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~ I ) *( k )
La p, Cv + 0: I - L P, C,,
c (k) = t ~ l 1 ~ 1
cJ l-[( f a' p,) + a" (I - P
1
)]
1 ~ 1 l ~ l
(40)
where k = 1, 2, 3 ... represents the number of time intervals
to be determined; a= (1 + rt
1
is the. discount factor per unit
time; and r is discount rate per unit time. The optimal main-
tenance time interval k* is then obtained by minimizing the
expected discounted costs over lifetime.
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
An RC structure exposed to an aggressive environment
with a service life of 60 years is used in the following to
demonstrate the applicability of the proposed strategy for
risk-cost-benefit optimized maintenance. A typical bar and
its cover concrete of the RC members, as shown in Fig. 2,
are taken for the investigation of the crack growth due to
reinforcing bar corrosion and for the evaluation of the optimal
repair strategy. The typical bar of a diameter of 12 mm
(0.47 in.) is embedded into a concrete member with an average
clear cover thickness of 39 mm (1.54 in.). The concrete has
a specified compressive strength of 34.5 MPa (500 ksi), as
shown in Table 1. Concrete fracture energy GF is estimated
from the compressive strength, where the maximum aggre-
gate size is assumed to be 25 mm (0.98 in.). The critical crack
width Wcr (cohesive crack opening at zero residual strengtg)
is a function of the fracture energy and the given maximum
aggregate size. The total crack number nc is calculated from
nc = 2nRcfLc = 4 in the case in question, which agrees with
the experimental results in Torres-Acosta and Sagues (2004).
A porous zone with a thickness of do = 12.5 jlm (0.0005 in.)
(Liu and Weyers 1998) and a concrete creep coefficient of
8c = 1 (Zhang et al. 2010) are considered in the calculations.
Various values of corrosion rate are adopted to investigate
235
0.10 ..-----------------------,
0.08
:: 0.06
It
.
.
"II
0.04
B
!
Q 0.02
-+-- Prediction by lhis sludy
:lK Tom:!r-Acostu. & Sa8J.1ea 2004, Long anode lenglb
fl. Torre .. Acosta & Sague 2004
0 Torre .. Acosla & Sagues 2004
+ Torres-AeoSia & Sagues 2004
*
+
fl. 0
0.00
Cover-CO-bn dl1meter
Fig. 3-Critical corrosion penetration tcr of steel reinforce-
ment as function of concrete cover-to-reinforcing-bar diam-
eter ratio C;Db, compared with available experimental data in
Torres-Acosta and Sagues (2004). (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
10.00 ..--:.:-r<doii-:-:--:-by-.,.:-,-ludy:-------.---- ----- -....
:1 .. MII1ilu-Midriif lOOl,Rit
+
0.001 0.010
Corrotlopeuetradoa nte
0100
Fig. 4-Equivalent crack width w as function of corrosion
penetration rate t,lr
0
, compared with experimental data from
accelerated and natural corrosion tests in Torres-Acosta
and Martinez-Madrid (2003) and Vidal et al. (2004 ). (Note:
1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
3.0 .,....------------ -----------,
X Corrosion cummt icorr = 0,3
IJ Corrosion cuuent icorr = 0,5
l:J. Conosion cunenl icon = I .0
o Corrosion current icorr = 2.0
0 Corrosion cunent icorr = 5.0
10 20 30
Time, year
40 50 60
Fig. 5-Equivalent crack widths at cover surface (we) over
time t for various mean annual corrosion currents icorr per
unit length (unit: j.JA/cm
2
). (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.; 1 J1A1
cm
2
= 6.45 j.JA/in.
2
)
its influence on crack evolution in the cover and the optimal
repair time associated with concrete cracking.
The results in Fig. 3 show the critical corrosion penetra-
tion tcr at the time required by cracks to reach the free surface
as a function of concrete cover-to-reinforcing-bar diameter
ratio (C!Db). To minimize the influence of localized steel
236
0.8
i
06
'; .
:zs
0.4
0,2
10 20
X 0.3mm(0.012in)
o Acceplable liml 0.4mm (0 0 16in)
6 Acceplablelimil 0.5mm(0.020in)
30
Time, year
40 50 60
Fig. 6-Lifetime distribution of time to failure F(t) for
various acceptable crack width limits.
corrosion on the critical corrosion penetration, experimental
results in Torres-Acosta and Sagues (2004) with a cover-
to-anode length ratio of less than 0.18 are adopted in the
study. Then, the results predicted by the proposed method
are plotted for comparison with the available experimental
data. From Fig. 3, the predicted critical corrosion penetra-
tion increases as the C/Db increases, agreeing well with
the previous experimental results. The results in Fig. 4 are
for the equivalent crack width w over time as a function of
the corrosion penetration rate t,.lr
0
. The predicted results
are then compared with previous experimental investiga-
tions obtained from accelerated or natural corrosion tests in
concrete (Torres-Acosta and Martinez-Madrid 2003; Vidal
et al. 2004). Here again, the predicted results for the crack
growth in the cover due to corrosion agree well with the
available experimental data.
To investigate the effect of the corrosion current icorr on
crack evolution, various values of the corrosion rate ranging
from 0.3 to 5.0 j.t.A/cm
2
(1.94 to 32.25 j.t.A/in.
2
) corre-
sponding to low-to-high corrosion intensities are adopted to
predict the crack width at the concrete as shown in
Fig. 5. The corrosion rate increases with the development
of crack width when the equivalent crack width exceeds the
threshold value. The results indicate that the crack width at
the concrete surface largely depends on the corrosion rate
icorr The predicted value of crack width is three times as
much when the corrosion rate increases from 1.0 to 5.0 j.t.A/
cm
2
(6.45 to 32.25 j.t.A/in.
2
).
The deterioration of the structural performance in terms of
serviceability and durability (measured by the growth of the
equivalent crack width) is modeled as a gamma process. The
results of the lifetime distribution of time to failure F(t) are
shown in Fig. 6 for different acceptable limits-for example,
WL = 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5 mm (0.012, 0.016, and 0.020 in.),
respectively. As expected, the probability of failure associ-
ated with the equivalent crack width depends on the given
acceptable limit, with a higher probability of failure for a
lower acceptable level at any given time. The probability
of failure increases steadily over time and reaches approxi-
mately 50% at the time when the expected equivalent crack
width is equal to the given acceptable limit. As shown in
Fig. 5, crack width in the cover is significantly affected by
the mean annual corrosion current icorr The probability of
failure is thus strongly related to the corrosion rate, as indi-
cated in Fig. 7, where various corrosion rates ranging from
0.3 to 5.0 j.t.A/cm
2
(1.94 to 32.25 j.t.A/in.
2
) are considered.
The probability of failure rapidly goes to unity in the case of
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2013
e
.!!
08
0.6
0
:E
.! 0.4
E
0.2
10 20 30
Time, year
X icorr = 0,3
0 icorr=0,5
.0. icorr::;: I ,0
D icorr=2.0
<> Lcorr=S.O
40 50 60
Fig. 7-Lifetime distribution of time to failure F(t) for
various mean annual corrosion currents icorr (unit: pA!cm
2
).
(Note: 1 pA!cm
2
= 6.45 pA/in.
2
)
relatively high values of the corrosion rate, with an estimated
time of approximately 5 years to approach 100% probability
of failure when icorr = 5.0 jlA/cm
2
(32.25 jlA!in.
2
).
To find an optimal value of the repair time, the cost
defined in Eq. (40) is minimized with respect to the value of
time interval k. Only relative values of the preventive main-
tenance cost Cp and the corrective maintenance cost CF are
needed in the calculations. The corrective maintenance cost
CF for an RC bridge with 60 years of design life, including
traffic delay costs, is taken herein as CF = 1440/tonne (in
pound sterling per 1000 kg, 1 "' $1.56, $2246/short ton),
as indicated in Concrete Bridge Development Group (1995).
The preventive maintenance cost Cp = 216/tonne ($372/
short ton) is adopted in this study, giving Cp/CF = 0.15.
Figure 8 shows the results for the expected relative costs as
a function of repair time for various acceptable limits, where
the annual discount rate of 5% is considered. The results
show that the optimal repair times are 5.7 years for WL =
0.3 mm (0.012 in.), 8.9 years for WL = 0.4 mm (0.016 in.),
and 12.3 years for wL = 0.5 mm (0.020 in.), respectively.
In Fig. 9, the optimal repair time is plotted as a function
of mean annual corrosion current icorr for various accept-
able crack width limits. It is obvious that the corrosion rate
has a significant impact on the optimal repair time-from
34.7 years for icorr = 0.3 jlA/cm
2
(1.94 jlA/in.
2
) to 1.7 years
for icorr = 5.0 jlA/cm
2
(32.25 jlA/in.
2
) in the case of accept-
able crack width limit WL = 0.4 mm (0.016 in.).
Figure 10 shows the influence of the preventive mainte-
nance cost Cp on the optimal repair time, where the preven-
tive maintenance cost ranges from Cp = 0.1CF to 0.5CF. The
acceptable crack width WL is set at 0.3 mm (0.012 in.) in
this case and the mean annual corrosion current per unit
length is assumed to be icorr = 1.0 jlA/cm
2
(6.45 jlA/in.Z) in
the calculations. It can be seen that the value of the optimal
repair time increases when the preventive maintenance
cost goes up from 4.9 years for Cp = 0.1CF to 12.3 years
for Cp = 0.5Cp. The results also show that earlier repairs
are necessary to reduce the risk of failure if the preventive
maintenance cost is relatively low. In the case with a higher
preventive maintenance cost, the optimal repair time can be
delayed, but it should be earlier than the expected time to
failure if failure criteria is controlled by crack width.
CONCLUSIONS
Different phases in the deterioration process of RC struc-
tures because of corrosion-induced concrete cracking are
ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2013
3000 r--.-------------- ------,
2500
"' 2000
..r
8
J 1500
l
"
" 1000
500
X Acceptable limit 0.3mm(O.Ol2in)
o Acceptable limit 0.4mm (0,016in)
t> Acceptable limit 0.5mm (0.020in)
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time, year
Fig. 8-Expected costs over repair time interval with
discounting of annual rate of 5% as function of repair time
for various acceptable crack width limits, cost in pound ster-
ling. (Note: 1 ""'$1.56.)
6.0 .--------------------------,
s.o
"a
--><-- Acceptable limit OJmm (0.012in)
i
4.0
-e-- Acceptable limit 0.4mm (0.016in)
....
--tr- Acceplablelimit O.Smm (0.020in)
e
3.0
.
0
'II
2.0
E
a
1.0
0.0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time, yen
Fig. 9-0ptimal repair time as function of mean annual
corrosion current icorr for various acceptable crack width
limits. (Note: 1 pA!cm
2
= 6.45 pA!in.
2
)
4800
4000
"'
i 3200
...
1 2400
"
.,
1600
800
X CP=O.lxCP
0 CP=0,2xCF
a CP= 0.3xCF
+
C CP=0.5xCP
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time, year
Fig. 1 0-Expected costs with discounting as function of
repair time for various preventive maintenance costs Cr,
cost in pound sterling, WL = 0.3 mm (0.012 in.), and icorr =
1.0 pA/cm
2
(6.45 pA!in.
2
). (Note: 1 ==$1.56.)
discussed and the time period for each phase is evaluated
from the proposed approach. The development of concrete
cracking caused by bar corrosion at various stages is investi-
gated. The Stochastic Deterioration Model is then employed
to evaluate the probability of failure associated with the
growth of cracking across the cover concrete. The optimized
strategy for the repair time is illustrated on the basis of the
minimization of the balance between the maintenance costs
237
and the risk of failure in serviceability and durability. The
influence of corrosion rate on the cracking development in
the cover and the optimal repair time are discussed in terms
of optimized risk and cost.
On the basis of the results from the numerical example
involving an RC structure, the following conclusions can be
drawn: 1) the proposed analytical model can correctly predict
the growth of concrete cracking because of bar corrosion at
different stages of crack propagation. The numerical results
are in good agreement with the available experimental data
and indicate that the corrosion rate is the dominant factor
affecting the crack growth across the cover; 2) the proposed
deterioration model based on the gamma process and strictly
related to crack growth makes it possible to evaluate the life-
time distribution of time to failure for the deteriorating struc-
ture; 3) the optimal maintenance strategy during the service
life of a structure affected by bar corrosion can be determined
by optimizing the balance between the risk of failure and the
maintenance costs; and 4) the optimal repair time largely
depends on the corrosion rate, the acceptable crack width
limit, and the preventive maintenance cost. Further efforts
are needed to include the effect of nonuniform bar corrosion
and the crack-induced strength deterioration due to bar corro-
sion in the optimizing repair strategy.
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ACI Structural Journal/March-April 2013