60

Energy Optimization of Steam Turbines by Audit

Dr. I.P.S. Paul
1
, Prof. I.P. Sharma
2
and S.K. Choudhary
3


1,2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, PO Adhyatmic Nagar, Ghaziabad 201009 UP

3
National Power Training Institute, Sector 33 Faridabad 121003 Haryana

1,
paulcpri@yahoo.co.in,
2
ipsharma55@yahoo.co.in,
3
skc557@gmail.com
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Abstract-- This paper is basically aimed at optimizing the
turbine efficiency and turbine heat rate. The techniques
can be the type of solution and finance involved. Typical
design turbine efficiencies are in the range of 39.63 - 44.0
per cent while the operating efficiencies are in the range of
34.0 - 42.0%. New technological solutions give
improvements of as much as 2.5 % in turbine efficiency or
over 6.6 % in heat rate or 14 MW for a 210 MW unit. The
aspects of energy audit of steam turbines can be classified
as follows:

Basic aspects of turbines: Maximum efficiency, Efficiency of
components and Losses in turbines; Performance
evaluation of steam turbines through acceptance tests or
routine tests; Evaluation of component efficiencies; Willans
line of a steam turbine; Turbine diagnostics- Pressure,
temperature and flow profiles in turbines; Technological
improvements in turbines and Energy conservation
measures.
Keywords: Energy optimization, Turbine efficiency, Willans
line, Turbine diagnostics.

1. INTRODUCTION
The power station and auditors jointly decide the dates for
energy audit. The data analysis and processing is done at
auditors works and a report prepared taking into
consideration the realistic economic cost factors associated
with repairs and modifications if any.

The draft report is released within 1-2 weeks of conducting
the energy audit. After interaction with the sponsors, a jointly
agreed final report is prepared and released.

The efficiency of individual circuit/equipment like water
circuit, turbine piping, turbine, generator is evaluated and
compared with the design value. The deviation in efficiency is
diagnosed (using the overhaul data provided by the plant) and
reported. The performance indices and losses in equipment are
computed and presented. The extent to which the efficiency
can be improved by implementing various energy conserving
measures is discussed along with the economic implications
considering the present level of interest rate on the capital.
The savings envisaged will be also be quantified.

The potential for energy conservation can be estimated from
knowing the state-of-the art performance indices as given in
Table 1.

TABLE 1-- PERFORMANCE INDICES OF VARIOUS
EQUIPMENTS
S.
N.
Performance index Unit Value of
State of
the art
equipment
1 Boiler efficiency % 89.0
2 Turbine efficiency % 44.0
3 Turbine heat rate kJ /kWh
kcal/kWh
8182
1955
4 Gross overall efficiency % 39.0
5 Net overall efficiency % 36.6
6 Auxiliary power % of gross
power
6.0
7 Specific fuel consumption kg/kWh 0.6
8 Specific secondary oil
consumption
ml/kWh 1.0
9 Gross unit heat rate kJ /kWh
kcal/kWh
9231
2205

II. METHODOLOGY
The detailed methodology is given as follows.
Plant Evaluation: The first phase of energy audit consists of
plant specifications, schematics, operating ratings,
performance data (such as plant load factor, design efficiency,
auxiliary power consumption) from the records based on the
questionnaire to be filled by the power station and returned to
the energy auditor before the energy audit is commenced.

Preliminary data about the individual circuit/equipment like
water circuit turbine piping, turbine, generator, transformers
and auxiliaries; past data of plant load factor, plant availability
factor, auxiliary power consumption, and planned/forced
outages; is collected for past 5 years.

The data for the past 5 years is studied. The energy auditors
and the plant engineers hold detailed discussions during their
visit to the station.


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AKGEC JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY, Vol. 2, No. 1

Thus, this phase is basically an information gathering and
processing step whereby a better understanding of the plant
and its operation is obtained.

Performance Evaluation: The detailed energy audit consists
of the following :
Efficiency tests on turbo-generator at rated loads and
at part loads.
Efficiency tests on turbine auxiliaries at rated loads
and at part loads.
Auxiliary power consumption: Evaluation of
efficiencies of the pumps and fans, etc.

The turbines are tested as per ASME ptc-6-1996. The other
Annexure to the test code are Appendix A to the test code for
steam turbine. A procedure is also available for routine
performance tests of steam turbines (ASME-ptc 6S-1988). A
number of parameters are kept constant during the test period
of 2 hours. These include plant load, dearator level, condenser
level, drain levels, feed heater drain levels, positions of
bypass, etc.
The losses in each stage of the blade can be classified as:
a. Flow friction over the blades.
b. Secondary re-circulation flow losses.
c. Tip leakage.
The total of the above three losses gives the blading losses.
xiii. The other stage related losses are calculated as follows:

Moisture losses: The local wetness is averaged out and the
wetness of the bulk of fluid is determined from which the
moisture loss is computed. The moisture loss is given by the
product of the mass flow rate of moisture in steam (bulk of
fluid) and the enthalpy gain across the stage.

Loss from Baumann stage due to bypass of last stage: This is
calculated on the basis of the difference between the losses
when 50 % of the flow is through the last stage (with the rest
of the flow entering the condenser through the Baumann
exhaust) and when the full flow is through the last stage using
conventional blading. This loss stage is given by the product
of the mass flow rate bypassing the last stage and the enthalpy
gain across the last stage.

Exhaust outflow and extraction losses: This is based on the
averaged values of the fluid parameters at the LPT blade
section outlet. This loss is given by the product of the mass
flow rate of the exhaust steam and the square of the exit
velocity component of the bulk of fluid.

Losses from clearance seals of blading and shafts: This is
calculated on the basis of engineering practice based on
guidelines given by turbine designers.
Cross-over pipes: This is calculated based on the frictional
pressure drop across the flow length of the piping.


Studies At Auditors Works: The turbine efficiency of unit is
determined. The losses of the generator are modeled and thus
the generator is determined. This is used as a basis for
determining the turbine efficiency from the experimental
turbo-generator efficiency. Thus, the efficiencies of the
generator and turbine are estimated while the efficiency of the
overall unit is experimentally determined based on the boiler
efficiency, auxiliary power, etc.

In case of efficiencies lower than design, the causes for the
deviation in efficiency will be looked into by studying the data
and the annual overhaul reports of the power stations.
The studies at the auditors works involves:
Analysis of past data, efficiency evaluation and
performance study of the plant at partial loading.
Evaluation of plant performance based on different
parameters obtained from the present data at rated/ tested
level.
Comparison of the plant performance with the design
parameters and computation of the deviations.
Study of the reports of overhaul, manufacturer data
and other data associated with the system.
Modeling of the losses in the generator.
Establishment of energy balance for the system and
understanding where and how the losses are occurring.
Evolution of proposals for energy conservation
measures and the
feasibility study of implementation.
Economic analysis of energy conservation measures.

Maximum Efficiency Of A Steam Turbine: If the entrance
enthalpy of steam into a turbine is 3,600 kJ /kg (say), it is not
possible to extract the entire amount of energy as in a boiler
because of the conversion of heat into work. The enthalpy of
steam and water at the exit pressure (decided by the saturation
pressure corresponding to lowest cooling water temperature)
is 2250 kJ /kg and 850 kJ /kg.

Testing A Steam Turbine By ASME-PTC
Various aspects of tests are given as follows.
i. Agreements between owner and concerned parties
The agreements will be on the following issues:
Specific objective of the tests
Timing of tests, operating conditions and guarantees.
Location of primary flow measuring devices
Method of handling leaks, continuous drains, blow
downs, etc.
Frequency of observations and deviations of test
runs, no. of test runs.
Calculation of heat rate, efficiency
Conditions under which the tests are declared as
unsatisfactory and terminated.

62


ii. Timing of the tests: for acceptance tests it is 8 weeks from
the date of synchronization
iii. Bench marks beyond 8 weeks: The bench marks will be for
heat rate, capacity, isentropic efficiency, etc.
iv. Test requirements:
These include:
Preliminary test runs to check the instruments,
training of personnel, confirming cycle isolation, confirm
operation of valves.
Isolation of cycle
External isolation includes: auxiliary flows that enter
or leave the cycle such as condensate, auxiliary seam, etc.
the external flows should be below 0.1 % of the main
steam flow.
Internal flow isolation includes: drains, flows which
do not leave the cycle but bypass components.
Isolation of flows includes:
Storage tanks
Auxiliary steam lines
Turbine spray
Drains on Stop, interceptor and control
valves.
Drains on MS & RH piping
Interconnecting steam lines
Auxiliary steam
Heater, drains and bypass vents
Emergency blow down.
Where it is not possible to isolate then it must be
calculated. These include: shaft packing leakage, valve
stem leakage, internal turbine leakage, turbine drain flows,
etc.
Isolation of flows is through: blank flanges, leak
proof valves, monitoring through acoustic techniques such
as engineers stethoscopes, etc.
Valve points: This can be through pressure
measurement, maximum HPT efficiency (isentropic) (by
increasing p,t in small increments), valve stem positions,
pressure ratio.

v. No. of test runs: Minimum number is 2. the heat rate from
each must not differ by more than 0.25 %. Otherwise 3
rd
test
run will have to be undertaken.
vi. Period of operation before test: minimum 24 hours and
during each hour interval the temperature and pressure
variation must be below 3 %. The load must be constant
during the pre-test period. The control valve must be open and
closed only under emergency or upset conditions.
vi. The parameters (main steam temperature, main steam
pressure, reheat steam temperature, reheat steam pressure,
condenser vacuum , etc.) must be as near to the design value
as possible to avoid correction factors.
vii. Hydrogen purity must be maximized.
viii. Specified constant speed must be maintained.

ENERGY OPTIMIZATION OF STEAM TURBINES

ix. Nozzle, bypass, extraction and secondary flow valves shall
be in the position contemplated in the specified performance.
Typical locations for flow nozzles are between last LP heater
and deaerator, between deaerator and BFP, between BFP and
HP heater and between final HP heater and entrance of boiler.

III. IDENTIFICATION OF ENERGY CONSERVATION
MEASURES
Typical design and operating efficiencies are given in Table 2.

TABLE 2 -- TYPICAL DESIGN & OPERATING TURBINE
EFFICIENCIES.
S.
N.
Performance index Unit Value
1 Turbine efficiency- Design % 39.63-44.0
2 Turbine efficiency-operating % 34.0-42.0

The techniques for identifying energy conservation measures
are as follows:
Operational optimization
Repairs
Overhauls
Simple modifications
Renovation, retrofitting, revamps, re-powering,
refurbishment
Modernization
Operational optimization: The operational optimization of the
turbines involves the following:
i. Maintaining MS & RH temperatures and pressures; exit
pressure and wetness fraction at the design conditions.
ii. Minimizing work losses in auxiliary steam by using
extraction steam instead of main steam for auxiliary tasks.
iii. Use of steam from the last stages for steam coil air pre-
heating instead of exhausting in the condenser.
iv. Maintaining valve wide open (VWO) conditions in the entire
operating range thereby reducing the irreversibility due to
work done against the valves.
v. Optimization of control valve sequence-full arc/partial arc
sequences.
vi. Cold washing of turbine to remove soluble deposits. The
steam parameters are so maintained that it condenses before
the regular condensing conditions enabling dissolution of
soluble deposits. The success of a cold wash is indicated by
a fall in the silica in condensate, axial shift, differential
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AKGEC JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY, Vol. 2, No. 1

expansion and bearing vibration.
vii. Timely evacuation of condensate drains based on
temperature sensing.

The operational optimization of the condensers involves the
following:
i. Maintaining condenser vacuum as close to the design as
possible.
ii. Controlled operation of air removal devices to match the air
requirement. These equipment are of fixed capacity and their
optimal operation can be achieved by their capacity control.
iii. Optimal operation of cleaning systems such as condenser ball
cleaning system, debris separator, trash rack, etc.. Condenser
cooling water deserves equally important attention as the
feed water and steam.
iv. If the O
2
in the condensate is over 5 ppb, the water leaving
the condenser must be deaerated by injecting auxiliary steam
into the condenser hot well.

The operational optimisation of cooling towers involves the
following:
i. Maximisation of temperature drop and minimising the
evaporative losses in the cooling tower by adjustment of the
grills and avoiding by-pass of cooling water.
ii. Minimisation of temperature gain in the water flow between
the cold well and the condenser inlet (maximisation of the
CW loop efficiency).
iii. Minimising the CW blow down to below 3 %.
The operational optimization of the feed water heaters
involves the following:
i. Optimisation of the condensate level on the shell side. If the
level is too high feed water heating surface will be reduced.
If it is too low steam will blow through the condensate drain
leading to corrosion and operational instability. The level is
adjusted by observing the TTD and DCA to the optimal
point. The limits of drain velocity to avoid flashing of steam
are 0.6 m/s at the inlet and 1.2 m/s at the outlet.
ii. In case one of the heaters is out of service, the design
temperature gain across the heater train must be obtained
through the other heaters.
iii. Ensuring adequate oxygen is removed in the deaerator tank
by ensuring that the temperature corresponds to the
saturation temperature at the deaerator pressure.
iv. Design limits of feed water velocities for erosion and
corrosion resistance are 2.4 m/s for CS tubes and 3.0 m/.s for
SS tubes. However, tube corrosion can be avoided and
protective oxide will be preserved if the velocities do not
exceed 2.1 m/s for CS tubes and 2.7 m/s for SS tubes.
v. Temperatures at the outlet of the de-superheating zone
should be above the saturation temperature of steam under all
conditions to avoid erosion due to water impingement and
tube vibration.
vi. Air venting rate of 0.5 % of the steam extracted to a heater
must be maintained.

Retrofitting, revamps, re-powering, refurbishment:
The retrofits suggested for the turbines of 30 MW to 120 MW
are as follows:
i. LP turbine retrofits (using 12 % Cr steel blades with
induction hardened leading edges) are recommended to
overcome mechanical problems due to stress corrosion
cracking, torsional vibration or erosion (water droplet impact
erosion or surface corrosion/erosion). As an offshoot, by
introduction of advanced aerodynamically designed retrofits,
efficiency and availability of the plant will improve.
LPT retrofits include improved blades as well as optimised
diffuser, extraction nozzle and steam exit in the casing of the
older turbines. Improved blade efficiency is achieved by
increase in the hub reaction, avoidance of the loss intensive
channelled shock at the hub section of the last stage blades,
optimisation of radial exit angle, improved resolution of flow
at end walls, conical flow passage instead of stair
configuration, use of integral shrouded rotor blades. High
efficiency diffusers aim at retarding the exit flow velocities
and recover as much of the kinetic energy as possible.
ii. High performance reaction blades characterized by twisted,
bowed and tapered airfoils have been developed which can
be used for retrofitting or re-powering older units. These
have features of insensitivity to inlet angle variations,
optimised controlled diffusion and have a thin trailing edge.
iii. Endoscopes for admission, exhaust and extraction chambers.
iv. Expert systems for continuous vibration signature analysis.
v. Information technology based turbine heat rate monitoring to
indicate the various losses.

The retrofits suggested for the turbines of 210 MW and 500 MW are
as follows:
i. Variable pressure operation retrofit.
ii. Endoscopes for admission, exhaust and extraction chambers.
iii. Expert systems for continuous vibration signature analysis.
iv. Information technology based turbine heat rate monitoring to
indicate the various losses.
64
v. Water-induction detection systembased on acoustic transducers.

The retrofits suggested for the condensers are as follows:


i. Automated monitoring and chemical control of condenser
leaks.
ii. Installation of on-line cleaning with reverse flow
valve/rubber sponge ball /nylon brush system.
iii. Installation of automated debris filters which not only
screens materials above 1.5 mm but conveys the debris from
the inlet of the CW pipe to its outlet (at the point of discharge
from the condenser) based on sensing the differential
pressure across the CW line or through timer operation.
iv. Installation of trash rack and screens wherever river water or
sea water are used.
v. Installation of on-line condensate polishing unit especially
where sea water or river water is used for cooling.
The retrofits suggested for regenerative feed water heaters are
as follows:
i. Installation for on-line sensing of TTD, DCA, drain level,
drain temperature, etc..
ii. Introduction of 100 % HP/LP group and individual by-pass
in older units where these are not present.
iii. Installation of heat recovery devices such as gland steam
condenser, stack steam condenser and vent steam condenser
for older units where these are not present.

Modernisation : For achieving turbine efficiencies of as high
as 41-42 %, the steam turbine (HP, IP and LP cylinders) of old
units may be replaced with standard 3-d stage specific bladed
turbines with 3-d modeled exhaust diffuser, improved tip to
tip sealing, modified exhaust hood spray and a turbine
supervisory system.

The standard added features of the retrofitted turbines are as
follows:
i. Heating system for the surface of the last stationary
stage of hollow blades of LPT by injection of steam
from an earlier extraction.
ii. Modification in location of exhaust hood spray such
that the excessive ventilation heating (during low
load operation and load rejection) is not experienced
in the LPT on the generator side.
iii. Endoscopes for examination of blading without
opening of the casing.


ENERGY OPTIMIZATION OF STEAM TURBINES

IV. IMPLEMENTATION OF ENERGY
CONSERVATION MEASURES
The methods of implementing energy conservation measures
are preparation of a DPR, detailed engineering of the proposed
scheme, financial arrangements and project execution.

V. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Energy audit is a primary tool for assessing the energy
conservation potential and the routes to achieve it through

targeting performance indices. The state of the art technology
should be used as a basis for assessing the energy conserving
potential. After implementation of the energy conservation
scheme constant monitoring of the performance indices is a
pre-requisite for efficient operation. A combination of various
methods of energy conservation such as operational
optimization, repair, overhauling, simple modifications,
upgradation, etc., must be used to economically achieve the
targeted performance indices.

VI. REFERENCES
[1]. ASME-ptc-6-1996, Performance Test code 6 on steam
turbines, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York.
[2]. ASME-ptc-6SReport 1988, Procedures for routine
performance tests opf steam turbines, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York.
[3]. Bhatt, M.S. and Rajkumar, N. (1999), Performance
enhancement in coal fired thermal power plants. Part II: Steam
turbines, Int. J. Energy Res., 23, pp 489-515.
[4]. I.P.S. Paul (1998), Systematic approaches for energy
Conservation in Thermal Power Generation, J . Karnataka
Electricity Board, Bangalore, pp 1-12.



Dr. I P S Paul is currently a Professor
at the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Ajay Kumar Garg
Engineering College, Ghaziabad.


Obtained BE (Mech) from NIT
Bhopal, MBA from University of
Delhi, Diploma in Energy
Management, Italy and Ph.D. fromIIT
Delhi.

He has served as power, research
engineer and trainer in PSEB, NPTI,
NTPC and CPRI. He has guided
Ph.D., M.Tech and MBA thesis and
has 108 research papers to his credit.



65


Prof. I.P Sharma (b.
15.6.1955) is currently
Professor and Head of the
Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Ajay Kumar
Garg Engineering College,
Ghaziabad.

He has 28 years experience in
Maintenance and Quality
Control of Aircraft and related
support systems.

He has 10 years experience in
Education
(Teaching/Examination/
Coordination).



S.K. Choudhary is currently
Director with National Power
Training Institute, Faridabad. He has
over 30 years of industry-wide
experience with last 21 years in
training and human resource
development. He is a certified
instructor fromCity and Guilds, UK
and has undergone certificate course
on Neuro-Linguistic programming
from St. J oseph College, Bangalore.
He is a regular faculty in MBA
programs and conducts training
workshops for enhancing individual/
organizational effectiveness.