re#rain #rom a,,lying any
4a:' lanolin' or other ,reser"ati"es unless he is 4ell ac?uainted 4ith their e##ects&
In addition to the collections o# instruments in ethnogra,hical' art' and musicological
museums 4e should mention a uni?ue 4ay o# ,reser"ing instruments and their culture' the
so-called #ol3 or outdoor museum& Such a museum consists o# arti#acts 4hich illustrate the
#ol3 culture o# a nation' and it usually has the structure o# a "illage in 4hich "arious 3inds o#
%uildings K #arms' sho,s' d4ellings' etc& K are dis,layed& In most o# the %uildings' cra#ts and
methods o# 4or3 are dis,layed through e:hi%its and %y indi"iduals 4ho ha"e learned' either
through #amily tradition or #rom scholars' to do such 4or3 as ,ottery' 4ea"ing' %as3etry' and
sometimes also instrument K ma3ing and ,laying' and 4ho demonstrate these s3ills to the
,u%lic& lthough these museums are not ,rimarily o# musical interest' some o# them do
contain e:hi%its and demonstrations o# instruments& The Scandina"ian countries ha"e
,ioneered in this #ield' and the museum at S3ansen' outside Stoc3holm' and at Co,enhagen
are the most re,resentati"e& In the +nited States' 2reen#ield Jillage and the
%%$
Edison Institute in !ear%om' Michigan' are 4orth seeing' among others&
It 4ould hardly %e ,ossi%le to list and e"aluate all o# the collections 4hich contain
instruments o# non-(estern cultures and o# #ol3 music& *ists o# such collections can %e #ound
in the large 2erman encyclo,edia !ie Musi3 in 2eschichte und 2egen4art' under
EInstrumentensammlungen'E and in 2ro"eDs !ictionary o# Music and Musicians' Bth edition'
under EInstruments' Collections o#&E Most nations o# the 4orld ha"e collections 4hich ser"e'
,rimarily' to illustrate the nati"e instruments o# the region& 2eneral collections tend to
concentrate on Euro,ean instruments' and only incidentally to include others&
mong the collections 4orth seeing' the #ollo4ing are a selection8 In the +nited States'
Metro,olitan Museum o# rt' Ne4 )or3 =4orld K 4ide collection including many oriental
s,ecimens>; merican Museum o# Natural History' Ne4 )or3 =%est on North merican
Indian>; Museum o# Music' Scarsdale' Ne4 )or3 =%esides instruments' includes "arious
arti#acts relating to music' such as recording de"ices>; National Museum' (ashington' !& C&
=huge Collection o# ethnogra,hical material>; +ni"ersity o# Cali#ornia Museum' Ber3eley;
Commercial Museum' $hiladel,hia; Institute o# Ethnomusicology' +ni"ersity o# Cali#ornia' *os
ngeles =oriental' ,articularly Indonesian> ; Chicago Museum o# Natural History; Steams
Collection' +ni"ersity o# Michigan' nn r%or&
In other nations8 Musi3historis3a museet' Stoc3holm; Musi34issenscha#tliches Institut'
Berlin; Musi3historis3 museum' Co,enhagen; MusRe de lDhomme' $aris; Homiman Museum'
*ondon; 2emeentemuseum' The Hague& nd o# course there are doAens o# others& In
conclusion' 4e may say that the 4or3 o# collecting instruments has %een 4ell done& One tas3
still %e#ore ethnomusicologists is the cataloging' ,hotogra,hing' and descri,tion o# these
instruments' and the ,u%lication o# relia%le in#ormation a%out them& E"en more ,ressing is
in#ormation on instrumental music and on the methods o# ,laying' learning' and teaching the
techni?ues used in ,er#ormance&
%%!
Bi/liograhy
Bose' 1ritA =1.B@>&EInstrumentalstile in ,rimiti"er Musi3'E in Kongress-Bericht Bam%erg 1.B@'
,,& 717 K 71B& Kassel8 Baerenreiter&
Cam,' Charles M& and Bruno Nettl =1.BB>&EThe musical %o4 in Southern merica'E nthro,os
B68/B K 56&
Christensen' Ed4in O& =1./1>& Museums !irectory o# the +nited States and Canada&
(ashington8 merican ssociation o# Museums&
!e Borhegyi' Ste,hen 1& and El%a & !odson =1./6>& Bi%liogra,hy o# Museums and Museum
(or3'&1.66-1./6& Mil4au3ee8 $u%lic Museum =Mil4au3ee $u%lic Museum $u%lications in
Museology' no&1>&
!raeger' Hans-HeinA =1.05>& $rinAi, einer Systemati3 der Musi3instrumente& Kassel8
Baerenreiter&
1ischer' Hans =1.B5>& Schallgeriite in OAeanien& Strass%ourg8 $& HeitA&
2illiam' *aura E&' and (illiam *ichten4anger =1./1>&The !ayton C& Miller 1lute Collection' a
Chec3list o# the lnstrument5& (ashington8 *i%rary o# Congress Music !i"ision&
2rame' Theodore =1./7>&EBam%oo and music; a ne4 a,,roach to organology'E
Ethnomusicology /85 K 10&
Hause' Helen E& =1.05>& ETerms #or musical instruments in Sudanic languages'E Su,,lement
9 to the Cournal o# the merican Oriental Society /5' no&1' Canuary K March 1.05&
Hor%ostel' Erich M& "on =1.16>& a%er einige $an,#ei#en aus nord4est-BrasilienE in Theodor
Koch K 2ruen%erg' F4ei Cahre unter den lndianem' "ol& 7& Berlin8 (asmuth&
Horn%ostel' Erich M& "on and Curt Sachs =1./1>& EClassi#ication o# musical instruments'
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1@6
translated #rom the original 2erman %y nthony Baines and Klaus $& (achsmann'E 2al,in
Society Cournal 108@ -7.&
Homiman Museum =1.B5>& Musical lnstruments& *ondon8 *ondon County Council&
IAi3o4itA' Karl 2usta" =1.@B>&Musical and Other Sound Instruments o# the South merican
lndians& 2ote%org8 Kungl& Jetens3a,s-och Jitterhets K Samhalles Handlingar&
Kir%y' $erci"al R& =1.B@>& The Musical lnstruments o# the Nati"e Races o# South #rica&
Cohannes%urg8 (it4atersrand +ni"ersity $ress&
Kunst' Caa, =1.B.>& Ethnomusicology' @d edition& The Hague8 M& Ni<ho##&
Mahillon' Jictor =15.@>& Catalogue descri,ti# et analyti?ue du Musee instrumental du
Conser"atoire de Bru:elles& B "ols& Brussels' 15.@-1.77&
Malm' (illiam $& =1.B.>& Ca,anese Music and Musical Instruments& To3yo and Rutland' Jt& 8
c& Tuttle&
Mead' Charles (& =1.70>&The Musical Instruments o# the Incas& Ne4 )or38 nthro,ological
$a,ers o# the merican Museum o# Natural History 1B' ,art @&
Merriam' lan $& =1.B9>& EThe Bashi muliAi and its music8 an end-%lo4n #lute #rom the
Belgian Congo'E Cournal o# merican 1ol3lore 96810@-B/&
Metro,olitan Museum o# rt' Ne4 )or3 =1.67-10>& Catalogue o# the Cros%y Bro4n Collection
o# Musical Instruments o# ll Nations' "ol& 1-7& Ne4 )or3& =Hand%oo3 no&1@ o# the
Metro,olitan Museum o# rt&>
Sachs' Curt =1.1@>& Real-*e:i3on der Musi3instrumente& Berlin8 C& Bard& Re,rinted %y Olms
=Hildesheim>' 1./7&
OOOOOO& =1.7.>& 2eist und (erden der Musi3instrumente&Berlin 8 C& Bard&
OOOOOO &=1.06>& The History o# Musical Instruments& Ne4 )or38 Norton&
OOOOOO &=1./7>&The (ells,rings o# Music& The Hague8 M& Ni<ho##& Recommended reading' ,,&
.1-116&
Soder%erg' Bertil =1.B/>&*es instruments de musi?ue du Bas K Congo et dans les regions
a",oisinantes& Stoc3holm8 The Ethnogra,hic Museum o# S4eden&
(ead' Charles K& =1.67>& EContri%ution to the history o# musical scales'E Re,ort o# the
Smithsonian Institution #or 1.66' ,,& 019-07@&
(iescho##' HeinA =1.@@>& !ie a#ri3anischen Trommeln und ihre aussera#ri3anischen
BeAiehungen& Stuttgart8 Strec3er und Schroder&
Chater ,
1USIC IN CU0TURE ; .ISTORICA0 AN4 GEOGRAP.IC APPROAC.ES
$erha,s the most im,ortant tas3 4hich ethnomusicology has set itsel# is the study and
disco"ery o# the role 4hich music ,lays in each o# manDs cultures ,ast and ,resent' and the
3no4ledge o# 4hat music means to man& lthough an interest in this tas3 is ,ro#essed %y
most ,artici,ants in our #ield' there is as yet little agreement and little standardiAed theory
regarding the ,rocedures to %e #ollo4ed in ,ursuing this interest& Ethnomusicology can not' o#
course' claim credit #or alI scholarly interest in musical culture' #or the historians o# (estem
music' the ,sychologists and sociologists o# music' the #ol3lorists and ,hiloso,hers' and
others' ha"e also e:,lored it& But ethnomusicology %rings to the study o# music in culture the
,oints o# "ie4 and the methods o# anthro,ology' "aried though these ha"e %een' and
ethnomusicologists are the only large grou, o# scholars 4ho claim an interest in all as,ects o#
musicalli#e' in alI cultures' indi"idually and in grou,s&
Ne"ertheless' they are only at the %eginning o# their 4or3' and 4hat they ha"e
accom,lished so #ar cannot %e summariAed or outlined& This cha,ter and the ne:t' rather
than attem,ting to gi"e a thorough e:,osition o# alI that has %een done' ,resent a selection
o# the most in#luential and most ,romising theories
%%'
and studies& In these cha,ters 4e are interested in 1 > the role 4hich music ,lays in human
culture and the 4ays in 4hich this can %e studied' and 7> the methods and theories %y 4hich
music has %een-and can %e-a,,roached in 4ays similar to the 4ays in 4hich other as,ects o#
culture are a,,roached %y anthro,ologists&
It seems to %e most con"enient to di"ide the study o# music in culture into t4o %road
areas8 the study o# the indi"idual grou,' or ,erson' or nation in one ,lace and at one time;
and the study o# music in its s,atial =i&e&' geogra,hic> and tem,oral =i&e&' historical>
en"ironment& The #irst o# these areas 4ould seem to %e a ,rere?uisite to the second' %ut as is
so o#ten the case in a young disci,line' the %roader and more di##icult ?uestions ha"e %een
%roached %e#ore the narro4er and ,erha,s less o%"iously #ascinating ones& Thus there is
much more theory and method a"aila%le on the study o# change in music' and on the
geogra,hic distri%ution o# music' than there is on the study o# musicDs role in one culture or
in one ,ersonDs li#e& Studying the geogra,hical distri%ution o# musical ,henomena and the
4ays in 4hich music changes' and ,artici,ates in culture change' is im,ortant to an
understanding o# the role o# music in culture& It may seem that re,resenting the distri%ution
o# musical style traits on a ma,' #or e:am,le' has nothing to do 4ith other as,ects o# culture&
But doing so might' #or e:am,le' ,erha,s ena%le us to sho4 ho4 this distri%ution
coincides 4ith that o# cultural or linguistic #eatures' and ho4 it is associated 4ith them& It
could tell us something o# the 4ay in 4hich music 4as a##ected %y the mo"ement o# ,eo,les
#rom country to country' and it might sho4 something a%out the ,ast associations o#
neigh%oring or distant ,eo,les& By studying change in music 4e are a,,roaching music as
anthro,ologists 4ould a,,roach other as,ects o# culture' and in this 4ay 4e are also learning
a%out music as a ,henomenon o# culture& (e shall de"ote oursel"es' in this cha,ter' to a
consideration o# the historical as,ects o# the study o# traditional musics =es,ecially 4here no
4ritten records are a"aila%le>' and to the ,ro%lems and signi#icance o# studying the
geogra,hic
%%)
distri%ution o# musical styles& These are t4o di##erent matters 4ith 4hich 4e 4ill deal
se,arately' %ut 4hich are in some 4ays closely related and interde,endent&
Origin and Change
In s,ite o# the "ariety o# materials and aims' the historical as,ects o# ethnomusicology
can %e grou,ed into t4o ,rinci,al classes K origin and change& E:,lanation o# the origin o#
"arious ,henomena has %een at the root o# many de"elo,ments throughout our #ield' and
until recently it ,redominated o"er the study o# change& But 4hile the study o# origins has in
a sense %een e:hausted or in many cases seems im,ossi%le to ,ursue #urther' the study o#
change ,romises to %e o# e"en greater interest 4hen some methodological ,ro%lems ha"e
%een sol"ed&
The ,ro%lem o# origin can %e a,,roached in a num%er o# 4ays& 1or e:am,le' one may
%e interested in the manner o# origin o# a gi"en ,henomenon' or in its ,lace o# origin& The
manner K o# K origin a,,roach has %een one o# the more s,eculati"e sides o#
ethnomusicology' and has ,ro"ided considera%le common ground %et4een our #ield and
historical musicology& The ,ro%lem o# the origin o# music itsel# #alls into this class' although
ethnomusicological data can only corro%orate or' more #re?uently' negate& Ne"ertheless'
some theories o# the origin o# music 4hich indicate the s,ecial #unction o# music in non-
literate cultures and its close ties to religion are genuinely %ased on anthro,ological
in#ormation =#or a summary see Nadel 1.@6>&
The search #or the manner o# origin o# "arious generaliAed musical ,henomena is also
in"ol"ed here& 1or e:am,le' the de%ate on the origin o# ,oly,hony carried through the
decades =e&g&' dler 1.65' *achmann 1.79' Schneider 1.@0>' the arguments #or single
"ersus multi,le origins o# ,oly,hony' the discussion on the ,ossi%ility o# "arious ty,es o#
,oly,hony de"elo,ing se,arately or together' 4ould all %e included in this category&
%%*
Slightly di##erent is the treatment o# s,ecialiAed or localiAed musical ,henomena& The
origin o# certain ty,es o# scales and meters is rele"ant here' inso#ar as the a,,roach does not
stress the de"elo,ment o# one ty,e #rom another; the latter should ,ro%a%ly %e co"ered in
our EchangeE category& n e:am,le o# this a,,roach 4ould %e the in"estigation o# the origin
o# the anhemitonic ,entatonic scale8 4hether it 4as deri"ed acoustically through the circle o#
#i#ths' through the re,etition o# a t4o-tone moti# at di##erent ,itch le"els' or through #illing
ga,s in or melodic se?uence' 4hich may %e inter,reted as "ariety introduced in a re,etiti"e
musical structure' or =since it is most #re?uently do4n4ard mo"ement> as re,etition modi#ied
%y the ,re"ailingly descending melodic contour o# music=Kolins3i 1.B9 8@>' or in still other
4ays& It 4ould %e di##icult to e:haust the e:am,les o# the manner K o# K origin ?uest in
ethnomusicology #or it may %e <ustly said that it has ,ro"ided the im,etus #or a large
,ro,ortion o# the research in this #ield&
The search #or the ,lace o# origin o# musical ,henomena' generaliAed and s,ecialiAed'
has ,in,ointed a num%er o# ,ro%lems in ethnomusicological method& The ,lace o# origin o#
medie"al Euro,ean ,oly,hony =summariAed %y Reese 1.06 8 70. K B5> o# the styles o# some
North4est Coast Indians =Bar%eau 1.@0> o# certain musical instruments' and e"en o#
indi"idual com,ositions such as the #ol3 songs in Euro,ean traditions' to cite only a #e4
e:am,les' ha"e ,roduced a "ariety o# studies and theories&
The general ,ro%lem o# ,lace o# origin has %een a,,roached #rom the nonmusical side
as 4ell& Musical materials ha"e %een used to ascertain the ,ossi%ility o# cultural contact
among 4idely se,arated ,eo,les' and it is in this area that the historical orientation o#
ethnomusicology has made its greatest contri%ution to cultural anthro,ology&
The ,ro%lem o# change' although o#ten related to and com%ined 4ith the ,ro%lem o#
origin' re?uires some4hat di##erent a,,roaches& (e are interested in the reasons #or change
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1@@
=or #or lac3 o# change>' and in its nature& degree' and rate& This a,,lies
%%+
to "arious le"els o# musical organiAation& (e can study the change in indi"idual com,ositions
or in larger %odies o# music& (e can try to trace the changes indicated %y di##erences among
the "ariants o# a single song' and 4e can try to identi#y the reasons #or them' 4hether these
lie 4ithin the structure o# the music or in its cultural conte:t& (e can try to measure' #or
com,arati"e ,ur,oses' the amount o# change that has ta3en ,lace and try to determine ho4
ra,idly it has occurred& Similar matters can %e studied K %ut 4ith greater di##iculty K in entire
re,ertories' 4hether de#ined geogra,hically or %y their cultural milieus& I# more than one
com,osition is in"ol"ed' statistical methods are usually dra4n u,on& 1inally' in"estigations
in"ol"ing change are #re?uently associated 4ith those concerning the ,lace o# origin o# a
musical ,henomenon' #or the o%"ious reason that i# a musical item mo"es #rom one ,lace to
another' it is also su%<ect to change' and it 4ould %e im,ossi%le to assess the change 4ithout
considering the geogra,hic mo"ement&
It is useless to try 4ithin a short s,ace to sur"ey all o# the studies in ethnomusicology
in"ol"ing historical ,ers,ecti"e& Ho4e"er' the a,,roaches o# se"eral o# these studies are
summariAed in the #ollo4ing ,ages' and 4e 4ill attem,t to gi"e e:am,les o# the general
conclusions to 4hich they ha"e led' and to #ormulate some o# the general tendencies 4hich
seem to ,re"ail&
Pro/lems o( Origin
The origin o# music' as 4ell as o# indi"idual musical ,henomena' has usually %een
e:,lained %y re#erence to three ,ossi%le ,rocesses& It may %e a coincidence %ased on the
structure o# a related ,henomenon' it may %e moti"ated %y a nonmusical need' or it may %e
ine"ita%le through some ,rocess o# e"olution K so say these theories' summariAed %y Kunst
=1.B.80/-5>& Thus' the origin o# music in emotional s,eech =a theory not 4idely acce,ted> or
in "ocal signaling o"er a long distance =one more
%%,
4idely held> could %e %ased on coincidence& human need #or music' and its resulting
in"ention' are ,ostulated in theories in"ol"ing rhythmic 4or3 and religion as the cradles o#
this art& Music as a human "ersion o# mating calls' or as a s,ecialiAed #orm 4hich de"elo,ed
#rom a ,re-language and ,re-music generaliAed ty,e o# communication =Nettl 1.B/81@/> are
e:am,les o# e"olutionist "ie4s&
Most origin theories in"ol"ing smaller K scale ,henomena are also %ased on one o# these
three a,,roaches& 1or e:am,le' most #orms o# ,oly,hony are attri%uted to disco"ery %y
coincidence or %y #aulty rendition o# mono,honic materials& This ,oint o# "ie4 does not
e:,lain 4hy M#aultyN rendition =e&g&' singing o# t4o "ariants o# the same ,iece simultaneously'
or o"erla, in anti,honal singing' or singing the same melody at di##erent ,itch le"els> should
in some cultures lead to the de"elo,ment o# ,oly,honic music' 4hile in others it is sim,ly
4ritten o## as error& The origin o# some instruments is also attri%uted to coincidence K #or
e:am,le' the origin o# the musical %o4 #rom the hunting %o4&
It is also ,ossi%le to ,ostulate the de"elo,ment o# musical #eatures in some styles on
the %asis o# aesthetic needs& The need #or uni#ying #actors in orally transmitted music may
%ring unity in one element in order to %alance the ela%oration or heterogeneity in another& It
is ,ossi%le' #or e:am,le' that a style in 4hich tonal material is %eing e:,anded =o"er a ,eriod
o# years or centuries> 4ill also introduce the melodic se?uence in order to o##set the
di"ersi#ication& Or a style %ased largely on re,etition o# short melodic #ormulae may introduce
and encourage im,ro"isation and "ariation in order to o##set the large degree o# unity& This
"ie4 is su,,orted %y the com,lementary distri%ution o# the uni#ying elements in some styles
o# music&
The e"olutionist "ie4 is re,resented %y such hy,otheses as that the direction o# musical
change remains constant; so' ,entatonic scales naturally de"elo, #rom tetratonic scales i# the
latter ha"e in turn de"elo,ed #rom tritonic scales& The o,inion
%%-
that there are stages through 4hich all musical cultures ine"ita%ly ,ass is' o# course' also
,ertinent here&
The ,ro%lem o# single "ersus multi,le origin has occu,ied ethnomusicologists on many
occasions& On the 4hole' they ha"e adhered to the generally acce,ted anthro,ological
"ie4,oint' using geogra,hic distri%utions and assuming that the li3elihood o# multi,le origin
decreases 4ith the com,le:ity o# the cultural #eature 4hose origin is %eing sought& They ha"e
also used data #rom acoustics =Horn%ostel 1.16> to e:,lain the ,resence o# the same
,henomenon in 4idely se,arated areas& The main ,ro%lem #aced here %y ethnomusicologists
is the measurement o# degree o# com,le:ity and similarity& The ,ro%lem is shared 4ith
cultural anthro,ologists' %ut it is someho4 more s,ecialiAed here %ecause o# the ,eculiar
structure o# music& It is ,ossi%le' a#ter all' that musical material' %eing in structure relati"ely
inde,endent o# other cultural elements and %eing easier than other #eatures to descri%e and
analyAe' is %etter suited to measuring than are some other cultural ,henomena =Merriam
1.B/8 0/B>&
Pro/lems o( Change
(hy' ho4' and under 4hat conditions does music changeH lthough these ?uestions
ha"e not %een ans4ered 4ith scienti#ically ,redicta%le results #or any one ty,e o# music' they
ha"e considera%le signi#icance e"en #or material outside the sco,e o# ethnomusicology' as
ha"e the con"erse ?uestions regarding the identi#ication o# sta%ility and o# sta%iliAing #actors
in music&
It is #irst necessary to de#ine musical change& In traditional music' change seems to %e
a ,henomenon su%stantially di##erent #rom change in a high culture& (hile changes through
su%stitution in a re,ertory occur in %oth 3inds o# culture' it is only in those cultures 4hich
ma3e use o# oral tradition that esta%lished com,ositions are altered& =O# course' changes in
,er#ormance
%&$
,ractice o# 4ritten music also must %e considered in high cultures>& Thus' change in a #ine art
tradition tends to %e cumulati"e' ne4 material sim,ly %eing added to the old' 4hile the old
remains at least to a Ddegree ,art o# the heritage& In an oral tradition it may %e change in a
more ,ro#ound sense' old material %eing eliminated as ne4 material is introduced& Changes in
a re,ertory' or %eyond the sim,le alteration o# the indi"idual com,ositions' occur in "arious
4ays& Indi"idual elements o# music may undergo change' 4hile others remain the same& Ne4
songs may %e introduced into a re,ertory' causing the older material to change %y
assimilation; or the ne4 material may gradually change to accommodate the style o# the old&
Changes in a re,ertory' i# not caused %y the su%stitution o# ne4 com,ositions #or older ones'
are o# course determined %y the changes 4rought in indi"idual com,ositions& But 4hen
change in a re,ertory is e"ident' it is o#ten im,ossi%le to determine 4hat has ha,,ened to
indi"idual com,ositions& Thus the t4o le"els o# change must usually %e a,,roached in
contrasti"e 4ays&
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1@B
There are many reasons #or musical change' and the #ollo4ing discussion is limited to
those in"ol"ing music in oral tradition& Ho4e"er' the same reasons' and ,erha,s others' may
%e rele"ant to culti"ated music& (e are not in a ,osition to assert under 4hat conditions' ho4
#ast' and ho4 much music changes' and 4hich as,ects are most su%<ect to change& It is
,ossi%le to di"ide the a,,roaches o# scholars to change into t4o main classes8 those 4hich
ma3e use o# strictly musical =or aesthetic> criteria and concern themsel"es 4ith the
characteristics o# the musical material itsel#; and those 4hich ma3e use o# nonmusical
criteria' including cultural and racial ones& O# course' these a,,roaches are not mutually
e:clusi"e; %oth must %e used' and 4hich one is #inally ,re#erred de,ends on the indi"idual
case&
The #irst to %e generally acce,ted 4ere racial criteria& These 4ere ,artially su%scri%ed to
%y such men as Carl Stum,#' E& M& "on Horn%ostel' and Marius Schneider =1.0/>&Today they
are not generally acce,ted; %ut they ha"e %een the su%<ect o#
%&!
technical in"estigation %y Met#essel =1.75> and Bose =1.B7>&
On the 4hole' racial a,,roaches tend to concentrate more on musical sta%ility than on
change& The musical relationshi,s among mem%ers o# di##erent racial grou,s are o# course
intert4ined 4ith cultural relationshi,s' and to se,arate the racial #actors is a di##icult and
sometimes im,ossi%le tas3& Ne"ertheless' statements ha"e %een made =e&g& Schneider
1.@587.6; Schneider 1.B9> that the style o# music is determined %y the culture' %ut the
manner o# ,er#ormance' "ocal techni?ues' and so #orth' are determined %y the racial
%ac3ground' and there ha"e %een attem,ts to associate s,eci#ic musical traits 4ith certain
racially de#ined grou,s K cascading melodic contours 4ith merican Indians' #or e:am,le&
Since mem%ers o# a race ha"e normally li"ed in close cultural contact' the e:istence o#
common musical traits hardly ,ro"es racial or ,hysically inherited traits& E"en 4hen the
characteristics o# a racial grou,' such as the #rican Negroes' are %rought #rom one ,lace to
another' such as #rom #rica to the Ne4 (orld' 4e ha"e no con"incing case #or racially
inherited musical characteristics&
The notion that mem%ers o# a racial grou, tend to acce,t materials #rom ,hysically
similar grou,s more readily than #rom di##erent ones seems too s,eculati"e& Moreo"er' it is
negated %y such cases as the distri%ution o# indi"idual songs through the "arious ,hysical
ty,es o# Euro,e' the in#luence o# ra%ic music on East #rican Negro music' and the relati"ely
similar musical styles o# #rica and Euro,e ="ie4ed on a %road scale> as com,ared to the
musical contrast %et4een #rican Negroes and the ,hysically similar Melanesians& The
accom,animent o# cultural in#luences %y racial ones in many cases o%scures the ,ro%lem' and
4e must conclude that the racial a,,roaches to musical change ha"e not contri%uted much to
ethnomusicology&
mong the many things 4hich cause musical styles to change is the contact among
,eo,les and cultures' and the mo"ement o# ,o,ulations 4hich is one cause o# such contact& It
is ,ro%a%le that most documented cases o# changing re,ertories are
%&%
due to culture contacts& $eo,les li"ing side K %y K side in#luence each other' and 4here there
is mo"ement o# ,o,ulations the greater num%er o# contacts increases the ,ossi%ility o#
musical change& One might conclude #rom this that a tri%e 4hich mo"es a%out e:,eriences
greater or more ra,id musical change than does one 4hich remains among the same set o#
neigh%ors& The #ormer tri%e might also ha"e a high rate o# elimination o# musical material; or'
holding on to old styles as ne4 ones are introduced' it might increase the total num%er o#
styles in its re,ertory& Thus 4e conclude that a tri%e 4ith many outside contacts may ha"e
more "ariety in its music than one 4ith a sta%le and limited set o# contacts& This a,,roach is
illustrated %y a study o# Sha4nee music' in 4hich 4e see that Sha4nee contacts 4ith other
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1@/
Indian tri%es resulted in the introduction o# ne4 styles& The Sha4nee around 1.B6 had music
4hich could %e traced %ac3 to their contacts 4ith the northern lgonguins' the southeastern
+nited States' and the $lains Indians& On the other hand' 4e #ind that the $ue%los ha"e a
rich and com,le: %ut rather uni#ied musical style' ,erha,s %ecause =at least in recent
centuries> their contacts 4ith other tri%es ha"e %een limited& The generally conser"ati"e
nature o# $ue%lo culture may also %e in"ol"ed here&
nother ,ro%lem in"ol"ing musical change through cultural contact is the direction o#
in#luence& This can generally %e ans4ered 4ith some degree o# certainty8 the more com,le:
style tends to in#luence the sim,ler one& This does not necessarily mean that the music o# the
more com,le: culture is introduced into the sim,ler one' #or occasionally the =generally>
sim,ler culture may ha"e the more com,le: music& "ariety o# stylistic com%inations may
also occur' as indicated %elo4 in our discussion o# acculturation& In these com%inations'
ho4e"er' it seems li3ely that each culture contri%utes the elements 4hich it has de"elo,ed
%est or to the greatest degree o# s,ecialiAation& 1or e:am,le' the mi:ture o# #rican and
Euro,ean styles #ound in Haitian music consists essentially o# #rican rhythm' anti,honal
singing' and drum accom,animent %ut Euro,ean melodic
%&&
structure' ,erha,s %ecause the melodic as,ects o# music are more highly de"elo,ed in
Euro,ean #ol3 music than in #rican Negro music&
musical style may mo"e #rom one tri%e to another 4ithout the accom,anying
mo"ement o# a tri%e or ,eo,le itsel#& This K can ha,,en 4hen songs are taught %y one
culture to a neigh%oring one' or 4hen indi"iduals mo"e #rom one tri%e to another' or #rom
one country to another& The musical style 4hich is thus mo"ing is li3ely to change the
re,ertories o# the tri%es or nations through 4hich it ,asses' %ut it may itsel# also undergo
change' in#luenced %y the tri%al styles 4ith 4hich it has made contact& 1or e:am,le' the
$eyote style' as de#ined %y Mcllester =1.0.>' ,resuma%ly mo"ed #rom the ,ache and
Na"aho to the $lains Indians& It retained a #eature o# ,ache music' the use o# a restricted
num%er o# note "alues =only ?uarter and eighth notes are usually #ound>' %ut in the $lains it
e"idently ac?uired the cascadingly descending' terrace K sha,ed melodic contour& $ossi%ly
the #orces descri%ed a%o"e o,erated here8 the melodic contour o# the $lains' a s,ecialiAed and
4ell de"elo,ed ty,e' 4as strong enough to encroach on the $eyote style' %ut the more
generaliAed rhythmic structure o# the $lains 4as not strong enough to alter the s,ecialiAed
rhythmic organiAation deri"ed #rom the ,ache& Thus it may %e <usti#ied to assume =although
there are #e4 documented e:am,les> that s,ecialiAed #eatures in music are less easily
changed than generaliAed ones' and #rom this to ,roceed to the hy,othesis that generaliAed
#eatures are constantly undergoing change in the direction o# %ecoming s,ecialiAed&
s,ecialiAed #eature may %e de#ined as one ha"ing a stri3ing' o"erriding characteristic 4hich
allo4s little #le:i%ility #or the com,oserDs imagination to ,ro"ide original e##ects&
Mo"ement o# musical material occurs not only in large %odies o# music %ut also at the
le"el o# the indi"idual com,osition' 4here the same #orces seem to o,erate& In Euro,ean #ol3
music it is ,ossi%le to identi#y tunes 4hich ha"e mo"ed through large areas& They seem
rarely to ha"e in#luenced the music o# these
%&'
areas to any great e:tent' %ut they themsel"es ha"e changed #or reasons discussed %elo4
=EThe Role o# the Indi"idual Com,ositionE>&It might %e ,ossi%le to in#er that the larger a
mo"ing %ody o# music' the greater is its in#luence on the re,ertories through 4hich it ,asses'
and the less it is itsel# su%<ect to change&
nother #orce to4ard change may %e called assimilation' the tendency o# neigh%oring
styles to %ecome similar& (hile musical material 4hich mo"es #rom one ,lace to another
in#luences the styles in its en"ironment' there is also a #orce o# attraction among the styles
4hich are in constant contact& Thus' an area in 4hich there is little contact among grou,s is
li3ely to ha"e di"erse styles' %ut one in 4hich the mutual contact is great is li3ely to ha"e a
more uni#ied style& n o%stacle to testing this hy,othesis is the lac3 o# measuring de"ices #or
degree o# musical similarity& )et it is ,ossi%le to com,are an area 4ith much internal
communication' such as Euro,e' 4ith one in 4hich communication is inhi%ited' such as
Oceania' and #ind the hy,othesis su%stantially %orne out& O# course' the ,resence o# other
#actors must also %e considered here&
It is not ,ossi%le to ma3e decisions a%out musical change' its causes and directions' on
the %asis o# strictly musical in#ormation& It is li3ely that certain directions o# change do
,redominate and that one can in some cases' and 4ith the corro%oration o# other 3inds o#
in#ormation' decide such matters as the relati"e age o# musical styles on the %asis o#
structural #eatures in the music& In most cases' music seems to mo"e #rom sim,licity to
greater com,le:ity =%ut not al4ays\>' so it is assumed %y most scholars that the sim,lest
styles are also the oldest& s indicated a%o"e' there may %e mo"ement #rom generaliAed to
s,ecialiAed elements K i# it is ,ossi%le to classi#y music in this 4ay& Once a s,eci#ic direction
has %een esta%lished' there may %e a tendency to continue it #or centuries& 1or e:am,le' i#
the tones in the scale o# a song ha"e %een increased #rom three to #our' #urther increases 4ill
#ollo4' or at least a decrease 4ill not ensue& These tendencies are s,eculati"e' and
%&)
%eyond the o%"ious sim,le K to K com,le: mo"ement' they ha"e not %een used in s,eci#ic
in"estigations&
Other changes #or 4hich there are musical causes are related to oral tradition& Because
there are mnemonic ,ro%lems ,resent in the oral transmission o# music' the material must
adhere to certain s,eci#ications in order to %e retained& The music must %e sim,le' and there
must %e uni#ying de"ices such as re,etition' a drone or ,arallelism in ,oly,hony' isorhythmic
structure' re,etition o# a metric unit' a de#initely esta%lished tonality' melodic se?uence' the
,redominance o# a single tone' etc& The necessity #or the ,resence o# such #eatures tends to
inhi%it change' or to channel it& in s,eci#ic directions& Thus' ,erha,s a melody 4ith a rigidly
isometric structure is #ree to %ecome heterometric a#ter ha"ing %ecome isorhythmic&
melody 4ith a hierarchical arrangement o# tones' in 4hich im,ortant and secondary ones are
easily distinguished' may lose this arrangement a#ter the introduction o# se?uences' since
there is less need #or the uni#ying #unction o# the tonal structure& gain' these #orces ha"e
not %een studied in many e:am,les; they are ,resented here as a ,ossi%ility #or #uture
research& They can %e o%ser"ed in some Euro,ean #ol3 songs 4hich ha"e undergone change
4hile ,assing #rom one ethnic grou, to another' %ut 4hether these changes are due strictly
to assimilation is an o,en ?uestion&
Measurement o# the rate o# change in music' and the amount o# change in a gi"en
instance' a4aits the disco"ery o# ,ro,er methods& On the %asis o# im,ressionistic o%ser"ation'
,articularly in the #ield o# culti"ated music' 4e may assume that change ta3es ,lace
irregularly; sometimes it is ra,id or sudden' sometimes almost a%sent& In Euro,ean music
history there seem to %e inter"als during 4hich musical style changes ra,idly' 4hile %et4een
them it changes only slightly o"er long ,eriods o# time&
Sachs =1.09> %elie"es that this is connected 4ith the length o# a ,ersonDs ,roducti"e
li#e' and in e##ect %lames it on the reaction o# each human generation against its ,redecessor&
It Is o#ten stated that the music o# non-literate cultures must %e
%&*
some4hat-closer to the %eginnings o# music than is (estern culti"ated music' and that
E,rimiti"eE music must there#ore ha"e changed more slo4ly& It is also ,ossi%le that the rate
o# change is ,ro,ortional to the com,le:ity o# the music& This may %e due to the #act that
4here there are more #eatures' more are su%<ect to change& Or it may %e caused %y the more
generally dynamic nature o# com,le: cultures& O# course' the #undamental "alue system o# a
culture is also in"ol"ed&
There is e"idence that at least in some cases' music changes less ra,idly than do other
as,ects o# culture& Thus' most non-literate cultures 4hich ha"e had close contact 4ith the
(est ha"e ta3en on more Euro,ean material culture' economic organiAation' and religion
than music& lthough reconstruction is di##icult' there may %e similar e:am,les among the
non-literate cultures 4hich lac3 (estern in#luence& The ,ache and Na"aho ha"e ,ossi%ly
retained more o# the northern tha%ascan musical heritage than o# certain other as,ects o#
that culture& The Hungarians ha"e retained some o# the musical #eatures shared %y other
1inno K +gric ,eo,les such as the Cheremis =Kodaly 1.B/8 7@ K B.>' %ut other4ise their
culture has %ecome (esterniAed&
The reasons #or this slo4 rate o# change ,ro%a%ly "ary 4ith the e:am,le' and
com,arison o# music 4ith other cultural #eatures is methodologically di##icult&
There are t4o 4ays o# studying indi"idual cases o# historical change in #ol3 and non-
literate cultures and their music& One can try to reconstruct e"ents o# the ,ast' or one can
o%ser"e the changes occurring at the time at hand& The latter a,,roach has %een used in a
num%er o# cases in"ol"ing acculturation =#or e:am,le' Merriam 1.BB>&The #ormer has %een
used less o#ten in cases in"ol"ing indi"idual re,ertories or styles =Nettl 1.B@' 1.BB%>' %ut
more o#ten in general ?uestions such as those in"ol"ing the relati"e age o# musical #eatures&
1or e:am,le' it has %een used to reconstruct the history o# Euro,ean #ol3 songs %y
com,arison o# "ariants& There are de#inite limitations to %oth a,,roaches& The reconstruction
method is limited %y inade?uate material and %y too great reliance on s,eculation& The study
o#
%&+
change in the ,resent limits the amount o# time during 4hich change may ta3e ,lace' and
in"ol"es s,ecialiAed situations in 4hich the cultures %eing studied are usually #eeling the
in#luence o# (estern ci"iliAation =(achsmann 1./1>&
The Role o( the Indi7idual Comosition
The indi"idual com,osition must %e es,ecially considered in historical research in
ethnomusicology& Its is a ,ro%lematic role' #or there is no clear K cut de#inition o# 4hat
constitutes Ea com,ositionE in #ol3 and ,rimiti"e music' and this "ery lac3 accentuates the
im,ortance o# historical orientation& Should one consider a grou, o# "ariants 4ith ,ro"ed
genetic relationshi, a single unit o# musical creationH Most scholars 4ould ,re#er this to a
4or3ing de#inition o# the single "ariant or rendition as Ethe com,osition'E %ut they are then
#aced 4ith the ,ro%lem o# ,ro"ing the relationshi,& t the other e:treme' one could de"ise
melodic ty,es 4hich may or may not ha"e internal genetic relationshi,' as has %een done %y
(iora =1.B@>' and call these indi"idual com,ositions 4ithout e"en considering the ?uestion o#
actual common origin& This 4ould ha"e the ad"antage o# grou,ing similar materials and thus
sim,li#ying the ,icture& There are other ,ossi%ilities' all o# 4hich sho4 that isolation o# the
unit o# musical creation is much more di##icult in traditional than in (estern culti"ated music&
The ,ro%lem o# measuring degrees o# similarity among di##erent musical items has
already %een mentioned& It 4ould a,,ear that in some styles' all or most o# the ,ieces are so
similar as to %e com,ara%le to related "ariants o# single com,ositions in other styles& 1or
e:am,le' most songs o# the $lains Indians a,,ear' %y "irtue o# their s,ecialiAed melodic
contour =terrace -sha,ed> and #orm =l 7' 4ith 7 an a%%re"iated #orm o# l> and %y use o#
similar scales' as closely related to each other as the "ariants o# a single English #ol3 song
#ound in se"eral
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1@.
%&,
English-s,ea3ing countries& Thus the criteria used #or one culture do not hold #or others&
In#ormantsD statements may %e o# hel, in some cases' and they ha"e on occasion di##ered
considera%ly #rom my o4n calculations&
nother ,ro%lem is the identi#ication or classi#ication o# musical items 4hich' although
com,osed at se,arate times' are %ased on each other or on a common model& In many
cultures' the em,hasis on originality =ho4e"er one de#ines this term> is ,ro%a%ly not as great
as in (estern ci"iliAation since a%out 19B6' and there may %e cases in 4hich ne4 songs are
created sim,ly %y co,ying an already e:isting song 4ith only slight changes& 1or descri,ti"e
,ur,oses in all o# these situations it is ,ro%a%ly ad"isa%le to acce,t the in#ormantDs
classi#ication' %ut in com,arati"e 4or3 this is usually not #easi%le&
The "ery e:istence o# the ,ro%lem o# identi#ying indi"idual units o# com,osition ,oints
u, some o# the essential di##erences in historical change %et4een culti"ated and traditional
material& In some non K literate cultures it seems that entire com,le:es o# musical material
are %uilt u, #rom a single com,osition& This ,rocess' descri%ed %y Ro%erts =1.@@> and called
%y her the E,attern ,henomenon'E may occur' #or e:am,le' 4hen a ceremony unites a %ody
o# music 4hich tends to %ecome homogeneous %y the ,rocess o# intensi#ying the s,ecialiAed
elements o# its style& In some cultures =Nettl 1.B0a85.>' ne4 material is consciously created
#rom the old' either %y ela%orating songs already in e:istence or %y com%ining material #rom
se"eral songs to #orm ne4 units& The e:tent to 4hich these ,roducts are indi"idual
com,ositions may also %e ?uestioned& To %e sure' a similar ,ro%lem occasionally a,,ears in
culti"ated music' as 4hen the ultimate source o# a com,osition is in"estigated& Thus music
historians may try to trace a musical theme through the "arious E%orro4ingsE %y com,oser
#rom earlier com,oser until the real originator o# the theme is #ound& In traditional music the
,ro%lem %ecomes su%stantially greater in cultures 4hich encourage im,ro"isation and 4here
music may %e ,er#ormed 4ith considera%le change in each rendition& One must also
%&-
consider the ,ro%lems o# de#ining the com,ositional unit i# each rendition or stanAa is
di##erent' and o# dealing 4ith entirely im,ro"ised material& These e:am,les sho4 4hy the
history o# indi"idual ,ieces has rarely %een studied' es,ecially in non-literate cultures&
Some 1ethods o( In7estigating Change
mong the "arious a,,roaches to historical ,ro%lems in ethnomusicology and the
inter,retation o# descri,ti"e data in a diachronic manner' t4o are selected #or %rie# discussion
here8 e"olutionary and geogra,hic& (e la%el an a,,roach e"olutionary i# it recogniAes a
generally "alid series o# stages o# musical style' into 4hich the data are then #itted& The
schemes arranging musical material into a time se?uence may a,,ly to generaliAed conce,ts
or to more s,eci#ic local ones& 1or e:am,le' it is %elie"ed %y some that each culture goes
through a stage o# mono,honic music' a#ter 4hich ,oly,hony is de"elo,ed& Cultures 4hich
ha"e a great deal o# ,oly,hony' such as many in Negro #rica' are thus assumed to %e higher
in the musico-e"olutionary ,rocess than those 4hich ha"e "ery little ,oly,hony' such as Dthe
North merican Indian& The di##iculty 4ith this "ie4 is that the results might %e re"ersed i#
some other element o# music 4ere the criterion& It could %e ,ostulated' #or e:am,le' that
there is an e"olutionary ,rocess #rom short' re,etitious #orms to longer' stro,hic ones; in this
case the Indians 4ould %e ahead o# the #rican Negroes' assuming that ty,ical rather than
e:ce,tional e:am,les are used& In a classi#ication o# the music o# the 1inno-+gric tri%es in
Russia' *ach =1.7.811> states that the sim,le #orms o# the Mord"in' 4hich are usually
re,etitious' ,lace that tri%e in a lo4er e"olutionary category than the Chu"ash' 4ho ha"e
many stro,hic songs 4ith #our di##erent ,hrases ,er song& The Cheremis' 4ho ha"e many
#orms 4hich %egin in a ty,ically stro,hic manner and then go on to
%'$
re,eat one ,hrase se"eral times' are ,laced in an intermediate category& The same data
could %e inter,reted di##erently' and 4ithout the use o# e"olutionist schemes& One o# the
,ro%lems #aced %y the classi#ier o# tri%es according to e"olutionary ,rinci,les is the selection
o# re,resentati"e material& There 4ould %e di##erent results i# one used the a"erage and most
common' or the sim,lest' or again the most com,le: material 4ithin a re,ertory as a %asis
#or com,arison& 1urthermore' the assum,tion that all cultures ultimately ,ass through the
same set o# musical stages is e"en su,er#icially only "alid i# one ma3es the grossest sort o#
distinctions& E"olutionary schemes must thus %e limited' i# they are to ser"e any use#ul
,ur,ose at all' to restricted areas and ,henomena' and the e:istence o# other #actors must
al4ays %e admitted&
+ni"ersally a,,lica%le stages #or elements o# music other than #orm ha"e also %een
,ostulated& They are usually ?uite logical and 4ould %e acce,ted as "alid #or most cases e"en
%y o,,onents o# e"olutionist a,,roaches& 1or e:am,le' the de"elo,ment o# scales #rom t4o or
three to #inally #our tones ,ro%a%ly too3 ,lace in many cultures' although a de"elo,ment o#
tetratonic #rom ditonic 4ithout the intermediate tritonic is also ,ossi%le& Similarly' most
stro,hic styles ,ro%a%ly de"elo,ed #rom sim,le re,etiti"e #orms' %ut this does not necessarily
indicate the #uture de"elo,ment o# stro,hic #orms in all styles 4hich no4 ha"e only sim,le
re,etition o# single ,hrases&
There has %een s,ecial con#usion in the case o# rhythm& Some students %elie"e that
metric chaos' or the a%sence o# metric organiAation' ,recedes uni#ication into metric ,atterns&
On the other hand' it might %e assumed that metric sim,licity' re,etition o# a sim,le metric
unit such as 0V0 or @V0' ,recedes heterometric structure 4hich' to the listener' may a,,ear
con#using and unorganiAed& gi"en ,iece may %e analyAed as metrically unorganiAed or
metrically com,le:' and many e"olutionist statements in ethnomusicology ha"e %een made
on the %asis o# such su%<ecti"e distinctions&
E"olutionary stages ha"e also %een hy,othesiAed #or the
%'!
de"elo,ment o# re,ertories& BartS3 =1.@18 17> ,ostulates three stages in the de"elo,ment o#
#ol3 music& 1irst the re,ertory is homogeneous; all songs are in the same style& Then s,ecial
su%styles are de"elo,ed #or certain categories o# songs' such as Christmas songs' 4eddings
songs' and music #or other ceremonies& In the third stage these ceremonies disa,,ear' and
4ith them the correlation %et4een song #unctions and musical styles& This scheme seems
a,,lica%le in some cases' i# 4e ta3e the music o# some non K literate cultures as e:am,les o#
the #irst stage& It is not 3no4n 4hether BartS3 also allo4s #or the a,,earance o# intermediate
stages caused %y the im,o"erishment o# re,ertories' 4hether he %elie"es the third stage to
%e attaina%le in all cultures' and 4hether the disa,,earing ceremonies and the su%merging o#
their ,eculiar styles are not re,laced %y other' similar categories&
Other such schemes ha"e %een ad"anced; some ha"e %een mentioned in Cha,ter 1&
Characteristically' they di"ide music history into three stages =is this a commentary on
(estern cultural "aluesH>& E"olutionary schemes ,erha,s ha"e their greatest "alue in their
contri%ution to arrangement and classi#ication o# musical material& nd 4hile they #re?uently
hel, to e:,lain indi"idual cases o# de"elo,ment' they ha"e ne"er %ecome generally
acce,ta%le& (e can say categorically that there is no e"idence to su,,ort the notion that
music ,asses through ,re-determined and ,redicta%le stages&
The geogra,hical a,,roaches to historical ?uestions ha"e %een more "alua%le& They are
used %ecause anthro,ological theory has de"elo,ed hy,otheses to the e##ect that certain
3inds o# geogra,hic distri%ution indicate the li3elihood o# certain ,ast conditions or e"ents&
1or e:am,le' the distri%ution o# a cultural trait =an instrument' #or e:am,le> in
noncontiguous' scattered areas may mean that this trait 4as once 4ides,read and has
remained only in isolated ,oc3ets& The #act that certain musical #eatures ha"e the same
geogra,hic distri%ution as those o# another #acet o# culture may mean' ,ossi%ly' that they
ha"e %een associated #or some time& gain' the #act that a trait is
%'%
#ound in a highly de"elo,ed state in one s,ot on the ma,' and less 4ell de"elo,ed in the
surrounding area' may mean that it originated in the center& t times too much has %een
made o# the im,ortance o# geogra,hic data in ethnomusicology' es,ecially so #ar as their
inter,retation along the lines o# historical ,ers,ecti"e is concerned& But 4hile their
im,ortance is ,ro%a%ly greater #or sim,ly classi#ying and ,resenting in#ormation' their "alue
to the study o# musical ,rehistory must not %e underestimated& (e must' then' turn #or
se"eral ,ages to a discussion o# some o# the ,ro%lems o# studying the distri%ution o# music&
Our historical and geogra,hic considerations are then com%ined in our discussion o# musical
areas' %elo4&
Studying the 4istri/ution o( 1usic
There are t4o main uses 4hich ethnomusicologists ma3e o# geogra,hic conce,ts8 1>
They ,lot the distri%utions o# musical ,henomena' entire styles' indi"idual com,ositions' %ut
most #re?uently o# indi"idual traits a%stracted #rom their styles 4hich can %e ,resent in
"arious stylistic en"ironments& n e:am,le o# the latter is a scale ty,e #ound 4ith "arious
3inds o# meter or #orm' so that its distri%ution is not a##ected %y the other elements in the
same com,osition& 7> They classi#y the 4orld in terms o# musical areas 4hich e:hi%it some
degree o# internal unity and contrast 4ith neigh%oring areas&
!uring the late 1.B6Ds' se"eral ,u%lications ha"e mentioned the desira%ility o# ma,,ing
the distri%ution o# music in the 4orld& $aul Collaer =1.B5> indicates that ma,,ing the
distri%ution o# indi"idual traits or #eatures o# music 4ould yield historical insight in "arious
4ays& *ater' Collaer =1./6> %egan ,u%lishing such ma,s in earnest& 1ritA Bose =1.B.> goes so
#ar as to ,ostulate s,eci#ic ste,s in ma3ing distri%utional studies and setting their results
do4n on ma,s& He suggests 1> ma3ing indi"idual ma,s o# single elements o# music and
musical instruments; 7> ma,,ing the use and #unction o# each o# these8
%'&
@> ,re,aring com,arati"e ma,s; 0> ma3ing ma,s com,aring musical #eatures 4ith other
as,ects o# culture and language& BoseDs scheme is o%"iously ,redicated on 4or3 ,rimarily
%ased on instruments and does not go #ar to4ard sol"ing the ,ro%lems inherent in the
,re,aration o# ma,s #or music ,er se& He is desirous' e"idently' o# using those as,ects o#
music 4hich corres,ond most closely in their nature to those elements o# culture already
treated cartogra,hically' that is' instruments& The ,ro%lems 4e 4ill in"estigate in this section
are ,rimarily those' ho4e"er' 4hich do not ha"e analogous #eatures in other #ields o# culture
#re?uently descri%ed 4ith the hel, o# ma,s&
Certainly statements o# the distri%ution o# music' that is' statements 4hich indicate the
geogra,hic location o# musical ,henomena' ha"e %een made in hundreds o# ,u%lications& In
the #ield o# musical instruments' ma,s ha"e %een made %y many' es,ecially Sachs =1.7.>'
Ro%erts =1.@/>' and IAi3o4itA =1.@B>&
Ma,s o# musical styles ha"e %een less common' %ut do a,,ear in some ,u%lications K
#or e:am,le those o# Collaer =1./6> and Cones =1.B.>& Ho4e"er' th o"er K all ,ro%lem o# the
distri%ution o# musical ,henomena in the 4orld has not %een laid out in theoretical terms&
The ,ur,ose o# this section is to outline the 3inds o# things in music 4hich can %e studied in
terms o# their distri%ution' and to indicate some o# the 3inds o# musical distri%ution 4hich can
%e #ound in the 4orldDs cultures&
Studying the geogra,hic distri%ution o# musical ,henomena is' generally' a more
com,le: matter than the ty,ical distri%utional study in anthro,ology& nthro,ological
statements o# distri%ution ha"e usually =%ut not al4ays> restricted themsel"es to saying that
a gi"en trait is ,resent K or a%sent K in the culture discussed& To as3 4hether music is
,resent or not in each o# the 4orldDs cultures 4ould not yield a "ariety o# ans4ers' since
cultures 4ithout music o# some sort =using the %roadest de#inition ,ossi%le> are un3no4n&
(hat 4e 4ant to 3no4 is 4hat 3ind o# music is #ound in the "arious ,arts o# the 4orld' and
ho4 the 4orldDs ,eo,les are related musically& Ethnological studies o# distri%ution' 4ith their
%rea3do4n o# traits into units 4hich
%''
sim,ly are or are not ,resent in a gi"en ,lace' are most easily a,,ro:imated %y musical
instrument studies& Thus' 4e could state that the %an<o is #ound in a certain grou, o#
cultures' nations' tri%es' or other 3inds o# units' and not #ound in the rest o# the 4orld&
Ta3ing the ,laces in 4hich the %an<o e:ists' one could ma, the distri%ution o# the num%er o#
strings' the material #rom 4hich the instrument is made' and so on& Such a study 4ould tell
us a good deal a%out the ?ualities o# the %an<o around the 4orld& But a similar sort o# study
#or musical style 4ould %e less ,roducti"e' mainly %ecause music itse1# cannot %e %ro3en
do4n into easily circumscri%ed com,onents& The ,ro%lem o# ma,,ing musical distri%ution is
,rimarily one o# identi#ying relationshi,s among #orms 4hich are not identical or similar' and
o# re<ecting as unrelated others 4hich may seem' on the sur#ace' to %e related& 1or e:am,le'
one might 4ish to decide 4hich o# "arious similar tunes are actually "ariants o# one %asic
ty,e& Or' one could try to #ind out 4hether t4o slightly di##erent ,entatonic scales are really
su% K ty,es o# one #orm&
There is' moreo"er' the ,ro%lem o# deciding on geogra,hic units to %e used as a %asis
#or stating distri%utions& Should 4e use units determined %y ,olitical a##iliation' %y language'
or %y ,hysical geogra,hyH =1ortunately' these 4ould o#ten coincide&> Should smaller units'
such as "illages' %e ta3en into considerationH Or ,erha,s #amilies' 4hich are o#ten the units
o# musical distri%ution 4hich can most con"eniently and accurately %e studiedH nd let us not
#orget that' as in s,eech' each indi"idual has his o4n musical ,eculiarities and should
,erha,s %e considered as the %asic unit o# musical style& But at that ,oint' the ,ro%lem
%ecomes academic8 4orld K 4ide distri%ution o# musical ,henomena could only %e ,lotted %y
re#erence to a com%ination o# linguistic and ,olitical units' i# 4e limit oursel"es to the ,resent
state o# musicological in#ormation& On the %asis o# these units' let us ,roceed to a
,resentation' in outline #orm' o# the alternati"e a,,roaches to distri%utional studies in music8
I> ,,roach %y element o# music' such as ty,e o# scale' 3ind o# rhythm' ,oly,hony' etc&
%')
a> 2eneral& This 4ould include' #or e:am,le' a statement on the distri%ution o#
,entatonic scales in general' or o# general =nons,eci#ic> ty,es o# ,entatonic scales such as the
scales 4ithout hal#-tones' or o# rhythmic as,ects o# music such as heterometric structure' or
the isorhythmic stanAa' or o# %road ty,es o# ,oly,hony such as imitation&
%> Es,ecial& Here 4ould come statements o# the distri%ution o# s,eci#ic ,atterns' or o#
melodic ty,es such as the 4ell K 3no4n terra ty,e o# cascading melody used %y the $lains
Indians& ThereUs' o# course' a large area o# o"erla, among these EgeneralE and Es,ecialD
elements o# music& The s,ecial elements 4ould seem to %e much harder to handle' %eing
harder to de#ine and to identi#y&
set o# ma,s gi"ing the distri%ution o# these elements o# music 4ould yield' %y itse1#' a
sort o# ,icture o# the 4orld o# music at a gi"en ,oint in time& But it 4ould %e' in some 4ays'
misleading %ecause it 4ould ignore relationshi,s 4hich e:ist at other le"els o# distri%ution
discussed %elo4&
re#inement o# the techni?ue o# ,lotting musical elements %y themsel"es is the
?uanti#ication o# material& This is an a,,roach 4hich has hardly %een used as yet K and
4hich' in the ,resent state o# 3no4ledge o# the 4orldDs music' cannot %e considered all too
relia%le& Ne"ertheless' it deser"es mention %ecause o# its ,otential im,ortance&
In saying that the mere ,resence or a%sence o# music 4ould ma3e no good %asis #or
study %ecause music e:ists in e"ery culture' 4e neglected to ,oint out the ?uantitati"e
as,ects o# musical culture& Immediately' 4e 4ould #ind di##erences in the amount o# music
e:isting in each culture& The num%er o# com,ositions in a re,ertory' the amount o# time
s,ent in musical acti"ity' the amount o# music 3no4n to an indi"idual =including the songs or
,ieces he recogniAes' and the num%er he can ,er#orm> could %e studied and ma,,ed #or
com,arati"e ,ur,oses& The counting o# com,ositions 4ould itse1# %e ,ro%lematic %ecause o#
the di##iculty' in some cultures' o# identi#ying a com,ositional unit and distinguishing it #rom
its o4n "ariants and unrelated %ut similar
%'*
units& 1inally' the num%er o# styles or distinguisha%le %odies o# music in a re,ertory could %e
counted& In some cultures K es,ecially the sim,lest ones K there may %e only one such style'
4hile other re,ertories =such as that o# the Sha4nee> ha"e se"eral distinct styles& High
cultures o# Euro,e and the 1ar East may ha"e many more' de,ending on the time o# origin o#
each com,osition' the instruments in their "ariety' the #unction o# music =a church music
style' a dance music style' etc&> and the segment o# the ,o,ulation using it =,o,ular "s&
EclassicalE music>& com,arati"e study o# the num%ers o# styles in cultural units 4ould indeed
yield interesting results; %ut #irst 4e 4ould ha"e to de#ine EstyleE in this sense o# the 4ord&
Besides counting com,ositions or styles' ?uanti#ication o# musical data in a technical
sense could ,lay a ma<or role in distri%utional studies o# indi"idual elements o# music' %eyond
indicating sim,le ,resence or a%sence& There are #e4 elements o# music =such as ,entatonic
scale' stro,hic #orm' etc&> 4hich are not #ound ,ractically e"ery4here& (hen Collaer =1.B58
/9> indicates the desira%ility o# ma,,ing the distri%ution o# the anhemitonic scale' he must
mean some sort o# ?uantitati"e a,,roach' #or some com,ositions using such a scale are #ound
in ,ractically e"ery culture& Most use#ul #or "arious sorts o# studies utiliAing distri%ution 4ould
%e an indication o# the strength o# this scale in each re,ertory8 is it #ound in e"ery song' or&
in the "ast ma<ority =as in Cheremis songs>' in hal# o# the songs =as in some $lains tri%es>' or
only occasionally =as' ,erha,s' in nineteenth-century (estern culti"ated music> H O# course'
such statements 4ould ha"e to %e %ased on large sam,les o# material #rom each re,ertory'
sam,les 4hich are really re,resentati"e' #or many cultures are re,resented in the
ethnomusicological literature %y large' e:hausti"e collections #rom single ceremonies 4hich
might still not gi"e accurate ,ictures o# the entire musical cultures&
Since studies o# the ,ercentage o# com,ositions in a re,ertory 4hich contain a gi"en
trait are not common' an e:am,le o# such a study is %rie#ly ,resented here& It is'
un#ortunately' %ased on small sam,les o# "arying relia%ility' and should %e "ie4ed as
%'+
#igura
%',
a sam,le o# method rather than as a statement o# musicological #act& It concerns the
,henomenon o# North merican Indian music 3no4n as the Erise[ identi#ied and so
designated %y 2eorge HerAog =1.75> 8 In a song 4ith a non-stro,hic structure' a short
section is re,eated at least t4ice' then #ollo4ed %y another %it o# music at a slightly higher
a"erage ,itch' 4hich in turn' is #ollo4ed %y the lo4er ,art& This alternation can continue #or
an uns,eci#ied ,eriod o# time' %ut the lo4er section tends to a,,ear more than once at a
time' 4hile the higher or EriseE section is sung only once each time it a,,ears&
The rise occurs in the music o# a #airly large num%er o# tri%es along %oth coasts o# the
+nited States and Canada& 1igure 17 gi"es the distri%ution among those tri%es 4hich ha"e
%een studied' and the a,,ro:imate ,ercentage o# songs o# each tri%e in 4hich the rise is
#ound& It is strongest =occurring in o"er B6 ,er cent o# the songs> among the )uman tri%es o#
the South4est' and among the Mi4o3' $omo' Maidu' and $at4in o# central Cali#ornia& In the
re,ertories o# the North4est Coast Tsimshian and the southeastern Chocta4 it occurs in 76 K
@6 ,er cent o# the songs; among the northeastern $eno%scot and the north4estern Noot3a' it
occurs in 16 K 76 ,er cent o# the songs; and in the songs o# the K4a3iutl o# the North4est
Coast and Jancou"er Island as 4ell as the southeastern Cree3' )uchi' and Tutelo' in less than
16 ,er cent& Considering that most o# the other tri%es o# the coasts are musically not 4ell
3no4n' it is ,ro%a%le =,ro"ided the sam,les used are relia%le> that the rise has a center o#
distri%ution in the south4estern +nited States' and a thinning K out strength across the
southern ,art o# the +nited States and u, %oth coasts& This in#ormation can %e inter,reted in
se"eral 4ays' %ut at any rate it is more "alua%le than a sim,le statement that these tri%es
ha"e the rise in their re,ertories&
Some 4or3 along similar lines in North merican Indian music has %een done %y
1rances !ensmore =1.7.>&Her com,arati"e ta%les usually include the tri%e or tri%es 4hich the
study at hand contains =$a4nee in the case o# our re#erence> and com,ares them only 4ith
#igures re,resenting the entire
%'-
grou, o# tri%es 4hose music she had ,re"iously studied& Ne"ertheless' i# her analyses 4ere
relia%le' it 4ould %e ,ossi%le to ma3e cartogra,hic re,resentations o# her #igures 4hich 4ould'
then' indicate the distri%ution' in ?uantitati"e terms' o# certain s,ecial and general elements
o# music in North merica&
& M& Cones =1.B.' "ol& 1> has made a ma, o# ty,es o# harmony in Negro #rica' using
as a %asis the main inter"al %et4een the "oices =unison' thirds' #ourths K #i#ths>&No indication
is gi"en on the ma, o# the amount o# such harmonic music in each re,ertory' and o#
o"erla,,ing distri%utions =i# any>&
Marius Schneider =1.B981@ K 10> 4ould e"idently %e o,,osed to the a,,roaches
outlined in the last three ,aragra,hs' #or he %elie"es that certain ty,es o# music are
ine"ita%ly lin3ed to certain ty,es o# economy' such as hunting' shee, herding' and #arming& I#
a hunting culture has in its re,ertory music 4hich is o# a style di##erent #rom the main %ody
o# its music' Schneider 4ould ,resuma%ly consider it non-authentic& It is e"ident that i# 4e
4ere to ma3e a musical ma, o# the 4orld K %ased on elements o# music or e"en on the
distri%ution o# indi"idual com,ositions K according to SchneiderDs "ie4' 4e 4ould ha"e to
distinguish %et4een the music 4hich could %e said to %elong ,ro,erly to a culture' and that
4hich has in#iltrated it #rom the outside' and 4e 4ould ha"e to %ase our distri%ution someho4
on this distinction' rather than on ?uantitati"e considerations& This 4ould thro4 us again into
the 3notty ?uestion o# 4hat is Ethe realE music o# a culture' a ?uestion discussed in Cha,ter
/&
7> !istri%ution o# com,ositions& (hile 4e could #ollo4 certain 3inds o# scales and
rhythms throughout the 4orld and get one 3ind o# ,icture or ma,' 4e might a,,roach the
entire ,ro%lem o# musical cartogra,hy #rom the ,oint o# "ie4 o# the indi"idual com,ositions K
,ieces or songs& Our #irst ,ro%lem 4ould %e to #ind out 4hat the unit o# musical creati"ity
actually is; #or although in (estern culti"ated music 4e might ha"e no di##iculty identi#ying a
,iece' this is more di##icult e"en in (estern #ol3 music& In non-literate cultures 4e are
sometimes %athed %y the 4ay in 4hich in#ormants 4ill insist that t4o musical items
%)$
4hich seem identical to use are really inde,endent ,ieces' and ho4' in other cases' t4o
seemingly "ery dissimilar songs 4ill %e called ali3e %y the in#ormant&
ssuming that 4e can come to a decision on 4hat constitutes a com,osition' 4e must
then identi#y a> similar #orms 4hich are genetically related' and %> similar #orms 4hich are
similar only %ecause the style =the scale' rhythm' #orm' etc&> in their re,ertory ma3es the
inde,endent creation o# similar #orms li3ely& (e are concerned =as 4e 4ere in Cha,ter />
4ith distinguishing musical content #rom musical style& $lotting the distri%ution o# songs and
their "ariants has hardly %een attem,ted& n a,,roach =in 4hich genetic relationshi, is not
necessarily assumed> has %een made %y (iora' 4ho gi"es similar tunes #rom many ,arts o#
Euro,e in order to sho4 the stylistic homogeneity o# Euro,ean #ol3 music =(iora 1.B98B6 K
B@>& Here it %ecomes e"ident that distri%ution o# elements o# music may %e ?uite contrary to
distri%ution o# com,ositions' at least 4ithin certain limits& The "ariants o# a tune as sung in
Hungary' S,ain' and Ireland are "ery di##erent' ,erha,s %ecause the styles o# these three
cultures' as determined %y the elements o# music' are so di##erent& On the other hand' the
three styles are relati"ely ali3e 4hen com,ared to #rican or Chinese music' and ,erha,s as a
result' the com,osition in ?uestion is limited to Euro,e and does not a,,ear in #rica or
China&
gain' Marius Schneider =1.B98 70> o##ers an interesting sidelight' saying that a melodic
ty,e =i&e&' a grou, o# melodies similar enough so that genetic relationshi, could %e in#erred'
or a ty,e o# music the "arious #orms o# 4hich ha"e some inner relationshi, 4hich cannot
al4ays %e identi#ied %y analysis> is re"ealed a%o"e all in ,er#ormance and in the ,eculiar 4ay
in 4hich metre and melodic line coalesce in the rhythm& On ,a,er it can %e gras,ed only
incom,letely' %ut the ear detects it immediately& The same melodic idea' a,,earing
simultaneously in the music o# t4o di##erent ,eo,les' can %e used %y each o# them in a
di##erent ty,e& On the other hand' the same ty,e may a,,ear in t4o di##erent melodies
although the actual notes may ha"e little in common&
Recent 4or3 %y lan *oma: also em,hasiAes the im,ortance
%)!
o# the manner o# ,er#ormance rather than the melodic' rhythmic' and #ormal as,ects o# music
4hen it comes to deciding u,on the 4orld ma, o# music&
(e must' then' distinguish among three 3inds o# ,henomena 4hen considering the
distri%ution o# com,ositions8 the "ariants K de#initely esta%lished as such K o# a ,iece; similar
melodies 4ithout de#inite genetic relationshi,' such as the Z4andering melodiesE 4hich are o#
long standing as musicological curiosities; and melodic ty,es' 4hich are someho4
intermediate %et4een ,ieces and s,ecialiAed elements o# music' such as the MriseN&
The distri%ution o# com,ositions in non-literate cultures has not %een studied
thoroughly&& Rhodes =1.B5> has ,u%lished a rare e:ce,tion' a study o# the distri%ution o# one
$eyote song&
But detailed in"estigations o# this 3ind 4ould ,resuma%ly sho4 4hether songs coincide
in their distri%utions and #orm MareasN' or 4hether each song has an area o# its o4n 4hich is
di##erent #rom the distri%ution o# e"ery other song& Guanti#ication o# such data 4ould in"ol"e
the num%er o# "ariants o# a song #ound in each culture or su% K culture' the num%er o#
indi"iduals 3no4ing the song' and the amount o# use to 4hich the song is ,ut&
@> The distri%ution o# musical styles' or the identi#ication o# musical areas in the 4orld'
has %een attem,ted %y "arious scholars& musical area is one 4hich e:hi%its a degree o#
homogeneity in its music %ut is larger than the tri%e' "illage' or language grou,& s such it is
similar to the culture area used %y merican anthro,ologists =#or de#inition o# 4hich see
Kroe%er 1.098@ K 9>& The conce,t o# the musical area is %eset %y some o# the same ,ro%lems
#aced %y users o# the culture area conce,t; among them are the di##iculty o# #ormulating
criteria #or identi#ying the area' and the lac3 o# measuring de"ices #or degrees o# musical
similarity or stylistic unity& *i3e the culture area' the musical area is ,rimarily a tool #or
musical classi#ication' and #urther conclusions a%out it as a unit o# historical de"elo,ment
may %e dra4n only 4ith great caution& Ethnomusicologists %egan constructing musical areas
in order to systematiAe the "ast amount o# stylistic data 4hich is a"aila%le a%out the
hundreds
%)%
o# tri%es and ethnic grou,s in each continent& The #act that these areas may %e #unctional in
other 4ays 4as not #oreseen at #irst and still does not ordinarily ,lay a ,art in their
construction&
1usical Areas in Ethnomusicological 0iterature
lthough sometimes a,,roached consciously and systematically' musical areas ha"e
also a,,eared in 4ays only incidental to the research 4hich ,roduced them& It has usually
%een assumed that musical distri%utions 4ould coincide 4ith other anthro,ologically de#ined
areas& Thus' E& M& "on Horn%ostel %elie"ed that some racial areas' #or %iological reasons'
4ere also musical units& He assumed' #or e:am,le' that the merican Indians shared a single
main style' no4 3no4n to %e common only to some o# the tri%es in North and South merica'
and that the manner o# ,er#ormance' es,ecially the "oice tim%re' 4as the main criterion o#
identi#ication =Hom%osteI1.7@>& ccordingly' he at times stated that the ,er#ormance
,ractices in singing 4ere determined racially' %ut the other as,ects o# the style 4ere learned
=or determined culturally>&This theory 4as also su,,orted %y BoseDs e:,eriments =Bose
1.B7>&The notion o# racially determined musical areas is other4ise 4ides,read and can %e
accounted #or %y the tendency o# a racial grou, to %e located in one area o# the 4orld' and
incidentally to constitute a cultural unit o# some sort& This tendency 4as e:,loited %y mysel#
in an attem,t to di"ide the 4orld into three large areas =Nettl 1.B/8 107 K 0@>&The mericas
and the 1ar East ma3e u, one o# these areas' and it could %e called the Mongoloid area'
although it is e"ident that the cultural in#luences o# sia on merica may %e res,onsi%le #or
the similarities %et4een 1ar Eastern and merican Indian music' rather than any %iologically
inherited style ,re#erence& In other 4ords' although racially de#ined areas may coincide 4ith
musical areas' the notion that %iological
%)&
inheritance is the cause need %y no means %e acce,ted as the e:,lanation&
The areas de#ined %y culture in general ha"e in se"eral in"estigations %een assumed to
%e related to musical areas& +sing the culture area conce,t' Helen Ro%ertsD =1.@/> descri,tion
o# North merican Indian music' one o# the classical attem,ts to construct musical areas' 4as
really a descri,tion o# musical style in each culture area& Ne"ertheless' Ro%erts also
su%di"ides some culture areas' such as the south4estern +nited States' 4here she identi#ies
a Ho3an' a Shoshonean' and a Na"aho style K although these su%di"isions are not #ound in
the di"isions o# the continent into culture areas 4hich are generally acce,ted& Similarly'
cultural units are the %asis o# musical distri%ution in MerriamDs di"ision o# Negro #rica into
the 2uinea Coast' the Congo' and the Eastern areas =Merriam 1.B@; 1.B5>&The use o# %oth
style traits and instrument distri%utions #or constructing areas is a #eature o# MerriamDs study
=4hile Ro%erts constructs se,arate instrument areas>' and it is im,ortant to note here that
instruments o#ten ser"e as im,ortant criteria #or culture areas themsel"es&
But since the ,resence o# an instrument does not really gi"e in#ormation a%out the style
o# the music ,er#ormed on it' instrument distri%utions do not ha"e an essential ,lace in this
discussion& Needless to say' ho4e"er' a culture 4hose musical re,ertory is dominated %y
instruments' such as Negro #rica' may ha"e its styles determined to a large degree %y these
instruments and the 3ind o# music they are ca,a%le o# ,roducing& In other areas' ho4e"er'
the distri%ution o# a ,articular instrument may ha"e no relationshi, at all to the distri%ution
o# "ocal styles& This is true' #or e:am,le' in the case o# ,an,i,es' 4hich are #ound in s,ots
throughout the 4orld in com%ination 4ith many di##erent "ocal styles; the similarity o#
,an,i,es in Oceania and South merica does not ha"e a close ,arallel in "ocal music&
Guite di##erent #rom the use o# areas in a classi#icatory sense =in %oth music and
culture> is the Kultur3reis' a conce,t de"ised #or culture at large 4hich cannot easily %e
trans#erred to a single as,ect o# culture such as music& The theoretical di##erences
%)'
%et4een a Kultur3reis and a culture area include the #ollo4ing characteristics o# the #ormer8
1> it need not %e contiguous on the ma,' 7> it is usually %ased on a #e4 3ey traits' and @> it
may o"erla, 4ith others since it is not only an area %ut also a historic era =see *o4ie 1.@98
199 K .0>&The di##iculty o# trans#erring such a conce,t to music alone is o%"ious& But it has
ne"ertheless %een done %y a num%er o# scholars' ,articularly 4ith re#erence to musical
instruments =#or e:am,le' in Sachs 1.7.>' %ut also 4ith musical style as a 4hole =#or
e:am,le' in !anc3ert 1.@.>' and 4ith indi"idual elements o# music& Schneider =1.@0>'
although he does not la%el his attem,t as rele"ant to Kultur3reiUs theory' is clearly under its
In#luence in esta%lishing areas #or ,oly,hony =south sia and South merica; Micronesia;
$olynesia; #rica>&In uniting south sia 4ith South merica' #or e:am,le' he ,ostulates a
noncontiguous area and' characteristically #or the Kultur3reiUs school' he gi"es these areas
the signi#icance o# historic units K they indicate a ,articular stage and time o# de"elo,ment K
e"en though he does not ,retend that other traits 4ill ha"e the same distri%ution&
Identi(ication o( 1usical Areas
ssuming that musical areas e:ist as #unctional units' their "ery identi#ication ,oses
methodological ,ro%lems' and a num%er o# alternati"e methods are ,ossi%le and may ,roduce
di##ering results& The student has the choice' #or e:am,le' o# using clusters o# traits' single
im,ortant traits or 4hat 4e may call Es,ecialiAedE or ,articularly distincti"e traits as the main
criteria' or he may ma3e a strictly inclusi"e' statistical statement 4hich treats e?ually all
descri%ed traits o# a gi"en style or cor,us o# music& The %asis #or constructing a musical area
is usually a grou, o# descri,tions o# tri%al and regional styles 4hich must then %e either
lum,ed or se,arated& Statistical di##erences among such styles can easily %e #ound' as can %e
seen In a study %y
%))
Merriam =1.B/> ; %ut statistics o# this sort can also %e misleading i# not ,ro,erly used' #or
they do not se,arate signi#icant #rom insigni#icant distinctions&
+sing North merica as an e:am,le' 4e #ind that musical areas 4ould di##er de,ending
on the criteria used' %ut the di##erent constructions 4ould tend to ha"e something in
common&
This is ,erha,s e"idence #or the hy,othesis K discussed %elo4 K that musical areas are
actually #unctioning units in culture& I# single traits or elements o# music are used as criteria'
large areas tend to emerge& 1or e:am,le' i# melodic contour is the only criterion' t4o areas
could %e identi#ied' one occu,ying the central ,ortion o# the continent' 4ith hea"ily
descending melodies' and one occu,ying the coasts and the northern and southern e:tremes'
4ith undulating contours& But in each area the di"ersity 4ould other4ise still %e great&
The use o# s,ecialiAed musical traits' that is' o# traits 4hich ha"e %een de"elo,ed to
some degree o# com,le:ity and intricacy' and 4hich are' on the 4hole' restricted to single
regions' is another ,ossi%le a,,roach& O# course it is necessary to distinguish %et4een the
greater or smaller degree o# ,resence o# a trait and %et4een the sim,le ,resence o# a trait in
one re,ertory com,ared 4ith its com,lete a%sence in another& In the latter circumstance 4e
4ould ha"e an e:am,le o# a s,ecialiAed trait; %ut there are #e4 musical traits 4hich are
com,letely a%sent in any culture& ,,lying this criterion to North merica' the isorhythmic
structure cou,led 4ith descending' cascading melodies 4ould ma3e ,ossi%le the identi#ication
o# a musical area around *a3e Su,erior' an area ?uite small com,ared to the culture areas&
gain' the use o# only t4o rhythmic "alues in the songs o# the ,ache and Na"aho 4ould
ma3e these tri%es the sole inha%itants o# a musical area' e"en though they do share other
musical traits 4ith some o# their neigh%ors&
cluster o# musical traits seems t. %e the most common and success#ul criterion o# a
musical area' es,ecially i# some o# these traits are Es,ecialiAedE 4hile others are shared 4ith
some' %ut not all' neigh%ors& This method is illustrated in the diagram
%)*
in 1igure 1@' in 4hich trait clusters and a s,ecialiAed trait are #ound in a hy,othetical
continent& The #act that areas 1 and 7 share traits and C' 4hile areas 7 and @ share traits B
and !' ma3es area 7 the only one 4ith all #our traits' and this in#ormation could %e su##icient
to call the three areas genuine musical areas& But it 4ould %e ,ossi%le also to inter,ret this
entire McontinentE as a single musical area' 4ith area 7 a 3ind o# center o# de"elo,ment or
distri%utional nucleus& Since area 7 also ,ossesses a s,ecialiAed trait' E' ho4e"er' 4hich its
neigh%ors lac3' this inter,retation seems less use#ul than our #irst one&
1 7 @
B
C B !
C
=B and ! a%sent> ! = and C a%sent>
E
1igure 1@& !iagram o# distri%ution o# traits in musical areas&
This method o# com%ining trait clusters 4ith s,ecialiAed traits 4as used %y mysel# in the
identi#ication o# North merican Indian musical areas& The di"ision o# Negro #rica %y Merriam
r=1.B@> is similar' #or it ,ostulates three areas' the center one o# ; 4hich shares 4ith %oth
neigh%oring areas certain traits and de"elo,s some o# them to a s,ecialiAed degree& The
im,lied construction o# a musical area %y $ic3en =1.@9> in Southeast sia' on the other hand'
illustrates the use o# a single' s,ecialiAed trait as a criterion&
The identi#ication o# %orders and their nature is a ,ro%lem 4hich logically #ollo4s these
considerations& 1or 4hile the %orders o# a musical area are at times clear K cut' they may also
%e so "ague in other cases that the areas are clearly mar3ed only %y their centers& Thus the
$lains area o# North merica is characteriAed at its center =ra,aho and !a3ota tri%es> %y
shar,ly cascading' terrace K sha,ed melody' large range' great "ocal tension' scales o# #our
or #i"e tones' large inter"als' and melodic
%)+
#ourths at 3ey ,oints& t the eastern %oundary o# the $lains' the so-called E4ild riceE
=Menomini and (inne%ago> and $rairie =$a4nee> districts' the cascading melodies are smaller
in num%er and are re,laced %y a more generaliAed contour 4hich ha,,ens to %e similar to
that o# the Eastern tri%es' and the tetratonic scales su%side in #a"or o# #i"e K and si: K tone
ones =as in the eastern +nited States>&On the other hand' the eastern characteristic o#
res,onsorial singing does not e:tend to the $rairie and E4ild riceE tri%es' 4hich ma3es these
something o# a no K manDs land %et4een the $lains and the East& On the 4estern %order o#
the $lains' the $lains traits do not' ho4e"er' e:tend to the neigh%oring 2reat Basin area =or
did not' until recently> K or "ice "ersa K e:ce,t among the +te Indians& This can ,erha,s %e
due to the natural %arrier o# the Roc3y Mountains& The di##iculty o# identi#ying musical areas
and their %oundaries is e"en greater in the Old (orld' 4here in#luences %et4een high and
non-literate cultures and the more ra,id cultural changes ha"e ,roduced com%inations o#
styles 4hose distri%ution has changed more ra,idly in recent centuries than has the more
sta%le North merican Indian music&
1usical Areas and other 4istri/utions
The #act that musical styles in#luence each other is o%"ious' and that style com%inations
should emerge at musical area %oundaries is ine"ita%le& (hat is ,erha,s sur,rising is the #act
that the %orders can %e identi#ied at all' and that some are relati"ely shar,& There are at least
t4o ,ossi%le reasons #or this situation8 1> the musical areas coincide 4ith other areas'
natural' cultural' and linguistic; and 7> the style elements in a musical area com,lement each
other to such an e:tent that #or structural reasons they coincide in their distri%ution& But in
se,arating a style or re,ertory into its com,onents' 4e must %e care#ul to distinguish
%et4een the elements o# a style =rhythm' melody' #orm' etc&> and the song ty,es =%ased on
#unctions o# the songs>&
%),
Natural areas e"idently coincide 4ith musical areas in some cases' and natural %arriers
may also %e e##ecti"e musical %arriers&
Jery o%"ious is the Himalaya chain' 4hich dra4s a rather shar, line %et4een t4o main
ty,es o# oriental music& Islands and island grou,s may %e musical areas' although 4ater is at
times an ine##ecti"e %arrier& Micronesia and Melanesia could %e construed as musical areas
=%ased on small inter"als and ,arallel ,oly,hony in the #ormer case' and the de"elo,ment o#
more com,le: #orms o# ,oly,hony in the latter>' %ut Indonesia seems to ha"e %een su%<ect to
more in#luence #rom se"eral sian styles than these mainland styles ha"e %een in#luenced %y
each other& In the style o# its #ol3 music' 2reat Britain seems to %e aloo# #rom the
neigh%oring Euro,ean countries 4hose musics are' %y com,arison' more strongly
interrelated&
reas determined %y "egetation and #auna seem to %e the %ases o# musical areas in
#rica' #or here the %oundaries coincide a,,ro:imately 4ith those limiting cattle %reeding& In
North merica' the island K and shore K d4elling Es3imo and North4est Coast tri%es %elong
together musically' as do the inha%itants o# the 2reat Basin desert area& The ,ossi%ility that a
natural en"ironment itsel# determines a musical style must not %e re<ected outright' although
it cannot carry great 4eight& The de"elo,ment o# instruments and o# #unctions o# music is no
dou%t a##ected %y such conditions& 1inally' ho4e"er' some musical areas do not coincide 4ith
gross natural areas at all' and 4here they do' direct in#luence o# the natural en"ironment on
musical creati"ity can hardly %e assumed&
The ,ossi%ility o# racial distri%ution coinciding 4ith musical areas has already %een
mentioned' and the direct in#luence o# racial =,hysical> #actors in music seems unli3ely or at
least un,ro"ed e:ce,t in a cultural conte:t& The relationshi, o# cultural area to musical area
is generally close' e"en though the t4o rarely coincide e:actly& Thus' in North merica' the
tri%es o# the eastern +nited States #orm a cultural and musical unit; the $lains tri%es'
although they are lin3ed to the $ue%los in musical character' constitute an area in %oth
res,ects' as do the North4est
%)-
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1B6
Coast tri%es and those o# the 2reat Basin area& The cultural contrast %et4een East and (est
#rica is re#lected in music as is that %et4een Negro and North #rica& Euro,e is' on the
4hole' a cultural unit as 4ell as a musical one' in %oth #ol3 and culti"ated music&
The ,oints at 4hich cultural and musical& areas do not coincide are also o# interest& In
the south4estern +nited States' #or e:am,le' a single Indian culture area contains tri%es
%elonging to three musical areas =$ue%lo' )uman' Na"aho K ,ache>' ,erha,s indicating that
in this case the musical traits o# an earlier ,eriod remained at least ,artially intact 4hile the
other as,ects o# culture changed more ra,idly and amalgamated into a more uni#ied ,attern&
In Euro,e' the cultural entity #ormed %y 2erman-s,ea3ing ,eo,les does not #ind re#lection in
the relati"ely great di##erences %et4een north 2erman and l,ine #ol3 music&
The great cultural di##erences %et4een Ca,an and China are contradicted %y a relati"e
similarity o# musical style =%ut again8 ho4 can 4e measure degrees o# similarityH>' 4hich may
also %e a relic o# earlier times& E"en in these cases' ho4e"er' the relationshi, %et4een
musical and cultural distri%utions seems com,licated only %y 4hat may %e a tendency o#
music to change =in the cases mentioned> at rates di##erent #rom other cultural elements& The
hy,othesis that certain culture ty,es =determined %y 4ay o# rec3oning descent' su%sistence'
etc&> coincide 4ith or determine certain ty,es o# musical style need not %e acce,ted' #or the
actual connection' in human li#e' %et4een music and other acti"ities' ceremonies' dance' etc&'
is su##icient to e:,lain the congruent distri%ution o# music and such acti"ities&
The ?uasi K linguistic nature o# music ,oints to the ,ossi%ility o# musical areas 4hich
coincide 4ith areas occu,ied %y s,ea3ers o# a language' or a language #amily' or other
linguistically determined grou,s& Here also there is con#licting e"idence& In North merica
there is little correlation %et4een language and music; indeed' one o# the most closely 3nit
musical areas' the $lains' is di"ided among #i"e language #amilies =lgon?uian' Siou:an'
Kio4a' +to-Atecan' and tha%ascan>' 4hile only one musical
%*$
area' the tha%ascan' com,rising ,ache and Na"aho' coincides a,,ro:imately 4ith a
language #amily& The Indo K Euro,ean language #amily does not share one musical style'
although a large ,ortion o# its s,ea3ers' located in Euro,e' share a %road sort o#
homogeneity& Se"eral o# the 1inno-+gric ,eo,les' along 4ith some Tur3ic K s,ea3ing ones'
share some musical traits' such as melodic se?uences at the #i#th' e"en though their areas o#
ha%itation are not contiguous& The music o# the Semitic K s,ea3ing ,eo,les can %e descri%ed
as ,ossessing a single style' %ut it is shared 4ith some neigh%ors s,ea3ing unrelated
languages' including $ersians' Tur3s' and to some e:tent' S,aniards& These e:am,les sho4
that there is only occasional congruency among musical and linguistic areas& In the case o#
indi"idual languages' the corres,ondence is much closer' #or the o%"ious reason o# sim,le
communication 4ithin a language area& But the theory that the origin o# musical styles can %e
traced through language relationshi,s cannot %e generally acce,ted' #or musical styles seem
to cross language %arriers and to %e more ,rone to change and annihilation than %asic
language relationshi,s&
s 4e im,lied earlier' musical areas may tell us something a%out the ,rehistory o#
music' es,ecially i# 4e com,are them to culture and language areas& musical area 4ith a
shar, %oundary coinciding 4ith a culture area 4ith a shar, %oundary may %e one 4hich has a
long history o# sta%ility& nother one 4hich does not coincide 4ith language or culture units
may %e a layer o# material recently introduced K or an e:ceedingly archaic stratum& n area
4ith much stylistic "ariety may %e one 4hich has undergone #re?uent contact 4ith other
cultures' and constant change& One 4ith a uni#ied style may ha"e e:isted in relati"e isolation&
O# course 4e do not 3no4 ,recisely 4hat historical conclusions 4e can dra4 in each case' %ut
there is no dou%t that these musical areas can e"entually %e used to gather im,ortant
in#ormation a%out the 4orldDs musical ,ast' and a%out the relationshi, o# musical e"ents to
e"ents in the history o# language and culture&
%*!
1usical Areas as Indeendent Units
It is e"ident that musical areas are sometimes closely related to natural' cultural' and
linguistic areas' %ut 4e ha"e seen that they are sometimes ?uite inde,endent o# them' and
that they sometimes retain their indi"iduality through ,eriods o# stylistic change& One
im,ortant reason #or this 3ind o# cohesion' and one 4hich has ,erha,s not %een su##iciently
e:,lored' is the #unctionality o# the indi"idual elements in the total style& Some musical styles
are made u, o# musical elements =rhythm' melody' etc&> 4hich com,lement each other or
4hich are interde,endent to such an e:tent that a change in one stimulates changes in
,articular directions in other elements& Thus' a change #rom isorhythmic to #reely mo"ing
rhythm may %e accom,anied %y a change #rom heterometric to isometric structure' a
tendency 4hich can %e o%ser"ed in #rican and Ne4 (orld Negro music&
These com,lementary changes may %e %ased on the need' in orally transmitted music'
#or the ,resence o# certain uni#ying elements as mnemonic aids' and on a desire #or a certain
degree o# unity K %ringing sim,licity& They are also e"ident in some culti"ated traditions' such
as Euro,ean organum' 4hose increased com,le:ity seems to ha"e %een accom,anied %y a
gradual sim,li#ication o# meter&
Some musical areas ha"e ,erha,s achie"ed stylistic integration' as indicated %y
interde,endence o# musical elements' to a greater degree than others' and it is those that
ha"e 4hich are ,ro%a%ly genuine musical areas& On a large scale' #rican Negro music'
although considera%ly in#luenced %y outside styles' is a unit 4hose identity is rather clear& In
North merica' the $lains and the neigh%oring 2reat Basin are stylistically integrated units to
a greater e:tent than' #or instance' the Na"aho K ,ache area' 4hich is not clearly
distinguished #rom its neigh%ors and 4hose songs e:hi%it more "ariety in style& The num%er
o# su% K styles in an area is also a criterion o# the degree o# integrity in a musical area& n
area 4ith a single style or a #e4 o"erriding traits seems destined to remain intact longer than
one 4ith great "ariety&
%*%
heterogeneous area 4ould a,,ear to %e ,articularly rece,ti"e to outside in#luences'
and ,erha,s it could %e inter,reted as one 4hose musical traits ha"e not com,lemented each
other in a satis#actory 4ay' and 4hose inha%itants are' as it 4ere' searching #or the ,ro,er
degree o# s,ecialiAation in musical style& cce,ting these #actors' 4e could consider the
,ossi%ility o# musical areas gradually %eing #ormed %y the tendency o# musical elements to
com%ine in com,lementary #ashion until the ,ro,er style has %een #ound' and %eing' in turn
or simultaneously' dissol"ed %y the disru,ting in#luence o# outside cultures& t a gi"en time'
the 4orldDs musical areas may %e at "arious stages o# this de"elo,ment8 the North merican
$lains in the ,er#ected stage o# integration' %ut %eing in#luenced and di"ersi#ied in the late
nineteenth century %y the 2host !ance and $eyote styles as 4ell as %y Euro,ean music& The
area o# Euro,ean culti"ated music' on the other hand' may %e consolidating itsel# into a
stylistic unit =com,ara%le ,erha,s to its state during the Baro?ue ,eriod> a#ter a multitude o#
in#luences and inno"ations during the ,ast century K some #rom the outside' #rom #ol3 and
oriental music K ha"e %orne u,on it& Needless to say' these statements are highly
s,eculati"e' %ut they may hel, to sol"e some o# the ,ro%lems connected 4ith geogra,hic
distri%utions in music' and 4ith the ,henomenon o# musical areas in ,articular&
Conclusions
Guite aside #rom the musical area a,,roach' it 4ould also %e use#ul to ,lot the
distri%ution o# stylistic ty,es K such as the North merican Indian $eyote songs and the
2host !ance style' 4hich 4ere su,erim,osed on older tri%al re,ertories' the ,eculiar style o#
singing e,ics in the Bal3ans' etc& There are some cultures 4hich ha"e se"eral diHerent styles
each o# 4hich is accommodated more or less e?ually 4ith the rest' and this is in itsel# 4orthy
o# cartogra,hic and historical in"estigation& The
%*&
#act that a 3ind o# com%ination o# musical elements can de"elo, considera%le homegeneity
and then s,read' as a unit' #rom culture to culture' 4ithout necessarily %ringing it the
indi"idual com,ositions' is some4hat analogous to the ,icture o# com,ositions s,reading
across stylistic lines& In other 4ords' a com,osition can mo"e K and change its style K to an
area 4ith a di##erent style; and a style can mo"e K assuming that ne4 com,ositions are
created 4ith it as a %asis K across the lines o# distri%ution o# indi"idual com,ositions&
(e ha"e com%ined the discussion o# change and o# geogra,hic distri%ution %ecause
these are the %road' com,arati"e' and ,otentially 4orld K 4ide 4ays in 4hich music can %e
studied as a ,henomenon o# culture' and iIi 4hich the theories o# anthro,ology as a
com,arati"e science can %e a,,lied to music& The ,ossi%ilities o# distri%utional and historical
studies mentioned here indicate that the music o# the 4orld is indeed a com,le:
,henomenon' ine:,lica%le in terms o# any single theory or dogma& The %eginnings o# musical
cartogra,hy could ,roceed along any one o# the lines mentioned' %ut it 4ould hardly %e
com,lete i# all o# the com,onents o# musical distri%ution discussed here 4ere not included&
nd the study o# the 4orldDs musical cultures 4ould hardly %e com,lete 4ithout detailed
consideration o# the manner in 4hich music changes' and the 4ay in 4hich musical
,henomena come a%out&
It remains #or us to ma3e some suggestions #or inde,endent study on the ,art o# the
student& Broad theoretical study in the #ield o# change in music is not 4ell suited to short K
term 4or3' nor' as 4e ha"e seen' is it as _ee o# the un,ro"ed assum,tions and the
theoretical %iases as one 4ould ho,e to ha"e it in ,ro<ects #or the %eginning student& The
most ,romising a,,roach is ,erha,s the study o# distri%ution o# musical com,ositions and o#
stylistic #eatures& Thorough study o# certain #eatures 4hose distri%ution has already %een
stated im,ressionistically' es,ecially #or Euro,ean #ol3' #rican' and North merican Indian
music' should %e ,ursued& The areas mentioned are %est %ecause their music has %een
,u%lished in greatest ?uantity& Ty,es o# scales
%*'
and rhythms as 4ell as #orm ,atterns should %e used& In all cases' he student should %e
care#ul to go %eyond statements o# the ere ,resence or a%sence o# a trait' to 4eigh his
#indings care#ully against the relia%ility and siAe o# the sam,le 4hich is used' and to ta3e into
account the cultural and linguistic conte:t o# the music&
Other ,ro<ects 4hich need to %e ,ursued in"ol"e the study # musical change as it
occurs& 1inding in#ormants 4ho ha"e made recordings in the ,ast and as3ing them to re K
record is one a,,roach& O%ser"ing the change in the re,ertory o# a community r an ethnic
organiAation o"er a ,eriod o# months might %e use#ul' and studying the di##erences in
re,ertory and style %et4een older and younger indi"iduals o# a community could %e o# great
interest& dding concrete data to an area o# ethnomusicology 4hich has so #ar %een
de,endent mainly on un,ro"ed or un,ro"a%le s,eculation 4ould a,,ear to %e a tremendous
ser"ice&
Bi/liograhy
dler' 2uido =1.65>& M+%er Hetero,honie'N Cahr%uch der Musi3%i%liothe3 $eters 1B819 K 79&
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1B@
Bar%eau' Marius =1.@0>&ZSongs o# the north4est'E Musical Guarterly 768 169-1/&
BartS3' BRla =1.@1>&Hungarian 1ol3 Music& *ondon8 O:#ord +ni"ersity $ress&
Bose' 1ritA =1.B7>& NMess%are Rassenunterschiede in der Musi3'E Homo 7' no&0&
OOOOOO& =1.B.>&Remar3s made at sym,osium on musical cartogra,hy o# #rica' in
Intemational Musicological Society' Bericht ii%er den 9& internationalen
musi34issenscha#tlichen Kongress' Kotn 1.B5& Kassel8 Baerenreiter' ,& @@9&
Collaer' $aul =1.B5>& MCartogra,hy and ethnomusicology'E Ethnomusicology 78// K /5&
and l%ert "an der *inden =1./6>&tlas histori?ue de la musi?ue& $aris8 Else"ier&
!anc3ert' (emer =1.@.>&!as euro,iiische Jol3slied& Berlin8 C& Bard&
!ensmore' 1rances =1.7.>&$a4nee Music& (ashington8 Smithsonian Institution =Bulletin .@
o# the Bureau o# merican Ethnology>&
HerAog' 2eorge =1.75>& EThe )uman musical style'E Cournal o# merican 1ol3lore 018 15@ K
7@1&
Horn%ostel' Erich M& "on =1.16>& +%er einige $an,#ei#en aus Nord4est BrasilienE in Theodor
Koch K 2ruen%erg' F4ei Cahre unter den Indianern' "ol& 7& Berlin8 E& (asmuth&
OOOOOO& =1.7@>& EMusi3 der Ma3uschi' Tauli,ang und )e3uanaE in Theodor Koch 2ruen%erg'
Jom Roroima Aum Orino3o' "ol& @& Berlin8 E& (asmuth&
Idelsohn' & F& =1.71>&E$arallelen A4ischen gregorianischen und he%riiischorientallschen
2esangs4eisen'E Feitschri#t #Pr Musi34issenscha#t 08B1B-B70&
IAi3o4itA' Karl 2usta" =1.@B>&Musical and Other Sound Instruments o# the South merican
Indians& 2ote%org8 Kungl& Jetens3a,s-och Jitterhets K Samhiilles Handlingar&
Cones' & M& =1.B.>& Studies in #rican Music& *ondon8 O:#ord +ni"ersity $ress&
Kodaly' Foltan =1.B/>&!ie ungarische Jol35musi3& Buda,est8 Cor"ina& English translation'
same ,u%lisher' 1./6&
Kolins3i' MiecAysla4 =1.@/>&ESuriname #ol3 music'E in M& Hers3o"its' ed&' Suriname 1ol3lore&
Ne4 )or38 merican 1ol3lore Society&
OOOOOO& =1.B9>& EEthnomusicology' its ,ro%lems and methods'E Ethnomusicology Ne45letter
1681-9&
Kroe%er' & *& =1.09>&Cultural and Natural reas o# Nati"e North merica& Ber3eley8
+ni"ersity o# Call#ornia $ress&
Kunst' Caa, =1.B.>&Ethnomusicology' @rd edition& The Hague8 M& Ni<ho##&
*ach' Ro%ert =1.70>& !ie "ergleichende Musi34is5enscha#t' ihre Methoden und $ro%leme&
Jienna8 3ademie der (issenscha#ten&
=1.7.>&T 5cheremis5ische 2e5aenge& Jienna8 3ademie der (issenscha#ten&
*achmann' Ro%ert =1.79>&EFur aussereuro,iiischen Mehrstirnmig3eitE in Kongre55%ericht der
Beetho"en K Fentenar#eier& Jienna8 Otto Maass&
*o4ie' Ro%ert Harry =1.@9>&The History o# Ethnological Theory& Ne4 )or38 1arrar and
Rinehart& =E:ce1lent #or general anthro,ological %ac3ground&>
nthro,ology' no&1@&
Merriam' lan $& =1.B@>& E#rican music ree:amined in the light
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=1.BB>&EThe use o# music in the study o# a ,ro%lem o# acculturation'E merican
nthro,ologist B98 75 K @0&
OOOOOO& =1.B5>& E#rican music'E in Bascom and Hers3o"its' ed&' Continuity and Change in
#rican Cultures' ,& 0. K 5/& Chicago8 +ni"ersity o# Chicago $ress&
Met#essel' Milton =1.75>&$hono,hotogra,hy in 1ol3 Music& Cha,el Hill8 +ni"ersity o# North
Carolina $ress&
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Nettl' Bruno =1.B@>&EThe Sha4nee musical style'E South (estern Cournal o# nthro,ology .8
1/6-1/5&
OOOOOO& =1.B0a>& ENotes on musical com,osition in ,rimiti"e culture'E nthro,ological
Guarterly 798 51 K .6&
OOOOOO& =1.B0%>&North merican Indian Musical Styles& $hiladel,hia8 merican 1ol3lore
Society&
OOOOOO& =1.BBa>& EChange in #ol3 and ,rimiti"e music8 a sur"ey o# ,ro%lems and methods'E
Cournal o# the merican Musicological Society 58161 K 16.&
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OOOOOO& =1.B/>& Music in $rimiti"e Culture& Cam%ridge8 Har"ard +ni"ersity $ress&
$ic3en' *a4rence =1.B9>&EMusic o# Southeast sia'E in Egon (ellesA' ed&' ncient and
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Reese' 2usta"e =1.06>& Music in the Middle ges& Ne4 )or38 Norton&
Rhodes' (illard =1.B5>&E study o# musical di##usion %ased on the 4andering o# the o,ening
$eyote song'E Cournal o# the International 1ol3 Music Council 16807 K 0.&
Ro%erts' Helen H& =1.@@>& EThe ,attern ,henomenon in ,rimiti"e music'E Feitschri#t #Pr
"ergleichende Musi34issenscha#t 180. K B7&
=1.@/>&Musical reas in %original North merica& Ne4 Ha"en8 )ale +ni"ersity $u%lications in
nthro,ology' no&17&
Sachs' Curt =1.7.>&2eist und (erden der Musi3instrumente& Berlin8 C& Bard&
OOOOOO& =1.09>&The Common4ealth o# rt& Ne4 )or38 Norton&
Schneider' Marius =1.@0>&2eschichte der Mehrstimmig3eit' "ol& 1& Berlin 8 C& Bard&
OOOOOO& =1.@5>& M!ie musi3allschen BeAiehungen A4ischen +r3ulturen' lt,HanAem und
Hirten"ol3em'E Feitschri#t #Pr Ethnologie 968759 K @67&
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Musicologia&
OOOOOO& =1.B9>& N$rimiti"e music'E in Egon (ellesA' ed& ncient
and Oriental music& *ondon8 O:#ord +ni"ersity $ress =Ne4 O:#ord History o# Music' "ol& I>&
(achsmann' Klaus $& =1./1>& MCriteria #or acculturation'E in International Musicological
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Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1BB
Chater -
1USIC IN CU0 TURE ; CONTE<T AN4 CO11UNICATION
The role o# music in culture itsel#' that is' in the li"es o# indi"iduals and grou,s as it can
%e o%ser"ed directly' has %een a,,roached %y ethnomusicologists in "arious 4ays& To classi#y
these does not seem ,ossi%le at ,resent' nor can 4e e:tract #rom them much in the 4ay o#
theory' #or they ha"e in"ol"ed essentially the sim,le descri,tion o# musical ty,es' uses'
"alues' and acti"ities& Most o# the 4or3 done in this area o# ethnomusicology so #ar remains
in the notes o# #ield in"estigators; relati"ely little o# it has %een ,u%lished& nd the reader is
urged to regard much o# the material in our Cha,ter @ as ,articularly rele"ant to our ,resent
concern' #or in most 4ays the method o# studying music in the culture o# indi"idual ,eo,les is
#ield 4or3&
It certainly seems %est #or an ethnomusicologist to %e e?ually interested in music as a
,art o# culture and in the structure o# music& In ,ractice it has not al4ays %een ,ossi%le to
maintain this com%ination o# interests' #or much in#ormation on musical li#e comes #rom
nonmusical anthro,ologists& Ethnomusicologists ha"e al4ays encouraged anthro,ologists to
,ay heed to music and to note data o# musical interest e"en i# nothing could %e said a%out
the music itsel#& Certainly the desire o# the ethnomusicologist to say to the cultural
anthro,ologist'&& Ne"er mind' e"en i# you are tone K dea# you can still #ind out a%out the
meaning o#
%*-
music in the li"es o# your in#ormants'E has ,roduced im,ortant #ield research&
But the structure o# music may also shed light on the role it ,lays in the culture& 1or
e:am,le' the #act that $lains Indian 4omen sing along 4ith the men in most songs %ut
usually do not %egin until the men ha"e sung the #irst ,hrase may %e a signi#icant clue to the
relationshi, %et4een the se:es& 1or e:am,le' ,erha,s in#ormation on the musical thought o#
$lains Indian culture can %e gained #rom the #act that the ra,aho Indians e"idently
recogniAe the di##erence in structure %et4een $eyote and older songs' %ut not %et4een 2host
!ance and older songs' e"en though the three grou,s o# music 4ould seem ?uite di##erent
#rom each other& Thus the structure o# the music should not %e com,letely neglected in a
study o# music as a ,art o# culture&
(e can ,erha,s di"ide the material in this cha,ter into three areas8 music as something
to %e understood through culture and cultural "alues; music as an aid to understanding
culture and cultural "alues; and music in its relationshi, to other communicatory ,henomena
in culture' such as dance' language' and ,oetry&
1usic and Its Cultural Conte9t
Ethnomusicologists are certainly not the #irst to argue that music can %est %e
understood through a 3no4ledge o# its cultural conte:t& Historians o# Euro,ean Baro?ue
music ha"e long s,o3en o# the analogy o# symmetrical musical #orms and symmetrical stage
sets and gardens' and o# the similarity %et4een hea"ily and arti#icially ornamented ,aintings
and architecture on the one hand and em%ellished music on the other =Bu3o#Aer 1.09 87 K
@>&In ethnomusicology this idea 4as also #elt early' #or the notion that race' ty,e o# economy'
and ty,e o# descent determine musical style is certainly a result o# the #eeling that music
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1B/
%+$
is closely related to other as,ects o# culture& The methods o# studying culture and cultural
"alues as they %ear u,on music are' on the other hand' ,oorly de"elo,ed& !irections to and
e:hortations o# #ield 4or3ers a%ound' %ut there seems to %e no clear K cut ,attern to #ollo4&
The most generally use#ul ty,e o# study on cultural conte:t o# music 4ould seem to %e
the ,resentation o# a total ,icture o# one culture' tri%e' or community& There ate no such
studies a"aila%le' and o# course the ,resentation o# a grou,Ds musical li#e literally in toto
4ould seem im,ossi%le o# attainment& But there are some e:am,les in 4hich a %road "ie4 o#
the musical culture o# one tri%e or culture is gi"en&
$erha,s the closest to an ideal is reached in some o# the early ,u%lications o# the
Bureau o# merican Ethnology o# the Smithsonian Institution& Shortly a#ter 1.66' the Bureau
4as in a ,osition to ,u%lish se"eral e:tremely detailed accounts o# North merican Indian
tri%es' their cultures and ceremonies' 4hich #ortunately included descri,tions o# singing and
musical li#e as 4ell as transcri,tions o# melodies& One o# these' %y 1letcher and *a1lesche
=1.11>' descri%es the Omaha tri%e in a monogra,h o# some /B6 ,ages& Included are accounts
o# ceremonies in e:act detail' 4ith transcri,tions o# the songs at the ,oints at 4hich they
4ere sung& The transcri,tions are ,erha,s not o# high ?uality' and some o# them are
needlessly #urnished 4ith ,iano accom,animents %y the com,oser C& C& 1illmore& nalysis and
inter,retation o# musical li#e is also a%sent' and techni?ues o# eliciting in#ormation a%out
music 4hich 4ould normally not %e "er%aliAed 4ere not used& But the 3ind o# ste, K %y K ste,
descri,tion used %y 1letcher and *a1lesche =4ho 4as himsel# a mem%er o# the Omaha tri%e>
is e:tremely use#ul as ,rimary source material and gi"es a reasona%ly relia%le o"er"ie4 o#
music in the li#e o# one tri%e& E"en more detail o# descri,tion is #ound in another ,u%lication
%y 1letcher =1.60>' an account o# the Ha3o' a $a4nee ceremony' in 4hich doAens o# songs'
transcri%ed %y Ed4in S& Tracy' are included& Here the entire song te:ts are transcri%ed and
translated' and the choreogra,hy is a,,ro:imately
%+!
indicated& n Eanalytical reca,itulationE is included& +n#ortunately this ty,e o# detailed
descri,tion is only too rare in ethnomusicological ,u%lication& 1e4 institutions ha"e had the
resources and the inclination to ,u%lish such e:act accounts as has the Bureau o# merican
Ethnology' and no dou%t many descri,tions o# ceremonies and o# musical culture at large are
lying un,u%lished in the dra4ers o# ethnomusicological #ield 4or3ers&
Old K #ashioned in a musicological sense and nai"e K sounding as the 4or3s o# llce
1letcher may %e' they are monuments o# research& nd the #act that they #ailed to ,lace the
ra4 material in theoretical ,ers,ecti"e ma3es them' today' more rather than less "alua%le
com,ared to the many ,u%lications o# the same ,eriod 4hich a%ound in stimulating %ut
un,ro"a%le s,eculation& In more recent years' the Bureau o# merican Ethnology has
attem,ted some less detailed %ut more theoretical monogra,hs on Indian ceremonies 4hich
are similar in s,irit and "alue to the old nnual Re,ort5& 1enton =1.B@> gi"es a descri,tion o#
the Iro?uois Eagle !ance 4ith transcri,tions and analysis o# the dances and songs %y
2ertrude $& Kurath& gain' this 3ind o# descri,tion gi"es a ste,-%y-ste, account o# the role o#
music in one segment o# Iro?uois li#e&
*ess detailed %ut more inclusi"e accounts o# musical culture & K are rare& The studies
discussed a%o"e a,,roach their su%<ect #rom the %road cultural "ie4' and include music only
as it is a ,art o# the 4hole culture& Occasionally 4e #ind accounts o# musical culture 4hich are
a,,roached #rom the musicologistDs s,here o# interest& Burro4s' in a study o# +"ea and
1utuna music =1.0B>' %egins 4ith a large section on Esongs in nati"e li#e'E discussing the
"arious uses to 4hich music is ,ut and the ty,es o# songs& Transcri,tions o# songs are
included' %ut analysis o# the music is reser"ed #or a s,ecial section o# the %oo3&
There are some descri,tions o# musical li#e as it in"ol"es one ,hase o# culture& 1or
e:am,le' (aterman =1.B/> descri%es music o# the nati"es o# )ir3alla' ustralia' em,hasiAing
the musical li#e o# children& In addition to enumerating the uses o# music I and descri%ing
musical acti"ities' (aterman is a%le to synthesiAe
%+%
his #indings in a 4ay 4hich has rarely %een ,ossi%le #or most in"estigators' #or he indicates
<ust 4hat single main ,ur,ose is accom,lished %y music& Thus he says that Emusic #unctions
at )ir3alla as an enculturati"e mechanism' a means o# learning )ir3alla culture& Throughout
his li#e' the a%original is surrounded %y musical e"ents that instruct him a%out his natural
en"ironment and its utiliAation %y man' that teach him his 4orld K "ie4 and sha,e his system
o# "aluesE =(aterman 1.B/801>&
Merriam =1./7> also de"otes himsel# to one as,ect o# music in a culture; in this case' it
is the acti"ity surrounding the e,udian ocarina o# the Basongye o# the Re,u%lic o# the Congo&
This instrument is used as a signal #or hunting' and Merriam considers it im,ortant #or an
understanding o# the instrument to 3no4 something a%out the ha%its and techni?ues o#
Basongye hunting& In this study' Merriam descri%es also the structure o# the instrument' the
role it ,lays in nati"e classi#ication o# sounds' and the style o# music ,roduced&
It is one thing to descri%e the uses and #unctions o# music in their cultural conte:t' and
another to a%stract #rom these a system o# musical "alues or aesthetics& HerAog =1.@5> gi"es
a short sur"ey o# the role 4hich music ,lays in the thin3ing o# "arious North merican Indian
tri%es& ttem,ting generallAations o# the 3ind made %y (aterman' a%o"e' it gi"es us a rather
cursory glance at a #ield 4hich 4as later studied in more detail =4ith one tri%e' the Na"aho>
%y Mcllester =1.B0> ; %ut it ,oints the 4ay to4ard one o# the most interesting areas o#
ethnomusicology&
1inally' 4e should mention a ty,e o# descri,tion o# musical culture 4hich co"ers an area
%roader than the tri%e or community& Brandel =1./7> discusses' #or all o# Central #rica' the
"arious 3inds o# music used %y all or most o# the tri%es in the area8 ceremonies' 4or3 songs'
entertainment' litigation' dance' and signaling& lthough all o# these ,u%lications K #rom
1letcherDs =1.60> to Brande1Ds =1./7> K ,resume to ,resent the cultural conte:t o# music on
the assum,tion that 4e 4i1l understand culture %etter through inclusion o# music' and music
%etter in its
%+&
cultural conte:t' there is o%"iously a great di##erence %et4een the rather ,lodding' ste, K %y
K ste, account o# 1letcher and the s4ee,ing general statements o# Brandel& Both ty,es o#
,u%lication are needed&
The musical "alues or aesthetics o# a culture are also an im,ortant area #or studying
music through its cultural role and conte:t& The mem%ers o# most nonK(estern cultures'
es,ecially the non-literate and #ol3 societies' ha"e di##iculty in "er%aliAing a%out music&
s3ing them 4hat good or %ad music may %e' or 4hat constitutes good or %ad singing' and
the reasons #or the ans4ers' may not ,roduce results& Studying the aesthetic "alues o# a
tri%e in"ol"es more than sim,le ?uestioning o# in#ormants' although this is also a ,ossi%le
a"enue o# a,,roach& Correlating ans4ers 4ith actually o%ser"ed musical %eha"ior is a 4ay o#
getting at the ans4ers' as is the analysis o# music and o# statements a%out music a,,earing
in ordinary con"ersation or in #ol3lore te:ts& 1e4 studies ha"e %een made' and as so
#re?uently is the case' the North merican Indians ,ro"ide material o# a ,ioneering nature&
Mcllester =1.B0>' 4hose study through a ?uestionnaire o# Na"aho "alues and o# musical
thin3ing has %een discussed in Cha,ter @' ,ro"ides a model& lthough much o# 4hat he
disco"ers a%out Na"aho musical "alues and their relationshi, to their culture is hardly
sur,rising' his 4or3 at least attem,ts to #ormulate a method& HerAog =1.@5> gi"es sam,les o#
"arious Indian in#ormantsD statements a%out music and %ac3s these 4ith analyses o#
#ol3loristic te:ts' %ut a tri%al aesthetic does not emerge& gain' 4e are only on the threshold
o# a %road area yet to %e disco"ered&
#urther a,,roach to music as a cultural ,henomenon is the conce,t o# musical
,er#ormance as an e"ent& lthough #e4 readers 4ill %e sur,rised to hear that a musical
,er#ormance in"ol"es attitudes on the ,art o# com,oser' ,er#ormer' and listener' and that the
relationshi, %et4een listener and ,er#ormer is an im,ortant one' the study o# this ,articular
relationshi, and o# the e"ents leading u, to and #ollo4ing a ,er#ormance K and o# course their
e##ect on the ,er#ormance K has not %een 4idely ,ursued&
%+'
*oma: =1.B.> is ,articularly concerned 4ith the Emusic-as-%eha"iorE a,,roach to
ethnomusicology& He %elie"es that ,er#ormerUs gestures' the coo,eration among ,er#ormers
and %et4een them and the audience' the ,resence or a%sence o# an audience' and related
matters must %e understood %e#ore 4hat he considers the ,urely #ormal elements o# music K
scale' rhythm' structure K should %e a,,roached& His %asic tenet is that certain as,ects o#
culture =and not others> determine musical style to a great e:tent& Here *oma: is com,ara%le
to those scholars 4ho consider the #orm o# economic li#e =Schneider>' or the ty,e o# descent
=Sachs>' or e"en the racial characteristics as the determinants o# musical style& *oma:
=1.B.8.B6> says that Ese:ual code' ,ositions o# 4omen' and treatment o# children seem to %e
the social ,atterns most clearly identi#ied 4ith musical style&E 1or e:am,le' he %elie"es that
Ehigh K ,itched' strident singingE is Ea sym%ol o# the %urning ,ain o# se:ual star"ation&E *i3e
all theories 4hich ascri%e musical style to a single "aria%le in culture' the se: theory o#
*oma: is di##icult to ,ro"e' and e"en in the con"incing cases 4hich *oma: cites =i&e&' the
tense singing o# the $uritanical 4hites o# the Eastern +nited States "ersus the rela:ed singing
o# the se:ually more rela:ed southern Negroes>' other causes should also %e considered& But
the interest o# *oma:Ds "ie4 #or this cha,ter is the #act that in his a,,roach to musical style
classi#ication' he considers the nonK#ormal elements' i&e&' the "ocal mannerisms' the singing
style' and the conditions surrounding the musical e"ent' as more germane than the scale'
rhythm' and #orm& Musicologists %e#ore *oma: ha"e considered these elements im,ortant'
%ut usually su%sidiary to the scales and rhythms& *oma:Ds classi#ication o# styles according to
"ocal techni?ue is an im,ortant ste, to4ard de"elo,ing a methodology #or studying music as
an e"ent in human li#e' rather than sim,ly as an inde,endent 4or3 o# art&
It is e"ident' then' that ethnomusicologists ha"e done three 3inds o# things in relating
music to its cultural en"ironment& They ha"e #urnished a #e4 descri,tions o# musical li#e
4ithout inter,retation o# the #indings; they ha"e occasionally a,,roached
%+)
the cultural "alues and musical aesthetics o# a culture; and they ha"e classi#ied musical
styles in accordance 4ith and as related to s,eci#ic ty,es o# culture' %asing their cultural
classi#ication on economy' ty,e o# descent' and se:ual attitudes&
Classi(ication o( 1usic as an Indicator
Relati"ely little 4or3 has %een done in the area o# nati"e classi#ication o# music&
lthough it is de#initely a ,art o# the aesthetics o# a grou, and although it is ,erha,s one o#
the easier as,ects o# music #or mem%ers o# non-literate cultures to "er%aliAe a%out' this area
has %arely %een a,,roached' in s,ite o# occasional e:hortations =Merriam 1./68ll6> to include
it in research& Nati"e classi#ications o# music may #urnish material #or the study o# cultural
"alues through music& It may e"en %e ,ossi%le to shed light on the cultural "alues o# (estern
ci"iliAation %y analyAing the "arious 4ays in 4hich music is classi#ied %y ur%an mericans'
and the student 4ishing to a,,ly ethnomusicological method to (estern musical culture may
#ind here an area #or ma3ing a start&
It is ty,ical' o# course' o# our ci"iliAation that indi"iduals do not agree on the ty,es and
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1B.
3inds o# music 4hich e:ist& There is at least a chance that mem%ers o# non-literate tri%es
4ould agree on the 3inds o# music 4hich their tri%es use' i&e&' that you 4ould get roughly the
same ans4er to the ?uestion E(hat 3inds o# music are there' or 4hat 3inds o# songs do you
ha"eHE #rom most mem%ers o# a tri%e& The more com,le: the culture' the less li3ely 4e are to
#ind such unanimity& In a,,roaching a%out si:ty in#ormants 4ho 4ere college students =in the
course o# a sur"ey conducted in !etroit in 1./7>' 4e #ound many di##erent ans4ers to such a
sim,le ?uestion as E(hat 3inds o# music are thereHE The most common ans4er re#lects the
educated mericanDs ,reoccu,ation 4ith the time o# origin o# a 4or3 o# art' #or classi#ications
such as medie"al' %aro?ue' classical' romantic a%ounded& 2eogra,hic classi#ications 4ere also
%+*
#ound; a num%er o# students classi#ied music as M(esternN' M#oreignN' and M#ol3N' or as
classical' ,o,ular' and #ol3& num%er o# indi"iduals 4ho distinguished %et4een classical and
,o,ular music added <aAA as a se,arate category& Guite ,ossi%ly' the social le"el o# ,er#ormer
and audience ,lays a role in the classi#ications o# music %y (esterners& #e4 o# the students
4ho 4ere ?uestioned distinguished %et4een good and %ad music' %ut they 4ere not as3ed to
de#ine these terms& Sur,risingly #e4' ho4e"er' %ased their ans4ers on criteria o# musical
style& 1or e:am,le' distinctions such as ,oly,honic and mono,honic' or instrumental and
"ocal' did not a,,ear& No one classed music as solo' cham%er' or sym,honic& Only one
distinguished %et4een contem,orary and older music' 4hich might indicate a classi#ication on
the %asis o# musical styles& The uses o# music also seemed to ,lay a small role in the
classi#ications ,resented %y conege students& Thus' no one classi#ied music as consisting o#
concert' dance' church' marching music' etc&
This small sam,le and the ,reliminary 3ind o# method used could hardly ,ro"ide
statistical "alidity' and no attem,t to dra4 de#inite conclusions can %e made& The ,ro<ect 4as
carried out only to see in 4hat directions #urther 4or3 could %e done&
I# 4e used the results #or dra4ing conclusions' 4e could ,ossi%ly say that these
students stressed the historical criterion and indicated the im,ortance o# time and ,lace o#
origin in our thin3ing a%out 4or3s o# art& They also indicated an in#luence on the ,art o#
ethnomusicological thin3ing 4hen they ga"e classical' #ol3' and non K (estern as categories'
thin3ing 4hich may ha"e %een in#luenced %y the current interest in underKde"elo,ed nations&
Their neglect o# classes %ased on musical style may re#lect the current tendency to acce,t an
musical styles' to %e relati"istic' and as such to ha"e or e:hi%it no strong ,re#erences or
#eelings; and their neglect o# classes %ased on the uses o# music may indicate the relati"ely
small role 4hich any musical acti"ity other than listening ,lays in our culture' and the
resulting tendency to consider music as ha"ing a strictly ,assi"e "alue in our society&
%+*
There is also the ,ossi%ility o# e:amining 4ritten or traditional statements made %y
mem%ers o# a culture regarding musical content' and o# inter,reting these statements in the
light o# K and #or shedding light on K cultural "alues& mong the materials o# this sort in non-
literate societies is #ol3lore& Tales' legends' myths #re?uently mention music' and there are
myths deallng 4ith the origin o# song' 4ith the 4ay songs are taught and learned %y culture
heroes' 4ith the role that songs ,lay in the mythological de"elo,ment o# a tri%e& In cultures
4ith 4ritten traditions' 4ritings on music' es,ecially those o# a theoretical and critical nature'
are e:cellent material #or the sort o# study 4e ha"e in mind& Much o# 4hat 4e ha"e #ound out
a%out the history o# music in Oriental nations comes #rom the theoretical 4ritings o# the ,ast&
O# course the rele"ance o# theoretical 4ritings to actual musical ,ractice cannot %e ta3en
com,letely #or granted' and statements made %y the 4riters must %e chec3ed' 4here"er
,ossi%le' against 3no4n musical #acts& But it 4ould also %e use#ul to e:amine the 4ritings on
music %y themsel"es' #or their o4n sa3e' in order to see 4hether any in#ormation a%out
cultural and aesthetic "alues emerges #rom them& It 4ould %e use#ul' #or e:am,le' to
e:amine (estern music criticism in ne4s,a,ers in order to see 4hat the criteria o# <udgment
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1/6
are' and 4hat the musical "alues o# the critics K and ,resuma%ly to some e:tent o# the
readers K turns out to %e; and also' to 4hat e:tent these "alues are actually re#lected in
musical trends& There are many a,,roaches to musical culture %esides the direct one to the
in#ormant& 1or e:am,le' the 4ay in 4hich merican li%raries treat and classi#y music in their
catalogs may gi"e us insight into the "alue structure o# our culture&
The #act that musical com,ositions are #irst classed and re#erred to according to
com,oser K something 4e ta3e #or granted' %ut to 4hich there are actually se"eral
alternati"es K indicates the im,ortance to us o# the ,erson 4ho created a 4or3 o# art' and
,erha,s also o# the time and ,lace o# its origin& The historical orientation o# the (estern K
educated ,u%lic is a s,ecial
%+,
#eature in our "alue structure; this 4as also sho4n in the ty,ical classi#ication o# music
among college students&
The intensely ,ersonal nature o# com,ositions is also stressed in our li%rary
classi#ication& Then' li%raries distinguish %et4een culti"ated music' 4hich they consider the
%est and most im,ortant music' and 4hich is called' in the su%<ect headings' sim,ly Zmusic'E
on the one hand' and other ty,es8 #ol3 music' ,o,ular music' and <aAA' omitting no4 the
consideration o# nonK(estern music& The large category o# <ust ,lain Emusic'E i&e&' culti"ated
music' is' in the su%<ect classi#ication' su%di"ided according to time o# origin' into t4o %road
classes se,arated %y the year 1566& 1or e:am,le' there is a su%<ect heading ESym,honiesE
and another' ESym,honies K To 15=>=>&E Could this re#lect our %asic assum,tion that the
origin =the com,oser> and the time o# origin o# a com,osition are among the most im,ortant
things a%out itH Normally' li%raries do not classi#y according to nation o# the com,oser'
according to the #irst ,er#ormer' the se: o# the com,oser' etc&' %ut according to time o#
com,osition& The choice o# the year 1566 might also %e signi#icant' though it may not re#lect
classi#ications used %y musicians 4ho ha"e no contact 4ith li%raries& There seems to %e no
more <usti#ication #or using 1566 as a cutKo## ,oint than 19B6' 199B' 1/66' or 1.66& These
other dates 4ould ,ro%a%ly re#lect more e:actly some #undamental di##erences in musical
style& lthough certain eighteenthKcentury com,osers are assuredly "ery dear to the hearts
o# many music lo"ers' li%rary classi#iers and users' on the 4hole' ,resuma%ly consider music
4ritten a#ter 1566 as Eours'E considering the music o# the nineteenth century as re#lecting
their o4n culture as much as does music 4ritten a#ter 1.66' 4hile music %e#ore 1566 K
Haydn' MoAart' and earlier K is in a se,arate class& The im,er#ection o# using such indices to
our o4n culture as li%rary classi#ication is e"ident; yet a study o# the "arious seemingly
ar%itrary 4ays o# classi#ying music in our li"es may gi"e us some in#ormation a%out our "alue
systems as re#lected in music& In the case o# merican li%raries' these 4ould %e the
im,ortance o# origin' o# the com,oser' and the desire to di"ide
%+-
things into t4o grou,s K %ased on the Eours K not oursE criterion 4hich has %uilt into it an
o"ertone o# Egood K less good&E No dou%t the conclusions here tentati"ely stated could %e
argued& The im,ortant things to %e noted' ho4e"er' are the ,ossi%ility o# using methods
deri"ed #rom ethnomusicology #or learning something a%out the aesthetic %iases and "alues
o# a com,le: culture such as ours' and the utility o# using classi#ication systems K traditional
ones as 4ell as ,u%lished ones' such as those o# li%raries K to ,ro"ide an a,,roach to these
"alues&
1usic and other Systems o( Communication
Music is' among other things' a 4ay o# communicating' and it %ears close relationshi,s
to other such systems' es,ecially dance and language& Music as a system o# communication is
the su%<ect o# many 4ritings' among 4hich those o# Seeger =1./7>' ,ro"ide theoretical
under,innings and terminology 4hich' ho4e"er' ha"e not %een 4idely ado,ted& The
relationshi, %et4een music and dance has not %een studied as 4idely as one might su,,ose'
considering the #act that in many cultures much o# the music is accom,anied %y dancing& The
t4o scholars 4ho ha"e contri%uted most to this #ield are Curt Sachs and 2ertrude $& Kurath&
Sachs' the author o# the most 4idely acce,ted history o# the dance =Sachs 1.@5>' traces the
genesis o# musical and dance %eha"ior to the same roots o# rational and emotional
e:,ression' and tries to sho4 that certain cultures ha"e similar characteristics in their dances
and their songs& Thus he indicates =1.@98155 K 5.> that the siAe o# inter"als and o# dance
ste,s is correlated' and cites s,eci#ic e:am,les some o# 4hich' it must %e said' seem to %e
%ased more on SachsD o4n inter,retation than on ,ro"a%le #acts& Thus' his statement that
there is something Eso#t' yielding' s4inging a%out the Semang =Malacca> melody K <ust as the
dance o# the Semang is so#t and s4ingingE =1.@98 1.6> remains to %e re,eated in more
descri,ti"e
%,$
terms& But since no acce,ted terminology or measuring de"ice #or correlation %et4een dance
and music is a"aila%le' 4e must acce,t SachsD statements as at least ,ossi%ly correct' and as
sign,osts #or #uture 4or3&
2ertrude Kurath has 4or3ed in more s,eci#ic and less %roadly theoretical ,ro%lems than
Sachs' ha"ing descri%ed the music and dance o# s,eci#ic ceremonies and sho4n the
interaction o# musical and choreogra,hic #orm& 1enton =1.B@> includes an essay illustrating
KurathDs a,,roach' and her o4n sur"ey =Kurath 1./6> sho4s 4hat has %een accom,lished in
this area& The relationshi, %et4een language and music has %een studied to a considera%ly
greater e:tent than that %et4een music and dance' and 4e should li3e here to ,resent a
#airly detailed discussion o# this area as a sam,le #or de"elo,ing research in the relationshi,
o# other ty,es o# communication to music& mong the sur"eys o# this #ield' that ,u%lished %y
Bright =1./@> is most to %e recommended %ecause it ,resents a linguistDs "ie4 o# an area
usually reser"ed #or the musicologist&
Interest in languageKmusic interrelations ranges #rom the "ery detailed and s,eci#ic
relationshi, %et4een the 4ords and the music o# a song to ,hiloso,hical s,eculation a%out
the sym%olic signi#icance o# musical elements and the ,rimordial connection %et4een music
and language at large& In the #ield o# traditional music these connections are es,ecially close
%ecause a great deal o# the music is "ocal' and %ecause to mem%ers o# sim,ler cultures the
tunes and te:ts are sometimes inse,ara%le conce,ts& This ma3es the com,arison o# the
structures o# 4ords and music in #ol3 song an essential as,ect o# #ol3lore research& Thus'
study o# the s,eci#ic interrelationshi,s as #ound in one song is es,ecially ,ro,er to
ethnomusicology& But other ,hases o# the music K language relationshi, can also ,ro#ita%ly
%e studied 4ith the use o# #ol3 and non K literate material& Cultures 4ith tone languages o##er
interesting ,ro%lems& Songs 4ith meaningless sylla%le te:ts may sho4 something a%out the
,erce,tion and inter,retation o# musical structure in other cultures& Occasional e:am,les o#
the musical re,resentation o# e:traKmusical
%,!
conce,ts or ideas are #ascinating& The homogeneity o# #unctionally similar songs in some
cultures could %e traced to the structure o# the te:ts& Indeed' a cha,ter such as this' 4hich
attem,ts to gi"e a %rie# sur"ey o# a %road #ield' has as its #irst tas3 the esta%lishment o#
some system o# organiAation o# the "arious 3inds o# ,ro%lems 4hich can %e encountered and
studied& Thus the #ollo4ing classi#ication&
1irst' it is ,ossi%le to di"ide ty,es o# languageKmusic relationshi,s into t4o classes8 I>
that in 4hich the relationshi, is o# a general nature and is not necessarily #ound in s,eci#ic
items o# music' and II> s,eci#ic relationshi,s %et4een the 4ords and the music o# indi"idual
com,ositions or %odies o# music& Class II can %e di"ided into t4o areas' > relationshi,
%et4een music and the meaning o# the 4ords' and B> structural relationshi,s %et4een music
and te:t& rea B can %e di"ided Into t4o grou,s' 1> the relationshi, %et4een music and
linguistic #eatures such as lines' rhyme' stanAa 4hich are ,resent only In ,oetry' and 7>
relationshi, %et4een music and linguistic #eatures #ound in language at large' such as stress'
length' tone' Intonation& The ,ur,ose o# the ne:t ,aragra,hs is to discuss some o# these
relationshi,s 4ith the use o# e:am,les' and to indicate some 4ays in 4hich they could %e
studied& Our ,ur,ose is not' ho4e"er' to ,resent conclusions on the #re?uency and
geogra,hic distri%ution o# these relationshi,s' or concerning the relati"e strength or
im,ortance o# music and language in any indi"idual %ody o# music' or similar ?uestions o# a
general nature&
I& 2eneral Relationshi,s %et4een *anguage and Music& (e are #irst con#ronted %y the
#act that language and music ha"e much In common& $rimary among these common #eatures
are mo"ement in time =rhythm> and ,itch =melody>&It is this %asic similarity 4hich has
caused some scholars =e&g&' Nadel 1.@6> to assume that music and language had a common
origin' and in some cases' that music arose out o# s,eech& But 4hereas this 3ind o#
s,eculation can lead to no concrete conclusion' it is o# great interest to study similarities in
the organiAation o# ,itch'
%,%
stress' and length in s,eci#ic languages and their accom,anying musical styles& 1or instance'
it is note4orthy that in the CAech language strong accents a,,ear at the %eginning o# all
4ords o# more than one sylla%le& In the #ol3 music 4e #ind a corres,onding de"elo,ment8
musical ,hrases or sections usually %egin on stressed notes' and the stresses are "igorous&
This occurs not only in songs' 4here this ,henomenon could %e the direct result o# melodies
4ith a,,ro,riate stresses %eing assigned to ,oems' %ut also in instrumental music' 4here
there is no such direct relationshi,& Thus it could %e the result o# a dee,ly K rooted tendency
common to %oth music and s,eech&
similar ty,e o# relationshi, is #ound %et4een the English language and much o#
English #ol3 music& In %oth' the melodic contour tends to descend at the end o# a section'
,hrase' sentence' or song& Other e:am,les can %e #ound throughout the 4orld' %ut their
cause has not %een agreed u,on& It may %e argued that similar tendencies in the language
and music o# a culture are %ased on dee, K seated aesthetic ,re#erences' and that they may
e"en %e inherent or racially determined& On the other hand' it could also %e assumed that
structural relationshi,s %et4een a gi"en language and its musical style are due sim,ly to the
#act that one 4as modeled a#ter the other& This relationshi, and the e:ce,tions to it are
among the most intriguing as,ects o# ethnomusicology&
II& S,eci#ic Relations %et4een the Te:t and Music o# Indi"idual Com,ositions& This ty,e
o# study has %een carried #or4ard in many ,u%lications =see the cha,ter %i%liogra,hy>' %ut
only rarely ha"e studies %een made 4hich indicate all o# the many relationshi,s %et4een a
tune and its 4ords& Jarious as,ects o# this ,ro%lem are outlined %elo4&
& Relationshi,s In"ol"ing the Meaning o# the (ords& This ty,e o# relationshi, ,oses
,ro%lems #aced also %y the student o# re,resentati"e or E,rogramE music in (estern culture&
It must %e assumed that nonmusical material is ,ortrayed in some 4ay in a great deal o#
music& This is done %y the com,oser either
%,&
consciously or unconsciously' and he may or may not indicate 4hat the music is intended to
,ortray or 4hat the listener is su,,osed to #eel or thin3& The identi#ication o# the e:istence o#
such nonmusical material is di##icult e"en in (estern music =historians ha"e #or decades
argued a%out the e:istence o# E,rogramsE in Beetho"enDs ma<or 4or3s> ; %ut it is e"en more
di##icult to trace in traditional music' in 4hich the com,oserDs 4ord is rarely a"aila%le&
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1/@
In#ormants are not usually articulate on such matters' and there is a great tem,tation #or the
student to su,erim,ose his o4n ideas o# 4hat the music may re,resent' ideas 4hich o#ten
ha"e no ,lace in the culture he is studying&
One 3ind o# re,resentati"e music 4hich is usually recogniAed %y in#ormants is the use o#
animal cries in songs& 1or e:am,le' these a,,ear in many merican Indian songs' and are
treated in t4o distinct 4ays8 as realistic animal cries %e#ore' during' or a#ter a song; and as
,art o# the musical structure in rhythm and melody' in 4hich case they are less realistic& The
latter treatment could %e classi#ied as true re,resentati"e music& It is #ound in 1ig& 10' in
4hich the last three notes =Eta3Kta3Kta3E> are said to re,resent the call o# the tur3ey' %ut
still #it into the musical structure&
%,'
In the music o# some non-literate and #ol3 cultures' songs 4hich ser"e a ,articular
#unction tend to e:hi%it musical similarities& lthough this could sometimes %e inter,reted as
musical re,resentation' it is rarely recogniAed as such %y in#ormants' <udging #rom the
re,orts in the literature& This stylistic unity may %e due to a num%er o# cultural and musical
#actors' and it may ha"e something to do 4ith the nature o# the #unction& The #act that in
Euro,ean #ol3 music' marching songs are "igorous' childrenDs songs are sim,le' and dance
songs corres,ond to the tem,o and rhythm o# the dance cannot %e considered e"idence o#
E,rogram music&E But it is that to a small degree ne"ertheless' #or the association o# a
,articular 3ind o# music 4ith an acti"ity or idea in the culture is a 3ind o# musical
re,resentation' and ,erha,s this 3ind o# association is at the %asis o# the (estern tradition o#
,rogram music&
B8 Structural Relationshi%s= These #orm the largest %ody o# ,ro%lems studied in
ethnomusicological literature' and they are
%,)
,erha,s easiest to a,,roach& gain' 4e su%di"ide into t4o main areas&
1& )extCMusic Relations in the +verCAll Form of a -om%osition= This can %e studied %y
di"iding %oth music and te:t into shorter elements such as ,hrases' lines' measures' and
#eet' and com,aring them& In Euro,ean #ol3 song' according to HerAog =1.B6>' there tends to
%e a close tie %et4een musical and te:tual lines; they usually coincide& Thus' in 1ig& 1B' 4e
can su,erim,ose analyses o# the t4o structures' ,lus the rhyme scheme' 4ith the #ollo4ing
results 8
Te:t content8 Ba Ca !
Rhyme scheme8 B C B
Music8 Bl B7
This song re"eals considera%le contrast %et4een musical and te:tual structure' e"en
though the main units coincide in length&
1ig& 1/ stresses re,etiti"e elements8
%,*
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1/B
Te:t content8 B B
Rhyme scheme8
Music8 l 7 @ l
In 1ig& 1/' contrasti"e to 1ig& 1B' the musical and te:tual elements sho4 similar
tendencies in the interrelationshi,s o# their lines&
In some cultures' ,oetry is not organiAed in terms o# lines' nor is the music& 1or
e:am,le' among the North merican $lains Indians 4e #ind songs 4hose structure is in t4o
sections' the second one a "ariation o# the #irst& The #irst section is accom,anied entirely %y
meaningless sylla%les& The second section' 4hich is usually shorter and at a lo4er a"erage
,itch' contains some meaningless sylla%les %ut also the meaning#ul te:t' 4hich has a ,rose K
li3e structure& 1ig& 19 illustrates this 3ind o# #orm& The meaning#ul te:t is underlined' and
only the te:t o# the second section is gi"en& This 3ind o# interaction o# te:t and tune e"idently
has dramatic "alue; the #irst section' 4ith its meaningless
%,+
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1//
te:t' ser"es to ,re,are the listener #or the clima:' 4hich arri"es 4ith the meaning#ul te:t and
the re,etition =4ith "ariations> o# the melody&
The e:am,les o##ered here illustrate only a hand#ul o# the many 3inds o# o"er K all
#ormal relationshi, %et4een music and te:t in traditional song& Ho4e"er' they should sho4
the "alue o# this 3ind o# study and the relati"e ease 4ith 4hich it can %e attac3ed& This 3ind
o# study should lead' aside #rom immediate conclusions' to a %etter understanding o#
aesthetic "alues in non-literate and #ol3 cultures&
7& Relationshi% 'et#een Phonetic Features in Language and )heir Musical Analogues=
Music and language ha"e in common at least three im,ortant #eatures at the ,honetic le"el8
stress' length' and ,itch& In music' indi"idual tones tend to %e stressed' long' or high
com,ared to their neigh%ors' <ust as in language indi"idual sylla%les may %e signi#icantly
di##erentiated %y these #eatures& It is use#ul to study the interaction o# these #eatures in song'
in order to determine the #ate o# 4ords 4hen they are set to music and the e:tent to 4hich
musical structure accommodates the te:t& No general conclusions are a"aila%le' although a
num%er o# studies o# this ,ro%lem ha"e %een made; 4e are sure' ho4e"er' that no single
,rinci,le is uni"ersally o%ser"ed' and that "ery com,le: relationshi,s' su%<ect to all sorts o#
rules and e:ce,tions' are sometimes #ound& The #ollo4ing e:am,les sho4 some o# the things
4hich can ha,,en&
In most (estern Euro,ean ,oetry the di"ision o# the line into #eet coincides 4ith the
di"ision o# music into measures' de#ined as re,eated stress ,atterns& There is a strong
tendency #or the stressed sylla%le in a #oot o# ,oetry to coincide 4ith a stressed %eat in the
measure& In 1ig& 1B all o# the stressed sylla%les coincide 4ith the stressed tones' as indicated
%y the mar3ings in the te:t& But singers and listeners in EnglishKs,ea3ing #ol3 cultures are
sometimes 4illing to acce,t gross "iolations o# this ,rinci,le&
In some Eastern Euro,ean #ol3 music' the ,oetic line is not su%di"ided into #eet& The
num%er o# stressed sylla%les is not
%,,
constant' as it is in (estern Euro,ean ,oetry' %ut the total num%er o# sylla%les ,er line is&
Thus in many songs one 4ould e:,ect little correlation %et4een musical and linguistic stress&
The music does o,erate 4ith metric ,rinci,les' %ut the te:t does not& In s,ite o# this' there
may %e considera%le correlation %et4een the t4o 3inds o# stress in CAech #ol3 songs& 1ig& 15
=4ith stressed sylla%les underlined> has ten out o# #ourteen stressed sylla%les occurring on
stressed notes& In the same song' an e:amination o# the correlation %et4een long sylla%les
=mar3ed 4ith accents> and long notes =?uarter and hal# notes> sho4s that out o# t4el"e long
sylla%les' sI: occur on long tones& This is signi#icant since only eight out o# 75 tones are long
ones&
Such a study must ta3e into consideration the ?uestion o# the signi#icance o# stress and
length in the language in"ol"ed& Thus' in a language such as CAech' in 4hich stress is
mechanically ,laced on the #irst sylla%le o# each 4ord' it is less im,ortant than in some other
languages' such as English' 4here the mis,lacement o# stress could occasionally e"en change
the meaning o# a 4ord&
1I2+RE 15& CAech #ol3 song' ECernR oci idRte s,bt&E
Correlation o# linguistic and musical ,itch ,atterns is o# great interest in the so K called
tone languages K those languages
%,-
in 4hich the intonation ,attern o# a 4ord is signi#icant so #ar as the meaning is
concerned' and in 4hich a change in ,itch ,attern could actually change the meaning& These
languages' s,o3en in #rica' the mericas' the Orient' and else4here' actually di##er greatly
in their treatment o# the ,itch element& But in all o# them it could %e assumed that the ,itch
mo"ement o# the music must %e the same as that o# the te:t 4hen it is s,o3en; other4ise
4ords 4ould %e misunderstood& ctually this assum,tion is un#ounded' #or se"eral students o#
#rican cultures =Schneider 1.0@ K 00' Cones 1.B.' King 1./1> ha"e #ound a "ery com,le:
interaction %et4een musical and linguistic tone& (ords may %e understood #rom their conte:t
e"en 4hen their ,itch ,attern is "iolated& S,ecial rules go"ern the setting o# 4ords to music K
and so on&
1ig& 1. sho4s 4hat may ha,,en in a "ery sim,le song in the O4erri dialect o# the I%o o#
Nigeria' a ,eo,le 4hose language has t4o main tones' high and lo4& The tone o# each sylla%le
as it 4ould %e s,o3en is indicated a%o"e that sylla%le =acute accent indicates the high s,eech
tone>&E:amination o# the relationshi, %et4een the ,itch mo"ement o# the te:t and that o# the
music re"eals that in this song' although the& Musical ,itch mo"ement does not al4ays re#lect
that o# the language' it is ne"er the o,,osite& In other 4ords' in this song' a change #rom lo4
to high in the te:t can %e accom,anied %y u,4ard mo"ement in the music' or %y le"eI
mo"ement' %ut not %y do4n4ard mo"ement; and the con"erse a,,lies to do4n4ard
mo"ement in ,itch&
1I2+RE 1&. l%o 4ar song&
Much more detailed studies o# the interaction %et4een s,eech tones and musical ,itch
are no4 a"aila%le& Schneider =1.0@K00> ,resents a detailed study #or the (est #rican E4e'
%-$
4hile Cones =1.B.> gi"es a general theory 4hich is ,resumed to a,,ly to many #rican tri%es
and languages& King =1./18@5K07> e:,lores the relationshi, among the )oru%a' 4hile HerAog
=1.@0> gi"es tentati"e conclusions #or the Ca%o o# *i%eria and #or the Na"aho Indians K the
latter a rare case o# attention gi"en to a nonK#rican tone language& Nettl =1.B0> e:,lores
the #unction o# tone' stress' and length in ra,aho&
Some additional ,ro%lems in music K *anguage relations 4hich #all outside the outline
used a%o"e should %e indicated in closing& In some cultures there is a di##erence %et4een the
4ays o# s,ea3ing and singing "arious 4ords and sounds& In $ima =riAona>' the sound EtE in
the s,o3en language is =according to !r& HerAog> sung as En&E In 1rench songs' the #inal Ee'E
silent in s,eech' o#ten is sung as a se,arate sylla%le and occu,ies a musical tone& di##erent
3ind o# ,ro%lem is that studied %y BartS3 =1.B1>' Bronson =1.00' 1.B7>' and others; it
concerns the degree to 4hich a tune and a song K te:t #orm a unit historically' and to 4hat
degree they tend to %e interchanged& This ,ro%lem has %een a,,roached in Euro,ean #ol3
re,ertories %ut hardly at all in non-literate cultures& 1urthermore' the in#luence o# language
on instrumental music is im,ortant& 1or e:am,le' HerAog =1.0B> has sho4n the use o#
language ,itch ,atterns in #rican drum and hom signalling' and he has indicated that much
o# the :ylo,hone music o# the Ca%o in *i%eria is %ased on the tone ,atterns o# s,o3en
utterances and is recogniAed as such&
O# interest also' in the area o# musicKlanguage relations' are certain #orms o#
communication 4hich cannot easily %e classed as either s,eech or music' %ut 4hich seem to
occu,y a sort o# middle ground' containing elements o# %oth& *ist =1./@> ,ro"ides a
classi#ication o# this ,henomenon' 4hich in the ,ast 4ould ,ro%a%ly ha"e %een called sim,ly
4ailing' shouting' and grunting' according to the degree o# sta%ility in ,itch' the degree to
4hich intonation is rele"ant' and to 4hich scalar structure o# intonation is used& s 4e mo"e
#rom s,eech' 4hich has inde#inite intonation in the sense o# using #i:ed ,itches and inter"als'
in the direction o# #i:ed intonation' 4e arri"e' %y 4ay o# the so K
%-!
called ES,rechstimme'E a sort o# arti#icial s,eech #orm in 4hich the direction o# ,itch is
im,ortant and e"en e:aggerated' at true song& In another direction' i# s,eech' 4hich usually
has considera%le "ariety o# ,itch' mo"es a4ay #rom this "ariety' 4e arri"e at monotonic
e:,ression' 4hich has a #i:ed ,itch' %y "irt8ue o# its negation o# ,itch "ariety& This #i:ed ,itch
,ro"ides the #irst tone o# a #i:ed K ,itch scale' 4hich is the essence o# song& Thus the area
4hich is at the %oundary o# s,eech and song e:tends #rom the monotonic chant to the
ES,rechstimme'E and *ist =1./@8.> ,ro"ides a diagram #or classi#ication&
The %est 4ay #or students to %egin 4or3 in the musicKlanguage area is to study
indi"idual songs' in relia%le transcri,tion' some4hat in the manner in 4hich the e:am,les in
Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1/.
the a%o"e ,aragra,hs 4ere treated& There are' so #ar' too #e4 studies o# indi"idual songs' and
too many %road statements not su##iciently documented& *ist =1.B9> is a detailed study o# the
%road interactions o# 4ords and music in the "ariants o# a single British %allad' and it could %e
used as a model #or certain 3inds o# ,ro<ects&
Conclusion
I# 4e ha"e succeeded in demonstrating anything in this "olume' it should %e that
ethnomusicology is a #ield that has only %egun to scratch the sur#aces o# its ,ossi%ilities&
1rom an ad<unct o# historical musicology' a science deallng 4ith a distinctly (estern
,henomenon' it has emerged as an area o# im,ortance in its o4n right& It has de"elo,ed a
great deal o# theory 4hich e:ists' some4hat unorganiAed' under a still too small %ody o#
documentation& The scholars in our #ield ha"e not rallied to a single %attle cry or dogma
=4hich is good>' and they #re?uently ha"e %een una%le to communicate 4ith each other
%ecause o# the di"ergence in their %ac3grounds =4hich is %ad>&)et their achie"ements are
im,ressi"e& More than in the other arts' in
%-%
music it has %een ta3en #or granted that strange and seemingly irrational #orms e:ist'
and that these can %e understood through analysis o# their structure and o# their cultural
conte:t& The educated ,u%lic and' to a degree' the ,u%lic at large in merica and Euro,e
ha"e %ecome a4are o# the aesthetic "alues o# nonK(estern musics& The historian o# (estern
music ta3es #or granted that some 3no4ledge o# non K (estern music is essential to him K
something not as #re?uently recogniAed %y historians o# (estern art and literature& nd
ethnomusicology has %egun to sho4 that music the 4orld o"er is more than arti#act' %ut that
it is K e"en in the sim,lest cultures K an essential ,art o# human li#e&
%-&
Bi/liograhy
BartS3' BRla' and l%ert $& *ord =1.B1>& Ser%oKCroatian 1ol3 Songs& Ne4 )or38 Colum%ia
+ni"ersity $ress&
Brandel' Rose =1./7>& The Music o# Central #rica& The Hague8 M& Ni<ho##&
Bright' (illiam =1./@>&E*anguage and music8 areas #or coo,eration'E Ethnomusicology 98 7/-
@7&
Bronson' Bertrand H& =1.00>&EThe interde,endence o# %allad tunes and te:ts'E (estern
1ol3lore @815B K 769&
=1.B7>&EOn the union o# 4ords and music in the Child %allads'E (estern 1ol3lore 1187@@-70.&
Bu3o#Aer' Man#red =1.09>&Music in the Baro?ue Era& Ne4 )or38 Norton&
Burro4s' Ed4in 2& =1.0B>&Songs o# +"ea and 1utuna& Honolulu8 Bernice $& Bisho, Museum&
1enton' (illiam N& =1.B@>&The Iro?uois Eagle !ance' 4ith analysis o# the Iro?uois Eagle
!ance and songs %y 2ertrude $ro3osch
Kurath& (ashington8 Smithsonian Institution& Bulletin 1B/ o# he Bureau o# merican
Ethnology&>
1letcher' lice C& =1.60>& The Ha3o; a $a4nee Ceremony& (ashington8 T4enty K second
nnual Re,ort o# the Bureau o# merican Ethnology' ,art 7&
1letcher' llce C& and 1rancis *a1lesche =1.11>& The Omaha tri%e& (ashington8 T4enty K
se"enth nnual Re,ort o# the Bureau o# merican Ethnology&
HerAog' 2eorge =1.@0>&ES,eech K melody and ,rimiti"e musicN' Musical Guarterly 7680B7 K
0//&
=1.@5>&EMusic in the thin3ing o# the merican Indian'E $ea%ody Bulletin' May 1.@5' ,,& 1 K B&
=1.0B>& E!rum signaling in a (est #rican tri%e'E (ord 18719 K 7@5&
=1.B6>& ESong'E in 1un3 and (agnallDs Standard !ictionary o# 1ol3lore' Mythology' and
*egend' "ol& 7& Ne4 )or38 1un3 and (agnall& Suggested reading' ,,& 16@5 K 1601&
Cones' & M& =1.B.>& Studies in #rican Music& *ondon8 O:#ord +ni"ersity $ress&
King' nthony =1./1>& )oru%a Sacred Music #rom E3iti& I%adan' Nigeria8 I%adan +ni"ersity
$ress&
Kurath' 2ertrude $& =1./6>& E$anorama o# dance ethnology'E Current nthro,ology 187@@-
701&
*ist' 2eorge =1.B9>&E n ideal marriage o# %allad te:t and tune'E Mid4est 1ol3lore 98.B-169&
=1./@>&EThe %oundaries o# s,eech and song'E Ethnomusicology 981-1/&
*oma:' lan =1.B.>&E1ol3 song style'E merican nthro,ologist /1;.79-.B0&
=1./7>&ESong structure and social structure'E Ethnology 1807B K 0B1&
Mcllester' !a"id $& =1.B0>& Enemy (ay Music& Cam%ridge8 $ea%ody Museum $a,ers' "ol& 01'
no&@&
Merriam' lan $& =1./6>& EEthnomusicology' discussion and de#inition o# the #ield'E
Ethnomusicology 08169-110&
=1./7>&EThe e,udia Basongye ocarina'E Ethnomusicology /819B K 156&
Nadel' Sieg#ried S& =1.@6>&EThe origins o# music'E Musical Guarterly 1/8B@1 K B0/&
Nettl' Bruno =1.B0>&ETe:t K music relations in ra,aho songs' South4estern Cournal o#
nthro,ology 1681.7-1..&
Sachs' Curt =1.@5>& (orld History o# the !ance& Ne4 )or38 Norton&
Schneider' Marius =1.0@-00>&E$honetische und metrische Korrelationen %ei ges,rochenen und
gesungenen E4e K Te:ten'E rchi" #ur "ergleichende $honeti3 98 1-/&
Seeger' Charles =1./7>&EMusic as a tradition o# communication' disci,line' and ,lay' $art I'E
Ethnomusicology /81B/-1/@&
(aterman' Richard & =1.B/>&EMusic in ustrallan a%original culture K some sociological and
,sychological im,lications'E Music Thera,y 1.BB8 06-B6&
Aendi9
SO1E PRE0I1INAR2 AN4 PREPARATOR2 E<ERCISES AN4 PROB0E1S
The #ollo4ing list o# assignments may %e hel,#ul to the student 4ho is interested in
,re,aring himsel# #or research in ethnomusicology& On the 4hole the assignments can %e
carried out in an merican or Euro,ean city in an institutional en"ironment& They could ser"e
as ,ro<ects #or class 4or3& Most o# them are not ethnomusicological ,er se; %ut they are
intended to hel, the student to see more clearly some o# the ,ro%lems o# ethnomusicological
#ield' la%oratory' and des3 4or3' to gi"e him ,ractice in some o# the techni?ues o# the #ield'
and to illustrate some o# the ,oints in the %ody o# this %oo3& Suggested techni?ues #or the
researcher are gi"en in se"eral o# the cha,ters =,articularly Cha,ters @ K 9>& The assignments
gi"en here 4ill re?uire' in some cases' the use o# those techni?ues&
Cha,ter @
=a> $ractice recording the singing and ,laying o# ac?uaintances 4ith a ta,e recorder& Try
"arious 3inds o# micro,hone ,lacement in a room' outdoors' #or di##erent com%inations o#
"oices and instruments& lso ,ractice ta3ing ,hotogra,hs o# ,er#ormers' ,er#orming grou,s'
and instruments; i# ,ossi%le' ma3e a motion ,icture o# a ,er#ormer or a grou,' or o# dancing&
=%> Ma3e a collection o# songs 4hich a #riend or relati"e remem%ers and can sing& Ma3e
recordings and 4rite do4n rele"ant %ac3ground in#ormation&
=c> Ma3e ta,e recordings =4ith ,ermission' o# course> o# the ,er#ormance o# a grou, o#
musicians at a #ol3 #esti"al or the ,icnic o# an ethnic grou,&
=d> 1ind a ,erson 4ith 4hom you can s,end a good deal o# time' and as3 him to
descri%e his entire musical li#e K 4hat songs he 3no4s' 4hat his musical "alues are' 4hat
music he listens to' etc&' and 4rite a re,ort o# it&
=e> 1ind a ,iece o# music =classical or ,o,ular> o# 4hich t4o di##erent recordings are
a"aila%le' and study the di##erences& Try to descri%e these o%<ecti"ely&
=#> *eam to ,lay a sim,le #ol3 or non K (estern instrument' ,ossi%ly #rom a mem%er o#
a #oreign culture 4ho is "isiting your community&
Cha,ter 0
=a> *isten to some o# the sim,le songs o# a non K literate culture =ustralian' North
merican Indian' or Oceanian may %e good ones to start 4ith> on a relia%le recording
=1ol34ays' Colum%ia (orld *i%rary o# 1ol3 and $rimiti"e Music are good ,ossi%ilities>&$ractice
thin3ing through the melodies or singing them a#ter listening&
=%> Transcri%e some o# these songs according to the methods outlined in this cha,ter&
Transcri,tion can also %e a grou, e:ercise; one ,erson can transcri%e at a %lac3%oard 4hile
others o##er constructi"e criticism&
=c> Record some o# your o4n singing' or that o# a #riend' and ma3e transcri,tions&
=d> Se"eral days a,art' ma3e se,arate transcri,tions o# one ,iece and com,are the
results&
=e> Ma3e a hand K gra,h #rom the notation o# a sim,le song&
=#> +sing a Kunst monochord =or another stretched string>' ,ractice identi#ying inter"als
,luc3ed at random in terms o# ?uarter K tones or smaller units&
Cha,ters B and /
=a> Read some descri,tions o# musical styles in recent issues o# ,eriodicals such as
Ethnomusicology' #rican Music' and Cournal o# the International 1ol3 Music Council' and
classi#y them according to their a,,roach; also' ma3e a critical analysis o# such a descri,tion&
=%> Ma3e indi"idual analyses o# songs and ,ieces in some standard collections 4hich do
not contain these already& The #ollo4ing are ,ossi%ilities8 Cecil Shar,' English 1ol3 Songs
#rom the Southern ,,alachians =1.@7; re,rint 1.B7> ; Marius Schneider' E$rimiti"e MusicE in
Ne4 O:#ord History o# Music' "ol& 1 =1.B9>; Harriet $a4lo4s3a' Merrily (e Sing' 16B $olish
1ol3 K songs =1./1> ; Rose Brandel' The Music o# Central #rica =1./7>& +se the methods
gi"en in Cha,ter B&
=c> *isten to recordings o# music #rom "arious cultures and classi#y them according to
the cantometrics system o# lan *oma: =see *oma:' ESong Structure and Social StructureE'
Ethnology 1807B K B1' 1./7' #or details o# the method>&
=d> Con"ert the tem,o mar3ings o# some short classical' ,o,ular' or #ol3 music ,ieces to
the Kolins3y method o# e:,ressing tem,o&
=e> Ta3e a small collection o# #ol3 music =#or e:am,le' all o# the tunes #or one song in
Shar,Ds English 1ol3 Songs #rom the Southern ,,alachians' or a similar #ol3 song collection>
and ma3e counts o# the inter"als' note "alues' and other #eatures; ,re,are a %rie# descri,tion
o# the style o# these #e4 tunes as an e:ercise ,re,aratory to ma3ing descri,tions o# larger
and more "alld sam,lings&
=#> Read a descri,tion o# a musical style' then go through the transcri,tions on 4hich it
is %ased and try to #ind e:ce,tions to the authorDs statements&
Cha,ter 9
=a> Jisit one =or more> museums o# musical instruments' or 4hich contain instrument
collections& Try to classi#y some o# the instruments according to the Sachs K Horn%ostel
classi#ication& =Ta3e along a co,y o# 2al,in Society Cournal 10' 1./1' 4hich contains the
classi#ication system&>
=%> (ithout consulting ,u%lished sources' ma3e as com,lete as ,ossi%le a descri,tion o#
a relati"ely sim,le instrument 4hich you ha"e a"aila%le K guitar' "iolin' recorder' etc& $retend
that you are descri%ing an instrument not 3no4n %e#ore& Include a descri,tion o# the
techni?ue used in ,laying&
=c> Ta3e a series o# ,hotogra,hs o# an instrument 4hich could %e used to sho4 someone
4ho has ne"er seen it %e#ore <ust 4hat it is li3e&
Cha,ter5 5 and .
=a> +sing standard li%rary techni?ues =card catalog' ,eriodical inde:es' etc&>' go through
the ethnogra,hic literature o# a tri%e and note the re#erences to music and musical acti"ities&
Ma3e a list o# these and try to 4rite a ,icture o# the musical culture o# that tri%e&
=%> s3 a ,erson #rom another culture 4ho is "isiting your community or someone 4ith
a "illage %ac3ground to descri%e his nati"e musical culture&
=c> 2o through the most im,ortant items in ethnomusicological literature mentioned in
Cha,ter 5 and ma3e a list o# musical ma,s; 4rite a criti?ue o# the methods used in com,iling
the in#ormation and in ,resenting it on a ma,&
=d> On the %asis o# some standard %oo3s on the history o# (estern music' try to #ind
out 4hat a,,roaches to musical change are usually ta3en' and 4hat theories are used to
e:,lain musical change&
=e> Ma3e a study o# the relationshi, %et4een the 4ords and music o# one #ol3 song'
using the methods in Cha,ter . and ,,endi: 7.. a standard collection o# transcri,tions
made #rom #ield recordings&
=#> s you see motion ,ictures =commercial and educational>' ma3e a list o# the
e:am,les o# non- (estern and #ol3 dancing 4hich are sho4n& CriticiAe them #rom the
"ie4,oint o# their use#ulness #or research&
=g> Try to #ind and list traditional and ,u%lished classi#ications o# music in your o4n
cultural en"ironment&

Nettl-Theory and Method Ethnomusicology

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Bruno Nettl - Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology 1

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