FJAX0111

1. TRIGONOMETRY
1.1 ANGLES
Trigonometric function is a
function of angles.
A positive angle measures a
rotation in an anticlockwise
direction with respect to x-axis
whereas a negative angle
measures a rotation in a clockwise
direction.
1
Angles can be given in unit of
degrees (

) or radians (rad).
Thus it can be easily shown that
2
radians =

360
.
imilarly!

180
1rad
and
rad
180
1

=

.
Example 1
1.2 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION
2
50

-110

410

Trigonometric function is a
function of angles based on a unit
circle.
"et

be the angle from line #A

until line #$. "et the arclength A$!
say t e%uals
r
or

(as r = &).
'ere!

is in degree while t is in
radians.
Trigonometric functions sine!
cosine! tangent! cotangent!
secant and cosecant are defined
as(
3
t
B (cos t, sin t)
1
2 2
= + y x
sin t = y, cos t = x
tan t =
x
y
(x
0
), cot t =
y
x
sec t
=
) 0 (
1
x
x
, csc t =
) 0 (
1
y
y
)here (x,y) is coordinate point
on a unit circle
1
2 2
= + y x
.
*alues of the trigonometric
function can be obtained from
tables or calculators.
#bserve the plots of sine and
cosine function. +f the plot of sine
function is shifted

90
or
2

to the
4
,raph of sin x ,raph of cos x
right! then it will become a cosine
function.
imilarly! if the plot of cosine
function is shifted

90
or
2

to the
right! then it will become a sine
function. That means!
x x
x x
sin ) 90 cos(
cos ) 90 sin(
=
=

#n the other hand! it can also be

observed that
x x
x x
cos ) cos(
sin ) sin(
=
=
That is! sine function is an odd
f!"#$o! while cosine function is
an e%e! f!"#$o!.
Example 2
5
Above is the plot of tangent. +t can
be seen that tangent function is
periodic with period

.
-athematically! a function is
periodic function with period

if
) ( ) ( t f t f = +
for all t in the domain.
.ote that there are vertical
asymptotes at
n
n
x ,
2

=
are any
positive integers.
.ote that
x x tan ) tan( =
.
The plots of contangent! secant
and cosecant functions can be
obtained by taking the reciprocal
of tangent! cosine and sine
function respectively.
6
,raph of tan x
,raph of sec x
,raph of cosec x
7
,raph of cot x
+t can be seen that secant and
cosecant functions are periodic
with period
2
while cotangent
function is periodic with period

.
1.& 'LOTS OF y = a sin kx,
y = a cos kx and y = a tan kx
,raph of y = a sin kx, y = a cos kx
and y = a tan kx, where k is
positive real number! take similar
shape as the original graphs of
y = a sin kx, y = a cos kx and
y = a tan kx respectively.
(a) The period of the new function(
/eriod =
k
2
(for sine and cosine
function)
/eriod =
k

(for tangent function)

(b) Amplitude of the new function(
a (for sine and cosine functions
only).
8
/eriod will determine whether the
graph is compressed (k>1) or
expanded (0<k<1) along the x-
axis about the y-axis if compared
to the reference graph of y = sin x,
y = cos x and y = tan x.
Amplitude will compressed0expand
the reference graph of y = sin x,
y = cos x and y = tan x along the y-
axis about the x-axis.
9
(&). Above is the plot of y = sin 2x
with k = 1 and a = &. The period is

=
2
2
! meaning one complete cycle is
observed in
[ ] , 0
. The graph start at
(0,0) and the curve follows the pattern
of y = sin x.
Thus! we have a more compressed
plot compared to y = sin x.
(1). Above is the plot of y = sin
2
x
.
.ow! the period is

4
2
1
2
=
! meaning that
a complete cycle is observed in
[ ] 4 , 0
.
.ow! the graph of y = sin x is
expanded to give the graph of
y = sin
2
x
.
10

4 3
(2). Above gives the plot of
y = 3 sin 2x.
The period is

meaning that one

complete cycle is observed in
[ ] , 0
.
The amplitude is 2 meaning that the
minimum occurs at -2 while the
maximum occurs at 2.
11
That means the curve of y = sin 2x
is expanded along the y-axis about
the x-axis giving the graph of
y = 3 sin 2x.
(3). imilarly! the effects are also
observed for cosine function.
Above is the overlapping graphs of
y = cos x, y = cos 2x and y = 3 cos2x.
(4). 5or y = tan
2
x
, a complete cycle is
observed in
) , (
with period
2
and
repeated accordingly.
12
(6). 5or y = 2 tan x! a complete cycle
remains the same as for
y = tan x. 'owever! the graph is
pulled up0down around the y-axis
from the graph of y = tan x.
+n order to determine exactly the
value of a! we need to know at least
one point on the graph.
5or example! for y = 2 tan x! it is
given that one of the curves passes
through

2 ,
4

.
Thus! 2 = a tan
4

, giving a = 2.
1.( TRIGONOMETRIC RATIO
Trigonometry functions are usually
remembered based on a right-angled
triangle as given.
13
(&). ix basics trigonometry functions
are defined as

tan
1
cot
sin
1
sec
sin
1
csc
tan
cos
sin
=
=
=
=
=
=
adjacent
opposite
hypotenuse
adjacent
hypotenuse
opposite
(1). .ote that
tan
can also be given by

cos
sin
tan =
.
imilarly! it can be shown that
cos ) 90 sin( =

!
sin ) 90 cos( =

and
cot ) 90 tan( =

.
14
$ased on a right-angled triangle! if
one acute angle is

! then the other

angle is (

90
) as shown below.
(2). Thus! we have



cot / ) 90 tan(
sin / ) 90 cos(
cos / ) 90 sin(
= =
= =
= =
opposite adjacent
hypotenuse opposite
hypotenuse adjacent

Example (
(3). *alues of the trigonometric ratios
can be obtained from statistical tables
or calculators. 'owever! values for
15

90
special angles can be described using
the triangles below.
Table &

rad sin cos tan

0 rad 0
7 & 7

30
rad
6

2
1
2
3
3
1

45
rad
4

2
1
2
1
&

60
rad
3

2
3
2
1
3

90
rad
2

& 7

Example )
(4). Trigonometric functions can be
evaluated for angles of any si8es
16
2
1
1 1
2
3
including obtuse angle (greater than
97

) and negative angles. This can be

done in two steps.
(i). +dentify the %uadrants where

is situated as illustrated below. +f
an angle

(measured from the

positive x-axis) is in the first
%uadrant! then sin

! cos

and tan

take positive values.

+f the angle

is in the second
%uadrant! then sin

takes positive
values while cos

and tan

take
negative value. +f the angle

is in
the third %uadrant! then tan

takes
positive values while sin

and cos

take negative value. +f the angle

is in the fourth %uadrant! then

cos

takes positive values while

sin

and tan

take negative value.

17
(ii). :etermine the basic angle
A

.
$asic angle!
A

! for an angle is the

acute angle measured from the x-
axis to terminal line of angle

.
The calculation for
0
is given in
the table below.
Table 1
5igure The
%uadrant
$asic
angle!
A

(a) +
=
A
(b) ++
=

180
A
(c) +++

180 =
A
(d) +*
=

360
A
18
First quadrant
!! "ositi#e
$econd quadrant
$ine "ositi#e
%&ird quadrant
%an'ent "ositi#e
Fort& quadrant
(osine "ositi#e
+t is illustrated below. 5or example!

lies in the third %uadrant as

illustrated in (c)! then the basic
angle
A

is given by

180 =
A
which
is measured from the x-axis to the
terminal line of angle

.
'owever! the formula given in
Table 1 will have to be ad;usted
when angle is negative.
5or example! when

= -&47

! then
the angle is in the second
%uadrant. Thus!
A

is given by
19
(a) ())
(c) (d)
A

%er*ina! !ine
(&<7

-&47

) = 27

.
Example *
1.) +ASIC TRIGONOMETRIC
I,ENTITIES
The definition of trigonometric has
been given based on a unit circle
1
2 2
= + y x
(&)
5urther! it is decided that
coordinate points
B(x,y) = B(cos

, sin

) is on
the circle where

is the angle
from positive x-axis till line OB.

Thus! substituting x = cos

!
y = sin

! (&) gives
1 cos sin
2 2
= +
(1)
20
:ivide (1) by cos
2

! gives

2 2
sec tan 1 = +
(2)
:ivide (1) by sin
2

! gives

2 2
csc cot 1 = +
(3)
These identities are also called the
phytagorean identities and very
useful in solving trigonometric
function.
Example -
21
1.* COM'OUN, ANGLE
"et + and , be two points on the
unit circle
1
2 2
= + y x
. 5urther assume
that the angles between the
positive x-axis and lines -+ and
-, are and B respectively.
Thus! the coordinates of points +
and , are given by
+(cos , sin ) and ,(cosB, sinB).
Thus! using the phytagoras
theorem! the distance +, is given
by the
2 2 2
) sin (sin ) cos (cos B A B A PQ + =
22
+ (cos , sin )
1
1
2 2
= + y x
x
y
y
, (cos B, sin B)

) sin sin cos (cos 2 2 B A B A + =
(&)
=onsider now! 5igure 1. "et > and
be two points on the unit circle
1
2 2
= + y x
with coordinate . (1,0) and
$(cos(-B), sin (-B)). The
distance .$ is given by
2 2 2
)) (sin( ) 1 ) (cos( B A B A ! + =
) ( sin 1 ) cos( 2 ) ( cos
2 2
B A B A B A + + =
) cos( 2 2 B A =
(1)
.ow! +,
2
= .$
2
as +, ,, . and $
on similar unit circle and the angle
+-, and .-$ are e%ual. Thus!
comparing (&) and (1)! we may
conclude that
23
x
. (1,0)
1
2 2
= + y x
$ (cos (-B), sin (-B))
(-B)
B A B A B A sin sin cos cos ) cos( + =
(2)
The "ompo!d a!.le fo/mla
are given by(
B A
B A
B A
B A B A B A
B A B A B A
tan tan 1
tan tan
) tan(
sin cos cos sin ) sin(
sin sin cos cos ) cos(

=
=
=
Example 0
The do1le2a!.le fo/mla are
given by(
A
A
A
A
A
A A A
A A A
2
2
2
2 2
tan 1
tan 2
2 tan
sin 2 1
1 cos 2
sin cos 2 cos
cos sin 2 2 sin

=
=
=
=
=
Example 3
24
The 4alf2a!.le fo/mla for
trigonometric function are given
below(
2
2
tan 1
2
tan 2
tan
1
2
2
cos 2
2
2
sin 2 1
2
2
sin
2
2
cos cos
2
cos
2
sin 2 sin
A
A
A
A A
A A
A
A A
A

=
= =
=
=
25
5rom the half-angled formula! we
have
A
A A
A A
A A
cos 1
cos 1
2
tan
2
cos 1
2
cos
2
cos 1
2
sin
+

=
+
=

=
where the sign is determined by the
%uadrant in which angle
2
A
lies.
Example 10
The factor formula for
trigonometric functions are given
by(
2
sin
2
sin 2 cos cos
2
cos
2
cos 2 cos cos
2
sin
2
cos 2 sin sin
2
cos
2
sin 2 sin sin
Q P Q P
Q P
Q P Q P
Q P
Q P Q P
Q P
Q P Q P
Q P
+
=
+
= +
+
=
+
= +
26
)here P = "A#B$ and Q = "A % B$&
Example 11
1.- SOLUTION OF
TRIGONOMETRIC E5UATION
5our different types of
trigonometric e%uations are(
(i). imple0linear form( .
k
k
k
=
=
=

tan
, cos
, sin
(ii). ?uadratic form(
0 cos cos
2
= + + c ' a
.
(iii). Addition form( expressing
sin cos ' a
as
) cos(
and
) sin(
.
27
(iv). #ther type of trigonometric
function where
tan , cos , sin
can be
expressed in terms of t where
2
tan

= t
.
1.-.1 TRIGONOMETRIC E5UATION
IN LINEAR FORM
Trigonometric e%uations of the
forms
2 ) 2 tan(
2
3
cos
3
1
sin
= +
=
=

y
x
are called the simple trigonometric
e%uations. The solution can be
obtained in two steps(
(&). 5ind the principal and secondary
angles. The principal angle!
p

! is the
smallest positive or negative value in
the range

180 180 <
that satisfy the
trigonometric e%uation. The
secondary angle!
s

! is the second
angle satisfying the trigonometric
e%uation in the range

180 180 <
.
28
(1). :etermining the solution in a
given interval. $ased on the principal
and secondary angles! the solutions
in specified range can be determined.
That is! the solutions are determined
by the principal and secondary angles
in the specified intervals.
Example 12
1.-.2 TRIGONOMETRIC E5UATION
IN 5UA,RATIC FORM
ome trigonometric e%uation is in
%uadratic form. 5or initial
understanding! it is helpful to make
substitution such as y = sin x so that
the trigonometric e%uation is reduced
to standard %uadratic e%uation of the
form
0
2
= + + c 'x ax
. 'ence! the e%uation can
be factorised.
=onse%uently! trigonometric
e%uations of linear form are obtained
and the solution can be found.
29
Example 1&
1.-.& TRIGONOMETRIC
E5UATIONS IN A,,ITION
FORM
Trigonometric e%uation of the form
c ' a = sin cos
is called in addition form.
uch e%uation can be expressed
as
c = ) cos(
or
c = ) sin(
where

is
acute and
0 >
.
The choice of using either one of
c = ) cos(
or
c = ) sin(
can be
summari8ed in the next table.
c ' a = + sin cos
Example Addition
Form
a and b (@)
1 sin 3 cos = + ) cos(
a (@) ! b (-)
1 sin 3 cos = ) cos( +
a (-) ! b (@)
1 sin 3 cos = + ) sin(
Example 1(
30
1.-.( SOL6ING TRIGONOMETRIC
E5UATION USING
T7E t FORMULA
Trigonometric e%uation of the form
c ' a = sin cos
can be solved by
expressing
tan , cos , sin
in terms of t
where
2
tan

= t
. +t can be described by
the triangle below(
)e can derive the t formulae for
tan , cos , sin
by substituting

2
tan

= t
into the half-angle formulae.
31
t
1
2
1 t +
Thus! we have
32
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
sin 2sin cos
2 2
1
2
1 1
2

1
cos cos sin
2 2
1

1 1
1

1
sin 2
tan
cos 1
t
t t
t
t
t
t t
t
t
t
t

=

=

+ +

=
+
=

=

+ +

=
+
= =

Example 1)
33
2. GEOMETRY
2.1 COOR,INATE SYSTEM
=oordinate system in a plane by
means of two perpendicular
coordinate line! called coordinate
axes that intersect at the origin O!
as shown in 5igure &.
5igure &
The hori8ontal line is known as the
x-axis and the vertical line is
known as the y-axis and label then
as x and y respectively.
34
The plane is then a coordinate
plane or an xy-plane. The
coordinate axes divide the plane
into four parts called the first!
second! third and fourth
%uadrants! labelled +! ++! +++ and +*
respectively.
Aach point P in an xy-plane may
be assigned an ordered pair (a, ))
as shown in 5igure 1. )e call a
the x-coordinate of P! and b the y-
coordinate.
5igure 1
35
2.1.1 ,ISTANCE +ET8EEN T8O
'OINTS
The distance
) , (
2 1
P P d
between any
two points
) , (
1 1 1
y x P
and
) , (
2 2 2
y x P
in a
coordinate plane is
2
1 2
2
1 2 2 1
) ( ) ( ) , ( y y x x P P d + =
The midpoint M of the line
segment from
) , (
1 1 1
y x P
to
) , (
2 2 2
y x P
is

+ +
2
,
2
2 1 2 1
y y x x
2.1.2 SLO'E
"et ( be a line that is not parallel
to the y-axis! and let
) , (
1 1 1
y x P
and
) , (
2 2 2
y x P
be distinct points on (. The
slope ) of ( is
1 2
1 2
x x
y y
)

=
+f ( is parallel to the y-axis! then
the slope of ( is not defined.
36
5igure 2
The definition of slope is
independent of the two points that
are chosen on L. +f other points
) / , / ( /
1 1 1
y x P
and
) / , / ( /
2 2 2
y x P
are used! then
as 5igure 2! the triangle with
vertices
1
/ P
!
2
/ P
and
) / , / ( /
1 2 3
y x P
is
similar to the triangle with vertices
1
P
!
2
P
and
) , (
1 2 3
y x P
.
ince the ratio of corresponding
sides of similar triangles are e%ual.
37
) / , / ( /
2 2 2
y x P
) , (
2 2 2
y x P
) / , / ( /
1 1 1
y x P
) , (
1 1 1
y x P ) , (
1 2 3
y x P
) / , / ( /
1 2 3
y x P
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
/ /
/ /
x x
y y
x x
y y

2.1.& E5UATION OF A LINE

An e%uation for the line through
the point
) , (
1 1
y x
with slope ) is
) (
1 1
x x ) y y =
The point-slope form is only one
possibility for an e%uation of a line.
There are many e%uivalent
e%uations. )e sometimes simplify
the e%uation obtained using the
point-slope form to either
ax + by = c or ax + by + d = 0
)here a, ', and c are integers
with no common factor! a > 0! and
d = *c.
38
The graph of y = mx + c is a line
having slope ) and y-intercept! c.
Two nonvertical lines are parallel if
and only if they have the same
slope.
Example &
2.1.( ,ISTANCE OF A 'OINT
FROM A LINE
39
The perpendicular distance of
) , (
1 1
y x P
from the line ax # 'y # c = 0
is given by
2 2
1 1
' a
c 'y ax
+
+ +
2.1.) ANGLE +ET8EEN T8O
STRAIG7T LINES
The angle!

! between the straight

line
1 1
c x ) y + =
and the straight line
2 2
c x ) y + =
is given by
1 2
1 2
1
tan
) )
) )
+

=
Example (
40
2.2 CIRCLES
A circle is the set of all points in a
plane! which are at a fixed
distance from a fixed point. The
fixed point is the centre of the
circle! and the fixed distance is the
radius of the circle.
5rom the definition of the circle! a
point +(x,y) lies on the circle if and
only if 0+(0 = r! that is
r k y h x = +
2 2
) ( ) (
%uaring both sides we have
41
P"x, y$
+"h, k$ Q
r
x*h
y*k
2 2 2
) ( ) ( r k y h x = +
(&)
A%. (&) is the e%uation of a circle
with centre at point (h, k) and
radius of length r. +t is called the
centre-radius equation of the
circle. +f the centre is the origin
then (h, k) = (0, 0) and we have
2 2 2
r y x = +
+f we expand A%. (&)! we have
0 2 2
2 2
= + + + + c fy ,x y x
(1)
A%. (1) is called the general form
of a circle. An e%uation of a circle
in centre-radius form can be
written in general form and vice
versa.
+f a circle is given in the general
form! the radius and the centre of
the circle can be determined by
completing the s%uare on A%. (1).
42
c f , f y , x
f , f fy y , ,x x
c fy y ,x x
+ = + + +
+ = + + + + +
= + + + +
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
) ( ) (
) 2 ( ) 2 (
0 ) 2 ( ) 2 (
)hich is in centre-radius form.
Thus! the centre is (-,, *f) and the
radius is
c f , +
2 2
.
+f three points on a circle are
given! the e%uation of the circle
can be obtained by substituting
the points into the general
e%uation of the circle.
Example *
2.2.1 FAMILY OF CIRCLES
"et us consider two circles
0
1
= +

and
0
2
= +
where
2 2 2
2 2
2
1 1 1
2 2
1
2 2
2 2
c y f x , y x +
c y f x , y x +
+ + + + =
+ + + + =
)eBre going to look at cases
where
43
&) the two circles intersects at
two points and
1) the two circles intersects at
one point
A%uation
0
2 1
= + k+ +
(2)
)here k is an arbitrary constant! is
the e%uation obtained when the
two circles intersects.
+ntersection of two circles
=ase
&
5igure &
5igure 1
=ase
1
5igure 2
5igure 3
44
5igure 4
5igure 6
5or =ase &(
+f two circles intersect at two
points! then for
1 k
! A%. (2)
represents a family of circles
which pass through the two
intersection points.
)hen
1 = k
A%. (2) becomes a
linear e%uation
0
2 1
= + +
. This is the
e%uation of the line passing
through the two intersection
points. This line is the common
chord. >efer to 5igure 1.
5or =ase 1(
)hen the circles touch and
1 k
!
then A%. (2) represents the
family of circles as shown in
5igure 2 and 3.
45
)hen
1 = k
! then A%. (2) becomes
a linear e%uation and it is the
tangent line to both circles as
shown in 5igure 4 and 6.
Example -
2.2.2 'OINTS OF INTERSECTION
OF STRAIG7T LINE AN, A
CIRCLE
=onsider a line with e%uation
/ c )x y + =
and a circle
0 2 2 1
2 2
= + + + + c fy ,x y x +
.
To find the points of intersection
of the line and the circle! we
substitute
/ c )x y + =
into +. )e will
then obtain a %uadratic e%uation
in x.
"et the %uadratic e%uation be
1 1
2
1
c x ' x a y + + =
. +f the discriminant
0 4
1 1
2
1
> = c a ' -
! the line cuts the circle
at two points. +f
0 4
1 1
2
1
= = c a ' -
! then
46
the line actually touches the
circle. +f
0 4
1 1
2
1
< = c a ' -
! the line and
the circle never meet! that is!
does not touch or intersect.
2.2.& E5UATION TANGENT TO A
CIRCLE
"et
) , (
1 1
y x P
be a point on a circle. A
tangent to the circle at point
) , (
1 1
y x P

is the line which touches the circle
at this point. The e%uation of the
tangent is obtained by finding the
gradient and then forming the
47
) , (
1 1
y x P

tan'ent
nor*a!
e%uation. The gradient is usually
found using differentiation.
$ut in this topic! we will not use
differentiation but the general
method to find the gradient. A
normal to a circle at point
) , (
1 1
y x P
is
the line that is perpendicular to the
tangent line at that point. +f the
gradient of the tangent is
.
)
and
the gradient of the normal is
/
)
!
then the product of
.
)
and
/
)
is -&C
1 =
/ .
) )
.
b) +f the e%uation of the circle
is
0 2 2
2 2
= + + + + c fy ,x y x
! then the
tangent to the circle at point
) , (
1 1
y x P
is
0 ) ( ) (
1 1 1 1
= + + + + + + c y y f x x , yy xx
c) +f the e%uation of the circle is
2 2 2
r y x = +
! then the tangent to the
circle at point
) , (
1 1
y x P
is
2
1 1
r yy xx = +
.
Example 3
48
2.2.( T7E LENGT7 OF A
TANGENT FROM A 'OINT
TO A CIRCLE
The length d of a tangent from
point
) , ( ' a Q
to the circle
0 2 2
2 2
= + + + + c fy ,x y x
is
c f' ,a ' a d + + + + = 2 2
2 2
Example 10
2.& 'ARA+OLAS
49
) , (
1 1
y x P

+"*,, *f$
Q"a, '$
2.&.1 E5UATION OF A 'ARA+OLA
8IT7 6ERTEX AT 90, 0: AN,
FOCUS 90, p:
The focus with coordinates (0, p)
of this parabola is on the y-axis. +f
p is positive! then the parabola
opens upwards
5rom the figure below! the
distance from 0 to 1 is p. The
distance from 1 to the directrix is
also p! thus! the e%uation of the
directrix is y = *p. "et
) , ( y x P
be any
point on the parabola! then
py x
p py y p py y x
p y p y x
p y p y x
P- P0
4
2 2
) ( ) (
0 0 ) (
0 0 0 0
2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
=
+ + = + +
+ = +
+ = +
=
+f the coordinates of the focus is
(0, -p) and the graph of the
parabola opens downwards. The
directrix is the line y = p. using the
50
same method as for p 2 0! it can
be shown that the e%uation of this
parabola is
py x 4
2
=
Example 11
2.&.2 E5UATION OF A 'ARA+OLA
8IT7 6ERTEX AT 90, 0: AN,
FOCUS 9p, 0:
51
) , ( y x P
0(0,p)
-
3
4p
p5
The focus of this parabola is on
the x-axis. +f p positive! then the
parabola opens to the right as
shown above.
The distance from 0 to 1 is p!
therefore the coordinates of the
focus is (p, 0), p 2 0.
The e%uation of the directrix is
x = *p. +f
) , ( y x P
be any point on
the parabola! then
52
-
) , ( y x P
0"p,0)
p p
px y
p px x p px y x
p x y p px x
p x y p x
P- P0
4
2 2
) ( 2
0 0 ) (
0 0 0 0
2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
=
+ + = + +
+ = + +
+ = +
=
+f the coordinate focus is (-p, 0)
and the graph of the parabola
opens to the left. The e%uation of
the directrix is x = p. +t can be
shown that the e%uation of this
parabola is
px y 4
2
=
Example 12
2.&.& E5UATION OF A 'ARA+OLA
8IT7 6ERTEX 9h, k: AN,
FOCUS 9h, k+p:
E;a#$o!<
fo"=<
d$/e"#/$x
G/ap4 fo/
p>0
G/ap4 fo/
p?0
53
) ( 4 ) (
2
k y p h x =
#r
c 'x ax y + + =
2
)here
a
p
4
1
=
5ocus(
) , ( p k h 0 +
:irectrix(
p k y =
) ( 4 ) (
2
h x p k y =
#r
c 'y ay x + + =
2
)here
a
p
4
1
=
5ocus(
) , ( k p h 0 +
:irectrix(
p h x =
Example 1&
2.&.( ,ETERMINING T7E 6ERTEX
AN, FOCUS +Y
COM'LETING T7E S5UARE
+f the e%uation of the parabola is
given as
0
2
= + + + d cy 'x ax
or
0
2
= + + + d cx 'y ay
!
instead of the standard forms
) ( 4 ) (
2
h x p k y =
or
) ( 4 ) (
2
k y p h x =
! then we
use completing the s%uare method
to determine the vertex and the
focus of the parabola.
Example 1(
54
1"h, k$
0
0
0
0
1"h, k$
1"h, k$
1"h, k$
2.&.) 'ARAMETRIC E5UATIONS
OF 'ARA+OLA
+f
) , ( y x P
is a point on a parabola
a)
2
at x =
and
at y 2 =
are the parametric
e%uations of parabola
ax y 4
2
=
.
b)
at x 2 =
and
2
at y =
are the parametric
e%uations of parabola
ay x 4
2
=
.
55
2.( ELLI'SES
An ellipse is the set of all points in
a plane! the sum of whose
distances from two fixed points
(the foci) in the plane is a positive
constant.
Allipse has its foci on the x-axis!
that is the ma;or axis along the x-
axis. +ts centre at the origin. +f we
let the coordinates of
1
0
be (c, 0)!
c 2 0! then the coordinates of
2
0
is
(-c, 0) and D
1
0
2
0
D = 1c.
5rom the definition of ellipse!
56
) 0 , (
2
a 1
) 0 , (
1
a 1
) , 0 (
2
' 2
) , 0 (
1
' 2
) 0 , (
2
c 0
) 0 , (
1
c 0
+
P"x, y$
constant a 0 0 0 0
2 1
= + P0 P0
"et the constant sum be 1a
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 1
) ( 2 ) (
2 ) ( ) (
2 0 0 0 0
y c x a y c x
a y c x y c x
a P0 P0
+ + = +
= + + + +
= +
%uaring both sides!
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( 4 4 ) ( y c x y c x a a y c x + + + + + = +
implify!
cx a y c x a + = + +
2 2 2
) (
%uare both sides again!
( )
2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 4 2 2 2
2 ) 2 (
2 ) (
x c cx a a y c cx x a
x c cx a a y c x a
+ + = + + +
+ + = + +
implify!
) ( ) (
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
c a a y a c a x = +
:ivide both sides with
) (
2 2 2
c a a
1
) (
2 2
2
2
2
=

+
c a
y
a
x
or
1
2
2
2
2
= +
'
y
a
x
ince c 2 0 and
2 2 2
c a ' =
! it follows
that
2 2
' a >
and hence
a 2 '6
)e summarised the properties of
the ellipse with hori8ontal ma;or
axis as follows
A%uation(
1
2
2
2
2
= +
'
y
a
x
with
a > ' > 0
57
*ertices(
) 0 , ( a
-a;or axis( hori8ontal! length
1a
-inor axis( vertical! length 1'
5oci(
) 0 , ( c
where
2 2
' a c =
"atus rectum( vertical! length
a
'
2
2
=onversely! if (x, y) is a solution of
this e%uation! then by reversing
the preceding steps we see that
the point (x, y) is on the ellipse.
58
This ellipse has its foci on the y-
axis. The ma;or axis is along the y-
axis. +ts centre is at the origin. "et
the foci be
1
0
(0, c) and
2
0
(0, *c)!
then D
1
0
2
0
D = 1c.
5or this ellipse! we let the constant
sum
0 0 0 0
2 1
P0 P0 +
be 1'. Then!
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 1
) ( 2 ) (
2 ) ( ) (
2 0 0 0 0
c y x a c y x
' c y x c y x
' P0 P0
+ + = +
= + + + +
= +
%uaring both sides!
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( 4 4 ) ( c y x c y x ' ' c y x + + + + + = +
implify!
cy ' c y x ' + = + +
2 2 2
) (
59
) , 0 (
1
' 1
) , 0 (
2
' 1
) , 0 (
2
a 2
) , 0 (
1
a 2
) , 0 (
1
c 0
) , 0 (
2
c 0
%uare both sides again!
( )
2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 4 2 2 2
2 ) 2 (
2 ) (
y c cy ' ' y c cy x '
y c cy ' ' c y x '
+ + = + + +
+ + = + +
implify!
) ( ) (
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
c ' ' x ' c ' y = +
:ivide both sides with
) (
2 2 2
c a a
1
2
2
2 2
2
= +
'
y
c '
x
)e summarised the properties of
the ellipse with hori8ontal ma;or
axis as follows
A%uation(
1
2
2
2
2
= +
'
y
a
x
with
' > a > 0
*ertices(
) , 0 ( '
-a;or axis( hori8ontal! length
1'
-inor axis( vertical! length 1a
5oci(
) , 0 ( c
where
2 2
a ' c =
"atus rectum( vertical! length
'
a
2
2
Example 1*
60
2.(.1 T7E E5UATION OF AN
ELLI'SE 8IT7 CENTRE 9h,
k: AN, FOCI 9h

c, k:
+f an ellipse with centre at the
origin and its ma;or axis hori8ontal!
is shifted h units hori8ontally and k
units vertically! we will get an
ellipse with its centre at (h, k). +f
61
) , (
2
k a h 1 ) , (
1
k a h 1 +
) , (
2
k c h 0 ) , (
1
k c h 0 +
+
the foci were originally at (

c, 0)!
the new foci will be at (h

c, k).
The e%uation of this ellipse is
0 , 1
) ( ) (
2
2
2
2
> > =

' a
'
k y
a
h x
+ts properties are summarise
below
A%uation(
1
) ( ) (
2
2
2
2
=

'
k y
a
h x
with a >
' > 0
*ertices(
) , ( k a h
-a;or axis( hori8ontal! length
1a
-inor axis( vertical! length 1'
5oci(
) , ( k c h
where
2 2
' a c =
"atus rectum( vertical! length
a
'
2
2
Example 1-
62
2.(.2 T7E E5UATION OF AN
ELLI'SE 8IT7 CENTRE 9h,
k: AN, FOCI 9h, k

c:
63
) , (
2
' k h 1
) , (
2
k a h 2 ) , (
1
k a h 2 +
) , (
1
c k h 0 +
) , (
2
c k h 0
+"h,k$
) , (
1
' k h 1 +
+f an ellipse with centre at the
origin and its ma;or axis vertical! is
shifted h units hori8ontally and k
units vertically! we will get an
ellipse with centre at (h, k) and foci
at (h, k

c).
The e%uation of this ellipse is
0 , 1
) ( ) (
2
2
2
2
> > =

a '
'
k y
a
h x
+ts properties are summarised
below
A%uation(
1
) ( ) (
2
2
2
2
=

'
k y
a
h x
with ' >
a > 0
*ertices(
) , ( ' k h
-a;or axis( hori8ontal! length
1'
-inor axis( vertical! length 1a
5oci(
) , ( c k h
where
2 2
a ' c =
64
"atus rectum( vertical! length
'
a
2
2
+f the e%uation of the ellipse is not
given in the form of
1
) ( ) (
2
2
2
2
=

'
k y
a
h x
! we
use completing the s%uare method
to determine the centre and foci.
"et P(x, y) be a point on an ellipse.
x = a cos t, y = ' sin t are the
parametric e%uations of ellipse
1
2
2
2
2
= +
'
y
a
x
.
Example 1-
65
2.) 7Y'ER+OLAS
A hyperbola is the set of all
points in a plane! the difference
of whose distances from two
fixed points is a constant.
2.).1 T7E E5UATION OF A
7Y'ER+OLA 8IT7 CENTRE
90, 0: AN, FOCI 9

c, 0:
66
) , 0 (
1
' 3
) , 0 (
2
' 3
) 0 , (
2
c 0 ) 0 , (
1
c 0 ) 0 , (
2
a 1 ) 0 , (
1
a 1
x
a
'
y =
x
a
'
y =

a
'
c ( ,
1

a
'
c (
2
1
, /
"et
) 0 , (
1
c 0
and
) 0 , (
2
c 0
be the foci!
and P(x, y) be a point on the
hyperbola but not on the x-axis.
5rom the definition of hyperbola
0 0 0 0
2 1
P0 P0
= a constant
"et the constant be 1a. Then!
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 1
) ( 2 ) (
2 ) ( ) (
2 0 0 0 0
y c x a y c x
a y c x y c x
a P0 P0
+ + + = +
= + + +
=
Amploying the procedures that
we have done for ellipse! we
can finally simplify the e%uation
as
1
2 2
2
2
2
=

a c
y
a
x
)riting
' a c =
2 2
or
2 2 2
' a c =
! we
have
1
2
2
2
2
=
'
y
a
x
"etting y = 0! gives the x-
intercept. Thus! we find that
vertices are at
) 0 , (
1
a 1
and
) 0 , (
2
a 1
.
This hyperbola has no y-
intercept. The endpoints of the
con;ugate axis are
) , 0 (
1
' 3
and
) , 0 (
2
' 3
. /lotting the points
) 0 , (
1
a 1

and
) 0 , (
2
a 1
!
) , 0 (
1
' 3
and
) , 0 (
2
' 3
and
67
drawing vertical and hori8ontal
lines connecting these points
helps us to sketch the
asymptotes.
The gradient of the asymptotes
are
a
'

. Thus! the e%uation of

the asymptotes are
x
a
'
y =
. The
two branches of the hyperbola
are sketched using the
asymptotes as guides.
ubstituting x = c in e%uation
1
2
2
2
2
=
'
y
a
x
! we have
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1 '
a
a c
y
a
c
'
y
= =
ince
2 2 2
' a c =
! we have
a
'
y
a
'
y
2
2
4
2
= =
Thus the end points of the
latus rectum is

a
'
c
2
,
! and we
have the length of the latus
rectum as
a
'
2
2
.
)e summarised the properties of
the hyperbola with centre (0, 0)
and foci (

c, 0) as follows.
68
A%uation(
1
2
2
2
2
=
'
y
a
x
C a 2 0, ' 2 0
*ertices( (

a, 0)
Transverse axis( hori8ontal!
length 1a
=on;ugate axis( vertical! length
1'
Asymptotes(
x
a
'
y =
5oci( (

c,0) where
2 2 2
' a c + =
=entre( (0, 0)
"atus rectum( vertical! length
a
'
2
2
69
2.).2 T7E E5UATION OF A
7Y'ER+OLA 8IT7 CENTRE
90, 0: AN, FOCI 90,

c:
70
x
a
'
y =
x
a
'
y =
) 0 , (
2
a 3 ) 0 , (
1
a 3
) , 0 (
1
c 0
) , 0 (
2
c 0
) , 0 (
1
' 1
) , 0 (
2
' 1
5rom the definition of hyperbola
0 0 0 0
2 1
P0 P0
= a constant
"et the constant be 1'. Then!
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 1
) ( 2 ) (
2 ) ( ) (
2 0 0 0 0
c y x ' c y x
' c y x c y x
' P0 P0
+ + + = +
= + + +
=
Amploying the procedures that
we have done for ellipse! we
can finally simplify the e%uation
as
1
2 2
2
2
2
=

' c
x
'
y
)riting
a ' c =
2 2
or
2 2 2
a ' c =
! we
have
1
2
2
2
2
=
a
x
'
y
.
"etting x = 0! gives the y-
intercept. Thus! we find that
vertices are at
) , 0 (
1
' 1
and
) , 0 (
2
' 1
.
This hyperbola has no x-
intercept. The endpoints of the
con;ugate axis are
) 0 , (
1
a 3
and
) 0 , (
2
a 3
.
71
The gradient of the asymptotes
are
a
'

. Thus! the e%uation of

the asymptotes are
x
a
'
y =
.
The two branches of the
hyperbola are sketched using
the asymptotes as guides.
ubstituting y = c in e%uation
1
2
2
2
2
=
'
y
a
x
! we have
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1 a
'
' c
x
a
x
'
c
= =
ince
2 2 2
a ' c =
! we have
'
a
y
'
a
x
2
2
4
2
= =
Thus the end points of the
latus rectum is

c
'
a
,
2
! and we
have the length of the latus
rectum as
'
a
2
2
.
)e summarised the properties of
the hyperbola with centre (0, 0)
and foci (

c, 0) as follows.

72
A%uation(
1
2
2
2
2
=
a
x
'
y
C a 2 0, ' 2 0
*ertices( (0,

')! =entre( (0, 0)

Transverse axis( hori8ontal!
length 1'
=on;ugate axis( vertical! length
1a
Asymptotes(
x
a
'
y =
5oci( (0,

c) where
2 2 2
' a c + =
"atus rectum( hori8ontal!
length
'
a
2
2
73
2.).& T7E E5UATION OF A
7Y'ER+OLA 8IT7 CENTRE
9h, k: AN, FOCI 9h

c, k:
+ts properties are summarised
below(
74
) ( ) ( h x
a
'
k y = ) ( ) ( h x
a
'
k y =
) , (
1
k c h 0 ) , (
2
k c h 0 +
) , ( k a h ) , ( k a h +
"h, k$
A%uation(
1
) ( ) (
2
2
2
2
=

'
k y
a
h x
C a 2 0, '
2 0
*ertices( (&

a, k)
Transverse axis( hori8ontal!
length 1a
=on;ugate axis( vertical! length
1'
Asymptotes(
) ( h x
a
'
k y =
5oci( (&

c,k) where
2 2 2
' a c + =
"atus rectum( vertical! length
a
'
2
2
2.).( T7E E5UATION OF AN
7Y'ER+OLA 8IT7 CENTRE
94< @: AN, FOCI 94< @

":
75
+ts properties are summarised
below(
A%uation(
1
) ( ) (
2
2
2
2
=

a
h x
'
k y
C
a 2 0, ' 2 0
*ertices( (h, k

')
Transverse axis( vertical!
length 1'
76
) ( ) ( h x
a
'
k y =
) ( ) ( h x
a
'
k y =
) , ( ' k h +
) , ( ' k h
) , (
1
c k h 0 +
) , (
2
c k h 0
"h, k$
=on;ugate axis( hori8ontal!
length 1a
Asymptotes(
) ( h x
a
'
k y =
5oci( (h,k

c) where
2 2 2
' a c + =
"atus rectum( hori8ontal!
length
'
a
2
2
+f the e%uation of the hyperbola is
not given in the form
1
) ( ) (
2
2
2
2
=

'
k y
a
h x
or
1
) ( ) (
2
2
2
2
=

a
h x
'
k y
! we use completing
s%uare method to determine the
centre and foci.
A%uations x = a sec t and y = ' tan t
satisfy
1
2
2
2
2
=
'
y
a
x
! since
1 tan sec
tan sec ) tan ( ) sec (
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
= =
=
t t
'
t '
a
t a
'
t '
a
t a
Thus x = a sec t and y = ' tan t are
parametric e%uations of
1
2
2
2
2
=
'
y
a
x
.
77
"et P(x, y) be a point on a
hyperbola
a) x = a sec t, y = tan t are
parametrics e%uations of
hyperbola
1
2
2
2
2
=
'
y
a
x
)) x = a tan t, y = ' sec t are
parametric e%uations of
hyperbola
1
2
2
2
2
=
a
x
'
y
.
Example 13
78