Geo 5 User Guide en

User's Guide
Version 5.9
Geo 5 User's Guide Fine Ltd. 2009
Content
Using help...................................................................................................................23
Using function Find...................................................................................................23
User defined environment..............................................................................................24
Window for application..............................................................................................24
Control menu...........................................................................................................25
Horizontal tool bars...................................................................................................26
Tool bar Files........................................................................................................26
Tool bar Scale and shift.........................................................................................27
Tool bar Plot setting..............................................................................................27
Tool bar Stage of construction................................................................................28
Tool bar 3D visualization........................................................................................28
Tool bar Selections................................................................................................29
Vertical tool bars......................................................................................................29
Setting visualization style..........................................................................................30
Style manager......................................................................................................31
Frames....................................................................................................................32
Tables.....................................................................................................................33
Dialogue windows.....................................................................................................35
Active dimensions and objects....................................................................................36
Unit metric / imperial................................................................................................37
Copy to clipboard.....................................................................................................37
Options...................................................................................................................37
Options copy to clipboard....................................................................................38
Options print picture..........................................................................................39
Options - input.....................................................................................................40
Common input.............................................................................................................40
Earth pressures - Analysis methods............................................................................40
Inputting and editing soils.........................................................................................41
Soil classification..................................................................................................42
Soil and rock labels...............................................................................................43
Manual classification of soil....................................................................................44
Interfaces in 2D environment.....................................................................................45
Adding interface...................................................................................................46
Editing interface...................................................................................................47
Corrector of inputted interface................................................................................47
World coordinates.................................................................................................48
Assigning soils..........................................................................................................49
Design coefficients....................................................................................................49
Running more analyses / verifications.........................................................................50
Connecting programs................................................................................................51
- 1 -
Selecting and storing views........................................................................................52
Setting results visualization...................................................................................53
Setting color range...................................................................................................54
Scale color definition.............................................................................................55
Import - export DXF..................................................................................................56
Reading data into template....................................................................................57
Inputting data using template................................................................................57
Modifying template during data input......................................................................58
Export DXF..........................................................................................................59
Import gINT.............................................................................................................60
Import of terrain points.........................................................................................61
Import of soils and profile......................................................................................62
Heredity - stage of construction..................................................................................62
Input regimes and analysis............................................................................................63
Program Earth Pressure.............................................................................................63
Project................................................................................................................63
Analysis methods..................................................................................................63
Geometry............................................................................................................64
Profile.................................................................................................................64
Soils...................................................................................................................65
Basic data........................................................................................................66
Assign.................................................................................................................66
Terrain................................................................................................................67
Water..................................................................................................................68
Surcharge............................................................................................................69
Earthquake..........................................................................................................70
Settings...............................................................................................................71
Analysis...............................................................................................................71
Program Sheeting Design..........................................................................................72
Project................................................................................................................72
Analysis methods..................................................................................................72
Profile.................................................................................................................73
Soils...................................................................................................................73
Basic data........................................................................................................74
Assign.................................................................................................................75
Geometry............................................................................................................76
Anchors...............................................................................................................77
Props..................................................................................................................77
Supports.............................................................................................................78
Pressure determination.........................................................................................79
Terrain................................................................................................................79
Water..................................................................................................................80
Surcharge............................................................................................................81
- 2 -
Applied forces......................................................................................................82
Earthquake..........................................................................................................82
Settings...............................................................................................................83
Analysis...............................................................................................................84
Program Sheeting Check...........................................................................................85
Project................................................................................................................85
Analysis method...................................................................................................85
Profile.................................................................................................................86
Modulus of subsoil reaction....................................................................................86
Soils...................................................................................................................87
Basic data........................................................................................................88
Geometry............................................................................................................89
Adding and editing section.................................................................................90
User catalogue.................................................................................................91
Assign.................................................................................................................92
Excavation...........................................................................................................93
Terrain................................................................................................................93
Water..................................................................................................................94
Surcharge............................................................................................................95
Applied forces......................................................................................................96
Anchors...............................................................................................................96
Props..................................................................................................................97
Supports.............................................................................................................98
Earthquake..........................................................................................................99
Settings.............................................................................................................100
Analysis.............................................................................................................100
Internal stability.................................................................................................102
External stability.................................................................................................103
Envelopes..........................................................................................................104
Program Slope Stability...........................................................................................104
Project...............................................................................................................104
Analysis methods................................................................................................105
Interface............................................................................................................105
Embankment......................................................................................................105
Earth cut...........................................................................................................106
Soils..................................................................................................................107
Basic data......................................................................................................108
Rigid body..........................................................................................................109
Assign...............................................................................................................110
Anchors.............................................................................................................111
Reinforcements...................................................................................................111
Surcharge..........................................................................................................112
Water................................................................................................................113
- 3 -
Earthquake........................................................................................................114
Settings.............................................................................................................115
Analysis.............................................................................................................115
Constrains on the optimization procedure...........................................................117
Height multiplier.............................................................................................118
Program Cantilever Wall..........................................................................................119
Project...............................................................................................................119
Analysis method.................................................................................................119
Geometry..........................................................................................................120
Material.............................................................................................................121
Profile...............................................................................................................121
Soils..................................................................................................................122
Basic data......................................................................................................123
Assign...............................................................................................................123
Terrain...............................................................................................................124
Water................................................................................................................125
Surcharge..........................................................................................................126
Front face resistance...........................................................................................127
Applied forces.....................................................................................................128
Earthquake........................................................................................................128
Base anchorage..................................................................................................129
Settings.............................................................................................................130
Verification.........................................................................................................131
Bearing capacity.................................................................................................131
Dimensioning.....................................................................................................132
Stability.............................................................................................................133
Program Masonry wall.............................................................................................134
Project...............................................................................................................134
Types of blocks...................................................................................................135
Geometry..........................................................................................................136
Material.............................................................................................................137
Profile...............................................................................................................138
Soils..................................................................................................................139
Basic data......................................................................................................140
Assign...............................................................................................................140
Terrain...............................................................................................................141
Water................................................................................................................142
Surcharge..........................................................................................................143
Applied forces.....................................................................................................145
Earthquake........................................................................................................145
Base anchorage..................................................................................................146
- 4 -
Settings.............................................................................................................147
Verification.........................................................................................................148
Dimensioning.....................................................................................................149
Stability.............................................................................................................150
Program Gravity Wall...............................................................................................151
Project...............................................................................................................151
Geometry..........................................................................................................152
Material.............................................................................................................153
Profile...............................................................................................................153
Soils..................................................................................................................154
Basic data......................................................................................................155
Assign...............................................................................................................155
Terrain...............................................................................................................156
Water................................................................................................................157
Surcharge..........................................................................................................158
Inputted forces...................................................................................................160
Earthquake........................................................................................................160
Settings.............................................................................................................161
Verification.........................................................................................................162
Dimensioning.....................................................................................................163
Stability.............................................................................................................164
Program Block Wall.................................................................................................165
Project...............................................................................................................165
Geometry..........................................................................................................166
Profile...............................................................................................................167
Soils..................................................................................................................167
Basic data......................................................................................................168
Assign...............................................................................................................169
Terrain...............................................................................................................170
Water................................................................................................................171
Surcharge..........................................................................................................172
Inputted forces...................................................................................................174
Earthquake........................................................................................................174
Settings.............................................................................................................175
Verification.........................................................................................................176
Dimensioning.....................................................................................................177
- 5 -
Internal sliding...................................................................................................178
Stability.............................................................................................................179
Program RediRock Wall............................................................................................180
Project...............................................................................................................180
Blocks...............................................................................................................180
Setbacks............................................................................................................181
Geometry..........................................................................................................181
Footing..............................................................................................................182
Types of reinforcements.......................................................................................183
Reinforcements...................................................................................................184
Profile...............................................................................................................185
Soils..................................................................................................................185
Basic data......................................................................................................186
Assign...............................................................................................................187
Terrain...............................................................................................................188
Water................................................................................................................188
Surcharge..........................................................................................................189
Inputted forces...................................................................................................191
Earthquake........................................................................................................191
Settings.............................................................................................................192
Verification.........................................................................................................193
Dimensioning.....................................................................................................194
Stability.............................................................................................................196
Program Gabion......................................................................................................197
Project...............................................................................................................197
Material.............................................................................................................197
Geometry..........................................................................................................198
Profile...............................................................................................................199
Soils..................................................................................................................200
Basic data......................................................................................................201
Assign...............................................................................................................201
Terrain...............................................................................................................202
Water................................................................................................................203
Surcharge..........................................................................................................203
Inputted forces...................................................................................................205
Earthquake........................................................................................................205
Settings.............................................................................................................206
- 6 -
Verification.........................................................................................................207
Dimensioning.....................................................................................................208
Stability.............................................................................................................209
Program Spread Footing..........................................................................................210
Project...............................................................................................................210
Profile...............................................................................................................211
Soils..................................................................................................................212
Basic data......................................................................................................213
Assign...............................................................................................................214
Foundation.........................................................................................................215
Load..................................................................................................................216
Import of loading............................................................................................217
Geometry..........................................................................................................218
Sand-gravel cushion............................................................................................219
Material.............................................................................................................220
Surcharge..........................................................................................................221
Water, incompressible subsoil...............................................................................222
Settings.............................................................................................................223
1.LS - bearing of a footing...................................................................................224
2.LS - settlement and rotation of a footing.............................................................225
Dimensioning.....................................................................................................226
Program Pile...........................................................................................................227
Project...............................................................................................................227
Profile...............................................................................................................228
Modulus of subsoil reaction..................................................................................228
Soils..................................................................................................................229
Basic data......................................................................................................230
Assign...............................................................................................................231
Load..................................................................................................................232
Geometry..........................................................................................................233
Material.............................................................................................................233
Water, incompressible subsoil...............................................................................234
Negative skin friction...........................................................................................235
Settings.............................................................................................................236
Vertical bearing capacity......................................................................................236
Vertical bearing cap. - CSN...............................................................................236
Vertical bearing cap. - Spring method................................................................237
Horizontal bearing capacity..................................................................................238
Program Settlement................................................................................................239
Project...............................................................................................................239
- 7 -
Interface............................................................................................................240
Embankment......................................................................................................240
Earth cut...........................................................................................................241
Incompressible subsoil........................................................................................242
Soils..................................................................................................................243
Assign...............................................................................................................243
Surcharge..........................................................................................................244
Water................................................................................................................245
Settings.............................................................................................................246
Analysis.............................................................................................................246
Program Abutment..................................................................................................247
Project...............................................................................................................247
Geometry cut.....................................................................................................248
Wings................................................................................................................249
Geometry plane view...........................................................................................250
Foundation steps................................................................................................251
Material.............................................................................................................252
Profile...............................................................................................................252
Soils..................................................................................................................253
Basic data......................................................................................................254
Loading - LC.......................................................................................................254
Assign...............................................................................................................255
Terrain...............................................................................................................256
Water................................................................................................................256
Surcharge..........................................................................................................257
Inputted forces...................................................................................................259
Earthquake........................................................................................................259
Settings.............................................................................................................260
Verification.........................................................................................................261
Dimensioning.....................................................................................................262
Stability.............................................................................................................263
Program Nailed slopes.............................................................................................264
Project...............................................................................................................264
Geometry..........................................................................................................265
Types of nails.....................................................................................................265
Geometry of nails...............................................................................................266
Material.............................................................................................................267
Profile...............................................................................................................267
- 8 -
Soils..................................................................................................................268
Basic data......................................................................................................269
Assign...............................................................................................................269
Terrain...............................................................................................................270
Water................................................................................................................271
Surcharge..........................................................................................................271
Earthquake........................................................................................................272
Settings.............................................................................................................272
Internal stability.................................................................................................273
Verification.........................................................................................................274
Dimensioning.....................................................................................................276
External stability.................................................................................................277
Program Ground Loss..............................................................................................278
Project...............................................................................................................278
Buildings............................................................................................................278
Profile...............................................................................................................279
Soils..................................................................................................................280
Assign...............................................................................................................281
Geometry..........................................................................................................282
Measurement.....................................................................................................283
Settings.............................................................................................................283
Analysis.............................................................................................................284
Damages...........................................................................................................285
Pogram Rock Stability..............................................................................................286
Project...............................................................................................................286
Terrain...............................................................................................................287
Rock..................................................................................................................288
Slip surface plane.............................................................................................289
Slip surface - polygonal.......................................................................................290
Parameters polygonal slip surface......................................................................291
Water plane slip surface....................................................................................292
Surcharge plane and polygonal slip surface.........................................................292
Anchors plane and polygonal slip surface............................................................293
Earthquake........................................................................................................294
Settings.............................................................................................................295
Analysis plane slip surface.................................................................................295
Analysis polygonal slip surface...........................................................................296
Geometry..........................................................................................................297
3D View.........................................................................................................297
Slip surface rock wedge....................................................................................298
- 9 -
Parameters rock wedge.....................................................................................299
Surcharge rock wedge......................................................................................299
Anchors rock wedge.........................................................................................300
Water rock wedge............................................................................................301
Analysis rock wedge.........................................................................................301
Program Terrain......................................................................................................302
Project...............................................................................................................302
Basic data..........................................................................................................302
Global coordinate system.................................................................................303
Soils..................................................................................................................304
Assign...............................................................................................................304
Points................................................................................................................305
Import of points..............................................................................................306
Automatic calculation of height.........................................................................307
Edges................................................................................................................308
Water................................................................................................................309
Bore holes.........................................................................................................310
Earth grading.....................................................................................................311
Generate...........................................................................................................314
Modeling terrain on edges................................................................................315
Point constructions..............................................................................................316
Line constructions...............................................................................................317
Launching..........................................................................................................318
Program Micropile...................................................................................................319
Project...............................................................................................................319
Profile...............................................................................................................320
Soils..................................................................................................................321
Basic data......................................................................................................322
Geometry..........................................................................................................323
Material.............................................................................................................323
Assign...............................................................................................................324
Load..................................................................................................................325
Water................................................................................................................325
Settings.............................................................................................................326
Verification of cross-section..................................................................................326
Root verification..................................................................................................327
Program FEM..........................................................................................................328
Topology............................................................................................................328
Coordinate systems.........................................................................................328
Project...........................................................................................................331
Analysis methods............................................................................................331
Stability analysis.........................................................................................332
- 10 -
Tunnels......................................................................................................332
Advanced input...........................................................................................332
Ko procedure..............................................................................................333
Interfaces......................................................................................................333
Soils..............................................................................................................334
Materials models.........................................................................................335
Linear models.........................................................................................336
Elastic model......................................................................................336
Modified elastic model..........................................................................337
Nonlinear models....................................................................................338
Mohr-Coulomb (MC)............................................................................339
Drucker-Prager...................................................................................339
Modified Mohr-Coulomb (MCM).............................................................340
Angle of dilation..................................................................................340
Influence of material model..................................................................341
Modified Cam-clay model (MCC)............................................................342
Basic data..................................................................................................345
Geostatic stress, uplift pressure....................................................................346
Rigid bodies...................................................................................................347
Assign...........................................................................................................348
Contact types.................................................................................................349
Contact elements........................................................................................350
Lining............................................................................................................351
Module Lining - FEM....................................................................................352
Free points.............................................................................................353
Free lines...............................................................................................354
Line refinement.......................................................................................355
Settings.................................................................................................355
Generator of shape of lining.........................................................................356
Generator of anchored regions......................................................................357
Fze budovn............................................................................................358
Free points.....................................................................................................359
Free lines.......................................................................................................360
Point refinement.............................................................................................361
Line refinement..............................................................................................363
Mesh generation.............................................................................................364
Mesh generator warning...............................................................................366
Adjusting original geometry..........................................................................367
Standard boundary conditions......................................................................368
Construction stages.............................................................................................369
Activity..........................................................................................................369
Activity of regions below GWT......................................................................370
Assign...........................................................................................................371
- 11 -
Lining............................................................................................................372
Beams.......................................................................................................373
Anchors.....................................................................................................373
Beam loads................................................................................................374
Generator of anchors on free line..................................................................374
Beams...........................................................................................................375
Types of cross-section.................................................................................377
Beam end-points connection.........................................................................378
Degradation and strengthening of beams.......................................................378
Catalogue of cross-sections..........................................................................379
Editor of cross-sections................................................................................380
Catalogue of materials.................................................................................380
Editor of materials.......................................................................................381
Contacts........................................................................................................382
Point supports................................................................................................383
Line Supports.................................................................................................384
Anchors.........................................................................................................385
Anchor end points.......................................................................................387
Anchors in the stability analysis....................................................................388
Props.............................................................................................................389
Reinforcements...............................................................................................390
Anchoring geo-reinforcements......................................................................392
Surcharges.....................................................................................................393
Beam loads....................................................................................................394
Water............................................................................................................395
Analysis.........................................................................................................396
Recommended modeling procedure...............................................................397
Loss of convergence of nonlinear analysis......................................................398
Setting and analysis description....................................................................398
Solution method.....................................................................................399
Change of stiffness matrix........................................................................400
Initial solution step..................................................................................401
Maximum number of iterations.................................................................401
Convergence criterion..............................................................................401
Setting Newton-Raphson method..............................................................402
Setting Arc-length method.......................................................................403
Setting arc length...............................................................................404
Automatic arc length control.................................................................404
Line search method.................................................................................405
Plasticity................................................................................................406
Course of analysis.......................................................................................407
Results......................................................................................................408
Tool bar Results....................................................................................408
- 12 -
Setting visualization of results..................................................................409
List of variables......................................................................................410
Monitors........................................................................................................411
Monitors setting..........................................................................................412
Stability.........................................................................................................412
Setting basic parameters of slope stability analysis.........................................414
Setting driving parameters of relaxation of reduction factor..............................415
Analyzed examples.............................................................................................416
Terrain settlement file Demo01_EN.gmk..........................................................416
Task input..................................................................................................416
Mesh generation.........................................................................................418
1st stage of construction analysis...............................................................419
2nd stage of construction surcharge input...................................................419
2nd stage of construction - analysis..............................................................420
3rd stage of construction - analysis...............................................................421
Evaluation of results....................................................................................422
Analysis of collector lining file Demo02_EN.gmk...............................................423
Task input..................................................................................................423
Geometry input..........................................................................................425
Mesh generation.........................................................................................428
1st stage of construction - analysis...............................................................430
2nd stage of construction collector lining input.............................................432
2nd stage of construction analysis..............................................................433
Sheeting structure file Demo03_EN.gmk.........................................................436
Task input..................................................................................................436
Interfaces and soils input.............................................................................437
Contacts input............................................................................................441
Free points and free lines input.....................................................................442
Mesh generation.........................................................................................443
1st stage of construction - analysis...............................................................444
2nd stage of construction beams input........................................................445
2nd stage of construction soil excavation and GWT change............................446
2nd stage of construction - analysis..............................................................447
3rd stage of construction soil excavation, anchor input, GWT change..............449
3rd stage of construction analysis..............................................................451
Slope stability analysis file Demo04_EN.gmk...................................................453
Task input..................................................................................................453
Type of analysis setting................................................................................454
Soil input and their assignment to interfaces..................................................455
Mesh generation.........................................................................................456
1st stage of construction analysis...............................................................457
- 13 -
2nd stage of construction surcharge, analysis..............................................458
3rd stage of construction anchor, analysis...................................................459
Program Pile CPT....................................................................................................462
Project...............................................................................................................462
Profile...............................................................................................................463
Soils..................................................................................................................463
Basic data......................................................................................................464
Structure...........................................................................................................465
Group of piles.................................................................................................466
Geometry..........................................................................................................467
GWT + NSF........................................................................................................468
Tests.................................................................................................................469
Test CPT Import..............................................................................................471
Assign...............................................................................................................472
Settings.............................................................................................................473
Settlement.........................................................................................................474
Outputs.....................................................................................................................475
Adding picture........................................................................................................476
Picture list..............................................................................................................476
Print and export document.......................................................................................477
Print and export picture...........................................................................................478
Control menu Print and export..................................................................................479
Tool bar Print and export.........................................................................................480
Setting header and footer........................................................................................481
Page properties......................................................................................................482
Page numbering.....................................................................................................483
About company......................................................................................................483
Theory......................................................................................................................485
Stress in a soil body................................................................................................485
Geostatic stress, uplift pressure............................................................................485
Effective/total stress in soil..................................................................................486
Increment of earth pressure due to surcharge........................................................487
Increment of earth pressure under footing.............................................................488
Earth pressure........................................................................................................489
Sign convention..................................................................................................490
Active earth pressure..........................................................................................491
Active earth pressure the Mazindrani theory....................................................491
Active earth pressure - the Coulomb theory.......................................................492
Active earth pressure - the Mller-Breslau theory................................................493
Active earth pressure - the Caqouot theory........................................................494
- 14 -
Active earth pressure - the Absi theory..............................................................495
Active earth pressure total stress...................................................................496
Passive earth pressure.........................................................................................496
Passive earth pressure - the Rankin and Mazindrani theory..................................497
Passive earth pressure - the Coulomb theory......................................................498
Passive earth pressure - the Caquot Krisel theory...........................................498
Coefficient of passive earth pressure Kp.........................................................499
Reduction coefficient of passive earth pressure...............................................501
Passive earth pressure - the Mller Breslau theory...........................................501
Passive earth pressure - the Absi theory............................................................502
Passive earth pressure - the Sokolovski theory...................................................502
Passive earth pressure total stress.................................................................504
Earth pressure at rest..........................................................................................505
Earth pressure at rest for inclined ground surface at the back of structure.............506
Alternate angel of internal friction of soil................................................................506
Distribution of earth pressures in case of broken terrain..........................................507
Influence of water...............................................................................................508
Without ground water, water is not considered....................................................509
Hydrostatic pressure, ground water behind structure...........................................509
Hydrostatic pressure, ground water behind and in front of structure......................510
Hydrodynamic pressure...................................................................................510
Special distribution of water pressure................................................................512
Uplift pressure in footing bottom.......................................................................513
Influence of tensile cracks................................................................................513
Minimal dimensioning pressure.............................................................................513
Earth - pressure wedge.......................................................................................514
Surcharge..........................................................................................................515
Surface surcharge...........................................................................................516
Strip surcharge...............................................................................................517
Trapezoidal surcharge......................................................................................518
Concentrated surcharge...................................................................................518
Line surcharge................................................................................................519
Surcharge in non-homogeneous soil..................................................................521
Strip surcharge...............................................................................................522
Trapezoidal surcharge......................................................................................522
Concentrated surcharge...................................................................................523
Influence of earthquake.......................................................................................524
MononobeOkabe theory.................................................................................526
Arrango theory...............................................................................................527
Influence of water...........................................................................................528
Influence of friction between soil and back of structure............................................529
- 15 -
Table of ultimate friction factors for dissimilar materials.......................................530
Table of recommended values DELTA/F.............................................................531
Adhesion of soil..............................................................................................532
Parameters of rocks............................................................................................532
Nailed slopes..........................................................................................................533
Analysis of nails bearing capacity..........................................................................533
Estimated bond strength..................................................................................534
Analysis of internal stability..................................................................................535
Force of transmitted by nails............................................................................536
Factor of safety...............................................................................................537
Theory of limit states.......................................................................................538
Verification of bearing capacity of nails..................................................................538
Dimensioning of concrete cover............................................................................539
Analysis of walls.....................................................................................................540
Reinforcements...................................................................................................541
Base anchorage..................................................................................................543
Verification limit states.....................................................................................544
Verification - factor of safety................................................................................545
Accounting for wall jump......................................................................................546
Dimensioning of masonry wall according to EN 1996-1-1.........................................547
Dimensioning of masonry wall according to AS 3700...............................................548
Bearing capacity of foundation soil........................................................................549
Wall dimensioning...............................................................................................550
Internal stability of gabion...................................................................................551
Internal stability of gabion wall limit states......................................................553
Internal stability of gabion wall factor of safety................................................554
Calculating abutment forces.................................................................................555
Reduced passive earth pressure............................................................................556
Sheeting design......................................................................................................556
Analysis of sheet pile wall....................................................................................557
Analysis of anchored wall fixed in heel...................................................................557
Analysis of anchored wall simply supported at heel.................................................558
Sheeting check.......................................................................................................559
Method of dependent pressures............................................................................561
Modulus of subsoil reaction..................................................................................562
Modulus of subsoil reaction according to CUR 166...............................................563
Modulus of subsoil reaction according to Schmitt................................................564
Modulus of subsoil reaction according to Mnard.................................................564
Modulus of subsoil reaction according to Chadeisson...........................................565
Modulus of subsoil reaction derived from iterations.............................................565
Verification of internal stability of structure............................................................567
Braced sheeting..................................................................................................568
- 16 -
Nonlinear modulus of subsoil reaction....................................................................569
Slope stability analysis............................................................................................570
Soil body...........................................................................................................570
Influence of water...............................................................................................570
Surcharge..........................................................................................................572
Anchors.............................................................................................................572
Reinforcements...................................................................................................572
Earthquake effect................................................................................................574
Analysis according to the theory of limit states / factor of safety...............................575
Polygonal slip surface..........................................................................................575
Sarma...........................................................................................................576
Spencer.........................................................................................................578
Optimization of polygonal slip surface................................................................580
Changing inclination of dividing planes..............................................................581
Foliation.........................................................................................................581
Circular slip surface.............................................................................................582
Fellenius / Petterson........................................................................................582
Bishop...........................................................................................................583
Spencer.........................................................................................................583
Optimization of circular slip surface...................................................................584
Influence of tensile cracks....................................................................................584
Analysis of bearing capacity of foundation..................................................................584
Bearing capacity on drained subsoil.......................................................................585
Standard analysis...........................................................................................585
Bearing capacity on undrained subsoil...................................................................587
Bearing capacity of foundation on bedrock.............................................................588
Solution according to CSN 73 1001...................................................................589
Analysis according to EC 7-1 (EN 1997-1:2003)..................................................589
Parameters to compute foundation bearing capacity............................................589
Horizontal bearing capacity of foundation...............................................................591
Homogenization of layered subsoil........................................................................592
Effective area.....................................................................................................593
Determination of cross-sectional internal forces......................................................595
Pile analysis...........................................................................................................595
Vertical bearing capacity analysis according to CSN..............................................596
Vertical bearing capacity - Spring method..............................................................596
Limit loading curve..........................................................................................597
Shear strength of skin.....................................................................................598
Coefficient of increase of limit skin friction.........................................................599
Depth of deformation zone...............................................................................599
Incompressible subsoil.....................................................................................601
- 17 -
Negative skin friction.......................................................................................601
Influence of technology....................................................................................602
Shear resistance on skin..................................................................................602
Stiffness of subsoil below the pile heel...............................................................603
Increments of vertical loading...........................................................................603
Distributions of forces acting on pile..................................................................603
Dependence of shear on deformation................................................................604
Horizontal bearing capacity..................................................................................604
Constant distribution of modulus of subsoil reaction............................................605
Linear modulus of subsoil reaction....................................................................605
Modulus of subsoil reaction according to CSN 73 1004.........................................606
Modulus of subsoil reaction after Matlock and Rees.............................................606
Modulus of subsoil reaction after Vesic...............................................................606
Settlement analysis.................................................................................................607
Stress in the footing bottom.................................................................................607
Overall settlement and rotation of foundation.........................................................608
Influence of foundation depth and incompressible subsoil........................................609
Influence of sand-gravel cushion...........................................................................609
Analysis using the oedometric modulus..................................................................610
Analysis using the compression constant...............................................................611
Analysis using the compression index....................................................................611
Analysis according to NEN (Buismann, Ladd)..........................................................612
Analysis using the Soft soil model.........................................................................613
Analysis according to the Janbu theory..................................................................614
Analysis for cohesionless soils after Janbu..........................................................614
Analysis for coarse-grained soils after Janbu.......................................................614
Analysis for sands and silts after Janbu..............................................................615
Analysis for overconsolidated sands and silts after Janbu.....................................615
Analysis for cohesive soils after Janbu...............................................................615
Analysis for overconsolidated cohesive soils after Janbu.......................................616
Settlement analysis using DMT (constrained modulus).............................................616
Theory of settlement...........................................................................................617
Primary settlement..........................................................................................618
Secondary settlement......................................................................................620
Determination of the depth of influence zone..........................................................621
Theory of structural strength............................................................................621
Method of restriction of the magnitude of primary stress......................................622
Characteristics of settlement analyses...................................................................623
Compression index..........................................................................................623
Oedometric modulus.......................................................................................625
Compression constant.....................................................................................626
Compression constant 10.................................................................................627
Void ratio.......................................................................................................628
- 18 -
Recompression index.......................................................................................628
Janbu characteristics.......................................................................................629
Influence of loading history..............................................................................630
Coefficient m..................................................................................................630
Modified compression index..............................................................................631
Index of secondary compression.......................................................................631
Overconsolidation index of secondary compression..............................................633
Analyses in program Ground Loss.............................................................................633
Analysis of subsidence trough...............................................................................633
Volume loss....................................................................................................634
Recommended values of parameters for volume loss analysis...........................634
Classical theory..............................................................................................636
Analysis for layered subsoil..........................................................................637
Shape of subsidence trough.............................................................................638
Coefficient of calculation of inflection point.....................................................639
Subsidence trough with several excavations.......................................................639
Analysis of subsidence trough at a depth...........................................................639
Calculation of other variables............................................................................640
Analysis of failure of buildings..............................................................................640
Tensile cracks.................................................................................................640
Gradient damage............................................................................................641
Relative deflection...........................................................................................642
Failure of a section of building..........................................................................642
Rock slope.............................................................................................................643
Plane slip surface................................................................................................644
Stepped slip surface........................................................................................645
Tensile strength of rock................................................................................646
Undulating slip surface....................................................................................646
Anchorage of rock slope...................................................................................647
Surcharge of rock slope...................................................................................647
Influence of water acting on slip surface............................................................648
GWT above toe of slope...............................................................................648
GWT on tension crack..................................................................................649
GWT on tension crack, max..........................................................................650
Water acting on tension crack only................................................................651
Own water force acting on slip surface only....................................................652
Own water force behavior............................................................................652
Polygonal slip surface..........................................................................................652
Geometry of rock block....................................................................................653
Anchor forces, surcharge.................................................................................654
Influence of water...........................................................................................654
Solution procedure..........................................................................................655
Rock wedge........................................................................................................656
- 19 -
Geometry of rock wedge..................................................................................657
Stereographic projection..............................................................................658
Influence of ground water................................................................................658
Resolution of acting forces...............................................................................659
Verification.........................................................................................................660
Verification according to the factor of safety.......................................................660
Verification according to the theory of limit states...............................................661
Rock - shear resistance criteria.............................................................................661
Mohr - Coulomb..............................................................................................661
Parameters Mohr Coulomb.........................................................................662
Hoek - Brown.................................................................................................662
Parameters Hoek Brown............................................................................663
Calculation of Hoek-Brown parameters..........................................................666
Barton - Bandis..............................................................................................667
Barton Bandis parameters.........................................................................668
Bulk weight of rocks............................................................................................671
Influence of seismic effects..................................................................................672
Micropile................................................................................................................673
Verification based on limit states...........................................................................673
Verification based on factor of safety.....................................................................674
Verification of the micropile tube...........................................................................674
Internal bearing capacity.................................................................................674
Micropile life time........................................................................................674
Coefficient Fut........................................................................................675
Coefficient of influence of corrosion...........................................................675
Bearing capacity during buckling...................................................................675
Bearing capacity of cross-section loaded in combination of bending and normal
force.........................................................................................................676
External bearing capacity.................................................................................677
Solution derived from equation of bending of straight beam.............................677
Solution after Salas.....................................................................................679
Constant A reflecting the type of support in the micropile head.....................679
Coefficient f............................................................................................680
Solution after Souche..................................................................................680
Modulus of horizontal reaction of subsoil....................................................681
Calculation of the modulus of horizontal reaction of subsoil Er..................681
Values of the modulus of subsoil reaction Ep...............................................682
Bearing capacity of steel cross-section...............................................................683
Bearing capacity of the micropile root section.........................................................683
Solution after Lizzi..........................................................................................683
Skin friction of the micropile root..................................................................684
Solution after Littlejohn...................................................................................685
Solution after Zweck.......................................................................................685
- 20 -
Solution after Bowles.......................................................................................686
Solution after Vas..........................................................................................686
Coefficients of type of application of micropile................................................688
Bearing capacity of the root in rock...................................................................688
Skin friction and bearing capacity of the micropile root in rock..........................688
Analyses in program Pile CPT...................................................................................688
EN 1997-3.....................................................................................................690
NEN 6743......................................................................................................691
LCPC (Bustamante).........................................................................................691
Determination of equivalent average cone tip resistance..................................692
Schmertmann.................................................................................................692
Determination of average cone tip resistance..................................................693
Negative skin friction.......................................................................................694
Shaft friction coefficient ALFA s.........................................................................694
Influence of overconsolidation (OCR).................................................................695
Pile shape coefficient s.....................................................................................696
Expanded pile toe coefficient BETA....................................................................697
Pile toe coefficient ALFA p................................................................................697
Calculation of limit load curve...............................................................................698
Calculation of pile head settlement........................................................................699
Graphs to calculate settlement.........................................................................699
Pile group..........................................................................................................700
Verification.........................................................................................................701
Verification according to factor of safety............................................................701
Verification according to limit states..................................................................701
Dimensioning of concrete structures..........................................................................702
CSN 73 1201 R...................................................................................................702
Materials, coefficients, notation.........................................................................702
Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete........................................702
RC rectangular cross-section under M................................................................703
RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression
force.............................................................................................................704
Verification of spread footing for punching shear.................................................704
Verification of circular RC cross-section..............................................................705
EC2 (EN 1992 1-1)..............................................................................................706
Standard values of coefficients.........................................................................707
force.............................................................................................................708
- 21 -
PN-B-03264.......................................................................................................711
force.............................................................................................................713
BS 8110............................................................................................................716
force.............................................................................................................717
IS 456...............................................................................................................720
force.............................................................................................................722
IS Road Bridges..................................................................................................725
ACI 31802.........................................................................................................725
force.............................................................................................................727
AS 3600-2001....................................................................................................729
force.............................................................................................................731
Verification according to CSN 73 6206...................................................................733
- 22 -
Using help
The text hint of all GEO programs is displayed in standard Windows EXPLORER viewer. The help
dialogue window can be launched either through the program menu (items "Help", "Content")
or using the Fn button "F1" anywhere in the program.
Some dialogue windows (e.g., "Add soil") allow for opening the corresponding chapter of the
help by pressing the help button " ".
The dialogue window contains:
- Bar with basic tool buttons. The "Hide (Show)" button hides (shows) tree with a list help
topics. The ("B!"#Forwrd") buttons allow for listing pages, which have been already
displayed. The "$rint" button opens the printing dialogue window and the "%ptions"
buttons opens the menu to set the EXPLORER window properties.
- Bar containing the tab sheet "Content" (shows tree with individual topics), tab sheets
"&nde'" and "Search".
- "(ree" with a list hint topics individual items in the tree are opened#!losed by clicking
the symbols "+"/"-" in front of the name.
- Window for displaying the help itself the window header contains currently shown items
and the "B!"#Forwrd" buttons that function in the same way as already described
buttons on tool bar.
The text of each help may further contain cross references to other items. The text of these
references is underlined highlighted in blue color.
Dialogue window "Help of GEO" - tab sheet "Contents"
Using )un!tion Find
Function "Ser!h" allows for finding an arbitrary text in the subject help. The searched text is
written into the field "&nput ser!hed te't" and button "*ist o) topi!s" lunches the search.
The list of found topics containing the searched text is displayed in the column under the
buttons. Clicking the mouse on the topic title and pressing the "Show" button displays the
- 23 -
corresponding topic in the right part of the window (the double-clicking option is also
available).
The searched text is highlighted in blue color. Switching back to "Content" tab sheet shows
the topic location in the tree (help content).
Frame "Help" - tab sheet "Find"
User de)ined en+iron,ent
The programs GEO5 are standard windows applications. Managing the application environment
(application window, dialogue windows, control menu, tables, frames, tool bars, copy to
clipboard) applies to standard properties of the Windows environment. The programs support
operating systems WIN 98, WIN 2000, WIN NT and WIN XP.
The minimum hardware and software configuration corresponding to class of PC PENTIUM III
with 128 MB of operating memory and minimum resolution of graphic adapter and monitor of
1024x768 pixels with 256 bit color range is required. Recommended configuration corresponds
to a class of PC computers of Pentium 4, 512 MB of operating memory.
-indow )or ppli!tion
The program is launched in standard dialogue window containing all managing tools typical for
the Windows environment (minimizing, maximizing and closing the application window.). The
window header displays information on currently executed task (file name and location) see
figure:
Managing tools of window for application
- 24 -
The desktop constitutes the window of application. It includes the control menu, horizontal tool
bars, space for graphic visualization of the executed task and vertical tool bars to select
individual inputting modes to specify the task. The bottom part of the desktop displays frames
that allow the user to introduce various input parameters into the task. Location of individual
elements on the desktop is evident from the following figure:
Managing tools of window for application
Control ,enu
Selecting an item from the menu is performed by clicking the le)t ,ouse .utton, or
alternatively using keyboard by pressing A*( / underlined letter in the selected menu item.
As typical for the WINDOWS environment, some of the options in the menu can be replaced
with the buttons on individual tool bars, or with abbreviated commands entered through the
keyboard (providing it exists it is displayed next to the command in the menu e.g., S+e )ile
0 C(1*/S).
Some of the options in the program can be set only with the help of menu e.g., program
"Options".
- 25 -
Control menu of program
Hori2ontl tool .rs
The program contains the following tool bars:
- Tool bar "Files"
- Tool bar "Scale and shift"
- Tool bar "Plot setting"
- Tool bar "Stage of construction"
(ool .r Files
The tool bar contains the following buttons:
Tool bar "Files"
Individual buttons function as follows:
New file - opens a new file if there is an existing task opened
in the same window, the program prompts the user
to save the unsaved data
Open file - opens an existing file - if there is an existing task
opened in the same window, the program prompts
the user to save the unsaved data
- 26 -
Save data into file - saves data of currently opened task if no name is
assigned to the task, the program opens the "S+e
s" dialogue window
Undo - returns the last performed step (the function is
available only in programs with 2D environment and
must be allowed in dialogue window "Options")
Redo - restores one returned step (the function is available
only in programs with 2D environment and must be
allowed in dialogue window "Options")
Print and export document - opens the dialogue window to create, edit and print
output documents
Print and export picture - opens the dialogue window to create, edit and print
the current drawing displayed on the desktop
Copy - copies the current picture displayed on the desktop
or the inputted soil profile into clipboard
Insert - inserts the soil profile stored in the clipboard (this
option allows the user to copy the soil profile created
in a different GEO program e.g., from program
"$ressures" to program "Gr+it3 wll"
(ool .r S!le nd shi)t
The tool bar buttons serve to manage all plots displayed on the desktop (zoom in/out,
move.). The following figure shows locations of individual buttons:
Tool bar "cale and shift"
Scale up - scales up desktop view while keeping location of the point
under the axis cross unchanged this action is repeated
using the left mouse button, the right button leaves the
zooming mode
Scale down - scales down the desktop view while keeping location of
the point under the axis cross unchanged this action is
repeated using the left mouse button, the right mouse
button leaves the zooming mode
Shows marked region - shows and scales up the marked region - the region is
selected using the left mouse button
Move displayed region - moves the current view in an arbitrary direction to
proceed move mouse in the desired location while keeping
the left mouse button pressed
Scale up - scales up the displayed region while keeping the region
centered
Scale down - scales down the displayed region while keeping the region
centered
Modify scale - scales the view such that all objects are visible
Use previous scale - modifies view scale - returns the original view scale prior
to the last applied scale action
(ool .r $lot setting
The button on a tool bar serves to set the setting visualization style on the desktop (colors,
thickness and style of lines, background..).
- 27 -
Toll bar "!lot setting"
Plot setting - The button opens the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window
that allows for setting all parameters of the picture displayed on the
desktop.
(ool .r Stge o) !onstru!tion
Tool bar buttons serve to work with stages of construction. Picture shows location of individual
buttons:
Tool bar "tage of construction"
Adds construction stage - adds new stage of construction at the end of list
Removes construction stage - removes the last stage of construction from the
list

Construction stage 1,2 ... - switches between individual stages of construction
selection is performed using the left mouse
button
In all programs GEO5 this bar allows for defining stages of construction. Construction stages
serve to model gradual building of a construction (essentil )or progr,s Sheeting
+eri)i!tion4 Settle,ent4 F56). This function can be also used for parametric studies and in
each stage of construction assume different soil assignment or different design coefficients. It
is rather advantageous to model earthquake effects on a structure in a separate stage of
construction as it is then possible to assume different factors of safety or different design
coefficients.
For individual types of input (soil assignment, anchors, supports.) there always exists
relationship over construction stages (Heredity).
(ool .r 78 +isuli2tion
The following buttons are available in the tool bar:
Tool bar ""D #isuali$ation"
Individual buttons have the following functions:
Lighting direction - Opens the dialogue window, which allows us to set the
lighting direction
Axonometric view - Sets the axonometric view of drawing
Perspective view - Sets the perspective view of drawing
3D view - Sets the predefined 3D view of drawing
View along the X-axis - Sets the view in the direction of the X-axis
View in opposite direction to
X-axis
- Sets the view in the direction opposite to the X-axis
View along the Y-axis - Sets the view in the direction of the Y-axis
Y-axis
- Sets the view in the direction opposite to the Y-axis
- 28 -
View along the Z-axis - Sets the view in the direction of the Z-axis
Z-axis
- Sets the view in the direction opposite to the Z-axis
Moves the displayed cut - Moves the displayed cut in an arbitrary direction to
move the drawing slide the mouse while pressing the
left mouse button
Rotates the scene - Rotates the displayed drawing in an arbitrary direction
to move the drawing slide the mouse while pressing the
left mouse button
Automatic scene rotation - Turns on an automatic rotation of drawing according to
the last used rotation (use the "1otte s!ene" button)
(ool .r Sele!tions
The tool bar buttons allow for setting the way in which individual objects on the desktop are
selected when adjusting the drawing. The picture shows positions of these buttons:
Tool bar "elections"
Selection
individually
- in a given mode each mouse click adds one object into the
selection set (point, edge)
Selection by
crossing
- in a given mode each mouse click adds all objects crossed by the
line into the selection set (point, edge)
Selection using
rectangle
- in a given mode each mouse click adds all objects found inside the
rectangle into the selection set (point, edge)
Selection using
rhomboid
- in a given mode each mouse click adds all objects found inside the
rhomboid into the selection set (point, edge)
Add to the
selection set
- adds additional objects to the overall list according to the assumed
selection mode
Remove from the
selection set
- removes objects from the overall list according to the assumed
selection mode
Invert selection - inverts all selected objects depending on the assumed selection
mode
Verti!l tool .rs
The vertical tool bars serve to select the desired mode (regime) of inputting data (project,
geometry, profile..) including analysis type and verification. Selecting the mode from this bar
displays in the bottom part of the desktop the corresponding frame for data input.
- 29 -
Tool bar for switching between input data regimes
Standalone vertical tool bar serves to manage pictures.
The "Add pi!ture" button opens the "New picture" dialogue window. The next line in the bar
provides the number of stored pictures in a given regime of data input. The "(otl" line shows
the total number of stored pictures. The "$i!ture list" button opens the list of pictures.
Tool bar for controlling #iew manager editor
Setting +isuli2tion st3le
The "Setting +isuli2tion st3le" dialogue window serves to set the plot style (line type and
color) for visualization on the desktop or for printout, respectively. It contains a group of tab
sheets that correspond to individual data input regimes. The tab sheets serve to set the style
for drawing objects, which are specified in the related input regime.
The "Glo.l" tab sheet defines the settings common to all input regimes (background color,
color of elements to be deleted or modification and style of drawing of inactive elements).
The program implicitly contains two standard settings of styles and colors, particularly for
black or white background. The setting can be modified in combo list on the tool bar. User
setting can be defined, i.e. the user can specify its own style of drawing and store that style
with the help of button on the tool bar into the "Style manager".
Dialogue window "etting #isuali$ation st%le" & global setting
- 30 -
The following picture shows an example of a tab sheet for setting the plot in the regime
"-ter". Individual columns of the table contain (moving from the left):
Item - list of items plotted in a given input rgime (here, e.g., water tables,
dimensions, gradient, water pressure..)
Active - shows / hides a given item in the !ti+e regi,e "-ter". In case the
option cannot be turned off (the field has a gray base in this case items
"(.les" and "-ter pressure") the visualization on the desktop is
mandatory!
Inactive - shows / hides a given item in other input dt regi,es. Visualization color
depends on the assumed setting in the tab sheet "Glo.l"
Desktop - determines the item color displayed on the desktop
Pictures - determines the item color displayed in the "Picture list" or on printout ("Print
and export picture", "Print and export document")
Line type - determines the line style
Thickness - determines the line thickness
Dialogue window "etting #isuali$ation st%le" & setting for the input regime "'ater"
St3le ,nger
The red button on a tool bar of the "Setting +isuli2tion st3le" dialogue window opens the
"9ew st3le" dialogue window. The window allows for setting the style name and its
description. The "%:" button saves the selected style.
a#ing the user profile of #isuali$ation st%le
In such a way an arbitrary number of user profiles of visualization styles can be defined. The
list of such profiles can be accessed from a combo list already containing implicitly predefined
profiles (black and white background), or a view manager (can be opened by pressing the
button on a tool bar) that allows for editing the profile. The buttons "Up" and "8own" serve to
move within a list of the user defined profiles.
- 31 -
Dialogue window "t%le manager"
Fr,es
The frame is a permanently opened window in the bottom part of the application window.
Frames are changed depending on the input data regime of a given task selected from the
vertical control bar. The frame may contain the following items: table, combo list, fields for
inputting data (h1, h2..) and command buttons.
The function key "(." together with cursor arrows for moving within the selected element
(e.g., combo list) and in case of command buttons the corresponding underlined letter ("Add"
"A") are employed when selecting the data using keyboard.
Frame control elements
The frame can be minimized using the button in the left upper corner. In this case the frame
space is taken by the drawing space. In some cases it is more advantageous to exploit the
frame space for increasing the drawing space, which is possible owing to the fact that the
program uses the system of active dimensions and active objects so that the frame does not
have to be displayed all the time.
Returning the frame to its original face is performed by pressing the button in left bottom
corner of the desktop showing the frame name. Providing the frame is minimized, e.g. in the
regime "Soils" it remains hidden even when switching to other input data regime.
- 32 -
Frame control elements
(.les
The table is a list of inputted data (for example a list of surcharges, soils, profile interfaces.).
The table header contains a list of items (surcharge, name, width, size.) and in the upper left
corner control elements to manage the table rows:
- selects all table rows
- cancels selection
- inverts selection
The assumed selection can be also changed by pressing the desired row number. Buttons with
numbers are "pressed".
The "Add" button opens the corresponding dialogue window for inserting the table data. If the
list of data in the table is empty then all input fields in the dialogue window are empty. If the
table contains some already inputted elements then the input fields are filled with values taken
from the current table row (an "rrow" is positioned next to the row number). Elements
(rows) are inserted in the table by pressing the "Add" button in the dialogue window. New
data are placed at the end of the table.
Individual rows are edited with the help of the "5dit" button. Only the row marked with an
rrow (see figure) will be edited regardless of other selected rows in the table. Some of the
dialogue windows allows for editing a group of selected items using the "5dit sele!ted"
button. It is therefore possible to modify values in more rows all at once. Always the selected
rows are edited.
The "1e,o+e" button deletes all selected ("pressed") rows. More than one row can be
removed at the same time. If not item is selected the program deletes the current row
(marked with an "rrow").
It there is among rows selected for deletion a row, which cannot be deleted (e.g. starting point
of a structure), the program stops the deletion process!
- 33 -
Table e(ample
Selection state of individual table rows corresponds to visualization state of objects on the
desktop. An object on the desktop that corresponds to the current row in the table (an
"rrow" is positioned next to the row number) is implicitly displayed e'tr .old. If the row is
selected ("pressed") the corresponding object is displayed in green. Pressing the "1e,o+e"
button colors all objects selected for deletion red.
)isuali$ation of selected ob*ects
Marking objects using these colors is implicitly set. This setting, however, can be modified in
the "Setting visualization style" - tab sheet "Glo.l".
- 34 -
etting color for selecting ob*ects
8ilogue windows
A dialogue window is one of the elements that allows for inputting data into program. In all
GEO programs the dialogue windows apply to conventional windows management typical for
the WINDOWS environment. A left mouse button is used when selecting objects in the window
or alternatively the function key "(." when using keyboard. The cursor arrows, key "59(51"
or in case of command buttons the corresponding underlined letter ("Cn!el" - "C", "%:"
"%") are employed when moving within an object.
A dialogue window can contain the following items: table, combo list, fields for inputting data
(number, text) and command buttons. The "%:" command button confirms the selection, while
the "Cn!el" button leaves the input mode.
Providing the window contains a certain non-typical control element (or this element has some
other rather then typical effect) its function is described in the corresponding data input
regime.
As an example consider the following picture showing the "5dit sur!hrge" dialogue window
that contains the "%:/ " and "%:/ " buttons. These buttons allow the user to move within
the list of inputted surcharges and at the same time to confirm changes made in the window.
Pressing this button results in the same action as if closing the window with the "%:" button
and opening it again for the next element in the list.
- 35 -
Dialogue window e(ample
A!ti+e di,ensions nd o.;e!ts
The system of active dimensions and objects allows for faster editing of the inputted data.
A!ti+e di,ension is a dimension that can be edited directly on the desktop. The value of
active dimension is labeled by frame (dashed line). Positioning the mouse cursor and the frame
changes its mask into a "hnd". Clicking the value than changes the frame view (is plotted in
a solid line), to cursor starts to blink and the dimension can be edited. The "5nter" button
closes the editing mode. The change is immediately displayed on the desktop.
A!ti+e o.;e!t functions in a similar way. Changing the cursor mask into a "hnd" and clicking
the object (double click) than activates the editing mode. In this case, however, the values are
not edited directly on the desktop, but rather in the dialogue window originally used to create
the object. The picture shows an example of an active object (trapezoidal surcharge), when
clicking on the desktop opens the "5dit sur!hrge" dialogue window.
- 36 -
E(ample of using acti#e dimensions and acti#e ob*ects
Unit ,etri! # i,peril
The program allows for choosing either metric or imperial units. Use combo list to select the
desired type of units. A prompt message appears requesting to confirm the selection.
Dialogue window to confirm the change of units
Cop3 to !lip.ord
The program allows for using the Windows clipboard in two different ways:
- it is possible to copy the current desktop view. The picture can be then inserted into an
arbitrary editor (MS Word, Drawing, Adobe Photoshop, etc.) Individual parameters are set
in the "Options" dialogue window, tab sheet "Copy to clipboard"
- it is possible to copy the program input data (soil parameters, profile and interfaces,
surcharges, water impact, terrain, etc.). The copied data can be then inserted into another
GEO5 program
Copying to clipboard is available either from the control menu (items "6odi)i!tions", "Cop3
pi!ture") or using the "Files" button on the tool bar.
%ptions
The "%ptions" dialogue window serves to set some of the special program functions (copy to
clipboard, print view, grid and step, etc.).
This dialogue window is opened from a control menu (items "Setting", "%ptions").
- 37 -
The window contains individual tab sheets (number and content may vary depending on
individual programs) that allow for specifying corresponding settings.
Dialogue window "Options"
%ptions 0 !op3 to !lip.ord
The "Cop3 to !lip.ord" tab sheet allows for setting the controlling parameters:
Picture size - the setting defines the picture size. Either the picture width or height
can be assigned manually. The other dimension is always set
automatically
Picture format - the setting defines the picture format (*.EMF, *.WMF, *.BMP), its
resolution and color. Recommended setting is displayed in the figure
(format: *.EMF, resolution: 600 dpi, color)
Options - the setting defines the picture frame and header. If both options are
checked, the picture contains both the frame and header
The "8e)ult" button in the window sets original implicit values.
- 38 -
Dialogue window "Options" & tab sheet "Cop% to clipboard"
%ptions 0 print pi!ture
This dialogue window is opened from the control menu (items "Setting", "%ptions"). The
"$rint pi!ture" tab sheet allows for setting the picture parameters assumed for printout or
export in the "Print and export picture" dialogue window.
Options - the setting defines the picture frame and header. If both options are
checked, the picture contains both the frame and header
The "8e)ult" button in the window sets original implicit values.
Dialogue window "Options" & tab sheet "!rint picture"
- 39 -
%ptions < input
The "Options" dialogue window, tab sheet "&nput" allows for setting the "Grid" parameters
and parameters of functions "B!"" and "1epet".
This tab sheet is implemented onl3 in =8 progr,s (Slope stability, Settlement, Beam, etc.).
Grid - sets the grid origin and step in the X and Z directions
Show grid - shows / hides grid on the desktop
Snap to grid - turns on / off the snap to grid option using mouse (when shifting
the mouse the cursor jumps over the defined grid a point off the
grid can be specified by holding the "C(1*" key)
Horizontal rule - shows / hides horizontal rule with a scale of distances on the
desktop
Vertical rule - shows / hides vertical rule with a scale of distances on the desktop
Functions Back and
Repeat
- turns on / off the possibility of using these functions in the
program (on horizontal tool bar these buttons are ")ogg3"
Dialogue window "Options" - tab sheeet "+nput"
Co,,on input
This chapter contains the hint sections that either provide details on the chapter "8t input
nd nl3sis regi,es" or are common to several GEO programs.
5rth pressures < Anl3sis ,ethods
The "$ro;e!t" frame tab sheet "5rth pressures" contains basic settings driving the
analysis of earth pressures. The program offers presetting for various countries (Czech
Republic, Germany, France..) and "Stndrd setting" recommended by the authors for
countries stored in the list.
When the "User" option is selected it is possible choose from an arbitrary type of analysis
offered by the program:
5rth pressure nl3sis
- 40 -
6ethods to !o,pute !ti+e pressure 6ethods to !o,pute pssi+e pressure
- Caqout-Kerisel - Caqout-Krisel (CSN 730037)
- Coulomb (CSN 730037) - Coulomb
- Mller-Breslau (DIN 4085) - Mller-Breslau
- Mazindrani (Rankin) - Sokolovski (DIN 4085)
- Absi - Mazindrani (Rankin)
- Absi
Earthquake analysis
- Mononobe-Okabe
- Arrango
Frame "!ro*ect" - tab sheet "Earth pressures"
&nputting nd editing soils
The "Add new soil" dialogue window serves to input name soil parameters that should be
obtained from laboratory measurements or geological survey.
All inputting fields in the window must be filled. The only exception is the value of >
sat
(bulk
weight of saturated soil) in the window section "Upli)t". Should this filed remain empty the
program autonatically adds the value of > (bulk weight of soil).
Cliking the hint button " " provides information about the theory of analyses linked to
individual values being inputted.
Color and soil sample are selected in "Soil and rock symbols" dialogue window. To open this
window press the "S,ple nd !olor" button.
If no geological survey or laboratoray experiments are available, the soil can be specified with
the help of soil database containg approximate values of basic characteristics. The "Clssi)3"
button opens the "Soil classification" dialogue window with the values offered for inserting into
the window. The "8elete" button allows for removing the information about classified soil from
the catalogue. Soil parameters that do not appear in the catalogue ("Friction angle struc-soil"
in the picture) must be in any case assigned manually.
The specified soil is inserted into the list of soils by pressing the "Add" button.
- 41 -
Dialogue window ",dding new soils"
Soil !lssi)i!tion
Approximate values of soils can be obtained from the catalogue of soils. The combo list serves
to select the desired soil and specify its consistency or compactness, respectively. The soil
parameters obtained from the catalogue appear in the window.
- 42 -
Dialogue window "oil classification"
Pressing the "%:" button shows in the "Add new soil" recommended values next to
corresponding input fields (see Fig.). Pressing the "%:/Assign" button then assigns to
individual input fields the average values of soil parameters. The "Cn!el" button leaves the
window with no action.
The "6nul" button opens the "Manual soil classification" dialogue window that allows for
classifying the soil if its parameters are known, e.g., from laboratory measurements (grading,
moisture, compactness..).
oil classification & recommended range of #alues
Soil nd ro!" l.els
The soil inputted either manually or inserted from the catalogue of soils can be assigned a
sample (type of hatching) and color to be shown in the profile on the desktop.
- 43 -
A color selected from the "8es"top" combo list is the color used to plot soils (rocks) on the
desktop. A color selected from the "$i!tures" combo list is the color used to visualize soils
(rocks) in pictures that are either stored in the "Picture list" or printed with the help of "Print
and export pictures".
The sample color to be sufficiently visible should be chosen with respect to the desktop
background or printout paper, respectively.
Dialogue window "oil and roc- s%mbols"
6nul !lssi)i!tion o) soil
This dialogue window allows for specifying the soil parameters, which serve to add the soil into
a catalogue of soils. The "%:" button switches back to the "Soil !lssi)i!tion" dialogue
window with setting and classified soil.
- 44 -
Dialogue window "Manual classification of soil"
&nter)!es in =8 en+iron,ent
The left part of the desktop contains a table with the list of interfaces. Interfaces are ordered
in the table from top to bottom. For currently selected interface the program displays in the
mid section of the desktop another table listing individual interface points.
A tool bar in the top part of the desktop contains control buttons to manage interfaces.
Tool bar "+nterface"
Margins - opens the "World coordinates" dialogue window that allows for setting
the world dimensions (left and right edge).
Add - turns on the regime for inputting a new interface individual interfaces
can be added in an arbitrary order. Each interface is automatically
stored in the list of interface when leaving the input mode
Modify - turns on the regime for editing an interface this regime is also
activated by clicking the desired interface on the desktop
remove - upon pressing the "1e,o+e" button the program marks the selected
interface with a red color and opens the dialogue window to confirm
this action
Every change made to a given interface can be put back using the "UNDO and REDO" buttons
on the horizontal tool bar.
- 45 -
Frame "+nterface"
Adding inter)!e
The "Add" button starts the regime for inputting points of a new interface. Other buttons on
the same tool bar assumed for inputting and editing interface points become active. The "%:"
button (tinged green) closes the input regime and stores the inputted points. The "Cn!el"
button (tinged red) closes the input regime without accounting for changes.
Two options are available to specify coordinates of individual interface points:
Using t.le: interface points are introduced in the "9ew inter)!e points" table. The "Add"
button opens the "9ew point" dialogue window that allows for specifying coordinates of a new
point. The "Add" button then inserts the point into the table. The "Cn!el" button is serves to
close the input mode when all interface points are introduced. The "5dit" and "1e,o+e"
buttons allow for either editing or deleting the inputted points. Each change in interface
geometry immediately appears on the desktop.
Using ,ouse: individual buttons on the vertical tool drive this inputting mode. The following
modes are available:
Add point - the point is inserted by clicking the left mouse button on the
desktop - the grid option can be exploited when inserting the
point - the inputted point is automatically rounded to two decimal
digits both mouse and keyboard input modes are therefore
identical
5dit point using
,ouse
- pressing the existing interface point using the left mouse button
allows for selecting this point and then moving it to a new position
5dit point in
dilogue point
- clicking the existing interface point opens the dialogue window
that allows for modifying the point coordinates
1e,o+e point - pressing the existing interface point using the left mouse button
opens the "1e,o+e point" dialogue window when confirming
this action the point is deleted
When inputting points, it is possible to utilize the template obtained from import DXF.
The program allows also for introducing vertical interfaces in such a case the program
requests to insert the point either to the le)t or to the right. The buttons that serve to confirm
- 46 -
the action are colored the same color is also used to visualize both input variants on the
desktop.
The "%:" button (tinged green) is used to store the inputted interface when all interface points
are introduced.
The program also contains an automatic corrector of inputted interface that determines the
interface end points and then adds the interface to the list of interfaces.
Frame "+nterface"
5diting inter)!e
The "6odi)3" button turns on the regime of inputting points of a new interface. The program
also opens the currently selected interface (it is selected from the "*ist o) inter)!es" table; it
is displayed as a solid thick line on the desktop). An interface can be selected also as an
!ti+e o.;e!t .3 !li!"ing a point, line or interface using the le)t ,ouse .utton.
The actual editing procedure (adding, shifting, deleting points) is the same as for adding
interface input mode.
The "%:" button closes the editing regime and stores all performed changes. The "Cn!el"
button closes the regime without accounting for all previously made modifications.
After leaving the edit mode (similarly to adding interface), the program immediately runs the
corrector of the inputted interface to check for the interface shape and if necessary to modify
the interface end points.
Corre!tor o) inputted inter)!e
When the inputting or editing process is completed the program automatically modifies the
inputted interface to comply with the program requirements, i.e. the end points touch the
world edges or other interfaces. The automatic corrector can be further used to simplify the
input process e.g., if only one point is used to specify an interface the program automatically
creates a horizontal interface containing the inputted point.
If the interface touches another interface the corrector creates new end points of the current
interface. These points then also become the points of the interface being touched. All lines of
individual interfaces thus start and end in a point.
In case of an incorrect input (see the picture below) the interface cannot be stored. In this
case the interface must be modified or the inputting process must be stopped using the
"Cn!el" button.
- 47 -
Here we present examples of interface corrector functions (correct and incorrect input):
Correct and incorrect interface shapes
-orld !oordintes
The dialogue window serves to specify world coordinates (dimensions) for a given task left
and right edges. The third data is auxiliary it determines the depth of drawing earth profiles
on the desktop it has no effect on the performed analysis.
The world coordinates can be changed at any time when increasing dimensions all inputted
interfaces are automatically prolonged, when reducing dimensions all points falling off the new
world coordinates are automatically removed.
- 48 -
Dialogue window "'orld coordinates"
Assigning soils
Two options are available to assign soils into individual profile layers. Clicking the left muse
button on the tool bar button above the table selects the desired soil (positioning the mouse
cursors in the bar above the soil button displays a bubble hint with the soil name). The soil is
inserted by moving the mouse cursor (the cursor mask changes into a "hnd") first into a
specific layer and then by pressing the left mouse button.
The second option requires opening a combo list of a specific interface and then selecting the
desired soil to be assigned. All changes in the soil assignment are automatically displayed on
the desktop.
Frame ",ssigning"
8esign !oe))i!ients
The "Anl3sis" or "Veri)i!tion" frames that display the list of computed forces allow for
specifying design coefficients. A design coefficient multiplies the corresponding force. When
inputting the coefficient the results are automatically recomputed and the desktop shows
modified forces.
- 49 -
Design coefficients are advantageous for example for:
- structure testing when a structure response to an increase of force specified directly in the
analysis window can be visualized
- excluding several forces from verification or their reduction
- Specifying design combinations e.g., different coefficients can be assigned in the sense
of EC to main load variables and side variable loads
The following combinations can be for example specified when performing the wall verification:
Analysis 1 Analysis 2 Analysis 3
- Wall 1,0 1,0 1,0
- Active pressure 1,0 1,0 1,0
- Surcharde 1 1,0 0,5 0,5
- Surcharde 2 0,5 1,0 0,5
- Surcharde 3 0,5 0,5 1,0
Frame ")erification" & application of design coefficients
1unning ,ore nl3ses # +eri)i!tions
Most frames that display the analysis results allow for defining more than one analysis to be
run. Several analyses within one construction stage are carried out for example for:
- dimensioning structure in more locations
- analyses of various slip surfaces
- verification with various design coefficients
The bar in the top part of the frame serves to manage individual analyses.
Frame ",nal%sis" & tool bar ".unning more anal%ses / #erification"
Add - adds additional analysis on the bar
- 50 -
Remove - removes the !urrentl3 sele!ted analysis

Analysis
1,2,3 ...
- switches between individual analyses
Frame ",nal%sis" - "running more anal%ses / #erification"
Conne!ting progr,s
In some cases it is possible to launch a new program from a currently running program. For
example, the "Cntile+er wll" program allows for running the "Slope st.ilit3" program to
verify the external stability of a structure, or the "Spred )ooting" program to verify the
bearing capacity of a footing of a structure.
The new program loads the data of structure and then it behaves as a stand alone program
closing the program, however, is different. Pressing the "%:" button (on the right below the
tool bars) closes the program and the analysis data are passed to the original program. This is
not the case if closing the program with the help of the "Cn!el" button.
The program, when running it )or the )irst ti,e, creates the data of a structure and passes
on the structure dimensions, geology, loads, surcharges and other data. The program then
requires inputting so,e dditionl dt, e.g. the analysis method, analysis setting, slip
surfaces, stages of construction, etc.
-hen running it gin (always necessary if some changes were made in the original
program) the program regenerates the data to be passed on, but "eeps the dt lred3
inputted in this progr,. For example, when connecting the original program with the
"Spred )ooting" program the new program keeps the additionally inputted sand-gravel
cushion together with inputted soil the footing dimensions, foundation geometry, and
geological profile are, however, regenerated.
Some actions are not allowed in the new program e.g. to change the basic setting of the
project, unit, etc. The generated task, however, can be saved into new data using the "S+e
s" button and work with it as with any other independent task.
- 51 -
.un the program "pread footing" from program "Cantile#er wall"
Sele!ting nd storing +iews
The programs offers a number of ways of displaying results. A specific option can be selected
from the "View results" dialogue window. Quite often is necessary to go through a complex and
tedious setting of views for example, if we are interested in the distribution of internal forces
developed in beams using FEM, it is necessary to turn off the color range, draw only
undeformed structure, select a variable to be displayed, select a suitable magnification, etc.
To simplify the way of managing individual views the programs allow us, using the "Selecting
and storing views" bar, to store the !urrent +iew and also to go )ro, one +iew to the
other in a relatively simple way.
(he stored +iew "eeps?
- all settings from the "View results"
- drawn variables
- color range
- picture zoom
The view is stored for all stages of construction if it is not possible in a certain construction
stage to perform such a setting (e.g. in the first construction stage the settlement and
depression are not defined) the programs displays the closest possible setting and the defined
view is switched to @noneA.
- 52 -
Control units of a tool bar ")iews"
The following control units are available to ,nge +iews:
Define view - opens the "Setting results
visualization" dialogue window, which serves to
define details for displaying the results
Select view - a combo list allows for selecting an already
specified and stored view
Store current view - opens the "9ew +iew" dialogue window to
store a new view
Open view manager - opens the window with a list of views
Setting results +isuli2tion
The "Settle,ent < results +isuli2tion setting" dialogue window provides tools for a lucid
way of displaying the results both on the screen and in the printed format:
- parameters to draw depression line and in)luen!e 2one
- setting surface views and color scale drawing
- setting and drawing tilted sections
The programs based on the )inite ele,ent ,ethod further allow for setting:
- parameters to draw the finite element ,esh
- parameters to draw construction de)or,ed # unde)or,ed (note that undeformed
option must be selected when displaying beam internal forces)
- distri.ution o) internl )or!es along interfaces and on beam elements
All information specified in this window (including the setting of current magnification) can be
stored using the selecting and storing views bar.
- 53 -
Dialogue window "ettlement & results #isuali$ation setting"
Setting !olor rnge
The color range is an important tool providing a lucid way of visualization of results. The
program offers two predefined types of color ranges "Uni)or," and "A!ross 2ero". Both
ranges have a moving minimum and maximum value and predefined colors. The minimum and
maximum values are uto,ti!ll3 regenerted whenever the variable or a stage of
construction is changed. The "Uni)or," range means that colors are uniformly spread from
the minimum to the maximum value. The "A!ross 2ero" range draws the positive values using
warm colors (yellow, red), while cold colors (green, blue) are used to represent negative
values.
The program allows for introduction of user<de)ined rnges with both the )i'ed minimum
and maximum and the ,o+ing minimum and maximum. A user-defined range is specified in
the "Scale color definition" dialogue window. The range is always defined for the current unit
(e.g. -!a0 m) when switching the units the program always adjusts the range particular for a
given unit.
Control units of a tool bar ".anges"
The following control units are available to ,nge rnges:
Select range - a combo list allows for selecting an already
specified and stored range
Define color ranges - opens the "Scale color definition" dialogue
window to create a user-defined range
- 54 -
Store current range - opens the "9ew rnge" dialogue window to
store a new range
Open range manager - opens the window with a list of automatic and
user-defined ranges
S!le !olor de)inition
The "S!le !olor de)inition" dialogue window serves to cerate a user<de)ined !olor s!le.
The "Floting ,ini,u, nd ,'i,u," check box determines the basic type of a scale. If
checked, the minimum and maximum values of a scale are automatically adjusted whenever
the corresponding variable or a construction stage is changed. In such a case it possible to
adjust the following:
- scale re)ine,ent (the minimum number of levels is four and the maximum is 100)
- s!le color
- uni)or, s!le # !ross 2ero
The nu,.er o) s!le le+els nd s!le t3pe are specified in the "S!le genertion"
dialogue window, which opens after pressing the "Generte +lues" button. It is possible to
adjust both +lues and !olors in the table in the left part of the dialogue window. The range
values can be easily changed in the table. If the box in the "Control !olor" column is checked,
it is possible to choose an arbitrary color from the combo box. The color on intermediate not
checked rows are automatically blended from the inputted colors in checked rows. The default
values can be recalled anytime after pressing the "$rede)ined !olors" button.
An important property of the program is a definition of ranges with the )i'ed ,ini,u, nd
,'i,u,. If the "Floting ,ini,u, nd ,'i,u," check box is not checked, the color
range is fixed and its minimum and maximum values are inputted. As oppose to the moving
range it is further possible to specify:
- range end points (in the "S!le genertion" dialogue window)
- !olors to display +lues out o) the rnge
When changing a variable or a construction stage the !olor rnge re,ins still the s,e,
keeping the same end ranges. The values found outside the range (below the minimum or
above the maximum value) are drawn using colors specified in the right part of the
window. (he ,ini,u, nd ,'i,u, rnge +lues are inputted in the "S!le
genertion" dialogue window. The inputted minimum and maximum values re lin"ed to the
s,e unit e.g. when specifying the rage of 1-211 -!a, this range is kept the same for all
variables being specified in -!a when changing the currently displayed variable to the
variable settlement, the current range is switched to that corresponding to the unit of
settlement.
For both the fixed and floating scale it is possible to choose whether the colors in the ranges
are distributed uni)or,l3 or !ross 2ero. The "Uni)or," scale means that colors are
smoothly spread from the minimum to the maximum value of the scale. The "A!ross 2ero"
scale draws the colors above the selected value using warm colors (yellow, red), while cold
colors (green, blue) are used to represent the colors below the selected value.
- 55 -
Dialogue window "cale color definition"
&,port < e'port 8BF
Programs 2D (Slope stability, Settlement, FEM) allow for importing and exporting data in DXF
format. The 1D programs (Cantilever wall, Gabion, Spread footing, Piles,.) allow only for
exporting data in the *.DXF format. The program main menu (item "File") contains items
"&,port" and "5'port" "For,t 8BF". These items are accessible in the menu even if the
module "&,port<e'port 8BF" has not been purchased. If the module is not implemented, the
program displays a warning message.
'arning message for missing module
If the module is purchased, the desktop contains a tool bar for handling the imported data.
Menu and tool bar for module "E(port-import DF3"
Data import proceeds in two steps:
- Reading data into template
- Inputting data using template
- Modifying template during data input
- 56 -
The data inputted in the program can be exported in DXF format anytime.
1eding dt into te,plte
To proceed, use the program menu (item "File") and choose the item "&,port", "For,t
8BF". Next, select the file intended for import. The loaded data are displayed in the dialogue
window, which allows for sele!ting indi+idul l3ers to be subsequently read into a
template. All data are always loaded into the program so that the layer selection can be
modified anytime.
When importing data it is possible adjust the world margins based on the imported data this
is particularly useful when defining a new task.
Imported data are not transferred directly into the program. Instead, they are read into a
template, which is used to transfer data into program later on. When the data are loaded the
template is displayed on the desktop and the buttons on a horizontal tool bare, which are used
to manage the template, are made available.
.eading data into a template
Modif%ing world margins
&nputting dt using te,plte
Inputting data using a template is essentially the same as a standard input of data in the
program. The main difference appears in the possibility of adding a point from a template into
the data being inputted. During input the mouse cursor appears as an axial cross when
approaching the template it turns into a small cross and long axes disappear. When a point is
now inputted (using the left mouse button) the point from the template is inserted (the
inputted point has now the same coordinates as the point in the template). To accelerate the
- 57 -
input of individual lines it appears useful to employ the zooming tools. After interfaces are
inputted, the procedure can be applied to input other entities. During input it is possible to
modify template anytime.
+nputting data using a template
6odi)3ing te,plte during dt input
When inputting data, the template can be modified anytime. In particular, pressing the
"6odi)3" button on the "(e,plte 8BF" tool bar opens a dialogue window with individual
layers of the template. For example, when inputting anchors, it is possible to turn off all layers
except for anchors inputting anchors then becomes simple and lucid.
Turning on/off la%ers in a template
- 58 -
Displa% after modif%ing la%ers in a template
5'port 8BF
To proceed, use the program menu (item "File") and choose the item "5'port", "For,t
8BF". Next, select the file name intended for export. Using a dialogue window the program
then provides information regarding the performed data export.
+nformation regarding the performed data e(port
The exported data can be verified by importing them back into the program GEO5.
- 59 -
Chec- of e(ported data
&,port g&9(
The program GEO5 makes possible to import data in the gINT (*.gi*) format.
The gINT (*.gi*) format is the format used in the software gINT of the gINT software company,
which is used to process and present geotechnical, geological and hydrological data. Detail
information regarding this company can be found on www.gintso)twre.!o, and
www.)ine.!2#gint.
The main program menu (item "File") contains the "&,port" - "For,t G&C" items.
The GEO program allow for loading three types of files from the gINT program:
C.G&1 points of terrain for program "(errin"
C.G&= soils and geological profile for all GEO programs
C.G&7 CPT data for program "$ile C$("
- 60 -
Menu "+mport g+4T"
&,port o) terrin points
The program "(errin" allows for importing the points of terrain surface. The gINT file is in
this case written as *.gi1. The main program menu (item "File") contains the "&,port" -
"For,t G&1 (g&9( inter)!e points)" items. Using the "%pen" button in the "&,port o)
dt in g&9( )or,t" dialogue window makes possible to load the gINT file import a set of
points of terrain surface. Using the "Add" button then opens the way to import in the gINT
format an arbitrary number of interfaces.
Using the "%pen" button in the bottom part of the dialogue window it is possible as described
above to load the "File o) points o) wter"
While importing the program automatically transform the format of units of the imported data
into the one used in the program.
- 61 -
Dialogue window "+mport of data on format g+4T"
&,port o) soils nd pro)ile
Using the "%pen" button in the "&,port g&9( (soils nd pro)ile)" dialogue window makes
possible to load the gINT file. The gINT file is in this case written as *.gi2. The "Sele!ted
pro)ile" combo list serves to choose the profile. The type of import (Import soils, Import
profile, Import assignment) is then determined in the "&,port pr,eters" sheet.
While importing the program automatically transform the format of units of the imported data
into the one used in the program.
Dialogue window "+mport g+4T" 5soils and profile6
Heredit3 < stge o) !onstru!tion
For individual types of input (soil assignment, anchors, supports.) there always exists
relationship over construction stages. There are two types:
8e)ined heredit3 (anchors, supports, surcharges.) these objects always remember the
stage, in which they were created. This is also the stage where these objects can be edited. In
all subsequent stages these objects can be either removed or it is possible to change some of
their properties (post-stressing anchor, changing surcharge magnitude, translating support.).
When defining a new construction stage these objects are automatically carried over to that
stage.
- 62 -
Auto,ti! heredit3 (assigning soil, terrain profile, water impact, analysis setting.) for
such types of inputs the properties from the previous stage are carried over to a new one if
created. When changing properties in the current construction stage the program proceeds as
follows:
- if the property in the next stage remains the same as in the previous stage it also receives
the tag new this change also applies to all subsequent stages
- if the property in the next stage differs from the one in the previous stage (this means
that this property has been in the next stage already changed) then this change is not
carried over to subsequent stages
Changes within stages of construction & automatic heredit%
&nput regi,es nd nl3sis
This capture contains basic description of individual regimes of inputting data into the
program:
$rogr, 5rth $ressure
$ro;e!t
The "$ro;e!t" frame is used to input the basic project data and to specify the overall setting of
the analysis run. The frame contains an input form to introduce the basic data about the
analyzed task, i.e. project information, project description, date, etc. These information are
further used in text and graphical outputs.
The frame also allows the user to switch analysis units (metric / imperial).
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
The frame "Anl3sis ,ethods" serves to specify standards or methods that are used to
perform the analysis.
The frame further serves to select the type of analysis for the calculation of earth pressures
and earthquake.
- 63 -
Frame ",nal%sis methods"
Geo,etr3
The "Geo,etr3" frame contains table listing the points of a structure. Adding (editing) points
is performed in the "Add (edit) point" dialogue window.
The existing geometry points can be further edited on the desktop with the help of active
objects double clicking on a selected point opens a dialog window to edit the point.
The program makes possible to export the geometry of a structure in the *.DXF format.
Frame "Geometr%"
$ro)ile
The "$ro)ile" frame contains a table with a list of inputted interfaces. After specifying
interfaces it is possible to edit thicknesses of individual layers with the help of active
dimensions.
Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) inter)!e" dialogue window. The z-
coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified.
The program allows for raising or lowering the top point of a structure in the "Chnge terrin
ele+tion" dialogue window so that the whole interface can be translated while keeping the
thicknesses of individual layers. This function is important when copying the profile from
program "(errin".
The program makes possible to import a profile in the gINT format.
- 64 -
Frame "!rofile"
Soils
The "Soils" frame contains a table with a list of inputted soils. The table also provides
information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame.
Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window.
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "5rth $ressure". These characteristics
are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Earth pressure at rest" and "Uplift pressure".
The program makes possible import soils in the gINT format.
Frame "oils"
- 65 -
Bsi! dt
This part of the window serves to introduce basic parameters of soils unit weight4 ngle o)
internl )ri!tion nd !ohesion. The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey
or from laboratory experiments. If these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in
database of soils, which contains values of selected characteristics of soils.
Either e))e!ti+e or totl parameters of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are specified
depending on the setting in the "Stress nl3sis" combo list. Whether to use effective or total
parameters depends primarily on the type of soil, type of loading, structure duration and water
conditions.
One further needs to specify the angle of internal friction between the soil and structure, which
depends on the structure material and the type of soil. Possible values of this parameter are
listed in the table of recommended values.
The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Earth pressures".
Dialogue window ",dd new soils" - "7asic data"
Assign
The "Assign" frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is
graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a combo
list for each layer of the profile.
Procedure to assign soil into a layer is described in details herein.
The program makes possible to import soil assignment in the gINT format.
- 66 -
Frame ",ssign"
(errin
The "(errin" frame allows, by pressing the button, for specifying the terrain shape. The
selected shape with graphic hint ("$r,eter !hrt") of inputted values is displayed in the
left part of the frame. The terrain shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values
into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions.
The last option to choose from is a general shape of a terrain. In this case the frame contains a
table with a list of terrain points. The first point with coordinates [0, 0] coincides with the top
point of a structure.
Analysis of earth pressures in case of inclined terrain is described in the theoretical part of the
help "Distribution of earth pressures for broken terrain".
- 67 -
Frame "Terrain"
-ter
The "-ter" allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected type
together with a graphic hint ("$r,eter !hrt) of inputted values is displayed in the left
part of the frame. Water parameters (h1, h2...) can be edited either in the frame by inserting
values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions.
The last option is a manual input of pore pressure both in front and behind the structure. Two
tab sheets "&n )ront o) stru!ture" and "Behind stru!ture" appear with tables. The table is
filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of "z (z-axis).
The ground water table can also be specified .o+e the stru!ture or earth profile,
respectively in such a case the depth of water is inputted with negative value.
Analysis of earth pressures with influence of water is described in the theoretical part of the
hint chapter "Influence of water".
The program further allows for specifying a depth of tensile cracks filled with water.
- 68 -
Frame "'ater"
Sur!hrge
The "Sur!hrge" frame contains a table with a list of inputted surcharges. Adding (editing)
surcharge is performed in the "9ew (edit) sur!hrge" dialogue window. The inputted
surchages can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects,
respectively.
The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified (positive direction
downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a certain depth. Providing the surcharge is found
off the terrain the computer prompts an error message.
Analysis of earth pressures due to surcharges is described in the theoretical part of the hint,
chapter "Influence of surcharge".
- 69 -
Frame "urcharge"
5rthDu"e
The "5rthDu"e" frame serves to input earthquake parameters. Directions of inputted
earthquake effects are displayed on the desktop.
Analysis of earth pressures while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part
of the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".
Frame "Earth8ua-e"
- 70 -
Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for the analysis of earth pressures. The program
offers pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and "Stndrd
setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list.
While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil
parameters in corresponding windows are changed.
An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting". Selecting the option
"1edu!e soil pr,eters" allows for specifying in input fields individual values of the
coefficients of reduction of soil parameters (recommended values of coefficients are available
in EC7-1 in supplement A).
Frame "etting"
Anl3sis
The "Anl3sis" frame displays the analysis results. The frame serves to select type of
computed earth pressure (active pressure, pressure at rest, passive pressure). Two options
"Create soil wedge" and "Minimum dimensioning pressure" are available when computing the
active earth pressure.
Several analyses can be performed for a single task by varying design coefficients of individual
components of earth pressure.
The analysis results are displayed on the desktop and are updated immediately for an arbitrary
change in input data or setting. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting
visualization style" dialogue window.
- 71 -
Frame ",nal%sis"
$rogr, Sheeting 8esign
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
and earthquake.
- 72 -
$ro)ile
dimensions.
program "(errin".
Frame "!rofile"
Soils
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Sheeting design". These characteristics
are further specified in chapters: "Basic data" and "Uplift pressure".
- 73 -
Frame "oils"
Bsi! dt
conditions.
The associated theory is described in det;ail in chapter "Earth pressures".
- 74 -
Assign
- 75 -
Frame ",ssign"
Geo,etr3
The "Geo,etr3" frame is used to specify the depth of a construction ditch and by pressing the
button to choose the shape of a bottom. The selected shape with a graphic hint ("$r,eter
!hrt") appears in the left part of the frame. The dimensions of a structure can be edited
either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help of
active dimensions.
The frame can be further used to input surcharge of a construction ditch bottom and coefficient
of reduction of earth pressure below the ditch bottom (this coefficient serves to analyze braced
sheeting).
- 76 -
Frame "Geometr%"
An!hors
The "An!hors" frame contains a table with a list of inputted anchors. Adding (editng) anchors
is performed in the "9ew n!hor (5dit n!hor)" dialogue window. The inputted anchors can
be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
Frame ",nchors"
$rops
The "$rops" frame contains a table with a list inputted props. Adding (editing) props is
- 77 -
performed in the "9ew prop (5dit prop)" dialogue window. The inputted props can also be
edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively.
Frame "!rops"
Supports
The "Supports" frame contains a table with a list of inputted supports. Adding (editing)
supports is performed in the "9ew support (5dit support)" dialogue window. The inputted
supports can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active
objects, respectively.
Frame "upports"
- 78 -
$ressure deter,intion
The "$ressure spe!i)i!tion" frame allows by pressing the button "Anl32e" ("&nput",
respectively) for selecting a method for the calculation of active earth pressure. Choose option
"Anl32e" if you wish the active earth pressure to be computed automatically based on
specified earth profile.
In some special cases (redistribution of earth pressures due to presence of anchors,
nonstandard rotation of a structure) it advisable to specify the distribution of earth pressure on
a structure manually. Selecting the option "&nput" opens a table in the frame with a list of
inputted points and the corresponding pressure value. The pressure is specified up to the
depth of structure increased by the depth of zero point (the depth of zero point is introduced in
the top part of the frame). The depth of zero point equal to zero is selected if we wish to
specify the pressure values only up to the depth of construction ditch. Below the ditch the
programs computes the pressure values based on the specified geological profile. Providing the
earth pressure is specified manually the program does not account for the influence of terrain
profile, surcharge and water.
Frame "!ressure determination"
(errin
hint, chapter "Distribution of earth pressures for broken terrain".
- 79 -
Frame "Terrain"
-ter
together with a graphic hint ("$r,eter !hrt") of inputted values is displayed in the left
part of the frame. Water parameters h
1
, h
2
can be edited either in the frame by inserting
- 80 -
Frame "'ater"
Sur!hrge
respectively.
- 81 -
Frame "urcharge"
Applied )or!es
The "Applied )or!es" frame contains a table with a list of forces acting on a structure. Adding
(editing) forces is performed in the "9ew )or!e (edit )or!e)" dialogue window. The inputted
forces can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
Frame "Forces"
5rthDu"e
- 82 -
Frame "Earth8ua-e"
Settings
Frame "etting"
- 83 -
Anl3sis
The "Anl3sis" frame displays the analysis results. The analysis is carried out by pressing the
"Anl32e" button in the right part of the frame. The frame has two variants. The first variant
applies to a wall free of anchors (sheet pile) and the second one to an anchored (strutted)
wall.
A coefficient of reduction of passive earth pressure (or factor of safety) together with a choice
whether to consider a minimal dimensioning pressure behind the structure is specified for a
non-anchored wall.
A type of heel support (fixed, free) and analysis parameters (coefficient of reduction of passive
pressure, minimum dimensioning pressure) are specified for an n!hored wall.
The analysis results are displayed on the desktop. Visualization of results can be adjusted in
the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.
Frame ",nal%sis" - non-anchored wall
- 84 -
Frame ",nal%sis" - anchored wall
$rogr, Sheeting Che!"
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethod
and earthquake.
The frame allows the user to specify subdivision of a wall in to finite elements (by default the
number of elements equals to 30).
- 85 -
$ro)ile
dimensions.
program "(errin".
The frame "!rofile"
6odulus o) su.soil re!tion
This frame serves to specify a type of analysis for computation of the modulus of subsoil
reaction, which is an important input parameter when analyzing a structure using the method
of dependent pressures.
- 86 -
The program makes possible to input the distribution of the modulus of subsoil reaction (along
the length of a structure, as a soil parameter), iterate from soil material parameters, or to
compute it. The modulus of subsoil reaction can be either linear or nonlinear.
Selecting the option "&nput .3 distri.ution" opens a table in the frame that allows for
specifying the values of the modulus of subsoil reaction both in front and behind the structure.
When selecting other options the required information needed to compute the modulus value
are inputted as soil parameters in the frame "Soils".
Frame "Modulus of subsoil reaction"
Soils
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Sheeting !he!"". These characteristics
are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Earth pressure at rest", "Uplift pressure" and
"Modulus of subsoil reaction".
The program makes possible to import soils in the gINT format.
- 87 -
Frame "oils"
Bsi! dt
conditions.
- 88 -
Geo,etr3
The "Geo,etr3" frame contains a table with a list of inputted structural sections forming the
sheeting wall. For each section the table stores its cross-sectional characteristics (A area, I
Moment of inertia) and material characteristics (E Modulus of elasticity, G Shear modulus
these variables are always expressed with respect to 1m of a construction length). Adding
(editing) sections is performed in the "New section (Edit section)" dialogue window.
The program allows for adding (inserting) another section in between two already existing
sections of a structure. Inserting a new section is performed in the "&nsert se!tion" dialogue
window that complies with the "New section" dialogue window. The inserted section is ordered
such as to precede the currently selected section of a structure.
The inputted sections can be further edited on the desktop with the help of active objects
double clicking on a structure opens a dialog window with a given section.
- 89 -
Frame "Geometr%"
Adding nd editing se!tion
The "9ew se!tion (5dit4 se!tion4 &nsert se!tion)" dialog window contains the following
items:
Type of wall - combo list containing individual types of walls to create a
sheeting (pile wall, reinforced concrete rectangular wall, sheet
pile wall, steel I cross-section, or own generation of desired
cross-sectional characteristics
Section length - use input field to specify length of sheeting wall or length of a
given section of a structure, respectively
Coeff. of reduc. of earth
press. below ditch
bottom
- coefficient allowing for computation of braced sheeting (for
classical sheeting is set equal to one)
Geometry - contains information about geometry for a given structural
variant (e.g., for pile wall it contains pile cross-section and
spacing of piles, for reinforced concrete wall its thickness, etc.)
Profile - contains information about profile for the selected structural
variant "steel I cross-section" (buttons "Ctlogue" and "5dit"
open the "1olled se!tion steel pro)iles", which contains a list
of these cross-sections)
Material - contains information about material of a given structural variant
(e.g., for pile wall it contains a catalogue of materials to select
the type of concrete, for sheet pile wall the elastic modulus, etc.)
Information - contains overview of cross-sectional characteristics of the
inputted cross-section area and moment of inertia are always
evaluated for 1m of length in out of plane direction
The "User !tlogue" button in the bottom part of the window opens the "User catalogue"
dialogue window.
- 90 -
Dialogue window "4ew section"
User !tlogue
The user catalogue allows the user to define and store own cross-sections and their
characteristics that appear in the construction of a wall. At first use of the catalogue (has not
been yet created) the program prompts a warning message that no catalogue was found.
Then, pressing the button "%:" opens the "S+e s" dialogue window that allows for entering
the catalogue name and saving it into a specified location by pressing the "S+e" button (by
default a folder used for saving the project data is assumed).
The program allows the user to create more than one catalogue. The next catalogue is created
by pressing the "9ew" button the program asks, whether the current catalogue should be
replaced (the !urrentl3 loded !tlogue is not deletedE) and saves the new catalogue
under a new name. The "%pen" button allows for loading an arbitrary user catalogue and by
pressing the "S+e s" button for saving it under a different name.
Dialogue window at first use user catalogue of cross-sections
The "User !tlogue" dialogue window contains a table listing the user defined cross-
sections. The "Add ite, button opens the "9ew !tlogue ite, dialogue window that
allows for specifying and subsequent saving of characteristics of a new cross-section into the
catalogue. Buttons "5dit ite, and "1e,o+e ite, serve to edit individual items in the table.
The "A!!ept !urrent" button accepts the current cross-sectional characteristics of a cross-
- 91 -
section specified in the "New section" dialogue window and opens the "9ew !tlogue ite,"
dialogue window that allows for modifying and saving the current cross-section.
Dialogue windows "9ser catalogue" and "4ew catalogue item"
Assign
Frame ",ssign"
- 92 -
5'!+tion
The "5'!+tion" frame serves to input the depth of a construction ditch and by pressing the
button to select the shape of the ditch base. The selected shape with a graphic hint
"$r,eter !hrt" appears in the left part of the frame. The dimensions of a structure can be
edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop with the help
of active dimensions.
The frame also allows for specifying surcharge acting on the ditch base or a thickness of made-
up ground of new soil below the ditch base (the soil can be selected from a combo list
containing soils inputted in the regime "Soils"). When introducing the made-up ground with
brace sheeting it is assumed that there is a sheeted structure in the location of made-up
ground, i.e., all pressures are acting on the entire width of a structure as above the
construction ditch base.
Frame "E(ca#ation"
(errin
- 93 -
Frame "Terrain"
-ter
together with a graphic hint ("$r,eter !hrt) of inputted values is displayed in the left
filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of "z (z-axis).
- 94 -
Frame "'ater"
Sur!hrge
respectively.
- 95 -
Frame "urcharge"
Applied )or!es
The "Applied )or!es" frame contains a table with a list of forces acting on a structure. Adding
(editing) forces is performed in the "9ew )or!e (edit )or!e)" dialogue window. The inputted
forces can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
Frame "Forces"
An!hors
The "An!hors" frame contains a table with a list of inputted anchors. Adding (editng) anchors
- 96 -
is performed in the "9ew n!hor (5dit n!hor)" dialogue window. The inpuuted anchors can
You are asked to input the anchor location, its length and inclination, pre-stress force and
parameters needed to determine the anchor stiffness (cross-sectional area, modulus of
elasticity). The anchor is introduced automatically on already deformed structure (obtained
from the previous stage of construction).
The anchor stiffness becomes effective in subsequent stages of construction. In subsequent
stages the anchor can no longer be edited. The only action available is the change of anchor
pre-stress force.
9ote? The program does not check the anchor bearing capacity against breakage.
Frame ",nchors"
$rops
The "$rops" frame contains a table with a list inputted props. Adding (editing) props is
performed in the "9ew prop (5dit prop)" dialogue window. The inputted props can also be
edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active objects, respectively.
You are asked to input the prop location, its length and parameters needed to determine the
prop stiffness (cross-sectional area, modulus of elasticity).
The prop is introduced automatically on already deformed structure (obtained from the
previous stage of construction). In subsequent stages the props can no longer be edited. The
only action available is the change of prop stiffness.
9ote? The program does not check the prop bearing capacity neither for compression nor for
buckling.
- 97 -
Frame "!rops"
Supports
The "Supports" frame contains a table with a list of inputted supports. Adding (editing)
supports is performed in the "9ew support (5dit support)" dialogue window. The inputted
supports can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active
You are asked to specify the support type (free, fixed, and spring) and its location. The support
is inputted automatically on already deformed structure (obtained from the previous stage of
construction). In subsequent stages the supports can no longer be edited. The only action
available is the introduction of prescribed (forced) displacement in a support.
- 98 -
Frame "upport"
5rthDu"e
Frame "Earth8ua-e"
- 99 -
Settings
The "%ther" tab sheet contains setting for minimum dimensioning pressure and setting of
parameters of internal stability of a structure.
The program "Sheeting !he!"" is useful particularly when modeling real behavior of a
structure consequently we recommend the analysis to be performed without reduction of
input characteristics of soils ("Stndrd setting").
Frame "ettings" - tab sheet "!ressure calculation"
Frame "ettings" - tab sheet "Other"
Anl3sis
The frame "Anl3sis" displays the analysis results. Switching to this regime automatically runs
the analysis. The frame contains three buttons to show the analysis results:
- :
h
/ pressures
Variation of the modulus of subsoil reaction is displayed in the left part of the desktop (by
default a blue color with hatching) is assumed. Referring to the method of depending pressures
some of the springs (values of modules of subsoil reaction) are removed (spring stiffness set
equal to zero) from the analysis. The analysis ,3 )il to !on+erge providing the critical
(limit) state developed both in front and behind the structure and there is not enough
constrains available (anchors, supports). The program exists without finding a solution. An
error message appears in the bottom part of the frame such a case calls for ,odi)i!tion in
pro.le, input e.g., add an anchor, change a depth of excavation, improve soil parameters,
etc.
Some construction stages display (by default a yellow dotted line is assumed) deformation at
- 100 -
the onset of mobilization of the earth pressure at rest this is a complementary information
showing plastic deformation of a structure.
Distributions of limiting pressures (by default a green dashed line is assumed) are presented in
the right part of the window (passive pressure, pressure at rest and active pressure). The
!tul pressure !ting on stru!ture is plotted in a solid blue line.
Both deformed (by default a solid red color is assumed) and undeformed structure appears in
the right part of the desktop. Forces and displacements developed in anchors, supports and
props are also shown.
- &nternl )or!es
Plot of a structure together with forces acting in anchors, reactions and deformations of
supports and props appear in the left part of the desktop. Distributions of bending moment and
shear force are then plotted on the right.
- 8e)or,tions / Stresses
Plot of a structure together with forces acting in anchors, reactions and deformations of
supports and props appear in the left part of the desktop. The deformed shape of a structure
together with overall pressure acting on a structure is then plotted on the right.
Providing the modulus of subsoil reaction is found by iteration it is necessary to check the
course of iteration in the dialogue window. Details are provided in the theoretical part of the
hint "Modulus of subsoil reaction determined by iteration".
Frame ",nal%sis" - modulus of susoil reaction0 earth pressures and deformations
- 101 -
Frame ",nal%sis" - bending moment and shear force
Frame ",nal%sis" - deformation and pressure acting on structure
&nternl st.ilit3
This frame serves to check the internal stability of anchors the frame is therefore accessible
only in stages, in which the anchors are introduced. For each row of anchors the table shows
inputted anchor forces and the maximum allowable forces in each anchor. Overall check for the
most stressed row of anchors is displayed in the right part of the frame.
The verification procedure depends on "Settings" either based factors of safety or according
to the theory of limit states. The solution procedure is described herein.
- 102 -
Frame "+nternal stabilit%"
5'ternl st.ilit3
Pressing the "5'ternl st.ilit3" button launches the "Slope st.ilit3" program. This
program then allows us to check the overall stability of the analyzed structure. The button is
available only if the program "Slope st.ilit3" is installed.
After completing all analyses press the "%:" button to leave the program all data are then
carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Sheeting +eri)i!tion" program.
Frame "E(ternal stabilit%"
- 103 -
5n+elopes
The frame "5n+elopes" allows for displaying an envelope of internal forces and displacements
from all analyses (stages of constructions). By default the envelope is constructed from the
results from all construction stages. It can, however, be created only from the selected stages
(pressing buttons selects the constructions stages that are used to generate the current
envelope). The program makes possible to construct more envelopes with various
combinations.
The maximum internal forces and displacements are displayed in the right part of the frame.
Frame "En#elopes"
$rogr, Slope St.ilit3
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
- 104 -
Anl3sis ,ethods
The "Anl3sis" tab sheet is used to specify whether the analysis is performed in total or
effective parameters.
&nter)!e
The "&nter)!e" frame serves to introduce individual soil interfaces into the soil body. Detailed
description how to deal with interfaces id described herein.
The program makes possible to import or export interfaces in the *.DXF format. They can also
be imported in the gINT format.
Frame "+nterface"
5,.n",ent
The "5,.n",ent" frame allows for inputting interfaces to create an embankment above the
current terrain. The frame contains a table with a list of interfaces forming the embankment. A
table listing the points of currently selected interface of the embankment is displayed in the
- 105 -
mid section of the frame. Inputting an embankment interface follows the same steps as used
for standard interfaces.
An embankment cannot be specified in the first stage of construction. An embankment cannot
be built if there is an earth cut already specified in a given stage - in such a case either a new
stage of construction must be introduced for embankment input or the existing open cut must
be first removed.
Frame "Emban-ment"
5rth !ut
The "5rth !ut" frame serves to specify the shape of an open cut. This function allows for
modifying the terrain profile within a given stage of construction. Several erth !uts can be
introduced at the same time. In such a case some of the lines in the cut appear partially above
the terrain.
A table listing individual interface points is displayed in the left part of the frame. Inputting an
earth cut interface follows the same steps as used for standard interfaces.
An open cut cannot be specified in the first stage of construction. An earth cut cannot be built
if there is an embankment already specified in a given stage - in such a case either a new
stage of construction must be introduced for earth cut input or the existing embankment must
be first removed.
- 106 -
Frame "Earth cut"
Soils
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Slope st.ilit3". These characteristics
are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Uplift pressure" and "Foliation". An input of
parameters further depends on the selected type of analysis (effective / total stress state),
which is set in the frame "Analysis methods".
- 107 -
Frame "oils"
Bsi! dt
The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Slope stability analysis".
- 108 -
1igid .od3
The "1igid .odies" frame contains a table with a list of inputted rigid bodies. The rigid bodies
serve to model regions with a high stiffness e.g., sheeting stru!tures or ro!" su.grde.
This table also provides information about the currently selected rigid body displayed in the
right part of the frame.
Adding (editing) rigid bodies is performed in the "Add new rigid .od3" dialogue window. This
window serves to input the unit weight of the rigid body material and to select color and
pattern. The rigid bodies are in the frame "Assign" ordered after inputted soils.
1igid .odies are introduced in the program as regions with high strength so they are not
interse!ted .3 potentil slip sur)!e. Providing we wish the slip surface to cross a rigid
body (e.g., pile wall) it is recommended to model the rigid body as a soil with a cohesion
corresponding to pile bearing capacity against slip.
- 109 -
Frame ".igid bodies"
Assign
The "Assign frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is
Frame ",ssign"
- 110 -
An!hors
The "An!hors" frame contains a table with a list of inputted anchors. Adding (editing) anchors
is performed in the "9ew n!hor (6odi)3 n!hor pr,eters)" dialogue window. The
inputted anchors can be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
You are asked to input the anchor location (starting point), its length and inclination, anchor
spacing and pre-stress force. The anchor starting point is always tt!hed to the terrin. All
inputted parameters can be modified in the stage of construction, in which the anchor was
introduced. In subsequent stages the program allows only for modifying the anchor pre-stress
force (option "An!hor post<stressing").
Anchors can also be introduced with help of a ,ouse !li!". Mouse input mode is determined
by pressing buttons on the horizontal bar "An!hor". The following modes are available:
- Add clicking the left mouse button allows for specifying the starting and end
point of an anchor. The grid function can be exploited in the input mode.
The starting point is always "attached" to the terrain. The coordinates of
inputted points are automatically round up to two digits both input
modes (manual, mouse) are therefore identical
- 6odi)3 clicking the left mouse button on already existing anchor opens the
"6odi)3 n!hor propert3" dialogue window, where the selected anchor
can be modified
- 1e,o+e clicking the left mouse button on an anchor opens the dialogue window to
confirm the rein)or!e,ent re,o+l confirming this action then
removes the anchor
Effect of anchors on the analysis is described in more details in the theoretical part of the hint.
9ote? The program does not check the anchor bearing capacity against breakage.
Frame ",nchors"
1ein)or!e,ents
The "1ein)or!e,ents" frame contains a table with a list of inputted reinforcements. Adding
(editing) reinforcement is performed in the "9ew rein)or!e,ent (6odi)3 inter)!e
properties)" dialogoue window. The inputted reinforcements can be edited on the desktop
with the help of active objects.
- 111 -
Properties like reinforcement location, anchorage length from both left and right end and
reinforcement strength must be specified. All inputted parameters can be modified only in the
stage of construction, in which the reinforcement was introduced. In subsequent stages the
geo-reinforcement can only be removed.
Reinforcements can also be introduced with help of a ,ouse !li!". Mouse input mode is
determined by pressing buttons on the horizontal bar "1ein)or!e,ent". The following modes
are available:
- Add clicking the left mouse button allows for specifying the starting and
end point of a reinforcement. A predefined grid can be used in the
input mode. The starting point is always "attached" to the terrain. The
coordinates of inputted points are automatically round up to two digits
both input modes (manual, mouse) are therefore identical
- 6odi)3 clicking the left mouse button on already existing reinforcement opens
the "6odi)3 rein)or!e,ent propert3" dialogue window, where the
selected reinforcement can be modified
- 1e,o+e clicking the left mouse button on reinforcement opens the dialogue
window to confirm the rein)or!e,ent re,o+l confirming this
action then removes the reinforcement
Including reinforcements in the analysis is described in more details in the theoretical part of
the help.
Frame ".einforcements"
Sur!hrge
respectively.
All inputted parameters of a surcharge can be modified in the construction stage where the
surcharge was specified. Only the surcharge magnitude can be modified in all subsequent
construction stages (option "Ad;ust sur!hrge").
Influence of surcharge on stability analysis of slopes is described in the theoretical part of the
hint.
- 112 -
Frame "urcharge"
-ter
The "-ter" frame serves to set the type of ground water table. Five options to specify the
type of water are available from the combo list.
Inputting the ground water table or isolines, respectively, is identical with the standard input of
interfaces.
A field for specifying a value of coefficient Ru or pore pressure appears next to the table if
introducing water using isolines of 1u<inter)!es or pore pressure, respectively. Pressing
the button with a blue arrow next to the input field opens the "Coe))i!ient 1u" or "$ore
pressure" dialogue window to enter the desired value. It is advantageous to input all values at
once using the "%:/ " and "%:/ ". The value of a given quantity found in a specific point
between two isolines is approximated by liner interpoltion of values pertinent to given
isolines. The first (the most top one) always !oin!ides with terrin it therefore cannot be
deleted.
The ground wter t.le or t.le o) su!tion, respectively, is specified as continuous
interfaces, which can be located even above the terrain.
If the inputted data in individual stages are different, the program then allows for accepting
the data from the previous stage of construction by pressing the "A!!ept" button.
- 113 -
Frame "'ater"
5rthDu"e
Slope stability analysis while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of
the hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".
Frame "Earth8ua-e"
- 114 -
Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings to assess the slope stability. The program offers
pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and "Stndrd
parameters in corresponding windows are changed. Changing settings in the combo list
modifies previously set values in corresponding windows.
An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting".
Selecting the option "Safety factor" allows the user to specify in input field own value of the
factor of safety.
Selecting the option "Limit states" allows for specifying individual values of the coefficients of
reduction of soil parameters (recommended values of coefficients are available in EC7-1 in
supplement A) and coefficient of overall stability.
Frame "ettings"
Anl3sis
The "Anl3sis" frame displays the analysis results. Several analyses can be performed for a
single task.
The starting point in the slope stability analysis is the selection of the type of slip surface. The
input is available from a combo list in the left top part of the frame containing two options
!ir!ulr slip sur)!e and pol3gonl slip sur)!e. After introducing the slip surface the
analysis is started using the "Anl3sis" button. The analysis results appear in the right part of
the frame.
(he t3pe o) nl3sis is selected in the mid section of the frame three methods are available
for the circular slip surface (the Bishop, Fellenius/Petterson or Spencer method), the polygonal
slip surface is analyzed exploiting either the Sarma or Spencer method. For both cases of the
assumed slip surfaces it is possible to perform the analysis employing all methods at once (in
such a case, however, the slip surface cannot be optimized).
Based on the "Settig" in the frame the verification of the slope stability is performed using
either the factor of safety concept or the theory of limit states.
Checking the box "%pti,i2e slip sur)!e" allows for optimizing either the circular or
polygonal slip surface. This step also activates the "Constrins" button pressing this button
changes the frame appearance and makes possible to introduce constrains on optimization
procedure.
It is also possible to specify how to deal with anchors in the analysis (box "&n)inite n!hor
lengths ssu,ed").
The slip surface (even the optimized one) must be introduced in the frame several
possibilities are available:
- Cir!ulr slip sur)!e
using ,ouse press the "&nput" button to active the input regime and then by clicking
the left mouse button enter three points to define a circular slip surface (the introduced slip
- 115 -
surface can be further modified using the "6odi)3" button or specified again with the help
of the "1epl!e" button
using the dilogue window pressing the "&nput" button in the "Cir!ulr slip
sur)!e" frame opens the "Cir!ulr slip sur)!e" dialogue window that allows for
specifying the radius and coordinates of center
- $ol3gonl slip sur)!e
using ,ouse - press the "&nput" button to active the input regime entering the surface
points proceeds in the same steps as when specifying interfaces
using t.le pressing the button "&nput" actives several buttons that allow for filling the
adjacent table with the coordinates of slip surface points (buttons "Add", "6odi)3",
"1e,o+e")
The analysis results appear in the left part of the frame and the optimized slip surface on the
desktop. Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue
window.
Frame ",nal%sis" - circular slip surface
- 116 -
Frame ",nal%sis" - pol%gonal slip surface
Constrins on the opti,i2tion pro!edure
The "Anl3sis" frame allows (after pressing the "Constrins") for specifying constrains on the
optimization process.
1egrdless o) the ssu,ed t3pe o) slip sur)!e it is possible to introduce into the soil
body (with the help of mouse) segments, which should not be crossed by the optimized slip
surface. These segments also appear in the table in the left part of the frame.
$ol3gonl slip sur)!e also allows for excluding some points from optimization, either
entirely or partially only in specified direction. ":eeping the point )i'ed" during optimization
process is achieved by checking the box in the table with corresponding point.
This input mode is quitted by pressing the red button "1eturn to analysis regime".
- 117 -
Frame ",nal%sis" - constrains on slip surface optimi$ation b% segments
Height ,ultiplier
Providing the analyzed slope is too long or has small height the plotted slip surface might not
be sufficiently visible. This problem can be solved by selected courser scale in the vertical
direction with the help of height multiplier. The value of this multiplier is set in the "Setting
visualization style" dialogue window, tab sheet "Glo.l =8". Using standard setting ("Height
,ultiplier" equal to one) plots undistorted structure proportional to its dimensions.
Only polygonal slip surface can be inputted graphically when exploiting the height multiplier
option. The circular slip surface must be in such a case inputted manually in the "Cir!ulr slip
sur)!e" dialogue window using the "&nput" button.
etting height multiplier
- 118 -
)isuali$ation of the resulting slip surface when using height multiplier
$rogr, Cntile+er -ll
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethod
The frame allows for introduciong the standard for concrete structures dimensioning. Referring
to the selected standard the types of concrete and steel are then inputted in the frame
"Material" and the program performs dimensioning of structure cross-sections in the frame
"Dimensioning".
Some standards require inputting additional information.
- 119 -
< CSN 73 1201 calls for specifying whether the stress in foundation base for front wall stem
verification is assumed uniform (CSN) or trapezoidal (Eurocode).
< EN 1992-2 (EC-2) allows for specifying individual coefficients of analysis which may vary
for various National application documents.
and earthquake.
Geo,etr3
The "Geo,etr3" frame allows by pressing the button for selecting the wall shape. The
selected shape with a graphic hint "-ll geo,etr3 !hrt" appears in the left part of the
frame. The shape of a wall can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input
fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions.
In case the structure is composed of inclined segments it is required to enter the ratio of sides
of an inclined segment 1:x. (he stright stru!ture is specified by entering the value zero.
Frame "Geometr%"
- 120 -
6teril
The "6teril" frame allows for the selection of material parameters for concrete and
longitudinal steel reinforcements.
Two options are available when selecting the material type:
- the "Ctlogue" button opens the "6teril !tlogue" dialogue window (for concrete
or steel reinforcements), the list of materials then serves to select the desired material
- the "User" button opens the "5dit ,teril 0 !on!rete" dialogue window (for concrete)
or the "5dit ,teril 0 !on!rete steel" dialogue window (for longitudinal steel
reinforcements), which allows for manual specification of material parameters
The catalogues content depends on the selection of standard for the design of concrete
structures set in the "Analysis methods" frame. The input field in the upper part of the frame
serves to specify the wall unit weight.
Frame "Material"
$ro)ile
dimensions.
program "(errin".
- 121 -
Frame "!rofile"
Soils
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Cntile+er wll". These characteristics
Frame "oils"
- 122 -
Bsi! dt
conditions.
Assign
- 123 -
Frame ",ssign"
(errin
- 124 -
Frame "Terrain"
-ter
The combo list serves to specify whether the influence of uplift pressure of water due to
different tables at the foundation joint is considered. The uplift pressure can be assumed to be
linear, parabolic or it may not be considered at all. When verifying the wall, the uplift pressure
in base of footing joint due to different water tables is introduced in terms of a special force.
filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of "z" (z-axis).
- 125 -
Frame "'ater"
Sur!hrge
respectively.
- 126 -
Frame "urcharge"
Front )!e resistn!e
The "Front )!e resistn!e" frame allows by pressing the button for specifying the terrain
shape and parameters of front face resistance. The selected shape with a graphic hint
("$r,eter !hrt") of inputted values are displayed in the left part of the frame. The terrain
shape can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop
with the help of active dimensions.
Combo lists in the frame allows the user to select the type of resistance and a soil (the combo
list contains soils introduced in the regime "Soils"). The magnitude of terrain surcharge in front
of the wall or soil thickness above the wall lowest points can also be specified in the frame.
The resistance on a structure front face can be specified as a pressure at rest, passive
pressure or reduced passive earth pressure. The resulting force due to reduced passive
pressure is found as a resultant force caused by passive pressure multiplied by a
corresponding coefficient, which follows from the inputted type of reduced passive pressure.
- 127 -
Frame "Front face resistance"
Applied )or!es
The "&nputted )or!es" frame contains a table with a list of forces acting on a structure.
Adding (editing) forces is performed in the "9ew )or!e (edit )or!e)" dialogue window. The
inputted forces can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
Frame "+nputted forces"
5rthDu"e
- 128 -
Frame "Earth8ua-e"
Bse n!horge
The frame "Bse n!horge" serves to input parameters (anchorage geometry, bearing
capacity against pulling-out and pulling-apart) specifying an anchorage of the wall foundation.
Geometry of footing anchorage can be edited either in the frame by inserting values in the
inputting boxes or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The bearing capacity
values can be either inputted or computed by the program from the inputted parameters.
- 129 -
Frame "7ase anchorage"
Settings
Evaluating the structure according to theory of li,it sttes also calls for the input of
!oe))i!ient o) o+erll st.ilit3 o) stru!ture. When subjecting the wall to overall
verification this coefficient is used to multiply the resisting moment 6
res
and the resisting
shear force H
res
.
The "%ther" tab sheet serves to specify the type of pressure acting on a wall based on the
allowable wall deformation. Providing the wall is free to move an active pressure is assumed,
otherwise, a pressure at rest is used.
For wall with footing jump it is possible to choose in the tab sheet "%ther" the way of
accounting for the wall footing jump.
- 130 -
Frame "ettings"
Veri)i!tion
The "Veri)i!tion" frame shows the analysis results. Several computation with different
coefficients of resultant force effects can be carried out for a single task.
The wall is loaded either by active pressure or pressure at rest depending on input in the frame
"Settings".
Procedure for wall verification is described in the theoretical part of the hint.
The computed forced are displayed on the desktop and are automatically updated with every
change of input data and setting. The right part of the frame shows the result of verification of
a wall against o+erturning nd trnsltion. The "&n detil" button opens the dialogue
window, which contains detailed listing of the results of verification analysis.
Visualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.
Frame ")erification"
Bering !p!it3
The "Bering !p!it3" frame displays the results from the analysis of foundation soil bearing
- 131 -
capacity. The stress in the footing bottom (assumed constant) is derived from all verifications
performed in the frame "Verification". The program "Spred )ooting" then considers all
verifications as loading cases.
Three basic analysis options are available in the frame:
- &nput the )oundtion soil
.ering !p!it3
The input field serves to specify the foundation soil bearing
capacity. The results of verification analysis of a soil for
e!!entri!it3 and bearing capacity are displayed in the right
part of the frame. The "&n detil" button opens the
dialogue window that displays detailed listing of the results
of verification analysis of foundation soil bearing capacity.
- Co,pute the )oundtion
soil .ering !p!it3 using
the progr, FSpred
)ootingF
Pressing the "1un FSpred )ootingF button starts the
program "Spred )ooting" that allows for computing the
soil bearing capacity or settlement and rotation of a footing.
Pressing the "%:" button leaves the analysis regime the
results and all plots are copied to the program "Cntile+er
wll". The program "Spred )ooting" must be installed for
the button to be active.
- 8o not !o,pute (pile
)ooting)
The foundation soil bearing capacity is not computed.
Frame "7earing capacit%"
8i,ensioning
The "8i,ensioning" frame serves to design and verify the reinforcement of wall cross-section
the cross-section subjected to dimensioning is selected in the combo list.
- -ll ste, +eri)i!tion
- Constru!tion ;oint
+eri)i!tion
depth of construction joint from construction top edge is
specified
- -ll ;u,p +eri)i!tion
- Veri)i!tion o) heel o)
wll
- 132 -
Calculation of forces and their action on the analyzed cross-section is described here.
The wall stem and construction joint are always loaded by the pressure at rest. When verifying
the front wall jump the wall is loaded either by the active pressure or the pressure at rest
depending on input specified in the frame "Settings".
Procedure to derive distribution of internal forces in individual cross-sections is described in the
theoretical part of this hint.
Dimensioning of the steel-reinforced concrete structure is performed according to the standard
set in the frame "Analysis methods".
Several computations for various cross-sections can be carried out. Various design coefficients
of individual forces can also be specified. The resulting forces are displayed on the desktop and
are updated with an arbitrary change in data or setting specified in the frame. The "&n detil"
button opens the dialogue window that contains detailed listing of the dimensioning results.
Frame "Dimensioning"
St.ilit3
Pressing the "St.ilit3" button launches the "Slope st.ilit3" program. This program then
allows us to check the overall stability of the analyzed structure. The button is available only if
the program "Slope st.ilit3" is installed.
carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Cntile+er wll" program.
- 133 -
Frame "tabilit%"
$rogr, 6sonr3 wll
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
The frame allows for introduciong standard for masonry structures dimensioning (according to
EN 1996-1-1 or AS 3700) and the standard for concrete structures dimensioning. Referring to
the selected standard the types of concrete and steel are then inputted in the frame "Material"
and the program performs dimensioning of structure cross-sections in the frame
"Dimensioning".
- 134 -
and earthquake.
(3pes o) .lo!"s
The "(3pes o) .lo!"s" frame contains a table with a list of inputted blocks. Adding (editing)
blocks is performed in the "9ew t3pe o) .lo!" (5dit t3pe o) .lo!")" dialogue window.
This dialogue window serves to define the geo,etr3 o) .lo!" (width and height).
The program allows for adding (inserting) another block in between two already existing blocks
of a structure. Inserting a new block is performed in the "&nserted t3pe o) .lo!"" dialog
window that complies with the "9ew t3pe o) .lo!"" dialogue window. The inserted block is
ordered such to proceed the currently selected block of a structure.
- 135 -
Frame "T%pes of bloc-s"
Geo,etr3
selected shape with a graphic hint "-ll geo,etr3 !hrt" appears in the left part of the
Based on the selected shape of a wall, you specify in the frame "Geo,etr3 o) ,sonr3" the
number and dimensions of masonry blocks in individual columns, or if applicable also the
thickness of vertical joint between blocks. In addition it is necessary to input compressive
strength of masonry, which serves as the basic input parameter for the bearing capacity
verification of reinforced masonry (according to EN 1996-1-1 or AS 3700).
- 136 -
Frame "Geometr%"
6teril
serves to specify the wall unit weight.
- 137 -
Frame "Material"
$ro)ile
dimensions.
program "(errin".
- 138 -
Frame "!rofile"
Soils
Frame "oils"
- 139 -
Bsi! dt
conditions.
Assign
- 140 -
Frame ",ssign"
(errin
- 141 -
Frame "Terrain"
-ter
- 142 -
Frame "'ater"
Sur!hrge
respectively.
- 143 -
Frame "urcharge"
Front )!e resistn!e
- 144 -
Applied )or!es
5rthDu"e
- 145 -
Frame "Earth8ua-e"
Bse n!horge
The frame "Bse n!horge" serves to input parameters (anchorage geometry, bearing
capacity against pulling-out and pulling-apart) specifying an anchorage of the wall foundation.
Geometry of footing anchorage can be edited either in the frame by inserting values in the
inputting boxes or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions. The bearing capacity
values can be either inputted or computed by the program from the inputted parameters.
- 146 -
Frame "7ase anchorage"
Settings
res
and the resisting
shear force H
res
.
For wall with footing jump it is possible to choose in the tab sheet "%ther" the way of
accounting for the wall footing jump.
- 147 -
Frame "ettings"
Veri)i!tion
"Settings".
Bering !p!it3
- 148 -
.ering !p!it3
the progr, FSpred
)ootingF
results and all plots are copied to the program "Cntile+er
)ooting)
8i,ensioning
+eri)i!tion
the number of a joint between masonry blocks is inputted
- Veri)i!tion o) heel o)
wll
- 149 -
The wall is loaded either by the active earth pressure or by the pressure at rest depending on
the setting in the frame "Settings".
Joints between masonry blocks are verified according to AS 3700 or EN 1996-1-1 depending
on the setting in the frame "Analysis methods". The program verifies the bearing capacity for
bending, shear and combination of compression and bending. Reinforcement can be specified
on both front and back sides of a structure. An additional loading applied to a cross-section
(bending moment, compressive normal force and shear force) can also be specified. These
additional forces are added to the computed ones.
Dimensioning of steel-reiforced concrete structure is performed according to the standard set
in the frame "Analysis methods".
St.ilit3
carried over to the analysis protocol of the "6sonr3 wll" program.
- 150 -
:Frame "tabilit%"
$rogr, Gr+it3 -ll
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
"Dimensioning".
- 151 -
and earthquake.
Geo,etr3
selected shape with a graphic hint ("-ll geo,etr3 !hrt") appears in the left part of the
Frame "Geometr%"
- 152 -
6teril
serves to specify the wall bulk weight.
Frame "Material"
$ro)ile
dimensions.
program "(errin".
- 153 -
The frame "!rofile"
Soils
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Gr+it3 wll". These characteristics are
further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Earth pressure at rest" and "Uplift pressure".
Frame "oils"
- 154 -
Bsi! dt
conditions.
Assign
The "Assign frame contains a list of layers of profile and associated soils. The list of soils is
- 155 -
Frame ",ssign"
(errin
- 156 -
Frame "Terrain"
-ter
in foundation joint due to different water tables is introduced in terms of a special force.
- 157 -
Frame "'ater"
Sur!hrge
respectively.
- 158 -
Frame "urcharge"
Front )!e resistn!e
The "Front )!e resistn!e" frame allows by pressing the button for specifying theterrain
- 159 -
&nputted )or!es
5rthDu"e
- 160 -
Frame "Earth8ua-e"
Settings
res
and the resisting
shear force H
res
.
- 161 -
Frame "ettings"
Veri)i!tion
Bering !p!it3
- 162 -
.ering !p!it3
the progr, FSpred
)ootingF
results and all plots are copied to the program "Gr+it3
)ooting)
8i,ensioning
+eri)i!tion
depth of construction joint from construction top edge is
specifiedse
The wall stem and construction joint are always loaded by the pressure at rest. When verifying
the front wall jump the wall is loaded either by the active pressure or the pressure at rest
depending on input specified in the frame "Settings".
- 163 -
set in the frame "Analysis methods".
St.ilit3
carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Gr+it3 wll" program.
- 164 -
Frame "tabilit%"
$rogr, Blo!" -ll
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect" - tab sheet "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
and earthquake.
- 165 -
Geo,etr3
The "Geo,etr3" frame contains a table with a list of inputted structural precast units (blocks)
of a wall (the lowest block is labeled as No. 1). Adding (editing) blocks is performed in the
"9ew .lo!" (5dit .lo!")" dialogue window.
This dialogue window serves to define the geo,etr3 o) .lo!", parameters of reinforcement
(length, anchorage length, tensile strength, pull out resistance) and ,teril !hr!teristi!s
(self weight, shear resistance between two blocks, cohesion).
of a structure. Inserting a new block is performed in the "&nsert .lo!"" dialog window that
complies with the "9ew .lo!"" dialogue window. The inserted block is ordered such to
proceed the currently selected block of a structure.
The inputted blocks can be further edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or
active objects - double clicking on a structure opens a dialog window with a given block. -hen
using the regi,e o) !ti+e o.;e!ts the +isuli2tion o) detiled di,ensions ,ust .e
turned o)) in the "Setting visualization style" dilogue window.
Frame "Geometr%"
- 166 -
$ro)ile
dimensions.
program "(errin".
Frame "!rofile"
Soils
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Blo!" wll". These characteristics are
- 167 -
Frame "oils"
Bsi! dt
conditions.
- 168 -
Assign
- 169 -
Frame ",ssign"
(errin
- 170 -
Frame "Terrain"
-ter
The "-ter" frame allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected
type together with a graphic hint ("$r,eter !hrt") of inputted values is displayed in the
left part of the frame. Water parameters h
1
, h
2
- 171 -
Frame "'ater"
Sur!hrge
respectively.
- 172 -
Frame "urcharge"
Front )!e resistn!e
- 173 -
&nputted )or!es
5rthDu"e
- 174 -
Frame "Earth8ua-e"
Settings
res
and the resisting
shear force H
res
.
- 175 -
Frame "ettings"
Veri)i!tion
Bering !p!it3
- 176 -
.ering !p!it3
the progr, FSpred
)ootingF
results and all plots are copied to the program "Blo!"
)ooting)
8i,ensioning
The "8i,ensioning" frame allows for verifying joints between individual blocks of a wall. The
"Goint .o+e .lo!" 9o." field serves to select the desired joint subjected to verification
analysis. The verification against o+erturning and trnsltion is performed in the same way
as for the entire wall friction between blocks and cohesion of a block material are inputted in
the frame "Geometry".
- 177 -
&nternl sliding
The frame serves to verify the limit state for slip along reinforcement the frame is therefore
accessible only in stages, where the reinforcements are defined.
The window requires inputting the reinforcement number the forces entering verification
analysis together with the shape of sliding block are then displayed. The calculated forces are
stored in the table.
Several calculations for various reinforcements can be carried out. Various design coefficients
The verification procedure depends on "Settings" either based on )!tors o) s)et3 or
according to the theor3 o) li,it sttes. The solution procedure is described herein.
- 178 -
Frame "+nternal sliding"
St.ilit3
carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Blo!" wll" program.
Frame "tabilit%"
- 179 -
$rogr, 1edi1o!" -ll
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
and earthquake.
Blo!"s
The "Blo!"s" frame is used to input the parameters of blocks. This function is available only to
the manufacturer. Editing and adding new types blocks in the freeware version is not allowed.
- 180 -
Frame "7loc-s"
Set.!"s
The FSet.!"s" frame is used to input the allowable setbacks. This function is available only
to the manufacturer. Editing and adding new distances of jumps of blocks in the freeware
version is not allowed.
Frame "etbac-s"
Geo,etr3
The "Geo,etr3" frame contains a table with a list of inputted structural precast units (blocks)
- 181 -
of a wall (the lowest block is labeled as No. 1). Adding (editing) blocks is performed in the
"9ew .lo!" (5dit .lo!")" dialogue window.
An group of blocks that is defined by a number of blocks and jumps between them is entered
at once.
The program allows for adding (inserting) another group in between two already existing
blocks of a structure. Inserting a new group is performed in the "&nsert" dialog window that
complies with the FAddF dialogue window. The inserted block is ordered such to proceed the
currently selected block of a structure.
Frame "Geometr%"
Footing
The "Footing" frame is used to input the footing below the foundation. The footing dimensions
and its material parameters are required. A soil footing requires the user to introduce the
footing bearing capacity, a concrete footing then requires its shear bearing capacity and friction
between a concrete footing and the first block.
The bearing pad is accounted for as specified by the user. A restri!tion !!ording to Fig. H<
H4 pge I7 o) 9C6A ,nul is neither uto,ti!ll3 en)or!ed nor !he!"ed .3 the
progr,. The bearing pad must be introduced into the program such that it complies with the
design criteria.
- 182 -
Frame "Footing"
(3pes o) rein)or!e,ents
The frame "(3pes o) rein)or!e,ents" contains table with a list of inputted types of
reinforcements. Adding (editing) reinforcement is performed in the "9ew t3pe rein)or!e,ent
(5dit t3pe o) rein)or!e,ent)" dialogue window.
The dialogue window serves to specify parameters of the reinforcement (ultimate tensile
strength,....).
Calculation of reinforcement bearing capacity is described in detail herein. Design tensile
strength of reinforcement (R
t
) is given by equation:
where: T
ult
-ultimate tensile strength
RF
D
-durability reduction factor
RF
ID
-installation damage reduction factor
RF
CR
-creep reduction factor
FS
UNC
-overall factor of safety
Pullout bearing capacity (T
d
) is given by equation:
Coefficient C
ds
is used for internal sliding check.
- 183 -
Frame "T%pes of reinforcements"
1ein)or!e,ents
The frame "1ein)or!e,ents" contains table with a list of inputted reinforcements. A
reinforcement is placed below the block selected in the table (the lowest block is labeled as No.
1). Adding (editing) reinforcement is performed in the " 9ew rein)or!e,ent (5dit
rein)or!e,ent)" dialogue window.
The dialogue window serves to specify the block number and reinforcement length. The combo
list then serves to select the type of reinforcement inputted in the frame"Types of
reinforcements".
The inputted reinforcements can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active
dimensions or active objects.
Frame ".einforcements"
- 184 -
$ro)ile
dimensions.
program "(errin".
Frame "!rofile"
Soils
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "1edi<ro!" wll". These characteristics
- 185 -
Frame "oils"
Bsi! dt
conditions.
- 186 -
Assign
Frame ",ssign"
- 187 -
(errin
Frame "Terrain"
-ter
The "-ter" frame allows, by pressing the button, for selecting the type of water. The selected
type together with a graphic hint ("$r,eter !hrt") of inputted values is displayed in the
left part of the frame. Water parameters h
1
, h
2
- 188 -
Sur!hrge
respectively.
- 189 -
Frame "urcharge"
Front )!e resistn!e
- 190 -
&nputted )or!es
5rthDu"e
- 191 -
Frame "Earth8ua-e"
Settings
offers pre-setting for different countries (USA, Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and
"Stndrd setting" recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in
the list. While changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil
The tab sheet "%thers" serves to specify the parameters for the Redi-Rock wall program. The
check button "Hinge height concept" determines, whether the HInge height concept defined in
the second addition of the NCMA manual will be used. Furthermore, the masonry friction
reduction factors, which reduce the bearing capacity of the joint between the soil and concrete,
are defined. Concrete-concrete or soil-soil joints do not account for the MRF in the program.
res
and the resisting
shear force H
res
.
- 192 -
Frame "ettings" - tab sheet "'all chec-"
Frame "ettings" - tab sheet "Other"
Veri)i!tion
To better understand the solution procedure it is possible to go through the sample hand
calculation.
- 193 -
Bering !p!it3
The bearing pad is accounted for as specified by the user. A restri!tion !!ording to Fig. H<
H4 pge I7 o) 9C6A ,nul is neither uto,ti!ll3 en)or!ed nor !he!"ed .3 the
progr,. The bearing pad must be introduced into the program such that it complies with the
design criteria.
.ering !p!it3
the progr, FSpred
)ootingF
results and all plots are copied to the program "Blo!"
)ooting)
8i,ensioning
The "8i,ensioning" frame allows for verifying joints between individual blocks of a wall. The
"Goint .o+e .lo!" 9o." field serves to select the desired joint subjected to verification
- 194 -
analysis. The verification against o+erturning and trnsltion is performed in the same way
as for the entire wall friction between blocks and cohesion of a block material are inputted in
the frame "Geometry".
&nternl sliding
The frame serves to verify the limit state for slip along reinforcement the frame is therefore
accessible only in stages, where the reinforcements are defined.
The window requires inputting the reinforcement number the forces entering verification
analysis together with the shape of sliding block are then displayed. The calculated forces are
stored in the table.
Several calculations for various reinforcements can be carried out. Various design coefficients
The verification procedure depends on "Settings" either based on )!tors o) s)et3 or
according to the theor3 o) li,it sttes. The solution procedure is described herein.
- 195 -
Frame "+nternal sliding"
St.ilit3
carried over to the analysis protocol of the "Blo!" wll" program.
Frame "tabilit%"
- 196 -
$rogr, G.ion
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
and earthquake.
6teril
The "6teril" frame contains a table with a list of inputted filling (aggregates) and material
parameters of applied gabion wire netting. Adding (Editing) material and netting is performed
in the "9ew ,teril (5dit ,teril)" dialogue window.
The material parameters of filling and netting of currently selected gabion block are displayed
in the right part of the frame.
- 197 -
Frame "Material"
Geo,etr3
The "Geo,etr3" frame contains a table with a list of inputted blocks of a wall (the lowest
block is labeled as No. 1). Adding (editing) blocks is performed in the "9ew .lo!" (5dit
.lo!")" dialogue window.
This dialogue window serves to define the geo,etr3 o) .lo!", and parameters of mesh
overhang (overhang length, overhang anchorage, bearing capacity against pull out).
of a structure. Inserting a new block is performed in the "&nsert .lo!"" dialog window that
complies with the "9ew .lo!"" dialogue window. The inserted block is ordered such to
proceed the currently selected block of a structure.
The inputted blocks can be can be further edited on the desktop with the help of active
dimensions or active objects - double clicking on a structure opens a dialog window with a
given block. -hen using the regi,e o) !ti+e o.;e!ts the +isuli2tion o) detiled
di,ensions ,ust .e turned o)) in the "Setting visualization style" dilogue window.
- 198 -
Frame "Geometr%"
$ro)ile
dimensions.
program "(errin".
- 199 -
Frame "!rofile"
Soils
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "G.ion". These characteristics are
Frame "oils"
- 200 -
Bsi! dt
conditions.
Assign
- 201 -
Frame ",ssign"
(errin
Frame "Terrain"
- 202 -
-ter
Frame "'ater"
Sur!hrge
respectively.
- 203 -
Frame "urcharge"
Front )!e resistn!e
The "Front )!e resistn!e" frame allows by pressing the button for specifying theterrain
- 204 -
&nputted )or!es
5rthDu"e
- 205 -
Frame "Earth8ua-e"
Settings
res
and the resisting
shear force H
res
.
Pro An arbitrary analysis setting is available with the option "User setting". Selecting the
option "1edu!e soil pr,eters" allows for specifying in input fields individual values of the
The "%ther" tab sheet allows for specifying the coefficient of reduction of friction between
blocks.
- 206 -
Frame "ettings"
Veri)i!tion
The "Veri)i!tion" frame shows the analysis results. Several computation with different design
Bering !p!it3
- 207 -
.ering !p!it3
the progr, FSpred
)ootingF
results and all plots are copied to the program "G.ion".
The program "Spred )ooting" must be installed for the
button to be active.
)ooting)
8i,ensioning
The "8i,ensioning" frame allows for verifying individual joints of gabion blocks. The "Goint
.o+e .lo!" 9o." field serves to select the desired joint subjected to verification analysis. The
verification against overturning, translation, for side pressure and joint between blocks is
performed.
- 208 -
St.ilit3
carried over to the analysis protocol of the "G.ion" program.
Frame "tabilit%"
- 209 -
$rogr, Spred Footing
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
"Dimensioning".
Three variants are available for the analysis of vertical bearing capacity of shallow foundation
)oundtion on drined su.soil4 )oundtion on undrined su.soil nd )oundtion on
ro!" su.soil. The "Anl3sis ,ethod" frame then serves to choose the analysis standard or
solution procedure, respectively, based on the selected variant.
%ptions to deter,ine the )oundtion +erti!l .ering !p!it3?
Analysis for drained conditions Analysis for undrained conditionsFoudation on rock subsoil
analysis
- Standard approach - Standard approach - Standardn approach
- CSN 73 1001 - CSN 73 1001 - CSN 73 1001
- PN - PN - EC7
- IS - IS
- EC7 - EC7
- NCMA
Options for settlement and foundation rotation
analysis
Options for determination of depth of
influence zone when computing settlement
- 210 -
- With the help of oedometric modulus - Using structural strength
- With the help of compression constant - Using percentage of geostatic stress
- With the help of compession index
- NEN (Buissman, Ladd)
- Soft soil model
- Janbu theory
- Analysis based on DMT
$ro)ile
dimensions.
program "(errin".
- 211 -
Frame "!rofile"
Soils
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Spred )ooting". These characteristics
are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Uplift pressure", "Foundation bearing capacity"
and "Settlement".
- 212 -
Frame "oils"
Bsi! dt
An input of parameters further depends on the selected type of analysis, which is set in the
frame "Analysis methods".
The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Analysis of bearing capacity of
foundation".
- 213 -
Assign
- 214 -
Frame ",ssign"
Foundtion
The "Foundtion" frame allows for selecting a type of foundation. The selected type with
graphic hint ("Geo,etr3 !hrt") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame.
The values can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the
desktop with the help of active dimensions. The frame also serves to specify the bulk weight of
overburden.
The following types of foundations can be selected:
- Centri! spred )ooting - Cir!ulr spred )ooting
- 5!!entri! spred )ooting - Cir!ulr stepped spred
- Strip )ooting - Centri! spred )ooting with .tter
- Stepped !entri! spred )ooting - 5!!entri! spred )ooting with .tter
- Stepped e!!entri! spred )ooting
The soil profile is specified from the originl ground. The foundation bearing capacity
depends mainly on the depth o) )oundtion ,esured )ro, the )inished grde. Providing
the finished grade is found above the original ground it required to assign the same depth to
both the finished grade and original ground and introduce into subsoil a layer with a new
made-up-ground. This frame also allows for inputting the )oundtion thi!"ness.
When completed the foundation is usually filled up with a soil its bulk weight must be
specified (%+er.urden .ul" weight). Providing the analysis follows the theory of limit states
its weight is multiplied by the coefficient inputted in the frame "Settings".
For foundations with an undrained subsoil (type of analysis is selected in the frame "Analysis
methods") it is possible to introduce an in!lintion o) the )inished grde nd )ooting
.otto,. In all other cases both the gound and footing bottom are horizontal.
- 215 -
Frame "Foundation"
*od
The "*od" frame contains a table with a list of inputted loads. Adding (editing) loads is
performed in the "9ew (edit) lod" dialogue window. Input of individual forces follows the
sign convention displayed in the right part of the dialogue window.
The following types of loading can be specified:
- design load serves to verify the foundation bearing capacity
- ser+i!e load serves to compute the foundation settlement and rotation
Dimensioning of reinforcements assumed for the foundation is carried out for both types of
loading.
The foundation is loaded always in the contact point between column and foundation. The
program automatically computes the )oundtion sel) weight and the weight o)
o+er.urden.
When inputting loads the program allows by pressing the "Ser+i!e" button for creating the
service loads by dividing the already inputted design loads by design coefficient.
The program also allows for import of loading using the "&,port" button.
- 216 -
Frame ";oading"
&,port o) loding
It is possible to import values of loading into the program from text files. Import parameters
are set in the "&,port loding" dialogue window. In the "Colu,n" input boxes you define the
column number in the text file, from which you wish to read data. The "6ultiplier" box allows
for multiplying the original value by an arbitrary number (e.g. using the number one with a
minus sign changes the load direction). The "&,port" button opens the "%pen" dialogue
window, which allows for loading the respective text file. The names of individual loadings if
contained by the first column of the text file can loaded while importing the data by checking
the "9,e in the )irst !olu,n" box.
Dialogue window "+mport of loading"
- 217 -
The program allows for importing data from an arbitrary text file (C.(B(). All rows in the text
file marked at the beginning by a semicolon are ignored by the program. The figure shows a
listing of imported data, where values of individual forces start in the fourth column.
E(ample of file "+mport of loading"
Geo,etr3
The "Geo,etr3" frame allows for specifying the foundation shape. The selected shape with
graphic hint ("Geo,etr3 !hrt") of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame.
desktop with the help of active dimensions.
Foundtion t3pe and its thi!"ness are specified in the "Foundation"frame.
The program automatically computes the sel) weight o) .oth )oundtion and o+er.urden
.o+e the )oundtion. The foundation self weight is specified in the "Material" frame.
Providing the analysis is carried out employing the theory of limit states the footing self weight
is multiplied by coefficients specified in the "Settings" frame.
- 218 -
Frame "Geometr%"
The "8i,ensions design" button opens the "Foundtion di,ensions design" that serves
with the help of program to compute dimensions of a foundation. The dialogue window allows
for inputting the bearing capacity of foundation soil Rd or to select the option "Anl32e". In
such a case the program determines all dimensions of a foundation based on inputted
pr,eters (soils, profile, water impact, send-gravel-cushion, setting, etc.).
While leaving the dialogue window by pressing the "%:" button the specified dimensions are
loaded into the "Geo,etr3" frame.
Dialogue window "Foundation dimensions design"
Snd<gr+el !ushion
The "Snd<gr+el !ushion" frame allows for inputting parameters of the sand-gravel cushion
below foundation. The cushion thickness and overhang over foundation edge are required. The
values can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop
The cushion filling can be selected from a combo list that contains soils specified in the regime
- 219 -
"Soils".
The inputted sand-gravel cushion influences the analysis of both the foundation load bearing
capacity and settlement.
Frame "and - gra#el cushion"
6teril
longitudinal and transverse steel reinforcements.
or the "5dit ,teril 0 !on!rete steel" dialogue window (for longitudinal and transverse
steel reinforcements), which allows for manual specification of material parameters
structures set in the "Analysis methods" frame.
The input field in the upper part of the frame serves to specify the wll .ul" weight.
- 220 -
Frame"Material"
Sur!hrge
surcharge is performed in the "9ew (edit) sur!hrge" dialogue window. The values are
specified according to "Geo,etr3" chart displayed in the right part of the dialogue window.
The inputted surchages can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
The z-coordinate measured from the foundation joint of a structure is specified (positive
direction downwards) when inputting the surcharge at a depth different from the depth of
foundation joint.
The surcharge is considered only when !o,puting settle,ent and rotation of a foundation,
in which case it increases the stress in soil below foundation. When !o,puting the
)oundtion .ering !p!it3, the surcharge is not considered its presence would increase
the bearing capacity.
- 221 -
Frame "urcharge"
-ter4 in!o,pressi.le su.soil
The "-ter / &S" frame serves to specify the depth o) ground wter t.le and level of
in!o,pressi.le su.soil.
The in)luen!e o) wter is manifested by the change of ground water pressure below
foundation.
The in!o,pressi.le su.soil cuts off the in)luen!e 2one below foundation and also
influences reduction in settlement.
- 222 -
Frame "'ater0 incompressible subsoil"
Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings to assess the footings. The program offers pre-
setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and "Stndrd setting"
recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While
changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in
corresponding windows are changed.
Selecting the option "S)et3 )!tor" allows the user to specify in input fields own values of the
factor of safety for vertical and horizontal bearing capacity.
Selecting the option "*i,it stes" allows for specifying individual values of the coefficients of
redu!tion o) soil pr,eters (recommended values of coefficients are available in EC7-1 in
supplement A) and coefficients for computing the sel) weight o) .oth )oundtion nd
o+er.urden.
The frame further serves for inputting the design coefficients to determine the vertical bearing
capacity and the horizontal bearing capacity of a foundation, respectively.
Frame "ettings" - safet% factor
- 223 -
Frame "ettings" - limit states
1.*S < .ering o) )ooting
The "1. *S" frame serves to verify the +eritl nd hori2ontl .ering !p!it3 o)
)ooting. More computations can be performed in the frame. The verification can be performed
either for individual loads or the program finds the ,ost !riti!l one (can be selected from a
combo list).
The analysis follows the theory approach selected in the frame "Analysis methods". The footing
can be verified using either the theory of li,it sttes or the )!tor o) s)et3 concept
specified in the frame "Setting".
The vertical bearing capacity analysis requires selection of the type of contact pressure
(general shape, rectangle). The shape of contact pressure is plotted in the left part of the
desktop.
The horizontal bearing capacity analysis requires selection of the type of earth resistance that
can be assumed as the pressure t rest4 pssi+e pressure or the redu!ed pssi+e
pressure.
The soil pr,eters (friction angle structure-soil, cohesion structure-soil) can be further
redu!ed when computing the horizontal bearing capacity.
Detailed listing of the results is displayed in the right part of the desktop. Visualization of
results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.
- 224 -
Frame "<=; - bearing of a footing"
=.*S < settle,ent nd rottion o) )ooting
The "=.*S" frame serves to compute the foundation settlement and rotation. The frame allows
for more analyses. The verification can be performed either for individual loads or the program
finds the ,ost !riti!l one (can be selected from combo list).
The analysis of foundation settlement and rotation is carried out according to the theory
specified in the frame "Analysis methods".
The stress in the footing button can be subtracted from the geostatic stress given by:
- original ground
- finished grade
- not specified
Distributions of the geostti! stress and the stress in!re,ent below foundation are
displayed in the left part of the desktop. The label below footing represents the depth o)
de)or,tion 2one. The stress is drawn below footing at the point with a characteristic
deformation.
The frame also allows for specifying the coefficient of reduction of computation of settlement.
The detailed listing of the verification analysis results is displayed in the right part of the
desktop. It can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.
- 225 -
Frame "2= ; - settlement and rotation of a footing"
8i,ensioning
The "8i,ensioning" frame allows for designing and verifying the longitudinal reinforcement of
a foundation and also for verifying the foundation against being pushed through. The
verification can be performed either for individual loads or the program finds the ,ost !riti!l
one (can be selected from a combo list).
The program derives the stress in the construction joint (the stress diagram is inputted in the
frame "$ro;e!t") and determines the internal forces in individual cross-sections. Dimensioning
of the steel-reinfoced concrete structure is performed according to the standard set in the
The resulting information are displayed on the desktop and are updated with an arbitrary
change in data or setting specified in the frame. The "&n detil" button opens the dialogue
window that contains detailed listing of the dimensioning results.
- 226 -
$rogr, $ile
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
"Horizontal bearing capacity".
- 227 -
The "Anl3sis ,ethods" frame serves to choose the analysis of vertical bearing capacity of a
pile analysis based on CSN 73 1002, or analysis using the Spring method. Only Spring
method is available when selecting imperial units.
$ro)ile
dimensions.
program "(errin".
The frame "!rofile"
The combo list serves to select one of the ,ethods )or the e+lution o) modulus of subsoil
reaction the required material parameters of soils are inutted in the frame "Soils" based on
the selected method.
- 228 -
Selecting the option "&nput .3 distri.ution" opens a table that allows for specifying the
values of the modulus of subsoil reaction along the pile.
Frame "Modulus of subsoil reaction"
Soils
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "5rth $ressure". These characteristics
are further specified in chapters: "Basic data", "Uplift pressure", "Oedometric modulus" and
"Modulus of subsoil reaction". The specified soil parameters depend on the set up of modulus
of subsoil rection and selected theory of analysis specified in the frame "Analysis methods".
- 229 -
Frame "oils"
Bsi! dt
The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Pile analysis".
- 230 -
Assign
- 231 -
Frame ",ssign"
*od
The "*od" frame contains a table with a list inputted loads. Adding (editing) load is performed
in the "9ew (edit) lod" dialogue window. The forces are inputted following the sign
convention displayed in the upper part of the dialogue window.
The program also allows for import of loading using the "&,port" button.
Frame ";oad"
- 232 -
Geo,etr3
The "Geo,etr3" frame allows for specifying the pile !ross<se!tion (circular, circular variable,
rectangle, I-type cross-section) based on the theor3 o) nl3sis (specified in the "Analysis
methods" frame). The selected shape with graphic hint is displayed in the central section of the
frame. Input fields serve to specify dimensions of the selected cross-section.
Cross<se!tionl !hr!teristi!s (area and moment of inertia) are computed by default, but
they can also be specified (tubes, hollow cross-sections, steel I-profiles).
The bottom part of the frame serves to specify the pile location (pile lift out and the depth of
finished grade). The pile lift out can also be negative in such a case the pile is placed "in<
ground".
Providing the pile is analyzed using the finite element method it is possible to account for
influence of pile technology by selecting the specific type of pile or directly by inputting
coefficients.
Frame "Geometr%"
6teril
The "6teril" frame allows for specifying the material parameters. The .ul" weight o)
stru!ture and material of a pile (!on!rete4 ti,.er4 steel) are introduced in the input field in
the right part of the frame.
The elastic and shear moduli need to be specified when assuming ti,.er or steel piles.
In case of a !on!rete pile the concrete material and parameters of transverse and
longitudinal steel reinforcements are required. Two options are available when selecting the
type of material:
or the "5dit ,teril 0 !on!rete steel" dialogue window (for longitudinal and transverse
steel reinforcements), which allows for manual specification of material parameters
- 233 -
Frame "Material"
-ter4 in!o,pressi.le su.soil
The "-ter / &S" frame serves to specify the depth o) ground wter t.le and level of
in!o,pressi.le su.soil.
The in)luen!e o) wter is manifested by the change of ground water pressure.
The in!o,pressi.le su.soil cuts off the in)luen!e 2one below foundation and also
influences reduction in settlement.
- 234 -
Frame "'ater0 incompressible subsoil"
9egti+e s"in )ri!tion
The "9egti+e s"in )ri!tion" frame serves to specify the settlement of surrounding terrain
and the depth of influence zone. For more information on the influence of negative skin friction
the user is referred to theoretical section.
The setting option in the frame is active only when the )inite ele,ent ,ethod is selected for
the analysis in the frame "Analysis methods".
Frame "4egati#e s-in friction"
- 235 -
Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings for footings verification. The program offers pre-
setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and "Stndrd setting"
recommended by the authors of the program for countries no included in the list. While
changing settings in the combo list the values of coefficients of reduction of soil parameters in
corresponding windows are changed.
Selecting the option "1edu!e soil pr,eters" allows for specifying individual values of the
coefficients of redu!tion o) soil pr,eters (recommended values of coefficients are
available in EC7-1 in supplement A).
The setting in the frame becomes available only if the type of nl3sis F56 is selected in the
Frame "ettings"
Verti!l .ering !p!it3
The "Verti!l .ering !p!it3" frame has two variants depending on the type of analysis of
pile vertical bearing capacity:
- according to SN 73 1002
- using the Shear depression spring method
Verti!l .ering !p. < CS9
The "Verti!l .ering !p!it3" frame serves to the vertical bearing capacity of a pile.
Several analyses can be carried out in the frame. The verification can be performed for
individual loads, or the program locates the ,ost !riti!l one (can be selected from a combo
list).
The analysis is carried out according to one of the method based on SN 73 1002. Parameters
needed in individual methods are inputted in the lower part of the frame.
The "*oding li,it !ur+e" and "$oint<.ering pile !p!it3" modes contain a table in the
lower part of the frame, which allows for direct editing of inputted parameters using mouse.
The "5dit" buttons open the dialogue windows that include hints for individual parameters. A
given dialogue window allows for storing inputted pr,eters for a given layer in the table
by pressing the "%:" button.
Anl3sis results can be displayed in the right part of the desktop.
The "&n detil" button opens the dialogue window containing detailed listing of the verification
results.
The analysis results are displayed in the right part of the desktop. Visualization of the results
can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.
- 236 -
Frame ")ertical bearing capacit% - anal%sis according C4 >" <11?"
Verti!l .ering !p. < Spring ,ethod
The "Verti!l .ering !p!it3" frame allows for verifying the pile +erti!l .ering
!p!it3. The analysis is performed automatically when swtiching to this frame. More
computations can be performed in the frame. The verification can be performed either for
individual loads or the program finds the ,ost !riti!l one (can be selected from a combo
list)
The analysis is performed with the help of Shear depression spring method. The results are
automatically updated whenever one of the analysis parameters "6'i,l de)or,tion",
"Coe))i!ient in!resing li,it s"in )ri!tion due to te!hnolog3" or "$ro!edure
deter,ining in)luen!e 2one .ellow heel" is changed.
Two options are available to determine influence zone below the heel:
By default the analysis follows the procedure described in the theoretical part of the hint in
secton "Depth of influence zone".
The second options assumes the depth influence zone to be set a k-th multiple of the pile
diameter. During gradual increase of pile surcharge the depth of influence zone is continuously
changed from zero at the onset of loading to the k-th multiple of the pile diameter when
exceeding the total load.
The second method, originaly used in the old verision GEO4, with the value of k=2,5 offers less
accurate results and usually underestimates the pile bearing capacity. Therefore a new option
that allows for specifying the depth of influnece zone through anlsysis is offered and is also
recommeded by default setting.
Switching between results is avaiable in the left part of the frame (limit loading curve,
distributions of internal forces, dependence of shear on displacement). The shear-displacement
relationship is derived for a given depth measured from the pile head. The results are updated
whenever the depth is changed.
The "&n detil" button opens the dialogue window, which contains detailed listing of the
results of verification analysis.
VsledkyVisualization of results can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue
window.
- 237 -
Frame ")ertical bearing capacit% - anal%sis according FEM"
Hori2ontl .ering !p!it3
The horizontal bearing capacity of a pile is verified in the "Hori2ontl .ering !p!it3"
frame. Several analyses can be carried out. The verification analysis can be carried out for
individual loads, prescribed displacements, or the program finds the ,ost !riti!l lod (can
be selected from a combo list). Assuming the prescribed displacement type of load requires
introduction of .oundr3 !onditions in pile hed (translation and rotation).
The )i'ed end type of boundary condition prescribed in the pile heel can be assumed for all
types of loading.
For steel rein)or!ed !on!rete pile the programs allow for verifying the reinforcement based
on the standard selected in the frame "Analysis methods".
The combo list serves to specify the direction of pile verification (x,y); for a circular pile the
program allows for displaying the results in the ,ost stressed dire!tion.
The "&n detil" button opens the dialogue window that contains detailed listing of the
verification results.
The analysis results are displayed on the desktop. Visualization of results can be adjusted in
- 238 -
Frame "Hori$ontal bearing capacit%"
$rogr, Settle,ent
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
The frame "Anl3ses" serves to select the theoretical approach for the settlement
analysis and the way of reducing the influence zone.
- 239 -
&nter)!e
The "&nter)!e" frame serves to introduce individual soil interfaces into the soil body. Detailed
Frame "+nterface"
5,.n",ent
The "5,.n",ent" frame allows for inputting interfaces to create an embankment above the
current terrain. The frame contains a table with a list of interfaces forming the embankment. A
table listing the points of currently selected interface of the embankment is displayed in the
mid section of the frame. Inputting an embankment interface follows the same steps as used
for standard interfaces.
An embankment cannot be specified in the first stage of construction. An embankment cannot
be built if there is an earth cut already specified in a given stage - in such a case either a new
stage of construction must be introduced for embankment input or the existing open cut must
- 240 -
be first removed.
Frame "Emban-ment"
5rth !ut
The "5rth !ut" frame serves to specify the shape of an open cut. This function allows for
modifying the terrain profile within a given stage of construction. Several erth !uts can be
introduced at the same time. In such a case some of the lines in the cut appear partially above
the terrain.
A table listing individual interface points is displayed in the left part of the frame. Inputting an
earth cut interface follows the same steps as used for standard interfaces.
An open cut cannot be specified in the first stage of construction. An earth cut cannot be built
if there is an embankment already specified in a given stage - in such a case either a new
stage of construction must be introduced for earth cut input or the existing embankment must
be first removed.
- 241 -
Frame "Earth cut"
&n!o,pressi.le su.soil
The frame "&n!o,pressi.le su.soil" serves to input a depth of in!o,pressi.le su.soil.
Inputting the depth of incompressible subsoil is the same as when inputting standard
interfaces.
Inputting an incompressible subsoil is one the options how to restrict an influence zone if
inputted, then both ranges and tilted sections are drawn up to a depth of incompressible
subsoil. No ground deformation appears below the incompressible subsoil.
Frame "+ncompressible subsoil"
- 242 -
Soils
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "Settle,ent". These characteristics are
further specified in chapters:"Uplift pressure" and "Settlement analysis" - the input parameters
of soils are determined based on the selected theory of analysis in the frame "Analysis
methods".
The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey or from laboratory experiments. If
these data are not available, it is possible to exploit built-in database of soils, which contains
values of selected characteristics of soils.
Frame "oils"
Assign
- 243 -
Frame ",ssign"
Sur!hrge
respectively.
All inputted parameters of a surcharge can be modified in the construction stage where the
surcharge was specified. Only the surcharge magnitude can be modified in all subsequent
construction stages (option "Ad;ust sur!hrge").
Influence of surcharge on the change of stress in the soil body is described in the theoretical
part of the help section.
- 244 -
Frame "urcharge"
-ter
The "-ter" frame serves to set the type of ground water table.
Inputting the ground water table or isolines, respectively, is identical with the standard input of
interfaces.
If the inputted data in individual stages are different, the program then allows for accepting
the data from the previous stage of construction by pressing the "A!!ept" button.
Frame "'ater"
- 245 -
Settings
The frame "Settings" allows for specifying the position of control holes and thicknesses and
locations of layers where the stress values are calculated.
The program determines stresses t indi+idul !ontrol holes. The terrain is always
subdivided into twenty holes with even spacing. Additional holes are automatically generated
in points specifying terrain, embankment, GWT, soil layer interfaces and end points of
surcharge. The control (calculation) holes can be plotted in the frame "Analysis".
Individual holes are di+ided into l3ers according to the inputted values. The first layer
always coincides with the original ground. In addition, ll points specifying interfaces, GWT
and incompressible subsoil are included. The default setting of thicknesses of layers ensures
reson.le speed nd !!ur!3 of the analysis.
The layers are introduced up to depth of 250m. In actual analyses, however, the depth of
influence zone is restricted either by the inputted incompressible subsoil or by the reduction of
magnitude of stress change or by the structural strength, respectively (depending on the
setting in the frame "Analysis methods").
The number and location of calculation holes can be adjusted when selecting the option "user
de)ined". In such a case it is possible to select both the location of doles and thicknesses and
location of layers. The holes are then created according to the input in addition, the program
automatically includes all important points. When selecting the option e'!t distri.ution,
the holes are included into all terrain points, soil layer interfaces, embankments, GWP and into
end points of surcharge. When selecting the option ,ini,l distri.ution, the holes are not
included into points of interfaces of soil and embankment layers.
For standard analyses we re!o,,end to "eep the default setting of the analysis.
Frame "ettings"
Anl3sis
The "Anl3sis" frame displays the analysis results. (he nl3sis is !rried out based on the
calculation theory selected in the frame "Analysis methods". The depth o) in)luen!e 2one is
determined either by inputted incompressible subsoil, by the theory restriction of primary
stress or by the theory of structural strength.
Information regarding the course of analysis, maximum settlement and the depth of influence
zone are printed out in the bottom section of the frame. The results, as the main output, are
displayed on the screen. To view the results, use the hori2ontl .r in the upper section of
the screen, which allows for adjusting the way the resulting values are plotted. (he .r
!ontins the )ollowing !ontrol ite,s?
- the .utton to displ3 the "Settlement - results visualization setting" dialogue window. This
dialogue window allows for specifying all drawing parameters: parameters to display
depression line and influence zone, to set color range, to draw tilted sections, isosurfaces and
isolines, etc.
- option to store individual views
- sele!ting +lues )or +isuli2tion 0 either totl values, or their change during the lst
!l!ultion stge or their change in !o,prison with pre+ious stges can be plotted.
- 246 -
The setting is available only in problems where it makes sense. It is therefore possible to
display the change of stress, settlement or deformation in comparison with previous stages
however, always the current depth of influence zone is plotted.
- sele!ting +ri.les
SigmaZ,tot - overall vertical total stress [-!a0-sf]
SigmaZ,eff - overall vertical effective stress [-!a0 -sf]
Pore pressure - stress due to water [-!a0 -sf]
Settlement - settlement of a point [mm0 feet]
Deformation - relative settlement of a layer [-]@<111
- plotting option (do not plot, isosurfaces, isolines)
The !olor rnge is visible on the right part of the desktop. The buttons for setting the color
range are located below.
Frame ",nal%sis"
$rogr, A.ut,ent
$ro;e!t
- 247 -
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
"Dimensioning".
and earthquake.
Geo,etr3 !ut
The frame "Geo,. !ut" allows for selecting the shape of bridge abutment. The selected shape
with a graphic hint "-ll geo,etr3 !hrt" appears in the left part of the frame. The shape of
a wall can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the desktop
The frame serves to specify the final shape of abutment including the closure wall. The
abutment can be verified also for the construction state (without the closure wall) based on the
choice in the frame "Loading - LC". The abutment length and the length of abutment
- 248 -
foundation is specified in the frame "Geometry plane view".
Frame "Geometr% cut"
-ings
The frame "-ings" allows for inputting the bridge wings dimensions. The wings can be either
symmetrical or unsymmetrical. Assuming unsymmetrical wings requires inputting the right and
left wing dimensions separately. The screen always displays the currently inputted wing only
the left wing is then visualized in the remaining frames.
The frame "Geometry plane view" can also be used to input or edit the wing thicknesses and
lengths.
The Wing-abutment joint cross-section can also be verified in the frame "Dimensioning". The
loading due to moment is considered. The whole wing is loaded by !ti+e pressure developed
behind the wall. The "Dimensioning" dialogue window serves to input the magnitude
of sur)!e sur!hrge to determine the wing pressure. The surcharge specified in the frame
"Surcharge" is then not taken into account and the terrain behind the wing is considered as
flat. The resulting moment applied to the joint is obtained by multiplying the overall magnitude
of soil pressure acting on the wall surface and by the difference of centroids of the pressure
resultant and the joint.
The length of cross-section used for dimensioning is considered by default as the wing height
a different length of wing-abutment joint can also be specified after selecting the option
"1edu!e )or di,ensioning".
When using prolonged wing walls it is possible to input dimensions of the foundation below the
wall. Such foundation jumps are reflected in the analysis by computing a fictitious width of the
foundation as:
where: A
tot
-overall area of foundation including all jumps
S -length of abutment foundation
d
fict
-fictitious width of foundation for verification analysis
- 249 -
The foundation is then considered as being rectangular, which is simplified but rather
conservative assumption.
Frame "'ings"
Geo,etr3 plne +iew
The frame "Geo,etr3 plne +iew" allows for inputting the abutment length, length of
abutment foundation and also dimensions of abutment wings.
Dimensions can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into input fields, or on the
For details on the e))e!t o) .ut,ent di,ensions on verification analysis we refer the
reader to section "Calculating of abutment forces".
- 250 -
Frame "Geometr% plane #iew"
Foundtion steps
The frame "Foundtion steps" serves to input the steps of foundation below abutment. This
option thus allows for specifying additional shapes of bridge abutment.
Adding (editing) foundation step is performed in the "9ew step" dialogue window. Inputted
foundation steps can be edited on the desktop with the help of active dimensions or active
Frame "Foundation steps"
- 251 -
6teril
serves to specify the abutment unit weight.
Frame "Material"
$ro)ile
dimensions.
program "(errin".
- 252 -
Frame "!rofile"
Soils
Frame "oils"
- 253 -
Bsi! dt
conditions.
*oding < *C
The frame "*oding 0 *C" serves to specify individual loding !ses (construction, service)
and the loading caused by the bridge and approach slab. Verification and dimensioning
analyses of the whole bridge abutment or only its part are carried out according to the
specified type of LC.
No load specified in the case of !onstru!tion stte and the abutment is verified in a given
stage of construction without a closure wall and bridge wings.
In the case of ser+i!e stte the abutment is loaded by the .ridge and ppro!h sl., the
whole abutment is verified.
For abutment verification it appears advantageous to exploit the stage of construction and
specify in individual stages different load cases (e.g. construction state, service state without
live load, service state with all loads). Individual stages then allow inputting different loads,
- 254 -
surcharges, terrain shapes, type of pressure analysis (active, at rest), design coefficients, etc.
Frame ";oading - ;C"
Assign
Frame ",ssign"
- 255 -
(errin
Frame "Terrain"
-ter
part of the frame. Water parameters (h<0 h2...) can be edited either in the frame by inserting
filled with values of pore pressure in front, or behind the structure at a depth of "$" (z-axis).
- 256 -
Frame "'ater"
Sur!hrge
respectively.
- 257 -
Frame "urcharge"
Front )!e resistn!e
- 258 -
&nputted )or!es
5rthDu"e
- 259 -
Frame "Earth8ua-e"
Settings
verification this coefficient is used to multiply the resisting moment M
res
and the resisting
shear force H
res
.
coefficients of reduction of soil parameters recommended values of coefficients are available in
EC7-1 in supplement A).
- 260 -
Frame "ettings"
Veri)i!tion
"Setting".
Bering !p!it3
- 261 -
.ering !p!it3
the progr, FSpred
)ootingF
results and all plots are copied to the program "A.ut,ent".
The program "Spred )ooting" must be installed for the
button to be active.
)ooting)
8i,ensioning
The "8i,ensioning" frame serves to design and verify the reinforcement of abutment cross-
section the cross-section subjected to dimensioning is selected in the combo list. The table
shows the abutment forces.
Offer of cross-sections that can be verified depands on the selected load case (construction,
service). The following cross-sections are available for both the construction and service state:
- Constru!tion ;oint +eri)i!tion depth of construction joint from construction top
edge is specified
- 262 -
The service state makes also possible to verify:
- Veri)i!tion o) !losure wll
- Veri)i!tion wing <
.ut,ent
the surface surcharge due to terrain is inputted, for actual
analysis we refer to section "Wings"
The abutment is loaded either by active pressure or pressure at rest depending on the input
specified in the frame "Settting", an active earth pressure is used when analysing wing walls.
set in the frame "Analysis methods". Verification analysis based on the standard CSN 73
6206 "8esign o) !on!rete nd steel rein)or!ed !on!rete .ridge stru!tures" is
described herein.
St.ilit3
carried over to the analysis protocol of the "A.ut,ent" program.
- 263 -
Frame "tabilit%"
$rogr, 9iled slopes
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
"Dimensioning".
- 264 -
and earthquake.
Geo,etr3
The frame "Geo,etr3" contains a table with a list of inputted points of the structure front
face. Adding (editing) points is performed in the "Add (edit) point" dialogue window.
The inputted points can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects double-
clicking an already inputted point then opens a dialogue window for its editing.
One needs to specify depth (z-coordinate from the top point of a structure positive direction
is assumed downwards) and an x-coordinate (negative direction is assumed to the left, no
overhang of a structure is allowed.
The program makes possible to export the structure geometry in the *.DXF format.
Frame "Geometr%"
(3pes o) nils
The frame "(3pes o) nils" serves to specify a nail type in a specific table. The strength
parameters of nails can be either inputted by the user or directly determined by the
program depending on the inputted data.
- 265 -
The table lists the following input data, either inputted or computed tensile strength, pull <
out resistn!e, nil hed strength per <m (<ft).
Frame "T%pes of nails"
Geo,etr3 o) nils
The frame "Geo,etr3 o) nils" contains a table with a list of inputted nails. Adding (editing)
nails is performed in the "9ew nil (5dit nil)" dialogue window. The inputted nails can also
The user is required to specify the nail depth, depth o) .en!h )ro, gi+en nil (the next
nail must be introduced as deep as to be located below the bench of the upper nail), nail
length, its diameter and distance.
Frame "Geometr% of nails"
- 266 -
6teril
Frame "Material"
$ro)ile
dimensions.
program "(errin".
- 267 -
Frame "!rofile"
Soils
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "9iled slopes". These characteristics are
Frame "oils"
- 268 -
Bsi! dt
conditions.
Assign
- 269 -
Frame ",ssign"
(errin
Frame "Terrain"
- 270 -
-ter
part of the frame. Water parameters (h<0 h2...) can be edited either in the frame by inserting
Frame "'ater"
Sur!hrge
respectively.
- 271 -
Frame "urcharge"
5rthDu"e
Frame "Earth8ua-e"
Settings
- 272 -
The tab sheet "%ther" is used to specify a procedure for the verification of internal stability of
a structure. When using factors of safety it is possible to input different factors of safety for
the plne and .ro"en slip surfaces, respectively.
V The tab sheet "%ther" further serves to introduce a coefficient of reduction of active
pressure acting on a structure, which influences the calculation of nails bearing capacity. By
default the value of 10AB is recommended.
Frame "ettings"
&nternl st.ilit3
The frame allows for the verification of internal stability of a structure assuming
either plne or .ro"en slip sur)!e. The verification can be carried out depending on
"Settings" using either factor of safety or the theory of limit states. Individual steps of the
verification procedure are described herein.
This frame also allows for the verification of nails bearing capacity. This analysis must be
checked in the frame "Settings" tab sheet "%ther".
- 273 -
Frame "+nternal stabilit%"
Veri)i!tion
To verify the external stability a )i!titious stru!ture (wall) is created and further subjected to
the verification analysis. A fictitious wall consists of the structure front face, a line connecting
end points of individual nails, a vertical line constructed from the end point of the first nail up
to the terrain depth and from the end point of the last nail up to the structure depth (thus the
bottom edge of a fictitious structure is always horizontal). The wall points that cause a concave
curvature of the structure back face are automatically excluded by the program. The structure
is loaded by an active earth pressure.
- 274 -
Bering !p!it3
.ering !p!it3
the progr, FSpred
)ootingF
results and all plots are copied to the program "9iled
slopes". The program "Spred )ooting" must be installed
for the button to be active.
)ooting)
- 275 -
8i,ensioning
The frame "8i,ensioning" allows for the design and verification of the reinforcement of the
structure concrete cover. The upper part of the frame serves to choose whether the +erti!l or
hori2ontl rein)or!e,ent and its location will be verified. The program then determines
internal forces developed on the selected section.
The table in the bottom part of the frame serves to specify locations for the verification of the
designed reinforcement depending on the inputted standard for dimensioning of steel-
reinforced concrete structures (the standard is specified in the frame "Analysis methods"). A
cross-section is loaded by the bending moment in a given point. An amount of the tensile
rein)or!e,ent in the cross-section is inputted. If the moment is negative, the designed
reinforcement is placed at the structure front face and if it is negative, then at the structure
back face.
- 276 -
5'ternl st.ilit3
Pressing the "5'ternl st.ilit3" button launches the "Slope st.ilit3" program. This
program then allows us to check the overall stability of the analyzed structure. The button is
available only if the program "Slope st.ilit3" is installed.
carried over to the analysis protocol of the "9iled slopes" program.
Frame "E(ternal stabilit%"
- 277 -
$rogr, Ground *oss
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
The frame "Anl3sis ,ethods" allows for selecting the method for determining subsidence
trough (Volume loss, Classical theories) and its shape (Gauss, Aversin). It also serves to input
the coefficient of calculation of inflection point, (for classical theories only), which influences
the shape of subsidence trough.
Buildings
The frame "Buildings" serves to input objects above excavation. An arbitrary number of
buildings can be specified both on a ground surface and at a given depth.
- 278 -
Frame "7uildings"
$ro)ile
dimensions. Adding (editing) layer is performed in the "Add (edit) inter)!e" dialogue
window. The z-coordinate measured from the top point of a structure is specified.
program "(errin".
Inputting data in the frame is allowed providing the !lssi!l theor3 o) nl3sis is selected
- 279 -
Frame "!rofile"
Soils
information about currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame. Adding
(editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window.
in the frame "Analysis methods". The particular values are obtained from geotechnical survey
Possible values of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are available in chapter "Rocks
parameters".
- 280 -
Frame "oils"
Assign
Frame ",ssign"
- 281 -
Geo,etr3
The frame "Geo,etr3" contains a table with a list of inputted excavations. The "9ew
e'!+tion (5dit e'!+tion)" dialogue window serves to add (edit) excavations. The
inputted excavations can also be modified on the desktop with help of active objects.
Parameters of excavation differ depending on the analysis method selected in the frame
"Analysis methods". Each excavation can be specified either by the radius or the area of
excavation. Providing a sequential excavation is being inputted it is useful to specify the
excavation area and place a fictitious center of excavation to a center of gravity of this area.
Additional input parameters are explained in more details when describing individual analysis
methods (Volume loss, Classical theories).
Dialogue window "4ew e(ca#ation"
Frame "Geometr%"
- 282 -
6esure,ent
The frame "6esure,ent" contains a table with a list inputted measurements. The "9ew
,esure,ent (5dit ,esure,ent)" dialogue window serves to add (edit) measurements.
The inputted measurements can also be modified on the desktop with help of active objects.
Inputted measurements do not in)luen!e the !tul nl3sis their introduction into the
program has resulted purely from designers needs. After excavating the first part of a
sequential tunnel it is useful to input the values measured in the construction site into the
program and subsequently to add the excavation input parameters such that the !l!ulted
nd ,esured +lues re the s,e. Practical experience shows that the values of input
parameters acquired from this procedure (e.g. coefficient of volume loss) are +lid lso )or
su.seDuent stges.
Frame "Measurement"
Settings
The frame "Settings" allows for introduction of boundaries of tensile and gradient damage.
These values serve to verify the building damage in the frame "Damages". The program offers
a default pre-setting (default setting for ,sonr3 .uildings) and a user-defined setting
here it is possible to define arbitrary criteria recommended by standards or gained from
practical experience for arbitrary types of buildings.
The boundary values must be defined either in a descending or ascending order, respectively.
Providing we wish to define fewer regions than specified in the program it is possible to
characterize certain boundaries by the same value.
- 283 -
Frame "ettings"
Anl3sis
The frame "Anl3sis" provides the results from the analysis of subsidence trough. More than
one analysis at different depths below the terrain surface can be performed for a single task.
The computed values are displayed on a desktop and are continuously updated whenever a
certain change in the inputted data or setting in the frame is introduced.
For a quick switch between different styles of graphical presentation of results (su.siden!e
trough4 distri.ution o) +lues) the user may use the buttons in section "Visuli2tion".
Frame ",nal%sis" - "ettlement"
- 284 -
Frame ",nal%sis" - "Distributions"
8,ges
The frame "Filures" provides the results of failure analysis of buildings. The program offers
four types of verifications
- verification of tensile cracks
- verification of gradient damage
- verification of relative deflection of buildings (Hogging, sagging)
- verification of the inputted section of a building
The program allows the user to perform an analysis for the current and all previous stages
(en+elope )ro, ll stges) or it is possible to input individual stages and evaluate their
influence. Such a procedure makes possible to find, e.g. an optimal process of excavation of
sequantial tunnels.
Several analyses can be carried out for a single task. Visualization of results can be adjusted in
- 285 -
Frame "Damages" - #isuali$ation of tensile crac-s
Frame "Damages" - #isuali$ation of gradient damage
$ogr, 1o!" St.ilit3
$ro;e!t
- 286 -
Frame !ro*ect
Anl3sis ,ethods
The tab sheet "Anl3ses" serves to select the type of rock slope analysis. There are three
options available:
- plane slip surface
- polygonal slip surface
- earth wedge
Content of the vertical tool bar depends on the selected t3pe o) nl3sis.
(errin
The frame "(errin" contains a table with a list of defined sections of a rock slope.
The !oordintes o) the origin the first point of terrain followed by defined sections are
entered in the upper part of the frame. In the program the slope is always oriented from the
le)t to the right.
Adding (editing) section is performed in the "9ew se!tion (5dit se!tion)" dialogue window.
These sections can also be edited on desktop with the help of active objects.
Each section can be defined by its dip, by the overall length of section, by the horizontal length
and height of section of a rock slope. Only two sele!ted +lues are used while the others are
determined by the program automatically (if more than two entry fields are checked than the
input and computation are not carried out). Both vertical and horizontal sections as well as
overhangs can be represented.
In case of a proper input the progr, uto,ti!ll3 plots the de)ined se!tion on desktop
using dashed line, so that before accepting the defined section by pressing the "Add" button it
is possible to check, whether the section is correctly defined.
- 287 -
Frame "Terrain"
1o!"
The frame "1o!"" allows for entering the material parameters of a rock slope (depending on
the type of shear strength) including the bulk weight of a rock. Three types of shear strengths
on a slip surface are available in the program:
- Mohr - Coulomb
- Barton - Bandis
- Hoek - Brown
Material parameters of rock are then entered based on the selected method.
- 288 -
Frame ".oc-"
Slip sur)!e 0 plne
The frame "Slip sur)!e" serves to specify the shape and parameters of a plane slip surface.
The slip surface is defined by a point in the rock body and by its gradient. The program
automatically determines intersections of the slip surface with terrain.
The program also allows for defining a tension !r!" with an arbitrary gradient (not available
for stepped slip surface). The crack is defined by a horizontal distance from the origin and by
its gradient.
The plane slip surface can further be labeled as smooth, undulated or stepped.
- 289 -
Frame "lip surface - plane"
Slip sur)!e < pol3gonl
The frame "Slip sur)!e" contains a table with a list of defined sections of a slip surface.
Adding (editing) section is performed in the "9ew se!tion (5dit se!tion)" dialogue window.
These sections can also be edited on desktop with the help of active objects.
The coordinates of the slip surface origin a point on the slip surface followed by other
sections are entered in the upper part of the frame. This point can be found even out of the
soil body the program then automatically calculates the intersection of slip surface with
terrain.
Individual sections of the slip surface can be defined by their dip, by the overall length of
section, by the horizontal length and height of section of a rock slope. Only two sele!ted
+lues are used while the others are determined by the program automatically (if more than
two entry fields are checked than the input and computation are not carried out). Both vertical
and horizontal sections as well as overhangs can be represented.
In case of a proper input the progr, uto,ti!ll3 plots the de)ined se!tion on desktop
using dashed line, so that before accepting the defined section by pressing the "Add" button it
is possible to check, whether the section is correctly defined.
- 290 -
Frame "lip surface - pol%gonal"
$r,eters 0 pol3gonl slip sur)!e
The frame "$r,eters" contains a table with a list of blocks, which are created by entering a
polygonal slip surface. Parameters of individual blocks are edited in the "5dit .lo!"" dialogue
window. Blocks can also be edited on desktop with the help of active objects.
The Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters on a slip surface and in the joints separating individual
blocks icluding the bulk weight of a rock are specified here.
This window also serves to introduce forces due to water in rock blocks.
Frame "!arameters" & pol%gonal slip surface
- 291 -
Dialogue window "Edit bloc-" - vymnit!!!!!
-ter 0 plne slip sur)!e
part of the frame. Water parameters can be edited either in the frame by inserting values into
input fields, or on the desktop with the help of active dimensions.
Solution procedure when accounting for water is described in the theoretical part of the help
"Influence of water on slip surface"
Frame "'ster" - plane slip surface
Sur!hrge 0 plne nd pol3gonl slip sur)!e
- 292 -
respectively.
Introducing surcharge forces into the analysis differs for a plane and a polygonal slip surface.
Frame "urcharge" - plane and pol%gonal slip surface
An!hors 0 plne nd pol3gonl slip sur)!e
is performed in the "9ew n!hor (6odi)3 n!hor pr,eters)" dialogue window. The
inputted anchors can be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
The following is specified location (origin), depth, free length, anchor slope, spacing between
anchors and anchor force. The anchor origin can automatically be positioned on terrin (by
checking the particular entry field). All anchor parameters can be modified only in the
construction stage, where it was introduced. The subsequent stages allow only for adjusting
the anchor force (option "$ost<stressing n!hor").
The plane slip surface allows for defining active and passive anchors. Only active anchors are
allowed with the polygonal slip surface.
- 293 -
Frame ",nchors" - plane and pol%gonal slip surface
5rthDu"e
Rock slope analysis while accounting for earthquake is described in the theoretical part of the
hint in chapter "Influence earthquake".
Frame "Earth8ua-e"
- 294 -
Settings
The "Settings" frame contains basic settings to assess the slope stability. The program offers
pre-setting for different countries (Czech Republic, Germany, France,...) and "Stndrd
Selecting the option "Safety factor" allows the user to specify in input field own value of the
factor of safety.
Selecting the option "Limit states" allows for specifying individual values of the coefficients of
reduction of soil parameters and coefficient of overall stability.
Frame "ettings" & anal%sis according to factor of safet%
Frame "ettings" & anal%sis according to limit states
Anl3sis 0 plne slip sur)!e
single task.
Verification of the rock slope can be carried out according to the factor of safety # theory of
limit states based on the input in the frame "Setting". The analysis results are displayed in the
frame in the bottom part of desktop.
In this frame the program makes possible to determine the n!hor )or!e needed for
obtaining the required safety factor. In such a case the "Co,pute reDuired n!hor )or!e"
entry field must be checked and the slope of anchor force from horizontal must be entered.
- 295 -
Frame ",nal%sis" & plane slip surface
Anl3sis 0 pol3gonl slip sur)!e
single task.
limit states based on the input in the frame "Setting". The analysis results are displayed in the
Frame ",nal%sis" & pol%gonal slip surface
- 296 -
Geo,etr3
The frame "Geo,etr3" allows for entering the shape of a rock slope (earth wedge).
Geometry of earth wedge is defined by directions and gradients of fall lines of faces forming
the wedge. Geometry of earth wedge is displayed on desktop using a stereographic projection.
The "3D view" button opens the dialogue window for viewing an earth wedge in space.
Frame "Geometr%" & input using directions and gradients of fall lines of faces
78 View
3D view allows for grphi!l !he!" o) de)ined +lues. The picture can be rotated,
translated, zoomed in and out and highlighted in a standard way. A direct print out o) the
pi!ture is not in this version allowed.
- 297 -
Dialogue window ""D #iew"
Slip sur)!e 0 ro!" wedge
The frame "Slip surface" serves to enter the shape of a slip surface using directions and
gradients of fall lines of faces forming the wedge. A tension crack can also be defined.
Geometry of earth wedge is displayed on desktop using a stereographic projection.
The "3D view" button opens the dialogue window for viewing an earth wedge in space.
- 298 -
Frame "lip surface" - roc- wedge
$r,eters 0 ro!" wedge
The frame "$r,eters" serves to enter parameters of an earth wedge. The bulk weight of a
rock and the Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters of slip surfaces must be specified.
Frame "!arameters" - roc- wedge
Sur!hrge 0 ro!" wedge
surcharge is performed in the "9ew (edit) sur!hrge" dialogue window.
- 299 -
Surcharge forces are introduced into the stability analysis of earth wedge using resolution of
forces.
Frame "urcharge" - roc- wedge
An!hors 0 ro!" wedge
is performed in the "9ew n!hor (6odi)3 n!hor pr,eters)" dialogue window.
Anchor forces are introduced into the stability analysis of earth wedge using resolution acting
of forces.
Frame ",nchors" - roc- wedge
- 300 -
-ter 0 ro!" wedge
The frame "-ter" allows for introducing water into analysis. If the influence of water is taken
into account then checking the respective entry field opens the field for entering the height of
GWT above the lowest point of an earth wedge.
Solution procedure when accounting for water is described in the theoretical part of the help
"Influence of ground water". The "3D view" button opens the dialogue window for viewing an
earth wedge in space.
Frame "'ater" - roc- wedge
Anl3sis 0 ro!" wedge
single task.
limit states based on the input in the frame "Settings". The analysis results are displayed in the
In this frame the program makes possible to determine the n!hor )or!e needed for
obtaining the required safety factor. In such a case the "Co,pute reDuired n!hor )or!e"
entry field must be checked and the slope of anchor force from horizontal and its direction
must be entered.
- 301 -
.Cm ")DpoEet" - hornino#D -lFn
$rogr, (errin
$ro;e!t
In this input regime the assumed setting can be modified only in the first construction stage.
Frame "!ro*ect"
Bsi! dt
The frame "Bsi! dt" serves to input basic parameters of the task.
The frame contains a table with a list of specified layers. Layers can be added, inserted or
removed using the buttons on the right from the table. The first layer can be neither removed,
- 302 -
nor can another layer be inserted in front of it.
The frame section "Bsi! setting" serves to define world dimensions of the task. When
increasing or decreasing these dimensions the program prompts possible consequences of this
action.
The section "&nputting grid" serves to define an origin and step of the grid in the X and Y
directions. The dialogue window, which allows for setting these parameters, is described in the
hint section "User<de)ined en+iron,ent", chapter "Input".
Crossing the item "&nput in the glo.l !oordinte s3ste," opens the way for introducing
the data in the global coordinate system (JTSK, Gauss-Kreger).
In this input regime the assumed setting can be modified only in the first construction stage.
Visualization of drawing on the desktop can be modified in any input regime based on the
setting adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window and with the help of
buttons on tool bars "3D visualization", "Scale and shift" and "Plot setting".
Frame "7asic data"
Glo.l !oordinte s3ste,
The "Coordinte s3ste,s" dialogue window allows for definig the type of the global
coordinate system.
Esential advantage is the possibility of specifying the coordinates of points and bore holes both
in the local and global coordinate systems and switching between the two systems.
Orientation of the global coordinate system with respect to the local one is defined using two
points, where one point is always introduced in the local coordinate system and its image in
the global coordinate system.
Direction and sign convention is displayed for each type of the global coordinate system in the
legend chart.
- 303 -
Dialogue window "Coordinate s%stem"
Soils
Adding (editing) a soil is performed in the "Add (edit) soil" dialogue window. The program
Terrain calls only for specification of the coefficient of bulkage to compute yardage of
excavation pits or embankments. The remaining data are used only for possible export into
other GEO programs and have no effect on actual calculations performed in program
"(errin".
Frame "oils"
Assign
- 304 -
In subsequent stages of construction the program automatically adds a new layer, to which a
soil adjacent to terrain is automatically assigned. In many cases (excavation pits) this layer
may have no volume its introduction is necessary providing the new terrain is found above
the terrain of the previous stage. The soil is always assigned, since it is not possible to a priory
estimate, whether some part of the terrain in the new stage will be located above the original
one.
Frame ",ssign"
$oints
The frame "$oints" serves to define the coordinates of terrain points. There are two options
available to define coordinates of individual points:
-ith the help o) t.le: points are defined in the table. Pressing the "Add" button opens the
"9ew point" dialogue window; coordinates of points are then specified and by pressing the
"Add" button added to the table. An arbitrary number of points can be defined in this way. The
"Cn!el" button is used at last to close the window. These points can be further modified (in
the dialogue window) using the "5dit" button or removed with the help of "1e,o+e" button
(more points can be marked in the table to remove them all at once before removing, the
selected points are displayed on the desktop in red). Each change is immediately reflected on
the desktop.
-ith the help o) ,ouse: this inputting mode is turned on by pressing a respective button on
the horizontal bar. The following options are available:
Add - to input a point, click the left mouse button on the desktop (the mouse
cursor changes see picture) the program then opens the "New point"
dialogue window, which allows for modifying the point coordinates, or to
input its Z-coordinate after pressing the "OK" button the program adds
this point into the table. Providing the point cannot be added (e.g. duplicity
of coordinates) the program prompts a warning message
- grid functions can also be used when specifying a point
- 305 -
5dit - clicking an already existing point (see active objects) using the left mouse
button opens the "5dit point" dialogue window, which allows for editing
the point coordinates - in the dialogue window the following buttons ("%:/
" a "%:/ ") can be used
1e,o+e - clicking the point using the left mouse button opens a dialogue window,
which requests to confirm deletion of the selected point
Sele!t - actives the regime of graphical selection of points (type of selection is set in
the tool bar "Selections")
The selected points can also be imported from files in formats TXT, Atlas DNT, respectively DXF.
When defining points the program in some cases automatically calculates their Z-coordinates.
Only one point can be assigned to a single coordinate X, Y.
buttons on tool bars "3D visualization", "Scale and shift", "Selections" and "Plot setting".
Frame "!oints"
&,port o) points
The program allows for data import in formats DXF, ATLAS DMT and TXT. When importing, ll
old dt re deleted and replaced by the new ones. The world dimensions are automatically
determined according to minimal and maximal values of coordinates x and y it is therefore
desirable to subsequently adjust the world dimensions in the frame "Basic data".
The program allows for importing (B( dt )ro, respe!ti+e )iles. Each point is written on a
separate line of the file, coordinates are separated by comma. If the file contains for each point
first its name, it is necessary to check the item "Labeling of pints". In the dialogue window is
then necessary to specify the order of coordinates. If the data have an opposite sign
convention, it possible to multiply the corresponding line by the value -1. The data import is
performed after pressing the "&,port" button.
- 306 -
Dialogue window "+mport" & format "T3T"
Dialogue window "+mport" & format ",tlas"
Auto,ti! !l!ultion o) height
When defining points, bore holes and points of ground water table the program in some cases
automatically calculates the point height (z-coordinate) and eventually the layer thickness.
This function is particularly valuable when editing terrain or layers.
The possibility of height calculation depends on the sttus o) generted terrin:
- if no terrain is generated, the height is not calculated and the respective field remains
empty (blank)
- if terrain is generated for the current data (displayed on the desktop in a non-transparent
mode and in regimes Genertion4 $oint !onstru!tions4 *ine !onstru!tions and
*un!hing also in a color mode), the required values are then automatically calculated
from the model of terrain for a point it is the Z-coordinate, for a bore hole the program
further determines the layer thickness and possibly also the depth of the ground water
table when a point or a bore hole is specified the status of generated terrain is changed
and the drawing is switched to a transparent mode (the terrain is generated for the
original input, not for the current input)
- when the terrain is generated, but it is not the current one, the Z-coordinates and layers
thicknesses are automatically calculated for the last generated terrain
&n)or,tion regrding the terrin sttus (not generated, generated, generated for the
original data) are displayed on the vertical tool bar. The frame "Generate" allows for terrain
generating or removing the generated model.
- 307 -
Dialogue window & add new point and calculate the G-coordinate
Dialogue window & add new bore hole and calculate the G-coordinate0 thic-ness of G'T and
la%er thic-nesses
5dges
The frame "5dges" serves to input edges connecting the terrain points. Two options are
available to define edges:
-ith the help o) t.le: edges are defined in the table. Pressing the "Add" button opens the
"9ew edge" dialogue window; sequence numbers of the starting and end points are then
specified and by pressing the "Add" button added to the table. An arbitrary number of edges
can be defined in this way. The "Cn!el" button is used at last to close the window. These
edges can be further modified (in the dialogue window) using the "5dit" button or removed
with the help of "1e,o+e" button (more edges can be marked in the table to remove them all
at once before removing, the selected edges are displayed on the desktop in red). Each
change is immediately reflected on the desktop.
Add - to input an edge, click the starting and end points using the left mouse
button (the mouse cursor changes see picture) after clicking the end
point the program adds the corresponding edge into the table and at the
same time displays this edge on the desktop. Providing the edge cannot be
added (duplicity reason, crossing, etc.) the program prompts a warning
- 308 -
message
5dit - clicking an already existing edge (see active objects) using the left mouse
button opens the "5dit edge" dialogue window, which allows for editing the
sequence numbers of the starting and end points of the edge - in the
dialogue window the following buttons ("%:/ " a "%:/ ") can be used
1e,o+e - clicking the edge using the left mouse button opens a dialogue window,
which requests to confirm deletion of the selected edge
Sele!t - actives the regime of graphical selection of edges (type of selection is set in
the bar "Selections")
Edges can intersect neither other edges nor earth grading. Only one edge can be defined
between two points.
buttons on tool bars "3D visualization", "Scale and shift", "Selections" and "Plot setting".
Frame "Edges"
-ter
The frame "-ter" serves to specify the ground water table (GWT). A combo list "(3pe o)
wter" contains the following items:
9o wter no water specified
-ter spe!i)ied .3 points the GWT points are defined in the table in the same way as
when defining terrain points. This approach is particularly suitable if having a horizontal water
table then it is sufficient to define only one point of a given coordinate Z and the program
automatically generates a horizontal line representing the GWT.
-ter spe!i)ied in .ore holes Ground water is defined within bore holes. A particular
depth of GWT measured from terrain surface is specified. This approach is suitable when bore
holes with measured depths of GWT are available.
- 309 -
Frame "'ater"
Bore holes
The frame "Bore holes" serves to define bore holes (both real and fictitious), which allow for
the modeling individual geologi!l l3ers (depending on the setting in the frame "Basic
data") or ground wter t.les (depending on the setting in the frame "Water").
To input points that determine the location of individual bore holes proceed in the similar way
as when defining terrain points. Apart from coordinates it is necessary to enter the bore-hole
name and thicknesses of layers. The generated geological profile can be easily modified
exploiting the option of automatic calculation of height z from the thicknesses of individual
layers.
Bore holes can be defined onl3 in the first stage of construction. The program automatically
assures that a lower layer always lies below an upper layer "Crossing of layers" is not
acceptable the do,innt l3er is always the upper l3er.
- 310 -
Frame "7ore holes" & input0 edit
Frame "7ore holes" & defined bore holes
5rth grding
The frame "5rth grding" serves to define terrain earth grading. The earth grading cannot
be defined in the first stage of construction.
The earth grading should considerably simplify an input of excavation pits or embankments.
The essential part of earth grading is the shpe o) .otto,, form which the slopes of
excavations or embankments are directed towards the original terrain. The original terrain
points and edges, found in the region of earth grading, are during generation automatically
removed.
- 311 -
More than one earth grading can be defined within a single stage of constructions. (he3 ,ust
not4 howe+er4 !ross e!h other. If that happens, they need to be combined into a single
earth grading. No part of earth grading can also exceed the world dimensions in such a case
one should realize that faces of earth grading may exceed the world dimensions even if the
bottom is defined well inside.
The earth grading can be edited only in the stage, where it is defined. In to next stage of
construction, the earth grading is transferred in terms of terrain new points and edges.
-ith the help o) t.le: earth grading is defined in the table. The "Add" button opens the
"9ew erth grding" dialogue window, which allows for specifying the name of earth grading
(by checking individual boxes it is possible to define a uniform depth of the bottom and a
uniform gradient of the slope). This dialogue window contains further a table to introduce
points, which define the ground plan (general polygon) of earth grading. To enter these
points, proceed in the similar way as when defining terrain points. Pressing the "Add" button
closes the dialogue window and the new earth grading is inserted into the table.
The earth grading can be further modified (in the dialogue window) using the "5dit" button or
removed with the help of "1e,o+e" button (more than one earth grading can be marked in
the table to remove them all at once - before removing, the selected earth grading is displayed
on the desktop in red). Each change is immediately reflected on the desktop.
A
d
d

e
r
t
h

g
r
d
i
n
g
- To input an earth grading, click the left mouse button on the desktop to successively
define individual points of the polygon, which determines a ground plan of an earth
grading the polygon must be closed (the last clicked point serves as the first point of the
polygon) after closing the polygon the program opens the "9ew erth grding"
dialogue window; to continue follow the same steps as when an input using the table is
assumed - providing the earth grading cannot be defined, or it overlays an already
existing one, the program prompts a warning message
5
d
i
t

e
r
t
h

g
r
d
i
n
g
- clicking an already existing earth grading using the left mouse button (see active objects)
opens the "5dit erth grding" dialogue window, which allows for editing the respective
grading (is possible use buttons in the dialogue window "%:/ " a "%:/ ")
1
e
,
o
- clicking an earth grading using the left mouse button opens a dialogue window, which
requests to confirm deletion of the selected earth grading
- 312 -
+
e

e
r
t
h

g
r
d
i
n
g
Frame "Earth grading" & input0 edit
- 313 -
Frame "Earth grading" & defined earth grading
Generte
The frame "Generte" serves to generate a model of the terrain.
$r,eters to generte the ,odel, which are valid for all subsequent stages, are specified
in the first stage of construction.
These are - ,odel s,oothing (none, medium, maximal)
- !ti+e edge allows for modeling of terrain along edges
The frame further serves to define drwing pr,eters (grid step, contour line step).
The actual model is generated by pressing the "Generte" button. The generated model can
be canceled by pressing the "Cn!el ,odel" button this can be useful to enhance clarity of
input.
Selecting the option "Co,pute 3rdge" allows for yardage calculation (in a combo list it is
possible input the construction stage number for which the calculation should be carried out).
- 314 -
Frame "Generate"
6odeling terrin on edges
A special attention has to be given to .oundr3 !ondition to correctly create a digital model
of terrain heights of points in corners and boundaries (edges) of the world (world
dimensions).
(he !orner points can be either entered or they are inserted automatically during the first
stage of construction. When automatically generated, the corner point receives the same
height as has the closest point or bore hole already defined.
When generating terrain the !orner points re !onne!ted .3 n edge. In some cases
(slopes) we wish the edges to model the overall shpe nd in!lintion o) terrin. In such
cases an active edge option can be used. An active edge is introduced as a per!entge
)r!tion o) the world di,ensions. All points )ound on n !ti+e edge are, during
generation, automatically projected in the normal direction on to an edge new points are
then created at the same locations (on edge) having the same z-coordinate. The new points
are stored in data associated with the next stage of construction.
Subsequent layers of the terrain model behave the same way. The thicknesses of these layers
on edges are calculated according to thicknesses of layers of the closest bore holes.
The role of an active edge is evident from the following figure.
- 315 -
Terrain generated without and with an acti#e edge
$oint !onstru!tions
The frame "*ine !onstru!tions" serves to introduce line constructions into the terrain.
To input points that determine the location of individual point constructions proceed in the
similar way as when defining terrain points (using either table or mouse). The "9ew point
!onstru!tion" ("5dit point !onstru!tion") dialogue window allows also for specifying the
name of the program to analyze the corresponding construction. The frame "Launching" is then
used to run the calculation program and to transfer thicknesses of layers and assignment of
soils into the program.
Point constructions can be defined only if a correct model of the terrain is generated.
Frame "!oint constructions" & input0 edit
- 316 -
Frame "!oint constructions" & defined constructions
*ine !onstru!tions
The frame "*ine !onstru!tions" serves to introduce line constructions into the terrain.
To input lines that determine the location of individual line constructions proceed in the similar
way as when defining terrain edges (using either table or mouse). The "9ew line
!onstru!tion" ("5dit line !onstru!tion") dialogue window allows for specifying the name
and type of a construction line:
"*ongitudinl line !onstru!tion" is defined by coordinates of the starting and end points
(the table is a part of the dialogue window). A combo list serves to select a particular
calculation program (Settlement, Slope stability, FEM.). To run the program, use the frame
"Launch". Terrain shape and interfaces are transferred in the same way as when assigning soils
to layers.
"*ine with points" is defined by coordinates of a broken line and can be used to specify new
point construction. Point constructions are defined in the table "$oint !onstru!tions on line",
which is a part of the "9ew line !onstru!tion" dialogue window. The frame "Launch" is then
used to run the calculation program and to transfer thicknesses of layers and assignment of
soils into the program.
Line constructions can be defined only if a correct model of the terrain is generated.
buttons on tool bars "3D visualization", "Scale and shift" "Plot setting".
- 317 -
Frame ";ine constructions" & input0 edit
Frame ";ine constructions" & defined constructions
*un!hing
The frame "*un!hing" contains a table with a list of defined point or line constructions.
Based on the selection in the table and after pressing the "*un!h" button the program
associated with a particular task is launched (the corresponding calculation module must be
purchased). The required data are transferred into the program. The program then allows for
performing the specific calculations and verifications. If the program is not purchased, the
launching button is not accessible.
When all calculations are completed the program is exited by pressing the "%:" button the
- 318 -
results and defined pictures are transferred back into a corresponding calculation protocol in
program "(errin".
Frame ";aunching"
;aunching program "pread footing" from program "Terrain"
$rogr, 6i!ropile
$ro;e!t
- 319 -
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
The "Anl3ses" tab sheet allows for choosing the course of calculation of external bearing
capacity (critical force) and the analysis method of calculating bearing capacity of the micropile
root.
The following methods are available for calculating external forces:
- geometric (Euler method)
- Salas
- Souche
The following methods are available for calculating bearing capacity of the micropile root:
- Lizzi
- Littlejohn
- Zweck
- Bowles
- Vas
- root in rock
$ro)ile
- 320 -
dimensions.
program "(errin".
Frame "!rofile"
Soils
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "6i!ropile". These characteristics are
further specified in chapters: "Basic data" "Uplift pressure". These parameters depend on the
theory of analysis specified in the frame "Analysis methods".
- 321 -
Frame "oils"
Bsi! dt
Pi vpotu nosnosti dku podle Salase se navc zadv modul pruznosti zemin E.
The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Micropile".
- 322 -
Geo,etr3
The frame "Geo,etr3" serves to input a ,i!ropile !ross<se!tion (welded, rolled). The
selected shape with a graphical hint of inputted values is displayed in the left part of the frame.
The micropile cross-section is selected in dialogue windows opened by pressing the "Enter
welded" "Enter rolled" buttons (the selection for rolled cross-sections is performed from a
catalogue in the dialogue window). An info window, displaying a detailed description of data of
the selected cross-section, can be activated in the window. The selected data can be edited
after choosing the type of micropile cross-section.
The basic geometrical data are specified in the right top part of the frame:
- free length of micropile (distance between the micropile head and the origin of micropile
base is considered)
- root length
- root diameter
- micropile inclination (range from -60 to 60 measured from vertical, a positive value of
an inclination angle is measured counterclockwise)
- head offset (end of micropile above terrain (range from 0 to 10 m)).
Frame "Geometr%"
6teril
The frame "6teril" serves to specify material parameters of cement mixture and steel.
Stndrd strength of concrete in compression, standard strength of steel in tension and
,odulus o) elsti!it3 of the selected steel and concrete mixture are entered.
- 323 -
Frame "Material"
Assign
Frame ",ssign"
- 324 -
*od
The "*od" frame contains a table with a list inputted loads. Adding (editing) load is performed
in the "9ew (edit) lod" dialogue window. Forces and moments are entered according to the
sign convention displayed in the right part of the dialogue window.
Frame ";oading"
-ter
The frame "-ter" serves to enter a depth o) groud wter t.le.
The values can be edited either in the frame by entering values into particular fields, or on the
- 325 -
Frame "'ater"
Settings
The frame "Settings" contains basic setting for the verification analysis of the micropile.
Verification analysis based either on the factor of safety or on limit states is available.
Frame "ettings" & #erification based on factor of safet%
Frame "ettings" & #erification based on limit states
Veri)i!tion o) !ross<se!tion
The results of the analysis of the micropile tube bearing capacity loaded either in tension or
- 326 -
compression are displayed in the frame "Veri)i!tion o) !ross<se!tion". More computations
can be carried out for a single task.
In the left part of the frame it is possible to enter the modulus of subsoil reaction and to
account for the influence of corrosion on the analysis. When performing the verification
analysis of the micropile tube (micropile cross-section) the program differentiates between a
micropile loaded in tension or in compression.
A micropile in compression is checked for both internal and external bearing capacity. In the
case of internal bearing capacity the program checks for failure of the micropile tube loaded
either in buckling compression or by combination of bending moment and normal force.
The results of the verification analysis are displayed in the right part of the window. The "&n
detil" button opens a dialogue window listing in detailed the results of the analysis.
Frame ")erification of cross-section"
1oot +eri)i!tion
The analysis results are displayed in the frame "1oot +eri)i!tion". Several calculations can
be carried out for a single task. The limit skin friction can be specified in the left part of the
frame.
Procedure to examine the micropile root is described in details herein.
The results of the verification analysis are displayed in the right part of the window. The "&n
detil" button opens a dialogue window listing in detailed the results of the analysis.
- 327 -
Frame ".oot #erification"
$rogr, F56
(opolog3
To input data in the GEO FEM program slightly differs from other GEO5 programs in that it
requires defining the topology of the structure prior to any calculation. This step includes
introduction of interfaces between individual layers of soils, line constructions, parameters of
soils and interfaces and at last generation of the finite element mesh. To avoid unexpected
errors when creating a computational model the user should first become familiar with
available coordinate systems.
The topology input regime is selected by clicking the Topo button on the horizontal bar.
7ar "tages of construction" & switching between "Topolog%" regime and calculation stages
The actual analysis is performed in individual stages of construction (calculation stages), which
allow the user to define activity of structures, to input beams, anchors and surcharge, to
model the effect of water, etc.
Depending on the selected regime the vertical tool bar also adjusted.
Coordinte s3ste,s
Glo.l !oordinte s3ste,
- is right-handed
- 328 -
- the positive X axis is directed from the left to the right
- the positive Z axis is directed from the bottom to the top
- the positive Y axis drills in to the XZ plane
- the rotation about the Y axis is positive when measured clockwise
- The GCS is used for coordinates
- in general, the positive surcharge is assumed to act against the positive axis and the
positive rotation follows the positive sense of the global rotation
- particular definitions of the positive direction must be carefully examined for all cases
Sur!hrge
- is always assumed to act along the horizontal line (or at a point)
- the origin (point) and the length are the required input data
- the positive surcharge at zero angle is assumed to act against the positive direction of the
Z axis
- the zero angle corresponds to vertical surcharge
- the angle increases clockwise
- the angle ranges from -180 to 180
An!hors
- an anchor can also be specified by the origin and an angle
- the zero angle corresponds to the direction of the X axis
- the angle increases clockwise
- the angle ranges from -180 to 180
- 329 -
$res!ri.ed displ!e,ents nd rottion o) supports
- prescribed displacements are positive in the directions of the X, Z axes and about the Y
axis
- displacements are positive when developed against the positive directions of the
coordinate axes
- the positive rotation is measured clockwise
*oding o) .e,s
- the local coordinate system is right-handed
- the positive X
!
axis of the beam is assumed in direction from the starting to the end point
- the positive Z
!
axis is perpendicular and rotated counterclowise by "0 from the beam axis
- loading can be applied three directions:
- global Z
- global X
- local normal (Z)
- the positive loading in the global direction acts against the positive direction of the
corresponding axis
- the positive loading in the normal direction acts against the positive direction of the local
Z
!
axis
- the positive loading angle d is measured clockwise
- the moment is positive when acting clockwise
- definition of loading along the X
!
axis
- coordinates, coordinates of the origin
- loading span
- types of loading (always in above mentioned directions)
- concentrated force
- concentrated moment
- distributed uniform over the whole beam
- distributed trapesoidal over the whole beam
- distributed uniform over a segment of the beam
- distributed trapesoidal over a segment of the beam
- 330 -
Stresses nd strins
- positive normal stress Si#$% corresponds to compression, negative to tension
- positive normal strain E&silo' corresponds to compression, negative to tension
&nternl )or!es long .e,s
- positive normal force corresponds to tension, negative to compression
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
The "Anl3ses" tab sheet allows the user to define the basic characteristics of the analysis to
be carried out including the type of the problem and analysis, the method of calculating the
initial stress (geostatic stress, (
o
procedure) and available standards for concrete and steel
structures.
(he +il.le pro.le, (plne4 'is3,,etri!) nd nl3sis (stress4 stability4 )low4
tunnels) t3pes depend on the pur!hsed !on)igurtion o) the progr,.
$ro+iding ll ,odes re +il.le we re!o,,end to pro!eed with e'tre,e !ution
when sele!ting the t3pe nl3sis 0 ,ore !o,ple' t3pes reDuire distin!ti+el3 lrger
nu,.er o) input dt nd ,3 unne!essril3 !o,pli!te the use o) the progr,.
(his t. sheet lso llows )or !hoosing the option FAdvanced inputF4 whi!h ))e!ts
.oth the input pr,eters o) the progr, nd possi.ilities o) presenting the nl3sis
results.
This tab sheet also serves to select the method for calculating the initial stress in the first
stage of construction either standard calculation of geostti! stress or the Ko procedure.
- 331 -
St.ilit3 nl3sis
There are two options available in the FEM program to solve the slope stability problem:
1) to set the solution t3pe to "Slope st.ilit3" in the frame "Analysis methods".
2) to run the module in the "Slope st.ilit3" regime in an arbitrary stage of construction of a
standard analysis by pressing the "St.ilit3" button in such a case, a new secondary task
(which can be saved independently) is generated. The solution then proceeds as in the step 1.
Creating model and inputting data in the "Slope st.ilit3" regime is performed in the same
way as in the "Stress" regime just the "Anl3sis" button launches the slope stability
analysis of a given structure. Individual slope stability analyses in construction stages are
completely independent and have no relation to the pre+ious stges nd !l!ultions.
(unnels
The frame "Analysis methods" in conjunction with the "Anl3ses" tab sheet allows for
selecting the option "(unnels". (This module has to be pur!hsed by the user otherwise
this option is not available). When selecting the "(unnels" regime it is possible to define and
calculate:
- 5'!+tions (Modeling a 3D effect at the tunnel face assuming the New Austrian
method)
- grdul degrdtion o) .e,s
- su.;e!ting .e,s to ther,l loding
- ther,l loding pplied to sele!ted regions (Advanced input is reDuired)
- pres!ri.ing swelling stress to sele!ted regions
- ,onitoring results
The mode "(unnel" can be switched on/off at any time. The previous results will be, however,
deleted. While switching from a standard regime to the "(unnels" regime is safe, proceeding
in the opposite direction results into deleting all inputted data a warning message, however,
appears before this action is completed.
'arning message about data modification when canceling the "Tunnels" regime
Ad+n!ed input
The frame "Analysis methods" in conjunction with the "Anl3ses" tab sheet allows for
- 332 -
selecting the option "Ad+n!ed input". The advanced input offers in addition:
- defining additional ,teril pr,eters of soils (e.g. the Biot parameter, bulk modulus of
water, coefficient of thermal expansion)
- three node ele,ents become available
- dditionl output pr,eters become available
This option is turned off by default, as it is not generally required. On the other hand, it may
become particularly useful when doing research or during teaching. This input mode can be
turned on/off at any time, but this action will always result into deleting all previous results.
:o pro!edure
Ko procedure is the method that allows for the calculation of geostatic stress (<
st
stage) when
particular ration between vertical and hori2ontl stress !o,ponents is needed. For
example, when dealing with o+er!onsolidted soils the actual horizontal stress can attain
much higher values than found in normally consolidated soils.
When adopting stndrd nl3sis the initial stress is determined through the application of
the finite element method. Nonlinear material models can be used to account for evolution of
possible failure surfaces already in the 1
st
calculation stage. In the case of elastic response the
ratio between vertical H
)
and horizontal H
*
stress components is provided by:
where: H
)
- vertical normal stress
H
*
- horizontal normal stress
I - Poissons number
This analysis may lead to evolution of plastic strains.
The :o pro!edure generates only elastic response. The horizontal stress in the <
st
stage of
construction follows from:
where: (
o
- coefficient of horizontal stress at reast defined by the user
H
)
- vertical normal stress
H
*
- horizontal normal stress
The (
o
coefficient is assumed to be a soil parameter. If the (
o
parameter is not assigned, it is
derived from the relation:
The resulting stresses may, however, violate the plasticity condition in the 2
'd
stage of
construction when nonlinear material models are used. Iteration of equilibrium is then carried
out even if no changes occur in the 2
'd
stage.
&nter)!es
The frame "&nter)!es" servers to input interfaces between individual soils. Detailed
- 333 -
The width of the geometrical model can be usually estimated without much of a trouble (care
must be take in the stability analysis to provide for sufficiently large space surrounding the
critical region). The depth of a mesh however is quite important. The lowest point of a mesh
can be imagined as incompressible subsoil. If there is no such layer of the soil or rock material
in the geological profile it is possible to assume that at a certain depth from the ground the
internal forces will vanish so that there will be no deformation. This will be the lowest point of
the geometrical model.
If you are not certain about the margins of the geometrical model it is useful to proceed as
follows:
- First enter larger margins, use coarser mesh and compute changes in the stress distributions
within a soil body.
- In the next step modify the initial margins (regions with no apparent deformation or changes
in stresses can be cut off), generate new and finer mesh and carry out a new and more
accurate analysis.
Interfaces can be also imported from other modules of the software package GEO using
clipboard.
Frame "+nterface"
Soils
The frame "Soils" contains a table with the list of inputted soils. Basic information regarding
the current soil are displayed in the right part of the frame.
The soil input parameters depend on the selected material model. The basic material
parameters are the Young modulus of elasticity E and the $oisson rtio (they are needed in
all models).
Most nonlinear models require defining the ngle o) internl )ri!tion and !ohesion of the
soil. The program allows for modeling either drained boundary conditions (analysis is carried
out under steady state conditions after full dissipation of excess pore pressure) or undrained
boundary conditions (the state at the onset of consolidation is represented so that the pore
pressure distribution follows directly from the analysis assuming full saturation and no outflaw
of water). In both cases the analysis adopts e))e!ti+e pr,eters of the angle of internal
- 334 -
friction J
+ff
and cohesion c
+ff
.
The required list of material parameters to input also depends on the selected input mode.
Assuming advanced input (can be selected in the frame "Analysis methods") allows us to
define additional (advanced) material parameters (e.g. the Biot parameter, Effective bulk
modulus of water,etc.). In most practical applications these material parameters are not
particularly important and serve mostly to academic purposes.
Individual material models can be combined in the analysis each soil can be assigned its own
,teril ,odel.
Frame "oils"
6terils ,odels
Selecting the most suitable material model together with inputting the required material
parameters is one the most important but also one of the most difficult tasks when modeling a
structure using the finite element method.
The material model attempts to describe the soil (or rock) behavior as close to reality as
possible. They can be divided into two basic groups linear and nonlinear models. Selecting a
proper material model is essentil for the prediction of a real soil response.
Most tasks require nonlienar models (e.g., modeling of sheeting structures with linear models
yields totally wrong results). In some cases, however, using linear models may prove useful
and adequat and may considerably simplify the analysis.
- 335 -
Dialogue window ",dd new soils" & selection of a material model
*iner ,odels
Linear models give relatively fast, but not very accurate estimate of the true material
response. These models can be used in cases, where only the stress or deformation states of a
soil mass are of interest. They provide no information about locations and possible
mechanisms of failure.
They can be used to model soil behavior in regions, where only the local failure with no effect
on the evolution of global failure occurs, but which may cause premature loss of convergence.
Providing the main interest is in a reliable description of the soil behavior it is necessary to
employ nonlinear models. The linear models include:
- Elastic model
- Modified elastic model
5lsti! ,odel
The linear model is the basic material model that assumes a linear relationship between the
stress and strain given by the Hooke law. The following data are required:
y - bulk weight of soil
I - Poisson number
E - modulus of elasticity
In a one dimensional problem the Hooke law describes the linear dependence of stress H on
- 336 -
strain K via the Young modulus E (modulus of elasticity), see figure. In this framework the
linear model provides a linear variation of displacements as a function of applied loads.
tress-strain relationship for ;M
6odi)ied elsti! ,odel
It is clear that for soils the linear behavior is acceptable only for relatively low magnitudes of
applied loads. This becomes evident upon unloading that usually shows a rather small amount
of elastic deformation compare to the overall deformation. The modified linear model attempts
at least to some extent to take this into account by considering different modulus for loading
and unloading as plotted in figure.
A drop in the material stiffness along a given loading path attributed to the plastic yielding is
reflected through a deformation modulus E
d+f
, which can be imagined as a secant modulus
associated with a certain stress level.
An elastic response is assumed upon unloading. To increase clarity of model formulation the
elastic modulus for the unloading branch is replaced by the unloading-reloading modulus E
u,
that governs

the response of a soil upon unloading and subsequent reloading up to the level of
stress found in the material point prior to the unloading. With reference to figure these moduli
are given by:
where: E
d+f
-Deformation modulus [MPa]
L
u,
-Unloading/reloading modulus [MPa]
5a6 .eal stress-strain diagram of soil0 5b6 implified stress-strain diagram for M;M
During primary loading the response of a soil is therefore governed by the secant modulus
- 337 -
while upon unloading it follows the path set by the unloading-reloading modulus (,odulus o)
elsti!it3) An approximate value of this modulus is 3*secant modulus= In any case, both
parameters should be obtained from reliable experimental measurements.
9onliner ,odels
The basic nonlinear models can be again divided into two groups.
The first class of models originates from the classical Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. In
particular, the Drucker-Prager, Mohr-Coulomb and Modified Mohr-Coulomb models fall in this
category. A common feature to these models is the evolution of unbounded elastic strains
when loaded along the hydrostatic axis. This is evident from the figure below that shows
projections of the yield surfaces into deviatoric and meridian planes, respectively. An example
of the effect of the selected model is given here.
The second group of basic material models is represented by the Modified Cam-clay model
employing the concept of the critical state of soil.
!ro*ection of %ield surfaces into 5a6 de#iatoric0 5b6 meridian plane
Employing nonlinear models allows us to capture the typical nonlinear response of soils.
These models describe evolution of permanent (plastic) deformation of a soil material. The
onset of plastic deformation is controlled by so-called yield surface. The yield surface can be
either constant (elastic-rigid plastic material), or it can depend on the current state of stress
(material with hardening/softening).
tress-strain diagram for nonlinear models
In addition to basic material parameters decribed in section "Elastic model" the nonlinear
models call for the introduction of certain strength characteristics of the soil needed in the
definition of a given yield surface. With reference to the first group of materials the following
parameters are must be specified.
J - angle of internal friction -./
c - cohesion of soil -01%/
q - dilation angle -./
- 338 -
The angle of internal friction and cohesion determine the onset of plastic deformation. The
angle of dilation controls an evolution of plastic volumetric strain (dilation).
The angle of dilation controls an amount of plastic volumetric strain developed during plastic
shearing and is assumed constant during plastic yielding.
6ohr<Coulo,. (6C)
The model requires inputting the following input parameters: modulus of elasticity E, the
$oisson rtio, ngle o) internl )ri!tion and !ohesion. The latter two parameters serve to
define the yield condition. The formulation of constitutive equations assumes e))e!ti+e
pr,eters of angle of internal friction J
+ff
and cohesion c
+ff
. The angle of dilation must also
be specified.
The Mohr-Coulomb yield surface can be defined in terms of three limit functions that plot as a
non-uniform hexagonal cone in the principal stress space. Projections of this yield surface into
deviatioric and meridian planes appear in the figure. As evident from this figure (part ) the
MC yield function has corners, which may cause certain complications in the implementation of
this model into the finite element method. The advantage on the other hand is the fact that
the traditional soil mechanics and partially also the rock mechanics are based on this model.
!ro*ection of %ield surfaces intoM (a) de#iatoric0 (b) meridian plane
8ru!"er<$rger
+ff
and cohesion c
+ff
be specified.
The Drucker-Prager model (sometimes also known as the extended von Mises model) modifies
the Mohr-Coulomb yield function to avoid singularities associated with corners. Unlike the
Mohr-Coulomb model the Drucker-Prager yield surface is smooth and plots as a cylindrical
cone in the principal stress space. Similarly to the MC model the DP yield surface depends on
the effective mean stress o
$
. The current version of the DP model implemented in GEO FEM
builds upon the assumption of triaxial extension. In other words, the yield surface projection
into the deviatoric plane touches the inner corners of the Mohr-Coulomb hexagon (0 = -30
0
),
where 0 is the Lode angle.
- 339 -
D! and MC %ield surfaces in the de#iatoric plane
6odi)ied 6ohr<Coulo,. (6C6)
+ff
and cohesion c
+ff
be specified.
Similarly to the DP model the Modified Mohr-Coulomb model smoothes out the corners of the
MC yield surface. As suggested in the figure the projection of the MCM yield surface into the
deviatoric plane passes through all corners of the Mohr-Coulomb hexagon and as the MC yield
function the MCM yield function depends on the effective mean stress o
$
and the Lode angle 0.
With reference to its definition a slightly stiffer response of the material can be expected with
the MCM plasticity model when compared to the MC and DP models.
MCM and MC %ield surfaces in the de#iatoric plane
Angle o) diltion
The ngle o) diltion controls an amount of plastic volumetric strain developed during plastic
shearing and is assumed constant during plastic yielding. The value of q=0 corresponds to the
volume preserving deformation while in shear.
Clays (regardless of overconsolidated layers) are characterized by a very low amount of
dilation (q=0). As for sands, the angle of dilation depends on the angle of internal friction. For
non-cohesive soils (sand, gravel) with the angle of internal friction J>30 the value of dilation
angle can be estimated as q=J-30. A negative value of dilation angle is acceptable only for
rather loose sands. In most cases, however, the assumption of q = 0 can be adopted.
Unlike the modified linear model the nonlinear models require to specify only the elastic
modulus. A drop in the material stiffness is a result of evolution of plastic strains and
corresponding redistribution of stresses. This consequently yields an instantaneous tangent
material stiffness as a function of the current state of stress represented in the figure belowby
- 340 -
an instantaneous tangent modulus E
T
.
&n)luen!e o) ,teril ,odel
To illustrate the effect of a particular model used to predict a structural response we present an
example of a shallow foundation loaded by the distributed loading 8. A certain simplification of
this task is the assumption of an infinitely stiff foundation loaded by the prescribed
displacements.
The geometrical model and finite element mesh for individual tasks appear in the figure. The
influence of soil and foundation self-weight on the resulting response is neglected. Owing to
the symmetry of the model only one half of the structure is analyzed.
Tas- assignmentM strip foundation
Geometrical model and the finite element mesh
,nal%sis results
The results suggest a considerably stiffer response of the soil to the external loading when
using the MCM model in comparison to the DP and MC models, which in the present example
show a similar behavior.
- 341 -
6odi)ied C,<!l3 ,odel (6CC)
The MCC model was originally developed for triaxial loading conditions. Experimental
measurements on soft clays provided the background for the development of the constitutive
model expressing the variation of void ratio e as a function of the logarithm of effective mean
stress H
$
+ff
. The graph consists of a normal consolidation line (NCL) and a set of swelling lines.
On first loading the virgin soil moves down along the NCL. Next, suppose that the soil was
consolidated to a certain level of stress, which is termed the preconsolidation pressure &
c
, and
subsequently unloaded up the current swelling line. Then, upon reloading the soil initially
moves down along the swelling line until reaching the stress state given by the parameter &
c
,
which existed prior to the unloading. At this point the soil begins to move again down the
normal consolidation line (primary loading compression line).
The MCC model further introduces distinction between plastic yielding and ultimate collapse
using the concept of critical state line, which assumes that the soil is found at the critical state
when during continuous loading there is no change in the void ratio (zero increment of
volumetric plastic strain) and effective mean stress. This state is represented by point 3 in the
figure.
5a6 constituti#e model 5b6 pro*ection of the %ield surface into the meridian plane for MCC
The yield surface is smooth without the possibility of evolution of tensile stresses. The MCC
model allows, unlike the first group of models, a direct modeling of strain hardening or
softening for normally consolidated or overconsolidated soils, a nonlinear dependence of the
volumetric strain on the effective mean stress and limit conditions of ideal plasticity. When
using the MCC model the soil loaded in shear can be plastically deformed without collapse
(points 1,2 for hardening, point 2 for softening) until reaching the critical state (points 3 and 2
for hardening and softening, respectively). The soil deforms further in shear under the
assumption of ideal plasticity without the change of + and H
$
+ff
.
The MCC model requires, apart from the self-weight and the Poisson ratio, inputting the
following parameters:
k - swelling coefficient -01%/
A - compression coefficient -01%/
+ - initial void ratio -2/
3 - slope of the critical state line -2/
4CR - overconsolidation ratio -2/
- 342 -
Determination of parameter p
c
The inputted value of the Young modulus of elasticity is not directly used in the program. To
represent an elastic response of the material when using the MCC model this parameter is
substituted by the bulk modulus ( and the shear modulus of elasticity 5. The two parameters
are related as:
where: ( - bulk modulus
5 - shear modulus of elasticity
I - Poissons number
K
o
pro!edure
The use of (
o
procedure yields the following value of the initial mean stress:
where: (
o
- coefficient of earth pressure at rest
N - bulk weight of soil
I - Poissons number
h - current depth below terrain
Assuming normal consolidation the value of &
c
i'
is determined such that the stress derived
using the (
o
procedure fullfils the yield condition. Further details are available in the
theoretical guide. In the case of overconsolidated soils the initial value of &
c
i'
is modified as:
The initial value of the bulk modulus follows from:
If the value of the initial mean stress is less than 1, we assume:
Stndrd nl3sis ssu,ing elsti! response o) the soil
- 343 -
Recall that the program allows for replacing the material model between stages of
construction. Providing the procedure cannot be used it is possible to carry out the analysis
assuming elastic response of the soil. The resulting stresses are used to derive the initial
values of &
c
i'
and (
i'
employing the previously defined expressions. In the next stages of
construction the original elastic material model is replaced by the MCC model.
Stndrd nl3sis ssu,ing plsti! response o) the soil lred3 in the )irst stge o)
!onstru!tion
This option allows the soil to be consolidated under the assumption of nonlinear behavior when
generating the geostatic stress. This results in the evolution of plastic strains already in the
first stage of construction. As in the (
o
procedure we consider a normally consolidated soil
which, during the course of deformation, moves down the normal consolidation line NCL, see
the figure. The initial values of &
c
i'
and (
i'
are again assumed to be given by:
Before the next analysis step the resulting plastic strains are set equal to zero. In some cases
such an analysis may fail to converge.
The parameters k and A can be estimated from:
where: C
c
-one-dimensional compression index
C
s
-one-dimensional swelling index
These parameters follow from a simple oedometric test. It thus remains to specify an
approximate expression for parameter 3. Providing that the triaxial extension experiment is
carried out (assumption consistent with the implemented version of the DP model) the value of
3 is provided by:
and in the case of triaxial compression we get:
where: J
c6
-angle of internal friction at constant volume (the soil is at critical state)
This quantity is given by:
It is clear that for clayey soils when assuming the dilation angle q being equal to 0, the
- 344 -
parameter q
c6
equals the angle of internal friction q. Further information can be found in the
theoretical guide.
Bsi! dt
The following material parameters are required for all material models.
Unit weight the bulk weight of a dry soil (soil above the ground water table, GWT) is
assumed. The bulk weight of a soil below the GWT is calculated from other parameters
introduced in section "Uplift".
6odulus o) elsti!it3 E
The modulus of elasticity describes the material stiffness that is assumed constant over the
entire loading interval. In case of soils this assumption is, however, valid only for a very narrow
interval of recoverable deformations.
A straightforward answer to what definition and what value of this material parameter (initial,
tangent, secant.) one should use in a given material model is, unfortunately, not available. To
select a given type of modulus one needs know the soil .eh+ior in the analyzed geotechnical
task and to assign a particular magnitude the results from a tri'il test for corresponding
stress paths are necessary. Nevertheless, a certain recommendations can be provided.
The following interpretation of Youngs modulus E of elasticity is available:
-instntneous ,odulus E
0
in case of small loads (assumption o linear dependence of strain
and stress) or when instantaneous settlement is calculated
-se!nt ,odulus E
50
is determined for a reference stress equal to 708 of stress at the onset
of failure (used for example when analyzing spread foundations)
-de)or,tion ,odulus E
def
is determined from a loading curve derived experimentally, it is
required when using the modified elastic model (this model assumes different behavior for
loading and unloading) using this modulus when solving the problem of soil unloading (e.g.,
underground structures, heaving of bottom a foundation ditch) leads to larger deformations
than when using the elastic modulus E
u
determined from unloading branch , of the loading
curve an approximate relation is applicable:
-oedo,etri! ,odulus E
oed
which depends on the level of stress in the soil should be used
depending on the expected range of stress in the soil may experience the relation between
E
d+f
and E
o+d
is provided by:
where: I - Poissons number
E
d+
f
- deformation (secant) modulus
-,odulus o) elsti!it3 E
ur
determined from the unloading branch is used when solving the
problem of soil unloading (excavations) must be defined when using the modified elastic
model
The values of modules of elasticity should be determined, if possible, from a triaxial
experiment. If other methods (penetration tests, piesometers, etc.) are used then it becomes
necessary to introduce some correlation coefficients described in literature.
- 345 -
For actual modeling we recommend to perform an elastic analysis first and check the resulting
strain field such strains according to Hookess law are linearly dependent on the applied load
and the used elastic modulus. If the resulting strains (displacements) are already too lrge
the user should ressess the ,gnitude o) the originll3 pplied elsti! ,odulus.
$oisson nu,.er coefficient of transverse contraction is in the case elastic homogeneous
material loaded by normal stress in one direction given by:
where: c
9
- vertical strain
c
*
- horizontal strain
The Poisson number is relatively easy to determine. To select its value one may take
advantage of the built-in soil database. If small loads are assumed and the instantaneous
modulus E
0
is used, then also the value of the Poisson number I
0
determined for the initial
loading should be employed.
Geostti! stress4 upli)t pressure
Stress analysis is based on existence of soil layers specified by the user during input. The
program further inserts fictitious layers at the locations where the stress and lateral pressure
(GWT, points of construction, etc.) change. The normal stress in the i
th
layer is computed
according to:
where: h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
N
i
- unit weight of soil
If the layer is found below the ground wter t.le, the unit weight of soil below the water
table is specified with the help of inputted parameters of the soil as follows:
- for option "Stndrd" from expression:
where: N
s%t
- saturated unit weight of soil
N
:
- unit weight of water
- for option "Co,pute )ro, porosit3" from expression:
where: ' - porosity
N
s
- specific weight of soil
N
:
where: ; - volume of soil
;
&
- volume of voids
- 346 -
N
d
- dry unit weight of soil
Unit weight of water is assumed in the program equal to <1 -4/m
<
or 1011O2B -si.
Assuming inclined ground behind the structure =P = 0> and layered subsoil the angle P, when
computing the coefficient of earth pressure Q, is reduced in the i
th
layer using the following
expression:
where: N - unit weight of the soil in the first layer under ground
N
i
-
unit weight of the soil in the i
th
layer under ground
P - slope inclination behind the structure
1igid .odies
The frame "1igid .odies" contains a table with the list of inputted rigid bodies.
The program allows for adding the rigid bodies. Here the only required input parameter is the
bulk weight of the rigid body. The material of the rigid body is assumed an in)initel3 sti)).
These bodies serve mainly to model massive concrete structures and walls in both standard
and stability analyses.
Adding (editing) rigid bodies is performed in the dialogue window "Add new rigid .od3".
Frame ".igid bod%"
- 347 -
Dialogue window ",dd new rigid bod%"
Assign
The frame "Assign" contains a list of layers of the profile and associated soils. The list of soils
is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or is accessible from a
combo list for each layer of the profile.
The procedure to assign a soil into a layer is described in details herein.
Unlike other programs the soils, which become active in calculations stages, are assigned to
regions rather than to interfaces. The regions are created automatically when creating the
computational model.
When a new soil is assigned in a topology regime, it is automatically assigned to all regions in
a given geological layer.
Frame ",ssign"
- 348 -
Cont!t t3pes
The frame "Cont!t t3pes" contains a table with the list of types of contacts. Adding (editing)
contacts is performed in the "9ew t3pes o) !ont!t" dialogue window.
This dialogue window serves to define new contact elements which can be subsequently
introduced into the program using the "Beams" and "Contacts" frames. The material model of
a contact element can be either linear or nonlinear.
Frame "Contact t%pes"
The !ont!t ele,ents are used in applications that require studying an interaction of a
structure and a soil. They can be further used to model joints or interfaces of two distinct
materials (soil rock interface). A typical example of using contact elements is the ,odeling
o) sheeting stru!tures4 retining wlls or tunnel lining. In such applications the contact
elements are used to model a relatively thin layer of a soil or rock loaded primarily in shear.
Contacts can be defined also independently along indi+idul soil inter)!es.
;ocation of contact elements when modeling a gra#it% wall
The contact element is an element with a zero thickness allowing for calculating an interfacial
stress as a function of a relative displacement developed along the interface.
- 349 -
Construction of a sheeting wall represented b% beam and contact elements
Cont!t ele,ents
Two options of the contact element material model are available. One may select either the
elsti! ,odel with the possibility of plotting contact stresses while assuming the elastic
behavior along the interface or the plsti! ,odel. The plastic model is based on the classical
Mohr-Coulomb model extended by including the tension cut-off.
This model is therefore well suited when modeling tensile separation. In certain applications
such as sheeting structures this model is vital for receiving meaningful predictions of the soil
and structure response.
The basic model parameters are the cohesion c, coefficient of friction and angle of dilation R.
The parameters c and can be specified also indirectly by reducing the soil strength
parameters c and t%'=J> of adjacent to the contact. If the contact is assumed between two soils
(rocks) then the one having smaller values of c and J is used in the reduction step.
The contact parameters are then defined as:
If no better information regarding the reduction of parameters is available one may use the
following values. For steel structures in sandy soils the reduction parameter equal to 2?< is
reasonable while for clays the value of 1?< can be used. These parameters usually attain higher
values when concrete structures are used. In general, the reduction parameters should be less
than 1. The dilation angle plays the same role as in the case of standard soil models. Just
recall that by setting R @ 0 we a priory assume elastic behavior in the tension/compression.
The plastic deformation is thus limited to shear.
Additional parameters of the contact material model are the elastic stiffnesses in the normal
and tangential directions 0
'
and 0
s
, respectively. They can be imagined as spring stiffnesses
along a given interface. A reliable selection of the values of these parameters is not an easy
task and is usually problem dependent. To shed a light on this subject one may relate these
stiffnesses to the material parameters of the soil adjacent to the contact. The following
relations then apply:
- 350 -
where: t -assumed (fictitious) thickness of contact (interface) layer
5 -shear modulus of elasticity
E -Youngs modulus of elasticity
In case of distinct materials =E
1
, E
2
, 5
1
, 5
2
>

we take the lower value of 0
s
and 0
'.
Although in the case of a fully plastic behavior the selection of parameters 0
s
and 0
'
is not
essential, the values assigned to these parameters are decisive for the success of the solution
of a given nonlinear problem. Providing these values are two large (above 100000 0N?$<) the
iteration process may oscillate. On the other hand, setting the values of 0
s
and 0
'
too low
(below 10000
The default setting in the program is 10000 0N?$<.
)isuali$ation of elastic stiffnesses
*ining
The frame "*ining" contains a table with the list of inputted linings. This frame becomes
accessible in the program once the "(unnel" regime is activated in the frame "Analysis
methods". The "Lining - FEM" module simplifies modeling and positioning of individual tunnel
linings.
The "Lining - FEM" module is an independent program used to design linings. Free points, free
lines, line refinement, anchors, beams and beam loads created in this module are passed into
the FEM program. Although behaving in a standard way, they cannot be edited in the FEM
program. Editing is only possible in the "Lining - FEM" module.
Adding (editing) lining is performed in the "Lining - FEM" module. The following modes are
available:
- Add Pressing the "Add" button launches the "Lining - FEM" module which
allows for creating a new lining.
- $osition Pressing the "$osition" button opens the "Adjust lining location" dialogue
window, which allows for modifying coordinates of the lining location. To
adjust lining in the FEM program is possible even without launching the
"Lining - FEM" module.
- 351 -
Dialogue window ",d*ust lining location"
- 6odi)3 Pressing the "6odi)3" button launches the "Lining - FEM" module, which
allows for editing the selected lining
- 1e,o+e Pressing the "1e,o+e" button opens the dialogue window for confirming
this action upon accepting the selected lining is removed
The lining can also be modified, positioned and removed using ,ouse. This imputing mode is
activated by clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "*ining". After choosing
a particular mode the lining is selected on the desctop usig the left mouse button. To continue
follow the steps already described above.
Further details are available in chapter "active objects".
Frame ";ining"
6odule *ining < F56
The "*ining 0 F56" module simplifies modeling and positioning individual linings of tunnels.
The module disposes of the features of the main FEM program including the "(opolog3"
regime and stages of construction. In the "(opolog3" regime the module contains the "Free
points", "Free lines", "Line refinement" and "Settings" frames. Frames accessible from stages
of constructions are described within the stages of construction regime of the FEM program.
The "%:" button can be used to terminate the work in the module and to transmit data into
the FEM program, whereas the "Cn!el" button just terminates the work without data
transmission.
The program makes possible to import data in the *.DXF format.
- 352 -
The data of the lining module can be independently saved or loaded while in this dialogue
using standard functions "%pen" and "S+e". This way allows for transmitted the lining
between several analyzed tasks or within a single task.
Loading a lining, having less number of stages than the current state, will add the remaining
stages. In the case of lining having more stages, the corresponding stages are first added to
the dialogue and than to the main window. The data from the lining regime cannot be loaded
directly into the main window.
Module ";ining FEM"
Free points
The frame "Free points" contains a table with the list of inputted free points. Working with
free points follows the same guidelines as in the FEM program frame "Free points".
The frame differs by the functions on the horizontal tool bar, which contains the "Generator of
shape of lining" and "Generator of anchored regions" buttons. The function of the "1nge"
button is identical to that in the FEM program frame "Interface".
- 353 -
Frame "Free points"
Free lines
The frame "Free lines" contains a table with the list of inputted free points. Working with free
lines follows the same guidelines as in the FEM program frame "Free lines".
The frame differs by the functions on the horizontal tool bar, which contains the "Generator of
shape of lining" and "Generator of anchored regions" buttons.
Frame "Free lines"
- 354 -
*ine re)ine,ent
The frame "*ine re)ine,ent" contains a table with the list of inputted point refinements.
Working with free lines refinement follows the same guidelines as in the FEM program frame
"Line refinement".
Frame ";ine refinement"
Settings
The frame "Settings" allows for redefining the location of a point to be subsequently
positioned in the main window of the FEM program. The point location can be associated with
the selected free point or determined by the coordinate system origin or by an arbitrary
coordinate. This way allows for an exact positioning of a given point of the lining structure in
the main window of the FEM program.
The use of a second tube can be activated in the right part of the frame. The second tube will
appear in the frame "Settings" as a preview, and then after treansmitting it into the FEM
program. The second tube is a clone of the first one. It differs only in the positionong with
respect to the originally defined structure.
- 355 -
Frame "ettings"
Genertor o) shpe o) lining
Depending on particular parameters the generator creates corresponding elements which are
then operated on independently with no possibility for being parametrically modification. If the
parameters of generation are acceptable, the program displays during their modification the
current graphical representation of generated elements.
Six basic shapes of linings is available for generating free points and free lines in the "9ew
shpe o) lining" dialogue window. Each shape is defined by several parameters (radii, angles,
height, spacing, sunbdivision number, comtrol points).
Dialogue window "4ew shape of lining" & tab sheet "7asic shape"
The "Botto, r!h" tab sheep allows us to choose, whether the lining invert will be flat of
- 356 -
arched, determined parametrically either by a radius or an angle.
Dialogue window "4ew shape of lining" & tab sheet "7ottom arch"
The "*o!tion" tab sheet allows, using coordinates, for changing the lining location.
Dialogue window "4ew shape of lining" & tab sheet ";ocation"
Genertor o) n!hored regions
The "9ew n!hored region" dialogue window serves to generate free points and free lines
based, however, on already inputted lines. This generates a closed region, which is then
assigned in the FEM program a special soil characterizing a densely anchored region. The
- 357 -
dialogue window requires specifying a line number and parameters based on the type
anchoring system (over entire line, angle sector, origin and length).
Dialogue window "4ew anchored region"
Defining anchored region
FJ2e .udo+JnK
Stages of construction in the "*ining < F56" module and in the FEM program correspond to
each other. They, however, may vary in several features.
Different behavior of stages in the "*ining < F56" module:
- Possible to switch to stages of construction from the "Topology" regime without generating
the FE mesh
- Stages of construction added in the "*ining < F56" module are, after confirming,
transferred also into the FEM program.
- Stages of construction, preceding the stage from which the "*ining < F56" module was
- 358 -
launched, cannot be used.
- Stages of construction defined prior to lanching the "*ining < F56" module cannot be
deleted.
Free points
The frame "Free points" contains a table with the list of inputted free points. Adding (editing)
free points is performed in the "9ew )ree point" dialogue window.
The free points can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by
clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Free points". The following modes are
available:
- Add The point is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a
desired location on the desktop.
- Ad;ust Clicking the left mouse button on already existing free point opens
the "Ad;ust )ree point properties" dialogue window, which allows
for modifying its parameters.
- 1e,o+e Clicking the left mouse button on already existing free point opens
the )ree point re,o+l dialogue window accepting this action
removes the selected free point.
The free points can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
The program allows for inputting an arbitrary number of free nodes anywhere inside or outside
the structure. Free nodes have several main functions:
< nodes to de)ine stru!ture (tunnel opening, lining, sheeting, beams)
< u'ilir3 points for the mesh refinement
< points to de)ine .oundr3 !ondition, to input forces, etc.
If a free node is found inside or on the boundary of a structure, it becomes uto,ti!ll3
prt o) the )inite ele,ent ,esh. This option allows an adjustment of the finite element
mesh or makes possible to create own mesh.
Frame "Free points"
- 359 -
Mesh generated without free points
Mesh with free points
Free lines
The frame "Free lines" contains a table with the list of inputted free points. Adding (editing)
free points is performed in the "9ew )ree line" dialogue window.
The lines are defined .etween indi+idul points (segments, arcs, circles) or around
individual points (circles). The lines can be introduced both between free points and between
points located on interfaces including the terrain surface.
The lines may interse!t e!h other nd ,3 h+e n r.itrr3 nu,.er o) !ont!t
- 360 -
points intersections of individual lines are determined by the program when adjusting the
geometrical model. The free lines may be used to introdu!e .e, ele,ents into the model.
The free points can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by
clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Free points". The following modes are
available:
- Add The line is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a desired location on
the desktop.
- *ine t3pe A combo list is used to select the desired line (segment, arc, circle).
- seg,ent Clicking individual points on the desktop with the left mouse
button creates a point to point line
- r! Use the combo list to choose a particular mode of defining an arc
segment (third point, center, radius, height). Clicking the left
mouse bottom on the desktop then selects points to define an
arc. When selecting one of the following options center, radius
or, you are further requested to select from the combo list the
orientation (positive, negative).
- !ir!le Use the combo list to choose a particular mode of defining a circle
(center and radius, three points). Clicking the left mouse button
on the desktop then selects points to define a circle. The combo
list is also used to select the orientation (positive, negative).
- Ad;ust Clicking the left mouse button on already existing free line opens the "Ad;ust
)ree line properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its
parameters.
- 1e,o+e Clicking the left mouse button on already existing free line opens the )ree line
re,o+l dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected free
line.
The free lines can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
Frame "Free lines" & different t%pes of free lines
$oint re)ine,ent
The frame "$oint re)ine,ent" contains a table with the list of inputted point refinements.
- 361 -
Adding (editing) a point refinement is performed in the "9ew point re)ine,ent" dialogue
window.
1e)ining the )inite ele,ent ,esh round points is an important feature, which allows us
to create an appropriate finite element mesh. Both free points and points pertinent to
individual interfaces including terrain can be used to refine the original finite element mesh.
Refining the finite element mesh around points can also be performed using the ,ouse.
Several input modes are available depending on the selected button on the "$oint
re)ine,ent" horizontal bar:
- Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop selects the point for refining
the mesh. The "9ew point re)ine,ent" dialogue window serves to input
the required parameters.
- Ad;ust Clicking the left mouse button on already existing (refined) point opens the
"Ad;ust point re)ine,ent properties" dialogue window, which allows for
modifying individual parameters of the refinement.
- 1e,o+e Clicking the left mouse button on already existing (refined) point opens the
point re)ine,ent re,o+l dialogue window accepting this action
removes the selected point refinement.
The point refinement can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
Frame "!oint refinement"
Dialogue window "4ew point refinement"
- 362 -
*ine re)ine,ent
The frame "*ine re)ine,ent" contains a table with the list of inputted point refinements.
Adding (editing) a line refinement is performed in the "9ew line re)ine,ent" dialogue
window.
1e)ining the )inite ele,ent ,esh round lines is an important feature, which allows us to
create an appropriate finite element mesh. Both free lines and lines pertinent to individual
interfaces including terrain can be used to refine the original finite element mesh.
Refining the finite element mesh around points can also be performed using the ,ouse.
Several input modes are available depending on the selected button on the "*ine re)ine,ent"
horizontal bar:
- Add Clicking the left mouse button on the desktop selects the line for refining
the mesh. The "9ew line re)ine,ent" dialogue window serves to input
the required parameters.
- Ad;ust Clicking the left mouse button on already existing (refined) line opens the
"Ad;ust line re)ine,ent properties" dialogue window, which allows for
modifying individual parameters of the refinement.
- 1e,o+e Clicking the left mouse button on already existing (refined) line opens the
line re)ine,ent re,o+l dialogue window accepting this action
removes the selected line refinement.
The line refinement can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
Frame ";ine refinement"
- 363 -
Dialogue window "4ew line refinement"
6esh genertion
The frame "6esh genertor" serves to define the basic setting to generate mesh (left part)
and to view information about generated mesh (right part).
A su!!ess)ull3 generted ,esh completes the topology input stage the analysis then
proceeds with the calculation stages. When generating mesh the program automatically
introduces standard boundary conditions. Information about the resulting mesh including
warnings for possible weak points in the mesh is displayed in the right bottom window.
Correctly generated finite element mesh is the major step in achieving accurate and reliable
results. The program GEO FEM has an automatic mesh generator, which may substantially
simplify this task. Nevertheless, !ertin rules should .e )ollowed when creating a finite
element mesh:
- The basic mesh density can be specified in the "6esh genertor" dialog window. I is
generally accepted that the finer the mesh the better the results computation as well as
post-processing, however, may slow down substantially. The goal thus becomes to find an
optimum mesh density this mainly depends on the user experiences. Meshes generated in
example problems may serve as an initial hint.
,
Frame "Mesh generation" & a mesh with no local refinement
- 364 -
- The finite element mesh should be sufficiently fine in locations in which large stress
gradients are expected (point supports, corners, openings, etc.). To that end, it is possible
to specify the mesh refinement in the neighborhood of these locations. The mesh refinement
can be specified around individual points or lines. The spread of refinement should be at
least 3-5 times the desired refinement in the center of the refinement. Also, both values
(density and spread of refinement) should be reasonable in view of the prescribed mesh
density that applies to the surrounding region. This assures a smooth transition between
regions with different mesh densities. Singular lines should be tackled in the same way. For
more complicated problems it is useful to first carry out the analysis with a rather coarse
mesh and then after examining the results to refine the mesh accordingly.
Defining mesh refinement around a circular line
4ew mesh after refining the original mesh around a circular line
By default program assumes L<node tringulr ele,ents with mesh smoothing. The
accuracy of the results more or less corresponds to twice as fine mesh composed of 3-node
triangular elements. The 3-node elements are available only in the "Extended setting" mode
(check box "L<node ele,ents") and serve merely for research and testing purposes. The
stability analysis, however, can be performed with 6-node triangular elements only. In case of
nonlinear analysis, these elements should be used exclusively.
- 365 -
6esh genertor wrning
In the "-rning 0 stru!ture !riti!l lo!tions dialog window the user is prompted for
possible locations on the structure that may cause problems during automatic mesh
generation. When positioning the cursor on individual warnings the corresponding critical
region on a structure is highlighted with a red color. The following items are checked:
-whether the distance between two points is greater than one tenth of the required element
edge length
-whether the distance between a point and a line is greater than one tenth of the element edge
length
-whether the area of a region is greater than twice the element edge length
-whether points and/or lines are found inside the structure (in the soil)
These warnings suggest locations, in which the mesh generator experience problems. The
following possibilities may occur:
-the mesh is not generated => this calls for a new input of geometrical data
-the mesh is generated => in this case it is up to the user to decide whether the mesh is
reasonable in any case, the warning can be further ignored and the analysis can be carried
out
'arning after identif%ing critical sections in FE mesh
- 366 -
Critical section after $ooming in & two points are too close to each other
Ad;usting originl geo,etr3
The program contains a build in uto,ti! !orre!tor o) the spe!i)ied geo,etr3. This
means that prior to the mesh generation the program automatically locates all points of
intersection of lines, locates all closed regions and creates a corresponding geometrical
(calculation) model.
Such new regions can be then deactivated or they can be assigned a new soil. The main
advantage of this system becomes evident when creating a geometrical model for tunnels
(step by step excavation) or for sheeted structures. Creating even a very complicated model
thus becomes rather simple and can be performed very efficiently.
Correcting the original geometrical model may cause some points in the model to be too close
to each other or too small regions might be created. Warning message then appears in the
right bottom window identifying such week points in the model.
- 367 -
.egions after performing an automatic ad*ustment of the geometrical model
Stndrd .oundr3 !onditions
The program automatically generates standard boundary conditions. Therefore, in routine
pro.le,s the user does not h+e to enter the step o) spe!i)3ing supports.
The standard boundary conditions are:
- smooth pin along the bottom edge of the geometrical model
- Sliding pin along vertical edges of the geometrical model
tandard boundar% conditions
- 368 -
Constru!tion stges
The actual analysis is performed in individual stages of construction (calculation stages) after
the geometrical model and generating the finite element mesh (topology stage). One can move
between calculation stages and the "(opolog3" regime using the buttons on the horizontal
tool bar.
Tool bar "Construction stages" & switching between "Topolog%" regime and other stages of
constructions
The calculation stages serve to model gradually build structures. Their correct definition and
proper sequence is very important. The analysis of each stage builds (except for the stability
analysis) upon the results deri+ed in the pre+ious stge. Information about individual
objects and their properties are carried over from one stage to the other when editing an
existing stage or creating a new stage the program applies the principle of heredity.
Some frames ("-ter", "A!ti+it3", "Assign") contain at the right part of the bar the "Adopt"
button. The button becomes active once the data defined in the frame differ from those
defined in the previous stage. After pressing this button the corresponding data ("-ter",
"A!ti+it3") are adopted from the previous stage.
Changing input data & accepting data from the pre#ious stage of construction
The first stage of construction (!l!ultion o) geostti! stress) represents the initial state of
the soil (rock) body before the onset of construction displacements associated with this stage
are therefore set equal to zero.
Loss of convergence may occur for a certain stage of construction. If this is the case (the
results are not available for non-converged structure) the subsequent stages cannot be
analyzed. To avoid modeling errors we recommend the user to follow the proposed approach to
the modeling and analysis of a structure.
A!ti+it3
The program allows for re,o+ing (de!ti+ting) soils from individual regions. As an
example we consider an embankment analysis. In such a case, it must be accounted for
already in the topology regime when creating the overall geometrical model. In the <
st
calculation stage, however, it can be deactivated. Similar approach applies also to underground
or open excavations (tunnels, sheeting structures). When deactivating a region below the
ground water it is necessary to correctly model the region boundary.
- 369 -
Modeling emban-ment & <
st
calculation stage
The embankment can be subsequently reactivated in the next calculation stage.
Modeling emban-ment & acti#it% of emban-ment bod%
A!ti+it3 o) regions .elow G-(
There are two cases to be considered when deactivating a region below the GWT.
1) The soil subjected to excavation is !o,pletel3 en!losed .3 !ti+e .e, ele,ents. The
beam is then considered to be impermeable and both the soil and water are removed
(removing total stresses in!ti+e region is )ree o) wter). Owing to impermeability of the
beam elements, the pore pressure distribution remains unchanged, see the figure.
- 370 -
!ore pressure distribution after remo#ing soil from region enclosed b% acti#e beams
2) The removed soil is not en!losed .3 .e, ele,ents. In such case we assume that water
in the excavated region is still !ti+e. This state is evident from the pore pressure distribution
in the figure.
!ore pressure distribution after remo#ing soil
Its effect can be removed by !hnging the ground wter t.le.
!ore pressure distribution after modif%ing the ground water table
Assign
The frame "Assign" contains a list of layers of the profile and associated soils. Its functions are
similar to the case of assigning soils in the topology regime.
In calculations stages, the active soils are assigned to regions rather than to interfaces. The
regions are created automatically when creating the computational model.
- 371 -
Frame ",ssign"
*ining
The frame "*ining" contains a table with the list of inputted linings. This frame becomes
accessible in the program once the "(unnel" regime is activated in the frame "Analysis
methods".
To adjust the lining the program launches the module "Lining - FEM". Its function is described
in detail in the "(opolog3" regime. In stages of construction the "Lining - FEM" module
contains the "Beams", "Anchors" and "Beam loads" frames.
Frame ";ining"
- 372 -
Be,s
The frame "Be,s" contains a table with the list of inputted beams. Actions applying to beams
are identical to those used in stages of construction in the FEM program, frame "Beams".
Types of contacts to introduce contacts on beams are adopted from the FEM program.
Frame "7eams"
An!hors
The frame "An!hors" contains a table with the list of inputted anchors. Actions applying to
beams are identical to those used in stages of construction in the FEM program, frame
"Anchors".
The frame differs by the function on the horizontal tool bar having the "Generator of anchors
on free line" button.
- 373 -
Frame ",nchors"
Be, lods
The frame "Be, lods" contains a table with the list of inputted loads. Actions applying to
beam loads are identical to those used in stages of construction in the FEM program, frame
"Beam loads".
Frame "7eam loads"
Genertor o) n!hors on )ree line
- 374 -
The "9ew n!hors" dialogue window is an extension of the standard dialogue window
allowing for a uniform distribution of several identical anchors along a line. Spacing of anchors
is generated the same way as used in the generator of anchored regions (over the entire line,
over a part defined by the angle or length). There are three options to generate the number of
anchors: by the number over a length, by the angle or spacing between individual anchors.
The generated anchors are attached in the FEM program to the free line defined therein.
Dialogue window "4ew anchors"
Be,s
The frame "Be,s" contains a table with the list of beams. Adding (editing) beams is
performed in the "9ew Be,s" ("Ad;ust .e, properties") dialogue window.
Beams can also be introduced using ,ouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an
appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Be,s". The following modes are available:
- Add The beam is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a desired
location on the desktop.
- Ad;ust Clicking the left mouse button on already existing free point opens the
"Ad;ust .e, properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying
its parameters.
- 1e,o+e Clicking the left mouse button on already existing beam opens the .e,
re,o+l dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected
- 375 -
beam.
- *o!tion The beam location is selected from the combo box (mesh line, terrain
segment).
The inputted beams can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The
program employs the following coordinate systems.
The .e, ele,ents serve to model .e,s4 linings, sheeting wlls, etc. 8istri.ution
internl )or!es such as moment, normal and shear forces developed along a beam axis can
are derived from the beam element end forces.
Beams are assigned to already defined lines ()ree lines4 terrin seg,ents) the
corresponding line then represents the .e, 'is. The program offers several basic types of
cross-sections. Nevertheless, the user is free to introduce the required cross-section
independently.
An important step when modeling beams is the definition of !ont!t ele,ents characterizing
the interface behavior between the beam and the soil. Contact (interface) elements can be
assigned to .oth sides o) .e,. A correct definition of contacts is essential especially when
modeling sheeting walls.
Types of end points connections can be specified for each beam.
In subsequent stages the beam can be either strengthened or degraged.
The program automatically includes the .e, sel)<weight into the analysis. This feature,
however, can be turned off when defining the beam.
Beams are modeled using the .e, ele,ents with three degrees of freedom at each node.
The beam elements are formulated on the basis of the Mindlin theory. The theory assumes that
the plane cross-section normal to the beam axis before deformation remains plane after
deformation but not necessarily normal to the deformed beam axis. At present, the internal
forces are evaluated at the element nodes and from the beam end forces.
Dialogue window "4ew beams"
- 376 -
Frame "7eams"
(3pes o) !ross<se!tion
The program allows the user to either input the !ross<se!tion pr,eters digitll3 or to
choose from one of the predefined types of the cross-section. The type of material of the
cross-section is selected from the catalogue of materials or is introduced digitally using the
editor of materials. The following types of the beam cross-section are implemented:
- re!tngulr !on!rete wll a beam wall thickness must be specified
- pile wll a pile diameter and their spacing must be specified
- steel sheet pile selected from the built-in database
- steel & !ross<se!tion a type of cross-section from the built-in database is selected, their
spacing must be specified (the type of cross-section is selected from the "Catalogue of
cross-sections", or is defined in the "Editor of cross-sections", the type of material is
selected from the "Catalogue of materials" or is specified digitally in the "Editor of
materials")
All inputted cross-sections re uto,ti!ll3 re!l!ulted per 1, ()eet) run. (he results
o) internl )or!es de+eloped long the .e,s re lso presented per 1, ()eet) run o)
stru!ture. Thus if necessary, for piles or I cross-sections they must be adjusted depending
on their spacing by the user.
Providing you have your own database of sheet piles, which is not yet built in the program,
we will be happy to implement it. You may reach us at hotline@fine.cz.
- 377 -
Dialogue window "4ew beams" & selection of the t%pe of cross-section
Be, end<points !onne!tion
The program allows for three types of beam end-points connection:
)i'ed standard type
hinge (is used to introduce an internal hinge in between beams
locations with zero bending moment)
)oot
(he )oot is spe!il t3pe of a beam end-point support in the soil. It is applicable for the
.e, end<point lo!ted in the soil .od3. When the fixed type of connection is assumed the
beam and the soil element are connected at one point (a singular connection) often causing
evolution of plastic strains in the surrounding soil and loss of convergence. (he )oot llows
)or ,ore relisti! redistri.ution o) !ont!t stresses and prevents the beam from
"penetrating" into the soil, consequently stabilizing the convergence process. B3 de)ult the
)oot length is assumed to be equal to the beam width it can be arbitrarily adjusted (for
example to enlarge the pile heel).
Connection 5a6 without 5b6 with a foot
8egrdtion nd strengthening o) .e,s
In subsequent stages the inputted beams cannot be edited in a standard way. Therefore, one
- 378 -
of the following options must be selected to modify them:
- removing the selected beam from the analysis
- degrading the selected beam (applicable only in the "Tunnels" regime)
- strengthening the selected beam cross-section
- modifying the beam contact properties
The type of modification is selected from the "Ad;ust .e, properties" dialogue window.
A degree of .e, degrdtion is specified in percentage, one hundred percent corresponds
to beam removal.
Strengthening .e, ele,ent with a rectangular cross-section can be achieved by
enlarging its width (e.g., increasing the shotcrete thickness). Other cross-sections are modified
by directly inputting new (larger) values of the cross-section parameters.
Dialogue window ",d*ust beam properties" & beam strengthening
Ctlogue o) !ross<se!tions
In the case of steel cross-sections the program allows for choosing a particular cross-section
from the catalogue of cross-sections. Only the type of cross-section has to be specified in the
dialogue window. The type of material of the cross-section is selected similarly to other cross-
sections (rectangular wall, pile wall, sheet pile.) from the "Catalogue of materials", or defined
in the "Editor of materials". The type of cross-section (beam) is selected in the "New beams"
dialogue window.
- 379 -
Dialogue window "Catalogue of cross-sections"
5ditor o) !ross<se!tions
In the case of steel cross-section the program allows for introducing the user defined cross-
section. Only the shape of cross-section has to be specified in the dialogue window. The type
of material of the cross-section is selected similarly to other cross-sections (rectangular wall,
pile wall, sheet pile.) from the "Catalogue of materials", or defined in the "Editor of materials".
The type of cross-section (beam) is selected in the "New beams" dialogue window.
Dialogue window "Editor of cross-section & solid welded"
Ctlogue o) ,terils
The program contains a built-in catalogue of materials for concrete and steel. Only the type of
material is has to be specified in the dialogue window. The shape of cross-section is selected
from the "Catalogue of cross-sections", or defined in the "Editor of cross-sections". For other
types of cross-sections (rectangular wall, pile wall, sheet pile.) the type of cross-section is
selected in the "New beams" dialogue window.
- 380 -
Dialogue window "Catalogue of materials" & steel
Dialogue window "Catalogue of materials" & concrete
5ditor o) ,terils
Apart from using the "Catalogue of materials" the program allows the user to enter the
material parameters for steel and concrete digitally. Only the type of material (material
parameters) has to be specified in the dialogue window. The shape of cross-section is selected
from the "Catalogue of cross-sections", or defined in the "Editor of cross-sections". For other
types of cross-sections (rectangular wall, pile wall, sheet pile.) the type of cross-section is
selected in the "New beams" dialogue window.
- 381 -
Dialogue window "Editor of materials & tructural steel"
Dialogue window "Editor of materials & Concrete"
Cont!ts
The frame "Cont!ts" contains a table with the list of contacts. Adding (editing) contacts is
performed in the "9ew Cont!ts" dialogue window.
The !ont!t ele,ents are used in applications that require a proper representation of
structure-soil interaction. They can be further used to model joints or interfaces of two distinct
materials (soil rock interface). Contacts are assigned to already defined lines free lines or
mesh lines (interfaces). The contact is defined by its type.
Contacts can also be introduced using ,ouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an
appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Cont!ts". The following modes are available:
- Add The contact is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a desired
- Ad;ust Clicking the left mouse button on already existing contact opens the
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"Ad;ust !ont!ts properties" dialogue window, which allows for
modifying its parameters.
- 1e,o+e Clicking the left mouse button on already existing contact opens the
!ont!t re,o+l dialogue window accepting this action removes the
selected contact.
- *o!tion The contact location is selected from the combo box (mesh line, terrain
segment).
The inputted contacts can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
Frame "Contacts"
$oint supports
The frame "$oint supports" contains a table with the list of point supports. Adding (editing)
point supports is performed in the "9ew point supports" dialogue window.
Point supports can also be introduced using ,ouse. This imputing mode is activated by
clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "$oint supports". The following
- Add The point support is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a
desired location on the desktop. The required parameters are introduced in
the "9ew point supports" dialogue window.
- Ad;ust Clicking the left mouse button on already existing point support opens the
"Ad;ust point supports properties" dialogue window, which allows for
- 1e,o+e Clicking the left mouse button on already existing point support opens the
point support re,o+l dialogue window accepting this action removes
the selected point support.
The inputted point supports can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
The program employs the following coordinate systems.
The program contains a built-in automatic generator of standard boundary conditions.
Therefore, in most problems the .oundr3 (support) !onditions re not reDuired to .e
spe!i)ied.
- 383 -
(he )ollowing t3pes o) point supports are considered:
- free
- fixed
- spring
- prescribed deformation
Supports are defined in the glo.l !oordinte s3ste,.
Frame "!oint supports"
*ine Supports
The frame "*ine supports" contains a table with the list of line supports. Adding (editing) line
supports is performed in the "9ew line supports" dialogue window.
Line supports can also be introduced using ,ouse. This imputing mode is activated by
clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "*ine supports". The following modes
are available:
- Add The line support is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a
desired location on the desktop. The required parameters are introduced in
the "9ew line supports" dialogue window.
- Ad;ust Clicking the left mouse button on already existing line support opens the
"Ad;ust line supports properties" dialogue window, which allows for
- 1e,o+e Clicking the left mouse button on already existing line support opens the
line support re,o+l dialogue window accepting this action removes
the selected line support.
- *o!tion The line support location is selected from the combo box (free line, terrain
segment, mesh line).
The inputted line supports can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
The program contains a built-in automatic generator of standard boundary conditions.
Therefore, in most problems the .oundr3 !onditions re not reDuired to .e spe!i)ied.
- 384 -
When assigning supports to a line it is first necessary to select the type of line ()ree line4
inter)!e4 ,esh line).
(he )ollowing t3pes o) line supports are considered:
- free
- fixed
- spring
- prescribed deformation
Frame ";ine supports"
An!hors
The frame "An!hors" contains a table with the list of anchors. Adding (editing) anchors is
performed in the "9ew n!hors" dialogue window ("Ad;ust n!hor properties").
Anchors can also be introduced using ,ouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an
appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "An!hors". The following modes are available:
- Add By clicking the left mouse button on the desktop we define the starting
and the end point of an anchor. Exploiting the function of grid may simplify
this step. The starting point is hooked to the ground and its coordinates
are rounded up to two significant digits using mouse or keyboard is
therefore identical.
- Ad;ust Clicking the left mouse button on already existing anchor opens the
"Ad;ust n!hor properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying
its parameters.
- 1e,o+e Clicking the left mouse button on already existing anchor opens the
n!hor re,o+l dialogue window accepting this action removes the
selected anchor.
The inputted anchors can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The
The anchor head (starting point) can be uto,ti!ll3 hoo"ed to the ground, an arbitrary
interface or opening (tunnel lining). The anchor head is then automatically positioned in to the
intersection of the anchor line determined by the inputted points and the selected line. The
- 385 -
anchor can also be introduced directly by specifying coordinates of the two end points.
Anchors as stabilizing or reinforcing elements are represented by elsti! tensile<
!o,pressi+e .r ele,ent with constant normal stiffness. The maximum allowable tensile
force the element can sustain controls tensile failure of the anchor. The bar element is
anchored into the soil only at its staring and end points. No mutual interaction between the soil
and the anchor along the anchor length is considered.
Anchors are defined by their starting and end points and by their stiffness. The program
automatically links the anchor element degrees of freedom to the actual degrees of freedom of
the predefined finite element mesh. Therefore, the anchor can be introduced n3where in the
stru!ture.
The n!hor sti))ness is specified in terms of the elastic modulus and its area. The program
makes also possible to enter the anchor diameter the area is then determined automatically.
In stability analysis problems the anchor stiffness is not considered. Its action is realized only
through the pres-stress force introduced automatically as external compressive force acting at
the anchor head..
Other important parameters are the pre<stress )or!e and the tensile strength (the anchor
breaks when the tensile strength is exceeded). For elements with no pre-stress the pre-stress
force is set equal to zero. Sufficiently large value of the anchor tensile strength may be
specified to avoid anchor failure.
By default the anchor does not support !o,pressi+e )or!e anchor elements loaded in
compression during a certain stage of calculation are temporarily disabled. If tension occurs in
subsequent analysis run (due to change in loading, geometry or material parameters of soil),
the program automatically introduces these elements back into the analysis. The program
makes also possible to include compressive response of an anchor. However, for elements
loaded primarily in compression we recommend to define these elements as props.
The anchor deforms during analysis. Such deformation together with the deformation of the
surrounding soil may cause redu!tion o) the spe!i)ied pre<stress )or!e in the anchor.
Providing we wish to achieve a specific pres-stress force in the anchor, it is necessary to either
post-stress the anchor to a given value in the next calculation stage or to use a sufficiently
large magnitude of the pre-stress force right from the beginning to compensate for a possible
drop (the resulting anchor force after completion of the calculation step is displayed at the
anchor head below the prescribed pres-stress force).
In subsequent stages the program allows only for anchor post-stressing - change of the initial
pre-stress force, or for removing the anchor from the analysis.
Introducing pre-stressed anchors into the soil may lead to plastic deformation of the soil in the
vicinity of the anchor head or root. Some modifications of the original input are than required
to avoid often encountered loss of converge.
- 386 -
,nchor input
An!hor end points
Introducing pre-stressed anchors into the soil may lead to plsti! de)or,tion of the soil in
the vicinity of the anchor head or root the analysis then often fails to converge.
In such a case we recommend the following modifications of the original input:
- to place a .e, ele,ent under the anchor head (this results into a better transition of
load into the soil)
- to place the anchor root into a su))i!ientl3 sti)) soil (use the elastic or modified elastic
material model for the soil layer around the anchor)
- 387 -
!lastic regions in the #icinit% of anchor head or root
An!hors in the st.ilit3 nl3sis
When performing the st.ilit3 nl3sis the actual pre-stressed anchor is automatically
replaced by corresponding !o,pressi+e point )or!es acting at the anchor head.
The soil at the point of the applied force may, however, undergo plastic deformation. One
should therefore carefully assess the resulting distribution of plastic strains. Note that the
localization of equivalent plastic strain identifies the location of the potential slip surface.
Therefore, if the plastic strains at the anchor head become decisive, it is necessary to
introduce some modifications of the original input.
Modeling anchor in the slope stabilit% anal%sis
- 388 -
$rops
The frame "$rops" contains a table with the list of anchors. Adding (editing) props is
performed in the "9ew props" dialogue window ("Ad;ust prop properties").
Props can also be introduced using ,ouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking an
appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "$rops". The following modes are available:
and the end point of a prop. Exploiting the function of grid may simplify
this step.
- Ad;ust Clicking the left mouse button on already existing prop opens the "Ad;ust
prop properties" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its
parameters.
- 1e,o+e Clicking the left mouse button on already existing prop opens the prop
re,o+l dialogue window accepting this action removes the selected
prop.
The inputted props can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The
The prop end points can be uto,ti!ll3 hoo"ed to the ground, an arbitrary interface or
opening (tunnel lining). These points are then automatically positioned in to the intersections
of the prop line determined by the inputted points and the selected lines. The prop can also be
introduced directly by specifying coordinates of the two end points.
Props are represented by elsti! !o,pressi+e .r ele,ent with constant normal stiffness.
The props can sustain only compressive loading. When found in tension they are removed from
the analysis.
The prop is linked to the finite element mesh in its two end points. No interaction is considered
between the soil and the prop along its length when places into the soil.
Props are defined by their starting and end points and by their stiffness. The program
uto,ti!ll3 links the prop ele,ent degrees of freedom to the actual degrees of freedom
of the predefined finite element mesh. Therefore, the prop can be introduced anywhere in the
structure.
The prop sti))ness is specified in terms of the elastic modulus and its area. The program
makes also possible to enter the prop diameter the area is then determined automatically.
In subsequent stages the prop cannot be edited it can be either removed or inputted again.
!rop input
- 389 -
Frame "!rops"
1ein)or!e,ents
The frame "1ein)or!e,ents" contains a table with the list of reinforcements. Adding (editing)
reinforcements is performed in the "9ew rein)or!e,ents" dialogue window ("6odi)3
rein)or!e,ent pr,eters").
Reinforcements can also be introduced using ,ouse. This imputing mode is activated by
clicking an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "1ein)or!e,ents". The following
and the end point of a reinforcement. Exploiting the function of grid may
simplify this step.
- Ad;ust Clicking the left mouse button on already existing reinforcement opens the
"6odi)3 rein)or!e,ent pr,eters" dialogue window, which allows for
- 1e,o+e Clicking the left mouse button on already existing reinforcement opens the
rein)or!e,ent re,o+l dialogue window accepting this action removes
the selected reinforcement.
The inputted reinforcements can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
The reinforcement end points can be uto,ti!ll3 hoo"ed to the ground, an arbitrary
interface or opening (tunnel lining). These points are then automatically positioned in to the
intersections of the prop line determined by the inputted points and the selected lines. The
reinforcement can also be introduced directly by specifying coordinates of the two end points.
Reinforcements are tensile rein)or!ing ele,ents (geotextiles, geodrids), which are defined
by their starting and end points and their stiffness.
Unlike anchors or props, the reinforcement is lin"ed to an underlying finite element mesh
long its entire length. However, similar to anchors the program introduces the
reinforcement end points into the finite element mesh automatically so the reinforcement can
be specified anywhere within the mesh. Similar to anchors the reinforcement is modeled by a
tensile/compressive bar element with the possibility of trns,itting onl3 nor,l )or!e.
Owing to its geometrical characteristics, the reinforcement calls for the input of the !ross<
- 390 -
se!tionl sti))ness t"en per 1, ()oot) run o) its width. The user should contact the
manufacturer for this information.
In subsequent stages the reinforcement cannot be edited it can be only removed.
.einforcement input
The program allows us to consider the reinforcement also in compression by default however,
the prt o) rein)or!e,ent )ound in !o,pression is dis.led for the analysis. This state is
simulated in the figure showing the distribution of normal tensile forces over active parts of
individual reinforcements. The compressive part of the reinforcement is te,porril3
e'!luded from the analysis. Similar to anchors, however, it can be automatically activated
once loaded again in tension.
Tensile stress in reinforcements
- 391 -
An!horing geo<rein)or!e,ents
When introducing the reinforcement into the soil body it is necessary to keep in mind a
su))i!ient n!horge o) the rein)or!e,ent since the program does not !he!" the
rein)or!e,ent ginst the sher )ilure. A sudden increase of the normal force as shown
in the figure suggests singularity in contact stresses and probable shear failure of the
reinforcement. From that point of view the displayed results are misleading and essentially
unrealistic.
In such a case, the reinforcement should be either removed from the analysis or ensure its
su))i!ient n!horge as plotted in the figure.
,
+nsufficientl% anchored reinforcement
Correctl% anchored reinforcement
- 392 -
Sur!hrges
The frame "Sur!hrges" contains a table with the list of surcharges. Adding (editing)
surcharges is performed in the "9ew sur!hrges" dialogue window ("Ad;ust sur!hrge
properties"). The inputted surcharges can also be edited on the desktop with the help of
active objects. The program employs the following coordinate systems.
All inputted parameters of the surcharge can be modified in the stage of construction, in which
the surcharge was introduced. In subsequent stages it is only possible to modify its magnitude
(option "Ad;ust ,gnitude").
This frame serves to introduce sur!hrges pplied onl3 to the soil .od3. The surcharge
applied to a beam element is introduced in the frame beam load.
An arbitrary number of surcharges can be specified in individual stages. The surcharge may act
either on the e'isting inter)!e (including ground surface) or can be applied n3where in
the soil .od3.
In subsequent stages we are free to either remove the inputted surcharge or to ,odi)3 its
,gnitude.
Note that applying the surcharge directly on the ground surface may lead to e'!essi+e
plsti! de)or,tions in the vicinity of the surcharge and the analysis may fail to converge.
In such a case, one may either place a .e, ele,ent under the applied surcharge, or to
choose an elsti! or modified elastic material model for the soil below the surcharge.
Frame "urcharge"
- 393 -
t
Dialogue window "4ew surcharges"
Be, lods
The frame "Be, lods" contains a table with the list of loads. Adding (editing) beam loads is
performed in the "9ew .e, lods" dialogue window.
Beam loads can also be introduced using ,ouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking
an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Be, lods". The following modes are
available:
- Add By clicking the left mouse button on the selected beam. The load
parameters are entered in the "9ew .e, lods" dialogue window.
- Ad;ust Clicking the left mouse button on already existing beam opens the "Ad;ust
.e, lods" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its parameters.
- 1e,o+e Clicking the left mouse button on already existing beam opens the .e,
lod re,o+l dialogue window accepting this action removes the
selected beam load.
The inputted loads can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects. The
All inputted parameters of the load can be modified in the stage of construction, in which the
load was introduced. In subsequent stages it is only possible to modify its magnitude (option
"Ad;ust ,gnitude").
- 394 -
Frame "7eam loads"
t
Dialogue window "4ew surcharges"
-ter
There are three options in the program to introduce ground water:
- The ground wter t.le can be specified as a continuous interface below and above the
ground surface. In such a case, the program automatically adjusts the soil self-weight
below the ground water table.
- The pore pressure values are entered via isoline. The first isoline always coincides with
- 395 -
the ground surface. The remaining isolines are introduced in the same way as interfaces
between individual soil layers. The pore pressure values are inserted into the table "List of
interfaces" in the left bottom part of the screen. The values between isolines follow from
linear interpolation.
- (he pore pressure !oe))i!ient r
u
represents the ration between pore pressure and the
geostatic stress in the soil. The values of the coefficient r
u
are specified for individual
isolines. The first isoline always coincides with the ground surface. The remaining isolines
are introduced in the same way as interfaces between individual soil layers. The values are
inserted into the table "List of interfaces" in the left bottom part of the screen. The values
between isolines follow from linear interpolation.
When entering the values of pore pressure or the values coefficients ,
u
the .ul" weight o)
soil is ssu,ed in the whole .od3 to be equal to the bulk weight N regardless of the values
of pore pressures or coefficients ,
u
.
The simplest way to check the input of water is to plot the distribution of pore pressure in the
output window.
)isuali$ation of pore pressure
Anl3sis
The analysis is performed for individual calculation stages in the frame FAnl3sisF after
pressing the FAnl32eF button.
8uring nl3sis the program attempts to arrive at such a solution that satisfies for given
loading and boundary conditions the glo.l eDuili.riu,. In most cases this step results into
an iterative process. The process of iteration and convergence of the solution is displayed on
the screen.
The analysis can be stopped any time by pressing the F&nterruptF button. The results are
then available for the last converged load increment.
The correct results are obtained when 1MMN o) the pplied lod is re!hed. Due to
convergence failure the program may stop .e)ore re!hing the desired lod le+el - only a
fraction of the total applied load is reached. In such a case it is possible to adjust standard
parameters of the analysis setting. When modeling more complex engineering tasks we
encourage the user to follow the recommended modeling procedure.
The analysis results together with information about the course of analysis appear on the
- 396 -
screen immediately after completing the analysis.
Detailed information about the actual modeling approach are presented in section "Setting and
analysis description". The way the results appear on the screen can be set in the "Setting
visualization style" dialogue window.
creen after completing anal%sis
1e!o,,ended ,odeling pro!edure
Solving geotechnical problems using the finite element method is a relatively complex task.
But yet, most users attempt to analyze the entire complex structure right from the beginning
to find the cause of possible loss of convergence may then become rather difficult. WE
therefore recommend the following approach:
1) 8e)ine the whole topolog3 o) the stru!ture
2) Assume elastic response of soils and contact elements (use linear models)
3) Generate coarse mesh
4) Define all calculation stages
5) Perform analysis of all calculation stages (it is sufficient to launch the analysis of the last
stage of construction analyses of all previous stages are carried out automatically).
6) Asses the !ourse o) nl3sis
If the analysis fails, the computational model is not correctly defined e.g. beams have too
many internal hinges resulting into a kinematically undetermined structure, props are not
properly hooked to the structure, etc. The program contains a number of built-in checking
procedures to warn the user for possible drawbacks in the model definition. Some of the
errors, however, cannot be disclosed prior to running the program.
If all stages were successfully analyzed, we recommend the user to check the resulting
displacements and this way also the objectivity of the used soil parameters and structure
stiffness. Note that using nonlinear models always results into larger displacements in
comparison to the pure elastic response should the elastic displacements be already
excessively large, we must first adjust the computational model before adopting any of the
available plasticity models.
If the analysis succeeded and the displacements are reasonable, we may proceed as follows:
7) 1epl!e liner ,odels with suitable plastic models (Mohr-Coulomb, Drucker-Prager)
- 397 -
8) Perform analysis and evaluate the results according to step 6
9) Add nonliner !ont!t ele,ents
10) Perform analysis and evaluate the results according to step 6
11) Refine and d;ust the )inite ele,ent ,esh and perform the )inl nl3sis.
Although this approach may seem rather cumbersome and complicated, it may save a
considerable amount of time when searching for the cause of failure (loss of convergence) of
the analysis of complex problems.
*oss o) !on+ergen!e o) nonliner nl3sis
Loss of convergence of the solution of nonlinear analysis calls for certain ,odi)i!tions o) the
undel3ing !o,puttionl ,odel the following steps can be adopted:
- Increase the stiffness of the structure
- Decrease the applied loads
- Split the soil excavation in more steps
- Improve material parameters of existing soils
- Change material model of soils in places of plasticity
- Add reinforcing members (beams, anchors)
- Add supports
- Change parameters settings affecting the iteration process (increase number of
iterations).
8istri.ution o) plsti! strins may provide some explanation to why the analysis failed to
converge. Note that the distribution of equivalent plastic strain locates the regions of probable
evolution of critical failure surfaces.
,nal%sis failed to con#erge & plot of e8ui#alent plastic strain
Setting nd nl3sis des!ription
The de)ult setting o) pr,eters tht dri+e the solution analysis is optimized to ensure
sufficient accuracy and efficiency of the analysis. Nevertheless, an experienced user may
- 398 -
require to change the default setting, or to examine the influence of parameters on the
accuracy and course of the analysis. The parameters setting can be adjusted in the "Anl3sis
setting" dialog window.
However, the change of standard setting deserves a word o) !ution. Prior to making any
changes, the user should be well aware of possible consequences. In particular, improper
setting may substantially slow down the computation process, may cause divergence and
eventually lead to in!orre!t results.
- Solution method
- Change of stiffness matrix
- Initial solution step
- Maximum number of iterations
- Convergence criterion
- Newton-Raphson method setting
- Arc-length method setting
- Line search method
- Plasticity
The default setting can be always recovered by pressing the "Stndrd" button.
Solution ,ethod
The program GEO FEM serves to analyze geotechnical problems characterized by nonlinear
response of the soil or rock body. A successful analysis of most of such problems calls for an
iterative solution of a given boundary value problem. Applying the finite element method (FEM)
then leads to an incremental form of the equilibrium conditions written as:
where: S
A
- instantaneous stiffness matrix
Tu - vector of nodal displacement increments
Tf - vector of out-of-balance force increments
This equation can be solved only approximately using a suitable numerical method. The goal of
the method is to arrive, during the process of iteration, at such a state of stress and strain that
satisfies the condition Tf @ 0. To that wend, the progr, o))ers two basic methods:
1. Newton-Raphson method NRM
2. Arc-length method ALM.
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,nal%sis setting & setting the solution method
Chnge o) sti))ness ,tri'
The full 9ewton<1phson ,ethod assumes that the instantaneous tangent stiffness matrix
is formed at the beginning of each new iteration.
Forming a new tangent stiffness matrix only at the beginning of a new load increment leads to
so-called modified Newton-Raphson method.
If the stiffness matrix is formed only once at the beginning of the solution analysis we obtain
so called initial stress method.
Individual methods can be selected from the "Anl3sis settings" dialog window section
"Stiffness update". The correspondig settings are:
1) :eep elsti! initial stress method,
=) 5!h itertion full Newton-Raphson method,
7) 5!h lod step modified Newton-Raphson method.
The default setting assumes the full Newton-Raphson algorithm (stiffness update after each
iteration). Note that the formulation of stiffness matrix is consistent with the stress update
algorithm. Such a formulation then ensures quadratic convergence of the full Newton-Raphson
(NRM) unlike the modified NRM or the initial stress method that, in comparison with the full
NRM, require considerably more interactions to attain equilibrium.
On the other hand, it is fair to mention that the computational cost per iteration is mainly
determined by the calculation and factorization of the tangent stiffness matrix. Assuming
elastic response of a structure it is clearly meaningless to set up the structural stiffness matrix
more then once (stiffness update keep elastic). On the contrary, increasing the degree of
nonlinearity suggests more frequent stiffness reformulations (stiffness update Each
iteration).
- 400 -
4ewton-.aphson method & stiffness matri( update options
&nitil solution step
The actual analysis is carried out incrementally in several load steps until the overall prescribed
load is reached.
The program requires setting the initil lod step only.
This parameter represents the rtio .etween the lod pplied in gi+en lod step to the
o+erll pres!ri.ed lod. Depending on the course of iteration this parameter is adaptively
adjusted.
The default setting assumes 2BU of the total prescribed load. Similarly to what we have
already mentioned it holds that increasing the solution complexity from the nonlinear response
point of view requires reduction of this parameter. However, in the case of elsti! response
this parameter can be set equal to 1, which corresponds to the solution of a given problem in
one load step.
6'i,u, nu,.er o) itertions
This parameter represents the ,'i,u, nu,.er o) itertions llowed for a single load
step to reach the state of equilibrium.
Exceeding this value prompts the program to automatically redu!e the !urrent +lue o) the
ssu,ed lod step and restarts the solution from the last load level that complies with the
state of equilibrium. Similar action is taken when oscillation or divergence of the program is
imminent.
Con+ergen!e !riterion
For the incremental solution strategy based on one of the iterative methods to be effective, it
is necessary to select suitable criteria (preset tolerances for reaching equilibrium) for the
ter,intion o) the itertion pro!ess.
Note that loose convergence criteria may result in inaccurate results while too tight
convergence tolerances may lead to unjustified increase of computational cost spent to arrive
at the results of superfluous accuracy.
- 401 -
In the program the convergence is checked against the change of nodal displacement
increments, the change of out-of-balanced forces and also the change of internal energy. The
last criterion gives a certain idea about how both displacements and forces approach their
equilibrium values. The corresponding settings are:
1) 8ispl!e,ent error tolern!e tolerance for the change of displacement increment
norm.
=) %ut<o)<.ln!ed )or!es tolern!e tolerance for the change of out-of-balance force
norm.
7) 5nerg3 error tolern!e - tolerance of the change of internal energy.
The default setting is 0.01 for ll !on+ergen!e tolern!es.
Setting 9ewton<1phson ,ethod
With the Newton-Raphson method the course of iteration can be driven by setting the following
parameters:
1) 1el'tion )!tor it represents the value of reduction of the current load step for the
restart providing the solution fails to converge. A new value of the assumed load step is found
from the expression:
new lod step O old lod step # rel'tion )!tor.
=) 6'. 9o. o) rel'tions for a single load step this parameter determines how many
times it is possible to invoke the above action during the entire analysis. Exceeding this value
prompts the program to terminate the analysis. The results are then available for the last
successfully converged load level.
7) 6in. 9o. o) itertions for a single load step this parameter allows for possible
acceleration of the analysis. In particular, providing the number of iterations to converge in the
last load step is less than the minimum one set, the load step for a new load increment is
increased as follows:
new lod step O old lod step C rel'tion )!tor.
The default setting of the above parameters corresponds to values displayed in the figure:
!arameters dri#ing the iteration process
- 402 -
Setting Ar!<length ,ethod
The Arc-length method (ALM) is relatively robust method particularly suitable for the solution
of problems that require the search for the collapse load of a structure. Stability analysis of
earth structures (slopes, embankments) is just one particular example of such a task. Unlike
the NRM where the solution is driven purely by prescribing load increments, the ALM
introduces an additional parameter representing a certain constraint on the value of load
increment in a given load step. The value of the load step thus depends on the course of
iteration and is directly related to the selected arc length.
The basic assumption of the method is that the prescribed load varies proportionally during the
calculation. This means that a particular level of the applied load can be expressed as:
where: F - current fraction of the total applied load
V - coefficient of proportionality
F - overall prescribed load
Note that with ALM the load vector F represents only a certain reference load that is kept
constant during the whole response calculation. The actual value of the load at the end of
calculation is equal to the A multiple of F; A < 1 represents the state when the actual bearing
capacity of a structure is less than the prescribed reference load; if A at the end of response
calculation exceeds 1, the program automatically adjusts the arc length in order for the
solution to converge to value A = 1 within a selected tolerance equal to 0.01 (1% the
maximum applied load). This value cannot be changed.
The literature offers a number of ALM formulations. The program supports the method
suggested by Crisfield and the consistently linearized method proposed by Ramm. The latter
one is considerably simple, at least from the formulation point of view, than the Crisfield
method. On the other hand it is reportedly less robust. The default setting is the Crisfield
method.
Other important parameters of the method are "Setting arc length" and "Automatic arc length
control".
,rc-length & setting the t%pe of ,rc-length method
- 403 -
Setting r! length
The arc length is the basic parameter affecting the response calculation. An indicator for the
selection of arc length can be the course of iteration in the previous solution stage. Regardless
of that the program enables the following setting:
Determine from load step the arc length is determined automatically from the initial load
step.
,ssign from the pre#ious stage the value of arc length at the end of the previous calculation
stage is used as a starting value for a new stage. This option becomes active in the second
stage of construction.
+nput the value of arc length can be directly prescribed.
Providing the structure response cannot be determined a priory we recommend to use the first
option. Depending on the course of calculation it is possible to adjust the value of arc length
and repeat the calculation. At no event, however, it is possible to ensure convergence for an
arbitrary value of arc length selected. Similarly to NRM, if the convergence problems occur the
program allows for the reduction of the current arc length and restarts the calculation.
The next parameter driving the iteration process is the Ma(imum 4o= of load steps. The
program always carries on the prescribed number of load steps providing:
- parameter A exceeds 1,
- the maximum number of relaxations of arc length is exceeded.
Providing the analysis is terminated due to exceeding the maximum number of prescribed load
steps and parameter A is less than 1, it is necessary to increase the number of steps and
restart the analysis.
,rc-length & arc length setting
Auto,ti! r! length !ontrol
Automatic arc length control strategy constitutes very important part of implementation of any
numerical method. The program makes possible to adaptively adjust the current arc length for
a new load step depending on the course of iteration in the previous step by activating option
%pti,i2e. The program will then attempt to select a value of arc length that keeps the desired
number of iterations in each load step needed for convergence option %pti,. 9o. o) iter. in
single lod step.
- 404 -
The next parameter driving the process of iteration is the 1tio lod#displ!e,ent. This
parameter represents a scalar factor, which adjusts the scales of load given by parameter A
and displacement vector u. providing this parameter is sufficiently large the analysis is
essentially driven by load increment. Setting this parameter equal to 0 (default setting) we
obtain so-called cylindrical ALM and the analysis will be driven by displacement increment. This
approach is more stable and recommended by the authors. Nevertheless, the program allows
for optimization of this parameter by activating the option Optimi$e. In such a case the current
value of this parameter is set equal to the Bergan current stiffness parameter that provides a
scalar measure of the degree of nonlinearity. With increasing the degree of nonlinearity this
parameter is decreasing. In the vicinity of collapse load the value of this parameter approaches
zero and the solution is driven by displacement increment. This strategy thus supports the use
of cylindrical method having the 1tio lod#displ!e,ent parameter equal to zero. As for
the default setting this option is turned off.
,rc-length & automatic arc length control
*ine ser!h ,ethod
The basic goal of the Line search method is to determine a scalar multiplier lthat is used to
scale the current displacement increment so that the equilibrium is satisfied in a given
direction. The actual displacement vector at the end of the i-th iteration thus becomes:
Consequently, the calculation process is either accelerated, q>1, or damped, q<1. Obviously,
with the Line search performed each iteration, the expense of the iteration increases. On the
other hand, this drawback is compensated by less number of iterations needed for
convergence and by the possibility of avoiding divergence or oscillation of the process of
iteration. By default the use of the Line search is enabled.
An inexperienced user is recommended to employ the default setting evident from the figure.
- 405 -
;ine search method setting
$lsti!it3
The $lsti!it3 dialog window serves to set parameters driving the stress update procedure.
The parameter 1eturn to 3ield sur)!e tolern!e suggests the tolerance for satisfying the
selected yield condition. Assuming nonlinear hardening/softening as in the case of modified
cam clay model the stress return mapping requires an iteration process.
The maximum number of iterations allowed is then given by the 6'. 9o. o) itertions )or
single plsti! step parameter. When employing the rigid-plastic version of the Mohr-
Coulomb, the Drucker-Prager or the modified Mohr-Coulomb model, these parameters will not
apply.
The default setting, evident in the figure, is recommended.
- 406 -
!arameters dri#ing the stress return mapping
Course o) nl3sis
The course of analysis can be viewed in the bottom part of the screen.
An elsti! analysis is completed in one !o,puttionl step. A nonlinear analysis is
performed in several steps the external loading is gradually increased in several loding
(!l!ultion) steps. The analysis is completed successfully if there is no loss of overall
convergence so that 100 percent of the required load is reached.
The de)ult setting o) pr,eters that drive the solution analysis is optimized to ensure
sufficient accuracy and efficiency of the analysis. Nevertheless, an experienced user may
require to change the default setting, or to examine the influence of parameters on the
accuracy and course of the analysis. The parameters setting can be adjusted in the "Analysis
setting" dialog window.
The $er!ent o) the pplied lod parameter gives percentage of the overall load (excepted
value) at the end of the current load step assuming successful convergence for the current
load step.
The Step si2e parameter provides th+ cu,,+'t sc%li'# f%cto, fo, th+ d+t+,$i'%tio' of lo%d i'c,+$+'t i'
th+ cu,,+'t lo%d st+&
The S)et3 )!tor parameter corresponds to the expected value of the safety factor assuming
successful convergence for given parameters c0 J.
The course of iteration within a given load step is characterized by the change of convergence
parameters:
-eta Line search method parameter
-change of the displacement increment norm
-change of the out-of-balance force norm,
-change of internal energy
If all three errors are smaller than the preset error tolern!e (can be edited in "Setting"
dialogue window), the analysis is for the calculation step terminated.
The "&nterrupt" button serves to terminate the calculation process. The results are then
- 407 -
available for the last load level that complies with the state of equilibrium.
Course of anal%sis
1esults
Visualization (plotting) of results is one of the most important features of the program. The
program allows us to select from several basic styles of graphical outputs, which are defined in
the "FEM setting visualization of results" dialogue window.
- draw de)or,ed ,esh
- surface plot of variables developed inside the soil#ro!" .od3 (the total values or their
increments with respect to other calculation stage can be displayed)
- internl )or!es distributed along beams, contacts
- )or!es in n!hors nd re!tion )or!es
- depression !ur+e
- tilted se!tions of variables
- +e!tors nd dire!tions of variables
To display results the program employes the following coordinate systems.
The tool bar "Results" in the upper part of the screen serves to selected variables to be
displayed and the way they should appear on the screen. The color scheme is shown in the
right part of the desktop. Its particular setting can be adjusted using the "Color scheme" tool
bar.
Because properly setting outputs might be often time consuming, the program disposes of a
comfortable system of storing and managing various settings.
All outputs and selected results can be further printed out from the analysis protocol.
(ool .r 0 1esults
The tool bar contains the following operating elements:
Tool bar "etting #isuali$ation of graphical outputs"
Individual elements operate as follows:
Plotting style
setting
- opens the "FEM - setting visualization of results"
dialogue window which allows the user to be
more specific in defining the plotting style
List of plots - a combo list containing names of plots saved by
the user
Save plot - saves the current plot displayed on the desktop,
the dialogue window serves to enter the name of
- 408 -
the plot
Manager of plots - opens the "6nger o) plots" dialogue window
which serves to manage (delete, change order,
rename) already saved plots
Values in stages of
analysis
- displays calculated values (either total or
incremental values can be seen)
Variable type - displays the selected variable
Surface plot - turns on/off plotting of isolines, isosurfaces
Mes - turns on/off the style of plotting the FE mesh
(only edges, or according to the setting in the
"FEM setting visualization of results" dialogue
window
Displacements plot - selects the style of plotting deformed mesh
undeformed/deformed (deformed by the
magnitude, deformed by the coefficient)
The tool bar contains the ,ost o)ten used operting ele,ents needed to view the results
on the desktop. Detailed setting of the style of plotting the results is available in the "FEM
setting visualization of results" dialogue window.
Similar to other programs in GEO5 system the results can be saved and printed. The plotting
style can be adjusted in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.
Setting +isuli2tion o) results
The "F56 < setting +isuli2tion o) results" dialogue window serves to select the type of
variable to be displayed and the way it should appear on the screen. Individual settings can be
later saved using the "Results" tool bar.
The tab sheet "Bsi!" serves to set the basic parameters driving the visualization of surface
variables and FE mesh other tab sheets are used to define other types of outputs.
Dialogue window "FEM & setting #isuali$ation of results" & tab sheet "7asic"
Owing to the clarity of graphical presentation it is not possible to plot some of the results t
the s,e ti,e. It is not possible to plot a deformed mesh together with distributions of
internal forces along beams only one option must be selected. If an unacceptable
combination is selected, the displays a warning message in the bottom part of the dialogue
window. The present example shows an unacceptable combination of deformed mesh/#alues in
mesh grid set in the tab sheet "Bsi!".
- 409 -
'arning for conflict in plotting of results
*ist o) +ri.les
The following variables can be displayed (values in the soil/rock body):
List of variables displayed by the proram ! basic variables
%2nPenK $opis VeliPin Gednot"
Sednut D
Z
Displacement in the Z direction d
)
-$$/
Sednut D
X
Displacement in the X direction d
*
-$$/
Sigma
Z, tot.
Total normal stress in the Z direction o
).tot
-01%/
Sigma
Z, +ff.
Effective normal stress in the Z direction o
).+ff
-01%/
Prov tlak
u
.
Pore pressure u -01%/
Sigma
X, tot.
Total normal stress in the X direction o
*.tot
-01%/
Sigma
X, +ff.
Effective normal stress in the X direction o
*.+ff
-01%/
Tau
X, Y.
Shear stress 1
*)
-01%/
Epsilon
+B.
Equivalent strain c
+B
- 2 /
Epsilon
+B., &l.
Equivalent plastic strain c
+B,&l
- 2 /
*ist o) +ri.les displ3ed .3 the progr, 0 +ri.les +il.le in the regi,e
"Extended input".
%2nPenK $opis VeliPin Gednot"
Epsilon
6ol.
Volumetric strain c
6ol.
- 2 /
Sigma
stC.,
tot.
Mean total normal stress o
stC.tot
-01%/
Sigma
stC., +ff.
Mean total normal stress o
stC.+ff
-01%/
Sigma
+B.
Equivalent deviatoric stress D -01%/
- 410 -
Epsilon
6ol.,
&l.
Volumetric plastic strain c
6ol.&l
- 2 /
Epsilon
X
Normal strain in the X direction c
*
- 2 /
Epsilon
Z
Normal strain in the X direction c
)
- 2 /
Gama
XZ
Shear strain in the XZ plane y
*)
Epsilon
1,
&,i'c.
Maximal principal strain c
1.&,i'c
- 2 /
Epsilon
2,
&,i'c.
Intermediate principal strain c
2.&,i'c
- 2 /
Epsilon
<,
&,i'c.
Minimal principal strain c
<.&,i'c
- 2 /
Sigma
1,
&,i'c.
Maximal principal stress o
1.&,i'c
-01%/
Sigma
2,
&,i'c.
Intermediate principal stress o
2.&,i'c
-01%/
Sigma
<,
&,i'c.
Minimal principal stress o
<.&,i'c
-01%/
Epsilon
X, &l.
Normal plastic strain in the X direction c
*.&l
- 2 /
Epsilon
Z, &l
Normal plastic strain in the Z direction c
).&l
- 2 /
Gama
XZ, &l.
Shear plastic strain in the XZ plane y
*).&l
6onitors
The frame "6onitors" contains a table with the list of inputted monitors. Adding (editing)
monitors is performed in the "9ew ,onitors" dialogue window.
Either point or line-monitors can be introduced. The dialogue window then serves to specify
coordinates of the monitor and monitor activity.
The monitors can also be introduced using mouse. This imputing mode is activated by clicking
an appropriate button on the horizontal tool bar "Monitors". The following modes are available:
- Add The monitor is introduced by clicking the left mouse button at a desired
- 6odi)3 Clicking the left mouse button on already existing monitor opens the
"Ad;ust ,onitor" dialogue window, which allows for modifying its
parameters.
- 1e,o+e Clicking the left mouse button on already existing monitor opens the
,onitor re,o+l dialogue window accepting this action removes the
selected free point.
The monitors can also be edited on the desktop with the help of active objects.
The program allows for inputting an arbitrary number of point and line-monitors anywhere in
the structure and also out of it. Monitors have several functions:
displaying values of variables in a given point (point-monitor)
displaying values of the difference of distance of two points in comparison with the previous
- 411 -
stage d-N/ or in comparison with the input stage, where N is the stage number (line-monitor)
The list of variables plotted for individual monitors is set in the "Monitor setting" dialogue
window. To open the window use the "Setting" button in the horizontal tool bar "6onitors".
Frame "Monitors"
6onitors setting
The "6onitor setting" dialogue window serves to set variables whose values will be plotted
for a given monitor (point-monitors). Setting for a given list of variables can be adopted from
the previous stage of construction using the "Adopt )ro, the pre+ious stge" button. Four
variables are displayed by default. Additional variables can be added to the list using the "Add"
button. The variable can be removed from the list using the "1e,o+e" button.
For line-monitors the dialogue window serves to activate the plot of values in comparison with
the previous stage or the input stage, respectively.
For both point and line-monitors it is possible to specify the color range of plotted values.
Dialogue window "Monitors setting"
St.ilit3
In stability (safety factor) analysis the program redu!es the originl strength pr,eters -
angle of internal friction and cohesion until failure occurs. The analysis then results into a
- 412 -
)!tor o) s)et3 that corresponds to the classical methods of limit equilibrium.
The safety factor analysis requires using six-node elements. Since plastic slip is the main
failure mechanism we also require that the Mohr-Coulomb, the modified Mohr-Coulomb or the
Drucker-Prager plasticity model be used for all soils. Default setting can be adjusted in the
"Anl3sis setting" dialogue window.
In the stability analysis mode the only variables available for graphical representation are
displ!e,ents (in the Z and X-directions) and equivalent total and plastic strins. The
deformation of a soil body corresponds to the state of failure attained for the reduced soil
parameters - therefore, it does not correspond to real state of deformation of the soil body.
Instead, it provides a good insight about the entire slope response of earth structure in general
at the onset of failure.
A suitable way of presenting the stability analysis results are +e!tors o) displ!e,ents
plotted together with the eDui+lent plsti! strin. The localized plastic deformation
provides visible evidence about the possible location of the !riti!l slip sur)!e.

Frame "tabilit%"
- 413 -
!lot of e8ui#alent plastic strain & slip surface
Setting .si! pr,eters o) slope st.ilit3 nl3sis
The safety factor analysis is based on the assumption that the total load applied to the
soil/rock body is introduced in a single load step. The actual factor of safety is evaluated using
the ,ethod o) redu!tion o) strength pr,eters c, J= Regarding this the factor of safety
is defined as a scalar multiplier that reduces the original parameters c, J to arrive at the state
of failure.
Mathematicaly, the )!tor o) s)et3 is expresses as:
where:
J
o,i#i'%l
-the original value of the angle of internal friction
J
f%ilu,+ -the value of the angle of internal friction at failure
Searching for the critical value of the factor of safety requires a systematic modification
(reduction) of strength parameters c, J leading to failure. In the framework of the NRM the
state of failure is determined as the state for which the solution fails to converge. The process
of searching for critical c, J is driven by the following parameters.
1) 1edu!tion reduction factor (scalar multiplier) to reduce parameters c, J. During the
course of analysis this parameter is progressively updated.
2) 6in. redu!tion )!tor the limit value, below which the value of reduction factor should
not fall during the searching process. This parameter ensures that the computation will not
continue for needless low values of the reduction factor. It is one of the parameters to
terminate the searching process.
3) 1edu!tion o) soil pr,eters this parameter allows us to define which of the
parameters c, J should be reduced. The default setting assumes that both parameters are
reduced at the same time.
- 414 -
7asic parameters of slope stabilit% anal%sis
Setting dri+ing pr,eters o) rel'tion o) redu!tion
)!tor
Similar to standard analysis the program adaptively adjusts the value of reduction factor.
Providing the solution fails to converge for a given set of parameters c, J, the reduction factor
is relaxed and the analysis is restarted. This approach is driven by the parameters set in the
"Anl3sis settings" tab sheet 9ewton 1phson.
The 1el'tion )!tor serves to relax the current value of the .eduction factor. The analysis
is terminated once the value of reduction factor drops below the minimum one or the
maximum number of allowable reductions is exceeded. When selecting the NRM the program
allows us to determine the parameters c, J which bring a soil body to a stable state in cases,
where the solution with the original parameters c, J was not found. The program then
precedes in the opposite way so that parameters c, J are s3ste,ti!ll3 in!resed until
the st.le solution is )ound.
- 415 -
!arameters dri#ing the process of reduction of strength parameters c,J
Anl32ed e',ples
Apart from the help chapters, which provide a detailed description of individual operating
elements of the FEM program, the installation CD further supplies solutions of several example
problems to highlight some important features of the finite element code.
- Terrain settlement (file "Demo_01.gmk")
- Analysis of collector lining (file "Demo_02.gmk")
- Sheeting structure (file "Demo_03.gmk")
- Slope stability analysis (file "Demo_04.gmk")
(errin settle,ent 0 )ile 8e,oM1Q59.g,"
The example solves a relatively simple task of the settlement of a flat ground loaded by a
uniform vertical surcharge. Individual steps of the solution procedure are described in the
following chapters:
- Task Input
- Mesh generation
- 1st stage o construction - analysis
- 2nd stage of construction surcharge input
- 2nd stage of construction - analysis
- 3rd stage of construction unloading, analysis
- Evaluation of results
(s" input
Consider a flat ground loaded by a uniform surcharge of the magnitude of 270 01% and spread
symmetrically over the width of E$. Determine its settlement both at the end of the loading
- 416 -
step and after unloading. The geological profile is homogeneous and the soil has the following
parameters:
-
Bulk weight of soil [(N?$
<
]
19 [y]
- Modulus of elasticity [31%] 15 [E]
- Pissons number [ 2 ] 0,35 [I]
- Cohesion [01%] 8 [c]
-
Angle of internal friction [
o
]
29 [q]
-
Angle of dilation [
o
]
0 [q]
-
Bulk weight of saturated soil [(N?$
<
]
19 [y
s%t
]
The 6ohr<Coulo,. material model with no hardening/softening is selected to model the soil
response (the results derived for other material models are compared at the end of this
example).
,
oil parameters input
In the next step we define margins of the geometrical model and the soil profile using the
mode Interface. Margins are specified such as to have the vertical boundaries of the
geometrical model sufficiently far from the applied load. The selected depth of the model is set
equal to 17$ - the soil below this level is therefore considered as incompressible. Finally we
assign the specified soil to the selected interface (region bounded by the ground surface and
boundaries of the geometrical model).
- 417 -
Terrain shape and assigned soil
The next step of the topology input is to generate the finite element (FE) mesh.
6esh genertion
The next step of the topology input is to generate the FE mesh. To that end, we switch to the
"Generte ,esh" input mode. Then, select the mesh density equal to 1.7$ and by pressing
the "Generte" button generate the FE mesh.
Generated finite element mesh
After completing this step we switch to the 1st stage of construction to perform the actual
analysis.
- 418 -
1st stge o) !onstru!tion 0 nl3sis
In the 1st stage of construction we first select the mode "Anl3sis" and then after pressing
the "Anl32e" button we determine the initial stress state (geostatic stress).
,nal%sis of <st stage of construction & geostatic stress
To continue we add a new calculation stage (a new stage of construction).
=nd stge o) !onstru!tion 0 sur!hrge input
In the 2nd stage of construction we select the "Sur!hrge" input mode. Pressing the "Add"
button then opens the "9ew sur!hrge" dialogue window, which allows for inputting the
required parameters of the selected type of surcharge.
- 419 -
urcharge input
The following figure displays the inputted surcharge.
+nputted surcharge
The calculation step of the 2nd stage of construction follows next.
=nd stge o) !onstru!tion < nl3sis
The procedure is identical with the 1st stage select the mode "Anl3sis" and then press the
"Anl32e" button to carry out the calculation. When the analysis is completed the program
displays the deformed mesh and the distribution of the total vertical normal stress.
- 420 -
,nal%sis resultsM 2nd stage of construction & igma Z & total #ertical normal stress
To view the distribution of the vertical displacement you switch to "Displ. d
)
". The result
appears in the following figure.
2nd stage of construction & #ertical displacement due to surcharge
As evident from the color scheme the maximum vertical displacement is 10F," $$. To view the
same results after unloading we add a new (third) construction stage.
7rd stge o) !onstru!tion < nl3sis
In the 3rd stage of construction the load is removed again with the help of the "Sur!hrge"
input mode. Pressing the "Anl32e" button in the frame "Anl3sis" then performs the
- 421 -
claculation. The result is potted in the following figure showing the maximum displacement
after unloading equal to 1",G $$.
"rd stage of construction & #ertical displacement due to surcharge
Summary of the obtained results is available in the next chapter - "Evaluation of results".
5+lution o) results
The example clearly shows that the FE analysis can be largely affected by the selected material
model, elastic modulus, type of element and mesh density. The following table stores the
results derived for various material models implemented in GEO FEM and different FE meshes.
The results provided by other codes such as GEO 5 settlement and ATENA are presented for
comparison.
"esultin ma#imum settlement in mm Demo01_EN.gmkH
6odel#progr, Co,,ent
6esh =nd stge 7rd stge
5lsti! 14M 88,30 0
5lsti! 145 88,40 0
5lsti! =4M 82,90 0
5lsti! 14MC 85,90 0 * - 3 noded element
8$ 14M 122,9 36,8
8$ 145 120,7 32,9
8$ =4M 119,1 41,0
8$ 14MC 113,9 27,5 * - 3 noded element
6C 14M 108,0 25,4
- 422 -
6C 145 106,9 19,7
6C =4M 106,2 28,3
6C 14MC 99.8 13.6 * - 3 noded element
6C6 14M 97,6 11,2
6C6 145 96,3 7,8
6C6 =4M 95.5 16,2
Aten 8$ 14MC 113,2, 27,3 * - 3 noded element
Geo5 < Settle,ent 74,1 - Elastic subspace
Several important remarks can be drawn from the above table:
- The Drucker-Prager model appears to be more compliant (in the present example) than
the Mohr-Coulomb and the Modified Mohr-Coulomb material models.
- As expected, a finer mesh leads to more accurate results including evolution and spread of
plastic strains.
- The results derived with 6-node elements "correspond" to the results found for 3-node
elements with approximately twice as fine mesh as used for 6-node elements. This result,
however, cannot be generalized.
The Modified elastic model that attempts to substitute nonlinear models by introducing
different modules for primary loading (E
d+f
) and unloading/reloading (E
u,
) branch was not
included in the table the resulting settlement merely depends on the magnitude of the
secant modulus (E
d+f
).
Anl3sis o) !olle!tor lining 0 )ile 8e,oM=Q59.g,"
A detailed analysis of the response of a collector lining is presented in this example. Individual
steps of the solution procedure are described in the following chapters:
- Task input
- Geometry input
- Mesh generation
- 1st stage of construction - analysis
- 2nd stage of construction collector lining input
- 2rd stage of construction - analysis
(s" input
The goal of this example is to perform a detailed analysis of a collector lining subjected to
loads exerted by the surrounding soil. A homogeneous soil with the following material
parameters is assumed:
Soil parameters
-
<
]
20 [y]
- Modulus of elasticity [31%] 12 [E]
- Poissons number [ 2 ] 0,40 [I]
- Cohesion [01%] 12 [c]
-
o
]
21 [q]
- 423 -
- Deformation modulus [31%] 4 [E
d+f
]
-
<
]
20 [y
s%t
]
The collector geometry is depicted in the following figure. The bottom is found at a depth of
12$. The lining is made from a steel-reinforced-concrete with a thickness of 0,1$.
Collector scheme
The first step is to create the geometrical model. Margins (world coordinates) are again set to -
17$ and I17$. An incompressible soil is assumed to be at a depth of 20$. This ensures that
the collector is built sufficiently far from the model boundaries.
Tas- dimensions input
- 424 -
+nterface input
The collector is built next.
Geo,etr3 input
The collector is introduced into the computational model using free points and free lines. Free
points determine individual corners of the collector and are defined through the "Free points"
input mode (frame) together with the "9ew )ree points" dialogue window.
4ew free point input
- 425 -
u
Des-top after entering free points
In the next step we introduce the geometrical lines connecting collector points using the mode
"Free lines". Pressing the "Add" button on the horizontal tool bar then allows us to connect
individual points using mouse.
Free lines input
For entering an arc segment it is necessary to select a new type of line on the tool bar.
- 426 -
witching the t%pe of line to ",rc"
Next, by clicking on the arc end points we define the arc vertical rise.
+nput of arc
The inserted arc can be further adjusted in the "5dit new line properties" dialog window in
our particular case we change the value of the center point coordinate from 1,08$ to 1,0$ (the
desired one). This completes the geometry input step.
- 427 -
,d*usting arc parameters in the dialogue window
Des-top after defining geometr%
To complete the topology input step we proceed with generating the finite element (FE) mesh.
6esh genertion
Switch to the "Generte ,esh" input mode, select the mesh density equal to 2$ and then
press the "Generte" button to create the finite element mesh.
- 428 -
It is easily seen that the mesh in the vicinity of the collector is rather coarse and calls for
refinement. The mesh can be refined either around lines or points. In the present example the
following procedure is recommended:
- enter a free point somewhere in the center of excavation
- refine the mesh around this point
,dding new free point

Defining mesh refinement around a point
- 429 -
Defined mesh refinement around a point
This step considerably improves the mesh around the collector geometrical lines, which now
becomes more suitable for numerical analysis.
Generated mesh with local refinement
After generating the finite element mesh we proceed to the 1st stage of construction.
1st stge o) !onstru!tion < nl3sis
However, before running the analysis it is yet necessary to define the soil parameters. These
are introduced in the "(opolg3" regime using the "Soils" input mode. Since no plastic strains
are expected to occur the elastic modified model is employed.
- 430 -
- 431 -
,nal%sis resultsM <st stage of construction & geostatic stress
The next step is to add the 2nd stage of construction.
=nd stge o) !onstru!tion 0 !olle!tor lining input
In this stage we introduce the collector lining into the analysis. In particular, use the mode
"Be,s" and select the "Add" button on the horizontal tool bar to open the "9ew .e,s"
dialogue window, which allows for entering the required parameters of the beam element.
This window also serves to select on what geometrical entity the beam should be positioned
a free line in this particular case. The line number, cross-sectional dimensions and material
type are entered next. Finally, pressing the "Add" button then adds a new beam to a list of
beams shown in the frame. We continue with the same procedure to add all lining segments.
The program automatically offers the last specified beam so only the line number needs to be
changed if all other parameters remain the same.
- 432 -
7eam input
The following figure shows the desktop after entering all beam elements.
Des-top after entering beam elements
The next step is to run the numerical analysis.
=nd stge o) !onstru!tion 0 nl3sis
In this stage we perform the excavation step. To do so select the "A!ti+it3" mode and
"excavate the soil" the region bounded by collector geometrical lines is set as inactive.
- 433 -
oil e(ca#ation & setting the region inacti#e
Next, switch to the "Anl3sis" mode and run the calculation of the 2nd stage. The results are
plotted in the following figure:
2nd stage of construction - anal%sis
5+lution o) results
Press the "8rw" button on the results tool bar in the frame "Anl3sis" to open the "F56 0
setting +isuli2tion" of results dialogue window and then choose to plot the distributions of
bending elements along beams.
- 434 -
Dialogue window "FEM & setting #isuali$ation of results"
The distribution of bending moment appears on the desktop.
-rning: distributions of internal forces are avaialble only for undeformed mesh. In the
deformed mesh visualization mode the internal forces are hidden.
Distribution of bending moment along the collector lining
The resulting distributions of internal forces are available also in the text mode.
- 435 -
u
Te(t output of distributions of internal forces on beams of the collector lining
Sheeting stru!ture 0 )ile 8e,oM7Q59.g,"
A detailed analysis of the response of an anchored steel-concrete sheeting structure is
presented in this example. Individual steps of the solution procedure are described in the
following chapters:
- Task input
- Interfaces and soils input
- Contacts input
- Free points and free lines input
- Mesh generation
- 1st stage of construction analysis
- 2st stage of construction beams input
- 2nd stage of construction excavation and GWT change
- 2st stage of construction analysis
- 3rd stage of construction soil excavation, anchor input, GWT change
- 3rd stage of construction analysis
- Evalualtion of results
(s" input
The goal of this example is to perform a detailed analysis of an anchored steel-concrete
sheeting structure of a rectangular cross-section having the thickness of 0,7$. The following
material parameters of the selected soils are assumed:
Soil pr,eters Clss SH Clss FL4 rigid
!onsisten!3
-
<
]
18 21 [y]
- Modulus of elasticity [31%] 10 4,5 [E]
- Poissons number [ 2 ] 0,30 0,40 [I]
- 436 -
- Cohesion [01%] 4 10 [c]
-
o
]
29 19 [q]
-
Dilation angle [
o
]
0 0 [q]
-
<
]
18 21 [y
s%t
]
The structure geometry is depicted in the following figure.
<st stage of construction & e(ca#ating soil up to depth of <,7 $
2st stage of construction & adding anchor and e(ca#ating soil up to depth of 7,7 $
The first step is to create the geometrical model the wall is 10$ deep and evolution of plastic
strains is expected. The world dimensions are therefore set 20$ on each side from the wall.
This ensures that the wall is built sufficiently far from the model boundaries and that the
boundary conditions will not affect evolution of expected failure zones.
Tas- dimensions input
The next step is to define interfaces and soils.
&nter)!es nd soils input
The interfaces are introduced using the "&nter)!e" input mode. They may either separate
layers of distinct soils or layers of soils to be excavated in individual stages of construction. In
this example the terrain and the desired horizontal interfaces are found at depths of 0.00$,
- 437 -
2<.00$, 2<.70$ and J7.70$. A free point on terrain surface having coordinates [0.00, 0.00] is
introduced to denote the upper end point of the sheeting wall.
hape of terrain and interfaces input
Individual soils together with material models are selected next using the "Soils" input mode.
The "Assign" mode is used to introduce individual soils into the profile. Choosing a plastic
material model representing the soil response is essential to correctly capture the distribution
of earth pressures. In this example, both soils are assumed to follow the Mohr-Coulomb
plasticity model.
- 438 -
- 439 -
The following figure shows the soils assigned to individual interfaces of the profile.
- 440 -
,ssigning soils to the profile
The next step requires introduction of contact elements.
Cont!ts input
Providing we choose beam elements to model the sheeting wall it is necessary to use contact
elements with plastic material model (Mohr-Coulomb), which ensures that the soil-beam
interaction is properly addressed. The "Cont!t t3pe" input mode combined with the "Add"
button allow for defining the required parameters. In the present example we assume that the
contact material parameters correspond to about <08 of shear strength parameters of the
surrounding soil =W
c
@0.<, W
K
@0.<>. Standard setting is considered for the elastic stiffnesses 0
'
and
0
s
=10000 0N?$
<
>.
- 441 -
T%pe of contact input
The next step requires entering free points and lines to represent the sheeting wall.
Free points nd )ree lines input
The wall geometry is introduced into the computational model using free points and free lines.
The "Free points" input mode is used to enter the lower end point of the wall having
coordinates [0.00L 210.00]. To introduce a free line use the "9ew )ree line" dialogue window in
the "Free lines" input mode. The free line is created by connecting the free point and the
point located on the terrain surface.
Entering free line to represent a sheeting structure
The result of this step is displayed in the following figure.
- 442 -
+nputted free line & sheeting structure
6esh genertion
For the mesh generation it is recommended to introduce a local refinement near the wall
structure We choose the refinement diameter equal to Bm and the step length equal to 1=Bm=
Defining mesh refinement around a free line
Next, switch to the "Generte ,esh" input mode, select the mesh density equal to 2$ and
then press the "Generte" button to create the finite element mesh.
- 443 -
After generating the finite element mesh we proceed to the 1st stage of construction.
1st stge o) !onstru!tion < nl3sis
After generating the finite element mesh we proceed to the 1st stage of construction and using
the "-ter" input mode we enter the ground water table.
<st stage of construction & G'T input
- 444 -
<st stage of construction & geostatic stress
=nd stge o) !onstru!tion 0 .e,s input
After adding the 2nd stage of construction we define a new beam element and assign it to the
pre-defined free line. Pressing the "Add" button in the "Beams" input mode opens the "New
beams" dialogue window, which allows for entering the required beam parameteres.
7eam parameters input
The following figure shows the desktop after entering the beam element.
- 445 -
+nputted beam
The next step in the 2nd stage is to excavate a particular soil layer and to change the GWT.
=nd stge o) !onstru!tion 0 soil e'!+tion nd G-(
!hnge
In this stage we perform the excavation step. To do so select the "A!ti+it3" mode and
"excavate the soil" the excavated region (the first layer from the left of the wall) is set as
inactive. It is seen on the desktop that the built-in corrector of geometry automatically
subdivided interfaces crossed by the wall into individual bounded regions.
2nd stage of construction & soil e(ca#ation
- 446 -
The "-ter" input mode is then selected to enter the new ground water table.
2nd stage of construction & GT' change
Next, switch to the "Anl3sis" mode and run the calculation of the 2nd stage.
=nd stge o) !onstru!tion < nl3sis
We now proceed by running the finite element analysis. Some of the available results are
plotted in the following figures.
,nal%sis of 2nd stage of construction & stress H
)
- 447 -
,nal%sis of 2nd stage of construction & deformed mesh
,
,nal%sis of 2nd stage of construction & distribution of bending moment
- 448 -
,nal%sis of 2nd stage of construction &e8ui#alent plastic strains and #ectors of displacements
The next step is to add the 3rd stage of construction.
7rd stge o) !onstru!tion 0 soil e'!+tion4 n!hor input4
G-( !hnge
After adding the 3rd stage of construction we follow the previous step and excavate the next
layer of soil using again the "A!ti+it3" input mode.
"rd stage of construction & soil e(ca#ation
Next, we switch to "An!hors" input mode. Pressing the add button then opens the "9ew
n!hors" dialogue window to enter the required parameters of the pre-stressed anchor =F@187
- 449 -
0N>. An anchor cannot be hooked to a vertical interface. Instead, the anchor head must be
defined by entering its coordinates J -0.00$, 22."0$/.
.
"rd stage of construction & adding anchor
Finally we adjust the ground water table.
"rd stage of construction & adding anchor
Performing calculation in the 3rd stage of construction is the last step of overall analysis.
- 450 -
7rd stge o) !onstru!tion 0 nl3sis
To complete the task, run the finite element analysis and evaluate the available results.
,nal%sis of "rd stage of construction & stress H
)
,nal%sis of 2nd stage of construction & deformed mesh
- 451 -
,
,nal%sis of "rd stage of construction & distribution of bending moment
,nal%sis of "rd stage of construction & e8ui#alent plastic strains and #ectors of displacements
5+lution o) results
The following table compares the finite element results of the bending moment with the results
provided by the program module GEO5 Sheeting verification.
- 452 -
6'i,l +lue o) the .ending ,o,ent de+eloped long the sheeting wll
6Ksto 6:$ < 6C 6:$ < 6C6
Sheeting
+eri)i!tion 6:$ 0 8$
2nd stage 21,8 14,7 48,1 22,0
3rd stage - anchor 85,9 85,6 99,5 86,0
3rd stage - field -66,3 -81,3 -67,2 -65,0
Slope st.ilit3 nl3sis 0 )ile 8e,oMHQ59.g,"
The goal of this example is to address stability of a certain structure by calculating its factor of
safety. Individual steps of the solution procedure are described in the following chapters:
- Task input
- Type of analysis setting
- Soil input and their assignment to interfaces
- Mesh generation
- 1st stage of construction - analysis
- 2nd stage of construction surcharge, analysis
- 3rd stage of construction anchor, analysis
(s" input
The goal of this example is to address stability of a certain structure by calculating its factor of
safety. A simple slope free of water and external loading is analyzed first. The influence of
external surcharge applied on top the embankment is examined in the 2nd stage of
construction. The stabilizing effect of anchors is assessed in the 3rd stage.
Soil pr,eters Snd3 silt Clss 1H
-
Bulk weight of soils [(N?$
<
]
18 20 [y]
- Modulus of elasticity [31%] 21 300 [E]
- Poissons number [ 2 ] 0,30 0,2 [I]
- Cohesion [01%] 9 120 [c]
-
o
]
22,7 38 [q]
-
Angle of dilation [
o
]
0 0 [q]
-
<
]
18 20 [y
s%t
]
- 453 -
Terrain shape
Point No. Interface 1 (terrain) Point No. Interface 2 (terrain)
Coord. X [$] Coord. Z [$] Coord. X [$] Coord. Z [$]
1 00.00 -9.00 1 00.00 -11,50
2 11.00 -9.00 2 14.00 -11.00
3 21.00 -2.50 3 21.00 -9.25
4 29.50 -2.50 4 40.00 -9.00
5 32.25 -4.00
6 40.00 -4.00
Surcharge 2nd stage
Mag.1 Mag.2 x1 x2
[kN/m2] [kN/m2] [m] [m]
35.00 35.00 22.00 29.00
Surcharge 3rd stage
Mag.1 Mag.2 x1 x2 z1 alfa
[kN/m2] [kN/m2] [m] [m] [m] [st.]
35.00 35.00 22.00 29.00
72.00 15.28 -6.22 287.0
The next step is to select the type of analysis.
(3pe o) nl3sis setting
The program FEM allows us to directly calculate the factor of safety. The type of analysis is set
in the "$ro;e!t" input mode using the "Anl3ses" tab sheet. The "Slope st.ilit3" item is
then selected from the "Anl3sis t3pe" combo box.
- 454 -
Defining t%pe of anal%sis
The next step is to define individual soils and to assign them to particular interfaces (regions).
Soil input nd their ssign,ent to inter)!es
Being in the toplogy input mode we define the structure geometry and material parameters of
soils. Note that the safety factor analysis requires selection of plastic models to predict the
material response (Mohr-Coulomb, Drucker-Prager). In this example we select the Drucker-
Prager material model owing to a less stiffer response of the structure when compared to the
Mohr-Coulomb predictions. The results obtained for individual material models are summarized
in the table at the end of this example.
- 455 -
Individual soils are then assigned to given layers as shown in the following figure.
oil assignment
6esh genertion
Switch to the "Generte ,esh" input mode and press the "Generte" button to create the
finite element mesh. Note that the mesh density has a significant impact on the resulting
factor of safety. The used mesh should be always sufficiently fine. To demonstrate this effect
we carried out the analysis for several mesh densities assuming an average element edge
length equal to 1.0, 1.<, 1.7, 2.0 and <.0 $. In this example the element edge length equal to 1.7$
is used.
- 456 -
After generating the finite element mesh we switch to the 1st stage of construction.
1st stge o) !onstru!tion 0 nl3sis
Next, switch to the "Anl3sis" mode and by pressing the "Anl32e" button run the calculation
of the factor of safety. Here, only the effect of material self-weight is examined. The course of
analysis and a gradual increase of the factor of safety can be viewed in the bottom part of the
frame.
Course of slope stabilit% anal%sis
After completing the analysis the program displays the resulting factor of safety on the bottom
part of the frame.
- 457 -
<st stage of construction & calculated factor of safet%
The potential slip surface can be identified by plotting the localized distribution of equivalent
plastic strain E&sEBM1l%st.
<st stage of construction & e8ui#alent plastic strain
=nd stge o) !onstru!tion 0 sur!hrge4 nl3sis
In the 2nd stage we select the "Sur!hrge" input mode to define parameters of the desired
type of surcharge as shown in figure.
- 458 -
urcharge parameters input
of the factor of safety. The resulting factor of safety appears on the bottom part of the frame.
2nd stage of construction & e8ui#alent plastic strain and factor of safet%
The last step is to add an anchor and to calculate the factor of safety for the 3rd stage of
construction.
7rd stge o) !onstru!tion 0 n!hor4 nl3sis
In the 3rd stage we select the "An!hors" input mode to define parameters of the anchor as
shown in the figure.
- 459 -
,nchor parameters input
of the factor of safety. The resulting factor of safety appears on the bottom part of the frame.
"rd stage of construction & e8ui#alent plastic strain and factor of safet%
A back check of the shape of the resulting slip surface may prove to be quite important in
some examples as a local failure may occur in other locations than we expect. The next plot
- 460 -
shows evolution of plastic strains around the anchor head when relatively fine mesh is used
(element edge length = 1$). If this occurs some action must be taken for example:
- increase the length of element edges
- increase strength of soil at anchor head
- introduce beam elements at anchor head
E#olution of plastic strains at anchor head
5+lution o) results
The following table stores the results of the same example for various material models
available in GEO 5 FEM and for several mesh densities. The analytical results provided by the
Bishop and Sarma methods are added for comparison.
6odel#progr, 6esh 1st stge =nd st. 7rd st. Co,,ent
Bishop 1,50 1,32 1,50
Sarma 1,58 1,38 1,66
DP 1,0 1,65 1,41 0,81*
* - soil plastification at anchor
head (local failure)
DP 1,3 1,69 1,44 1,69
DP 1,5 1,67 1,42 1,71
DP 2,0 1,71 1,48 1,74
DP 3,0 1,78 1,52 1,81
MC 1,0 1,54 1,33 0,81*
MC 1,3 1,56 1,35 1,56
- 461 -
MC 1,5 1,56 1,32 1,60
MC 2,0 1,60 1,37 1,62
MC 3,0 1,69 1,44 1,67
MCM 1,0 1,76 1,54 0,90*
MCM 1,3 1,81 1,56 1,76
MCM 1,5 1,78 1,52 1,83
MCM 2,0 1,83 1,60 1,85
MCM 3,0 1,93 1,65 1,93
$rogr, $ile C$(
$ro;e!t
Frame "!ro*ect"
Anl3sis ,ethods
The "Anl3ses" tab sheet serves to select the type of analysis to determine the toe and skin
pile bearing capacity. The following standards are available to perform the particular analysis:
- EN 1997-3
- NEN 6743
- LCPC (Bustamante)
- Schmertmann
This tab sheet also allows for the introduction of negative skin friction into the analysis.
Parameters of the negative skin friction are defined in the frame "GWT+NSF".
- 462 -
$ro)ile
The frame "$ro)ile" contains a table with the list of inputted interfaces. After specifying
dimensions.
program "(errin".
Frame "!rofile"
Soils
The frame "Soils" contains a table with the list of inputted soils. The table also provides
information about the currently selected soil displayed in the right part of the frame.
The soil characteristics are specified in the program "$ile C$(". These characteristics are
further specified in chapters: "Basic data" and "Uplift pressure". These parameters depend on
the theory of analysis specified in the frame "Analysis methods".
- 463 -
Frame "oils"
Bsi! dt
The associated theory is described in detail in chapter "Analyses in program Pile CPT".
- 464 -
Stru!ture
The frame FStru!tureF serves to select the type of structure a single pile or a group of piles.
This frame also serves to input the values of surcharge design and standard value. The
design value is used to calculate the pile bearing capacity, while the standard value is used to
calculate the pile settlement, for both types of loading when the NEM standard is employed
(state 1B and 2).
- 465 -
Frame "tructure" & single pile
If the option FConsider in)luen!e o) negti+e s"in )ri!tionF is set in the frame "Analysis
methods", then it is also possible to enter the sur)!e sur!hrge using the FG-( / 9SFF
frame.
Frame tructure & single pile 5influence 4F6
Group o) piles
When defining a group of piles it is necessary to input the structure stiffness, which then the
drives the analysis and verification of the structures. The basic assumption is that for a stiff
structure all piles experience the same settlement, while for a compliant structure each pile
deforms independently. When running the analysis according to NEM6473 this frame also
serves to select the way the CPT is carried out.
For both stiff and compliant structures the program allows for defining locations of individual
piles using their coordinates. In such a case the coordinates of each pile are required (in the x,
y coordinate system) and the loading acts on each inputted pile. If the option FConsider
in)luen!e o) negti+e s"in )ri!tionF is set in the frame "Analysis methods", then it is also
possible to enter the sur)!e sur!hrge using the FG-( / 9SFF frame. Adding (editing) a
new pile is performed in the F9ew pileF dialogue window.
- 466 -
Frame "Group of piles" & entering locations of piles using their coordinates
If the user does not enter the coordinates of piles locations, then their parameters are defined
directly in the frame of the structure. Selecting the stiff structure allows for specifying the
number of piles below the structure (the piles are then spread uniformly).
Frame "Group of piles"
Geo,etr3
The frame "Geo,etr3" serves to input the pile !ross<se!tion (circular, rectangular, circular
with enlargement, rectangular with enlargement) and a type of the pile (cast in place screw
piles, prefabricated screw pile, continuous Flight Auger (CFA)). Using input fields the cross-
section dimensions are then specified for the selected cross-section.
- 467 -
This frame also serves to input a ,teril o) the pile (timber, concrete, steel) a geo,etr3
o) positioning the pile (a pile length in the soil, a pile head offset and a depth of finished
grade). The selected shape with a graphical hint of inputted values is displayed in the right
part of the frame.
The toe bearing capacity coefficient X
&
is specified in the center part of the frame. This
coefficient is by default automatically calculated based on the selected procedure while taking
into account the type of pile and the surrounding soil.
When analyzing rectangular piles the pile shape coefficient s is introduced to reduce the toe
bearing capacity. When analyzing piles with enlargement the expanded pile toe coefficient P is
introduced to adjust the expanded toe bearing capacity.
Frame "Geometr%"
G-( / 9SF
The frame "G-(" ("G-( / 9SF") serves to specify the depth o) ground wter t.le and
the level of in!o,pressi.le su.soil.
desktop with the help of active dimensions. The in)luen!e o) wter is manifested by the
change of geostatic pressure.
The in!o,pressi.le su.soil cuts off the in)luen!e 2one below foundation. It also influences
a reduction of the settlement.
- 468 -
Frame "G'T" & without influence of 4F
If the option FConsider in)luen!e o) negti+e s"in )ri!tionF is set in the frame "Analysis
methods", then it becomes possible to enter parameters of the negative skin friction using the
FG-( / 9SFF frame boundaries of the region, where the influence of negative skin friction
is considered, or sliding region and its material and cohesion.
Frame "G'T" & with influence of 4F
(ests
The frame "Soils" contains a table with list of inputted tests of static penetration. Individual
parameters of the test are defined in the "9ew test" ("5dit test") dialogue window. This
window serves to enter a name of the test, a depth of the first point of the CPT test from the
- 469 -
finished grade, location of CPT (in the *,9 coordinate system) and measured values of
penetration resistance B
c
with respect to a depth ) measured from the original ground.
The "Add" button in the dialogue window opens the "9ew +lue o) s"in resistn!e" ("5dit
s"in resistn!e") dialogue window, which serves to input the measured values of penetration
resistance.
Each inputted penetration test is automatically linked to the standard profile specified using
the "Profile" input mode. To introduce the penetration test into a specific profile check the
"Ad;ust pr,eters o) stndrd pro)ile" input field, which is located in the bottom part of
the dialogue. Individual input fields are then used to specify new parameters.
The results of CPT tests can also be imported.
Dialogue window "4ew test"
Editing (inserting a test in between already defined tests) is performed in the "&nsert test"
dialogue window.
- 470 -
Frame "Tests"
(est C$( &,port
The program "$ile C$(" allows for importing the CPT test results in the CPT format (*.cpt),
gINT (*.gi3) a TXT (*.txt). The "&,port C$(" dialogue window contains a table with the list
imported tests. The combo lists serve to select the type of file and the desired system of units.
C.C$( - a text file standard particularly for Nederland (used e.g., in programs Geodelft M-
Serie), which serves to input elevations of individual points and values of penetration
resistance (may contain more CPTs)
*.GI - a text format, which transports tests data from program gINT Software this file
contains a set of units, individual test points are specified by their depth from the
origin
*.!"! - a general text format with the following definition:
1st row [test name] string
2nd row [elevation of the test origin] number (an empty row can be entered)
3rd row [point depth][penetration resistance] points separated by space
A TXT format allows for selecting a particular s3ste, o) units to store data of the test. When
importing the program automatically converts the adopted system of units to the one used in
the program.
For a correct calculation the test must be introduced into the soil body therefore the window
requires us to input an ele+tion o) the originl ground. The particular test is then inserted
into the soil body according to its specified elevation. If no elevation is given the origin of the
test is automatically placed on the originl ground.
Providing you use a certain standard of a CPT text file not supported by the program, feel free
to contact us at hotline@fine.cz it will be introduced into the forthcoming version.
- 471 -
Dialogue window "+mport CT!"
Assign
The frame "Assign" contains the list of layers of the profile and associated soils. The list of
soils is graphically represented using buttons in the bar above the table, or it is accessible from
a combo list associated with each layer of the profile.
The procedure to assign a soil to a layer is described in details herein.
Frame ",ssignment"
- 472 -
Settings
The frame "Settings" serves to define the basic setting for the pile verification analysis.
Verification analysis according to the theory of limit states or the factor of safety is available.
Based on the selected verification analysis it is possible to either enter the factor of safety or
coefficients of reduction of parameters.
When performing the analysis according to the 959 LIH7 stndrd the program
automatically follows this standard so the frame "Settings" is disabled.
Frame "ettings" & #erification according to the factor of safet%
Frame "ettings" & #erification according to limit states
Bering !p!it3
The frame Bering !p!it3 serves to verify the pile vertical bearing capacity. The analysis
results are plotted in the right bottom part of the frame. The "&n detils" button opens the
dialogue window, which contains a detailed printout of results from the verification analysis.
The plotting scheme can be modified in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.
- 473 -
Settle,ent
The frame "Settle,ent" serves to verify the pile settlement. The analysis results are plotted
in the right bottom part of the frame. The "&n detils" button opens the dialogue window,
which contains a detailed printout of results from the verification analysis.
When calculating settlement according to the NEN6743 standard the program plots, apart from
the limit load curve, also the loading diagram (force/displacement curve).
The analysis results are displayed in the top part of the frame. The plotting scheme can be
modified in the "Setting visualization style" dialogue window.
- 474 -
Frame "ettlement" & ;imit loading cur#e
Frame "ettlement" & Distributions force/settlement
%utputs
The program contains three basic output options:
- Print and export document
- Print and export picture
- Copy to clipboard
- 475 -
Adding pi!ture
The program allows for storing the current picture irrespectively of the program regime. To
that end, press the "Add pi!ture" button on the vertical tool bar. The button opens the "9ew
pi!ture" dialogue window and inserts the current view on the desktop view in the window.
The picture is always linked to a certain input regime or analysis. (The current regime is
displayed next to the picture name). When printing document the picture is automatically
added to a specific regime in the tree.
The program allows for defining the picture either for a specific stage of construction (or for
the current analysis) or adjusting the setting such that the picture is added to the document in
all stages of construction (or all analyses). The latter option is assumed when selecting "ll" in
the "Stges" combo list (or "Anl3sis" list).
-rning? All inputted pi!tures re uto,ti!ll3 regenerted whene+er ,odi)3ing
dt.
The picture view can be adjusted with the help of vertical tool bar in the left part of the window
(edit size and location). See "Tool bar - scale and shift" section for more details on individual
buttons. The last button on the bar allows for adjusting the picture page ratio. The "$i!ture
setting" frame in bottom part of the dialogue window further allows for adjusting colors and
style of line (object) drawing see "Setting visualization style".
The "%:" button stores the picture into the "Picture list". It can be then opened and modified
at any time.
The picture can be also printed out from this window pressing the "$rint" button opens the
dialogue window for printing and exporting pictures. If the picture is active over all stages (or
all analyses), then all possible combinations of pictures are printed all at once (each picture on
a separate page).
Dialogue window "4ew picture"
$i!ture list
Pictures stored with the help of the "New picture" dialogue window are ordered in the table in
"$i!ture list". The "$i!ture list" dialogue window is opened using the button on the vertical
tool bar. The table of list of pictures contains the picture name and description, the regime in
which it was created and stage of construction or the analysis number.
- 476 -
Individual pictures can be edited using the "6odi)3" button, which opens the "$i!ture
,odi)i!tion" dialogue window (this window corresponds to the "New picture" dialogue
window both in the way it looks and in the way it functions).
These pictures can be printed out from the window by pressing the "$rint" button that opens
the dialogue window for printing and exporting the picture. Providing the picture is active over
all stages of construction (over all analyses, respectively) then the program prints all possible
combinations of the picture (each picture on a separate page). Providing more pictures are
selected then all selected pictures are printed out.
Dialogue window "!icture list"
$rint nd e'port do!u,ent
The "$rint nd e'port do!u,ent" dialogue window can be opened either from the control
menu (items "Files", "$rint do!u,ent") or using the "Files" button on the horizontal tool bar.
The page print preview with a generated text appears in the window.
This window generates output document including pictures stored in the "Picture list". This
window allows either for printing the created protocol or exporting it for further use. The
do!u,ent is lw3s up to dte the program creates the document again based on
inputted data (even with regenerated pictures) whenever opening this window.
Only specific parts of the document including pictures can be generated by checking the
corresponding "tree" item in the left part of the window. Selecting or deselecting an arbitrary
item prompts the program to regenerate the document automatically.
The dialogue window contains its own "Control menu" and "Tool bar" for finalizing the page
face (header and footer definition, page size and edges definition and definition page
numbering).
A mouse ball or scroll bar can be also used to view the document.
The button part of the dialogue window displays current information (defined page size,
current document page and the total number of pages).
- 477 -
Dialogue window "!rint and e(port document"
$rint nd e'port pi!ture
This window serves to print or export one or more pictures. Three options are available to open
this window:
- using the control menu (items "Files", "$rint +iew") or the "Files" button on the tool bar
to print data from the desktop.
- using the "New picture" dialogue window by pressing the "$rint" button
- using the "Picture list" dialogue window by pressing the "$rint" button
The window may contain more than one picture at the same time (when printing more
construction stages or analyses) when printing more pictures from the list. Each pictured is
printed on a separate page. The picture preview can be adjusted using buttons on the tool bar
or a mouse ball.
The dialogue window contains its own "Control menu" and "Tool bar" for finalizing the page
face (header and footer definition, page size and edges definition and definition page
numbering).
The button part of the dialogue window displays current information (defined page size,
current document page and the total number of pages).
- 478 -
Dialogue window "Documents" & print and e(port current picture 5#iew6
Control ,enu $rint nd e'port
The control menu of the "Print and export document" and "Print and export pictures" dialogue
windows contains the following items:
8o!u,ent
Save as - opens the "Save as" dialogue
window that allows for saving the
file in format *.PDF, or *.RTF
Send - opens the dialogue window for
mail client an adds the picture as
an attachement in format *.PDF
Open for edit - opens text editor (associated in
the Windows system with *.RTF
extenison) that allows for editing
the page manulally
Page
properties
- opens the "Page properties"
dialogue window that allows for
specifying the page style (size,
edges, layout)
Header and
footer
- opens the "Header and footer"
dialogue window that allows for
inputting the document headers
and footers
Print - opens the system window for
"$rint"
Close - closes the dialogue window
- 479 -
5dit
Copy - copies the selected picture (text)
to clipboard parameters are set
in the "Options" dialogue window
tab sheet "Copy to clipboard"
Sellect all - marks all on page (on document)
into block
Unsellect all - cancels entire selection (picture,
text)
View
Full page - modifies the page size such that
the entire page in the dialogue
window is visible
Page width - fits the page to a maximum width
of the document dialogue window
$ge (this item appers in the menu only if the document has more than one page)
First page - shows the document first page
Previous page - shows the previous page
Following page - shows the following page
Last page - shows the document last page
(ool .r $rint nd e'port
The tool bar of the "Print and export document" and "Print and export picture" dialogue
windows contains the following buttons:
Tool bar "!rint and e(port"
Individual buttons function as follows:
Save as - opens the "Save as" dialogue window that allows
for saving the file in format *.PDF, or *.RTF
Print - opens the system window for "$rint"
Page properties - opens the "Page properties" dialogue window that
allows for specifying the page style (size, edges,
orientation)
Header and
footer
- opens the "Header and footer" dialogue window
that allows for inputting the document headers and
footers
Color style - determines the style of picture view (color, gray
scale, black & white)
Copy - copies the selected picture (text) to clipboard
parameters are set in the "Options" dialogue
window tab sheet "Copy to clipboard"
- 480 -
First page - shows the document first page
Previous page - shows the previous page
Next page - shows the following page
Last page - shows the document last page
Move - moves the current view in an arbitrary direction
to proceed move mouse in the desired location
while keeping the left mouse button pressed
Zoom in - scales up the desktop view while keeping location
of the point under the axis cross unchanged this
action is repeated using the left mouse button, the
right button leaves the zooming mode
Zoom out - scales down the desktop view while keeping
location of the point under the axis cross
unchanged this action is repeated using the left
mouse button, the right mouse button leaves the
zooming mode
Text selection - allows for selecting the text under the axis cross -
to proceed move mouse over the desired text while
keeping the left mouse button pressed
Full page - modifies the page size such that the entire page in
the dialogue window is visible
Page width - fits the page to maximum width of the document
dialogue window
Setting heder nd )ooter
The dialogue window serves to define properties of the document header and footer. The
"print heder ()ooter)" check box determines whether to print the document header
(footer).
Header and footer lines may contain an arbitrary text and inserted objects implicitly defined by
the program. These objects receive program information such as:
- from the "Company data" dialogue window (company name, logo, address)
- from the "$ro;e!t" frame (name and task description, author)
- from the document system data (date, time, page numbering)
Objects can be introduced using the "&nsert" button (the button opens a list of objects). The
button is active only if the cursor is found in one of the line that allows for inserting text
(object). Inserted objects are written in an internal format different from other text and placed
in curly brackets.
The program allows for defining various headers for the first page or odd and even pages,
respectively. Individual headers are in such a case defined in separate tab sheets.
The "use s de)ult" option sets the inputted header and footer parameters as default for the
newly created data. The assumed default setting is common for all GEO programs. Different
computer users may use different settings.
Writing format and the resulting view are evident from the following pictures.
- 481 -
Dialogue window "Header and footer"
)iew of document header and footer
$ge properties
The dialogue window allows for setting the page layout (paper format, print orientation and
edges).
The "use s de)ult" option sets the inputted page properties as default for the newly created
data. The assumed default setting is common for all GEO programs. Different computer users
may use different settings.
- 482 -
Dialogue window "!age properties"
$ge nu,.ering
This dialogue window allows the user to set page numbering. The combo list serves to define
the numbering style (Arabic digits, roman digits, with the help of symbols). A constant text can
be placed both in front and behind the page number. The "9u,.ering )ro," option allows for
starting the page numbering from an arbitrary number. The "use s de)ult" option sets the
inputted page numbering properties as default for the newly created data. The assumed
default setting is common for all GEO programs. Different computer users may use different
settings.
Dialogue window "!age numbering"
A.out !o,pn3
The dialogue window is launched from the managing menu (items "Setting", "Co,pn3").
The "Bsi! dt" tab sheet serves to specify the basic information about company. The
inputted data are used by the program when printing and exporting documents (pictures), in
the document header or footer.
The "Co,pn3 logo" tab sheet allows the user to load the company logo. The "*od" button
opens the dialogue window which allows for opening the picture in various formats (*.JPG,
*.JPEG, *.JPE, *.BMP, *.ICO, *.EMF, *.WMF).
The "5,plo3ees" tab sheep allows for inputting the list of program users (employees). When
filling the name list it is no longer necessary fill the author's name in the frame "Project".
- 483 -
Dialogue window ",bout compan%" & tab sheet "7asic data"
Dialogue window ",bout compan%" & tab sheet "Compan% logo"
- 484 -
Dialogue window ",bout compan%" & tab sheet "Emplo%ees"
(heor3
The theoretical part of help contains all theoretical basis employed in computations with the
GEO5 programs.
Stress in soil .od3
Calculation of stress in soil in the GEO5 programs is described in the following chapters:
- geostatic stress in a soil body, computation of uplift pressure
- effective / total stress
- stress increment due to surcharge
- stress increment under footing
Geostti! stress4 upli)t pressure
Stress analysis is based on existence of soil layers specified by the user during input. The
program further inserts fictitious layers at the locations where the stress and lateral pressure
(GWT, points of construction, etc.) change. The normal stress in the i
th
layer is computed
according to:
where: h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
N
i
- unit weight of soil
If the layer is found below the ground wter t.le, the unit weight of soil below the water
table is specified with the help of inputted parameters of the soil as follows:
- for option "Stndrd" from expression:
- 485 -
where: N
s%t
- saturated unit weight of soil
N
:
- for option "Co,pute )ro, porosit3" from expression:
where: ' - porosity
N
s
- specific weight of soil
N
:
where: ; - volume of soil
;
&
- volume of voids
N
d
- dry unit weight of soil
Unit weight of water is assumed in the program equal to <1 -4/m
<
or 1011O2B -si.
Assuming inclined ground behind the structure =P = 0> and layered subsoil the angle P, when
computing the coefficient of earth pressure Q, is reduced in the i
th
layer using the following
expression:
where: N - unit weight of the soil in the first layer under ground
N
i
-
unit weight of the soil in the i
th
layer under ground
5))e!ti+e#totl stress in soil
Vertical normal stress H
)
is defined as:
where: H
)
- vertical normal total stress
N
+f
- submerged unit weight of soil
) - depth bellow the ground surface
N
:
This expression in its generalized form describes so called concept of effective stress:
where: H - total stress (overall)
H
+f
- effective stress (active)
u - neutral stress (pore water pressure)
- 486 -
Total0 effecti#e and neutral stress in the soil
Effective stress concept is valid only for the normal stress

H, since the shear stress Y is not
transferred by the water so that it is effective. The total stress is determined using the basic
tools of theoretical mechanics, the effective stress is then determined as a difference between
the total stress and neutral (pore) pressure (i.e. always by calculation, it can never be
measured). Pore pressures are determined using laboratory or in-situ testing or by calculation.
To decide whether to use the total or effective stresses is no simple. The following table may
provide some general recommendations valid for majority of cases. We should realize that the
total stress depends on the way the soil is loaded by its self weight and external effects. As for
the pore pressure we assume that for flowing pore water the pore equals to hydrodynamic
pressure and to hydrostatic pressure otherwise. For partial saturated soils with higher degree
of it is necessary to account for the fact that the pore pressure evolves both in water and air
bubbles.
Assume conditions Drained layer Undrained layer
short term effective stress total stress
long term effective stress effective stress
In layered subsoil with different unit weight of soils in individual horizontal layers the vertical
total stress is determined as a sum of weight of all layers above the investigated point and the
pore pressure:
where: H
)
N - unit weight of soil
- unit weight of soil in natural state for soils above the GWT and dry layers
- unit weight of soil below water in other cases
d - depth of the ground water table below the ground surface
) - depth bellow the ground surface
N
:
&n!re,ent o) erth pressure due to sur!hrge
Earth pressure increment in a soil or rock body due to surcharge is computed using the theory
of elastic subspace (Bousinesque).
Earth pressure increment in the point inside the soil or rock body due to an in)inite strip
sur!hrge is obtained from the following scheme:
- 487 -
Computation of earth pressure due to infinite strip surcharge
A trpe2oidl sur!hrge is automatically subdivided in the program into ten segments.
Individual segments are treated as strip surcharges. The resulting earth pressure is a sum of
partial surcharges from individual segments.
Stress increment due to !on!entrted sur!hrge is computed as follows:
urcharge related to point "O"
where:
&n!re,ent o) erth pressure under )ooting
In the program "Spred )ooting" the stress distribution below foundation is determined by
combining the basic loading diagrams:
- 488 -
Chart of foundation loading
Chart of foudation loading

Chart of foudation loading
5rth pressure
Program system GEO5 considers the following earth pressures categories:
- 489 -
- active earth pressure
- passive earth pressure
- earth pressure at rest
When computing earth pressures the program GEO5 allows for distinguishing between the
effective and total stress state and for establishing several ways of calculation of uplift
pressure. In addition it is possible to account for the following effects having on the earth
pressure magnitude:
- influence of loading
- influence of water pressure
- influence of broken terrain
- friction between soil and back of structure
- wall adhesion
- influence of earth wedge at cantilever jumps
- influence of earthquake
The following sign convention is used in the program, text and presented expressions.
When specifying rocks it is also necessary to input both the cohesion of rock c and the angle of
internal friction of rockJ. These values can be otained either from the geological survey or
from the table of recommended values.
Sign !on+ention
The following sign convention is used in the program, text and presented expressions.
ign con#ention for calculation of earth pressures
- inclination of the ground surface P is positive, when the ground rises upwards from the
wall
- inclination of the back of structure X is possitive, when the toe of the wall (at the back
face) is placed in the direction of the soil body when measured from the vertical line
constructed from the upper point of the structure
- friction between the soil and back of structure is positive, if the resultant of earth
pressure (thus also earth pressure) and normal to the back of structure form an angle
measured in the clockwise direction
- 490 -
A!ti+e erth pressure
Active earth pressure is the smallest limiting lateral pressure developed at the onset of shear
failure by wall moving away from the soil in the direction of the acting earth pressure (minimal
wall rotation necessary for the evolution of active earth pressure is about 2 mrad, i.e. 2 mm/m
of the wall height6=
The following theories and approaches are implemented for the computation of active earth
pressure ssu,ing e))e!ti+e stress stte:
The Mazindrani theory
The Coulomb theory
The Mller-Breslau theory
The Caqouot theory
The Absi theory
For cohesive soils the tension cutoff condition is accepted, i.e. if due to cohesion the negative
value of active earth pressure is developed or, according to more strict requirements, the value
of "minimal dimension pressure" is exceeded, the value of active earth pressure drops down to
zero or set equal to the "minimal dimensioning pressure".
The program also allows for running the analysis in total stresses.
A!ti+e erth pressure 0 the 62indrni theor3
Active earth pressure is given by the following formula:
where: H
)
- vertical geostatic stress
(
%
- coefficient of active earth pressure due to Rankin
P - slope inclination
N - weight of soil
) - assumed depth
- coefficient of active earth pressure due to Mazindrani
where: P - slope inclination
J - angle of internal friction of soil
c - cohesion of soil
Assuming cohesionless soils (c @ 0) and horizontal ground surface =P @ 0> yields the Rankin
solution, for which the active earth pressure is provided by:
and the coefficient of active earth pressure becomes:
where: J - angle of internal friction of soil
- 491 -
Horizontal and vertical components of the active earth pressure become:
where: H
%
W - angle of friction structure - soil
X - back face inclination of the structure
;iteratureM
Mazindrani, Z.H., and Ganjali, M.H. 1997. Lateral earth pressure problem of cohesive backfill
with inclined surface. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE,
1=7(2): 110112.
A!ti+e erth pressure < the Coulo,. theor3
where: H
)
c
+f
- effective cohesion of soil
(
%
- coefficient of active earth pressure
(
%c
- coefficient of active earth pressure due to cohesion
The coefficient of active earth pressure (
%
is given by:
%c
is given by:
for:
for:
- 492 -
where: H
%
;iteratureM
Arnold Verruijt: Soil mechanics, Delft University of Technology, 2001, 2006,
"http://geo.verruijt.net/"
A!ti+e erth pressure < the 6Rller<Breslu theor3
where: H
)
c
+f
(
%
(
%c
%
is given by:
%c
is given by:
for:
for:
- 493 -
where: H
%
;iteratureM
Mller-Breslau's Erddruck auf Stutzmauern,Stuttgart: Alfred Kroner-Verlag, 1906 (German)
A!ti+e erth pressure < the CDouot theor3
where: H
)
c
+f
(
%
(
%c
The following analytical solution (Boussinesque, Caqouot) is implemented in GEO5 to compute
the coefficient of active earth pressure (
%
:
where: (
%
- coefficient of active earth pressure due to Caquot
(
%
Coulo$N
- coefficient of active earth pressure due to Coulomb
Z - conversion coefficient see further
where: P - slope inclination behind the structure
%c
is given by:
for:
- 494 -
for:
where: H
%
A!ti+e erth pressure < the A.si theor3
where: H
)
c
+f
(
%
(
%c
The program takes values of the coefficient of active earth pressure (
%
from a database, built
upon the values published in the book: Krisel, Absi: Active and passive earth Pressure Tables,
3rd Ed. A.A. Balkema, 1990 ISBN 90 6191886 3.
%c
is given by:
for:
for:
- 495 -
where: H
%
;iteraturaM
Krisel, Absi: Active and Passive Earth Pressure Tables, 3rd ed., Balkema, 1990 ISBN 90
6191886 3
A!ti+e erth pressure 0 totl stress
When determining the active earth pressure in cohesive fully saturated soils, in which case the
consolidation is usually prevented (undrained conditions), the horizontal normal total stress H
*
receives the form:
where: H
*
-horizontal total stress (normal)
H
)
-vertical normal total stress
(
uc
-coefficient of earth pressure
c
u
-total cohesion of soil
The coefficient of earth pressure (
uc
is given by:
where: (
uc
-coefficient of earth pressure
c
u
%
u
-total adhesion of soil to the structure
$ssi+e erth pressure
Passive earth pressure is the highest limiting lateral pressure developed at the onset of shear
failure by wall moving (penetrating) in the direction opposite to the direction of acting earth
pressure (minimal wall rotation necessary for the evolution of passive earth pressure is about
<1 mrad, i.e. <1 mm/m of the wall height6= In most expressions used to compute the passive
earth pressure the sign convention is assumed such that the usual values of W corresponding to
vertical direction of the friction resultant are negative. The program, however, assumes these
values to be positive. A seldom variant with friction acting upwards is not considered in the
program.
The following theories and approaches are implemented for the computation of passive earth
pressure ssu,ing e))e!ti+e stress stte:
The Rankin and Mazindrani theory
- 496 -
The Coulomb theory
The Caquot Krisel theory
The Mller Breslau theory
The Absi theory
The Sokolovski theory
The program also allows for running the analysis in total stresses.
$ssi+e erth pressure < the 1n"in nd 62indrni
theor3
Passive earth pressure follows from the following formula:
where: H
)
(
&
- coefficient of passive earth pressure due to Rankin
N - weight of soil
) - assumed depth
- coefficient of passive earth pressure due to Mazindrani
The coefficient of passive earth pressure (
&
is given by:
If there is no friction =W @ 0> between the structure and cohesionless soils =c @ 0>, the ground
surface is horizontal =P @ 0> and the resulting slip surafce is also plane with the slope:
,
the Mazindrani theory then reduces to the Rankin theory. The coefficient of passive earth
pressure is then provided by:
Passive earth pressure H
&
by Rankin for cohesionless soils is given:
where: N - unit weight of soil
) - assumed depth
- 497 -
(
&
- coefficient of passive earth pressure due to Rankin
;iteratureM
http://geo.verruijt.net/
Mazindrani, Z.H., and Ganjali, M.H. 1997. Lateral earth pressure problem of cohesive backfill
with inclined surface. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE,
1=7(2): 110112.
$ssi+e erth pressure < the Coulo,. theor3
where: H
)
- effective vertical geostatic stress
(
&
- coefficient of passive earth pressure due to Coulomb
&
is given by:
The vertical H
&6
and horizontal H
&h
components of passive earth pressure are given by:
where: W - angle of friction structure - soil
;iteratureM
$ssi+e erth pressure < the CDuot 0 :Srisel theor3
where
:
(
&
- coefficient of passive earth pressure for @ 2q, see the table
R - reduction coefficient q for ||Oq, see the table
- 498 -
H
)
The vertical H
&6
and horizontal H
&h
Coe))i!ient o) pssi+e erth pressure :p
$oefficient of passive earth pressure (
&
for @ 2J
X -./ J -./ (
&
:h+' P.
0 7 10 17 20 27 <0 <7 E0 E7
10 1,1G 1,E1 1,7<
17 1,<0 1,G0 1,"2 2,08
20 1,G1 2,08 2,E2 2,G1 2,"2
27 2,1E 2,81 2,"8 <,88 E,22 E,E<
2<0 <0 2,G8 <,E2 E,18 7,01 7,"8 8,"E G,E0
<7 <,G7 E,G< 7,8G G,21 8,G8
10,8
0
12,70 1<,80
E0 7,<1 8,8G 8,GG 11,00 1<,G0
1G,2
0
2E,80 27,E0 28,E0
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"0,F
0
<8."0 E",10 F0,G0
F",1
0
10 1,<F 1,78 1,G0
17 1,F8 1,"G 2,20 2,<8
20 2,1< 2,72 2,"2 <,22 <,71
27 2,G8 <,<E <,"" E,80 7,2" 7,7G
220 <0 <,G8 E,81 8,78 8,81 G,8E ",12 ",GG
<7 7,<8 8,8" 8,28 10,10 12,20
1E,8
0
1G,E0 1",00
E0 8,0G 10,E0 12,00 18,70 20,00
27,7
0
<8,70 <G,80 E2,20
E7 1<,2 1G,70 22,"0 2",80 <8,<0
E8,"
0
82,<0 G8,80 "G,<0
111,0
E
10 1,72 1,G2 1,8< .
- 499 -
17 1,"7 2,2< 2,7G 2,88
20 2,7G 2,"8 <,E2 <,G7 E,0"
27 <,70 E,1E E,"0 7,82 8,E7 8,81
210 <0 E,"8 8,01 G,1" 8,71 10,10
11,G
0
12,80
<7 G,EG ",2E 11,<0 1<,80 18,G0
20,1
0
2<,G0 2P,00
E0 12,0 17,E0 1",E0 2E,10 2",80
<G,1
0
7<,20 77,10 F1,80
E7 21,2 2G,"0 <8,70 EG,20 80,80
GG,<
0
"08,2
0
12E,00 17<,00
1G8,
00
10 1,8E 1,81 1,"<
17 2,1" 2,EF 2,G< 2,"1
20 <,01 <,EE <,"1 E,E2 E,FF
27 E,28 7,02 7,81 8,G2 G,G1 8,1F
0 <0 8,E2 G,F" ",1" 10,80 12,G0
1E,8
0
17,"0
<7 10,2 12,F0 17,<0 18,80 22,<0
28,"
0
<1,G0 <E,"0
E0 1G,7 22,<0 28,00 <E,80 E2,"0
7<,<
0
G8,E0 G",10 88,G0
E7 <<,7 EE,10 7G,E0 GE,10 "E,G0
120,
00
17<,0
0
1GE,00 2E0,00
2G7,
00
10 1,G< 1,8G 1,"8
17 2,E0 2,F7 2,"< <,12
20 <,E7 <,"0 E,E0 E,"F 7,2<
10 27 7,1G 7,"" F,"0 G,"7 ",11 ",FG
<0 8,1G ",F" 11,E0 1<,70 17,"0 18,7
0
1","0
<7 1<,8 1F,"0 20,70 2E,80 2",80 <7,8
0
E2,<0 EF,F0
E0 27,7 <2,20 E0,E0 E","0 F1,G0 GF,E
0
110,0
0
11<,00 12G,00
E7 72," F",E0 "0,"0 11F,0
0
1E8,00 i88,0
0
2<",0
0
<0<,00 <G7,00 E<1,00
10 1,G8 1,8" I 2,01
17 2,78 2,821 <,11 <,<0
- 500 -
20 <,"0 E,<8 E,"2 7,7< 7,8<
20 27 F,18 G,12 8,1G ",<" 10,G0 11,E
0
<0 10,E 12,<0 1E,E0 1F,"0 20,00 2<,2
0
27,00
<7 18,G 22,80 2G,F0 <<,<0 E0,00 E8,0
0
7F,80 F2,70
E0 <G,2 EF,"0 78,F0 G2,70 8",<0 111,
00
178,0
0
1FE,00 187,00
E7 8E,0 110,0
0
1E<,0
0
18E,0
0
2<E,00 2"G,
00
<G8,0
0
EG8,00 7"2,00 F80,00
1edu!tion !oe))i!ient o) pssi+e erth pressure
Reduction coefficient q for ||OJ
J[] R for |W|<J
1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0,0
10 1,00 0,999 0,962 0,929 0,898 0,864
15 1,00 0,979 0,934 0,881 0,830 0,775
20 1,00 0,968 0,901 0,824 0,752 0,678
25 1,00 0,954 0,860 0,759 0,666 0,574
30 1,00 0,937 0,811 0,686 0,574 0,467
35 1,00 0,916 0,752 0,603 0,475 0,362
40 1,00 0,886 0,682 0,512 0,375 0,262
45 1,00 0,848 0,600 0,414 0,276 0,174
$ssi+e erth pressure < the 6Rller 0 Breslu theor3
where: (
&
- coefficient of passive earth pressure
H
)
&
is given by:
- 501 -
The vertical H
&6
and horizontal H
&h
;iteratureM
Mller-Breslau's Erddruck auf Stutzmauern,Stuttgart: Alfred Kroner-Verlag, 1906 (German)
$ssi+e erth pressure < the A.si theor3
where: (
&
- coefficient of passive earth pressure
H
)
The program takes values of the coefficient (
&
from a database, built upon the tabulated
values published in the book: Krisel, Absi: Active and passive earth Pressure Tables, 3rd Ed.
A.A. Balkema, 1990 ISBN 90 6191886 3.
The vertical H
&6
and horizontal H
&h
;iteratureM
Krisel, Absi: Active and Passive Earth Pressure Tables, 3rd ed., Balkema, 1990 ISBN 90
6191886 3
$ssi+e erth pressure < the So"olo+s"i theor3
where: (
&#
- passive earth pressure coefficient for cohesionless soils
(
&c
- passive earth pressure coefficient due to cohesion
- 502 -
(
&#
- passive earth pressure coefficient due to surcharge
H
)
Individual expressions for determining the magnitude of passive earth pressure and slip
surface are introduced in the sequel; the meaning of individual variables is evident from Fig.:
!assi#e eart pressure slip surface after o-olo#s-i
Angles describing the slip surface:
,
W
&
- angle of friction structure - soil
Slip surafce radius vector:
Provided that o O 0 the both straight edges of the zone ,
1
and ,
2
numerically overlap and
resulting in the plane slip surface developed in the overlapping region. The coefficients of
passive earth pressure (
&#
,

(
&&
, (
&c
then follow from:
- 503 -
W
&
- angle of friction structure - soil
Auxiliary variables: i
&#
, i
&&
, i
&c
, #
&#
, #
&&
, #
&c
, t
&#
, t
&&
, t
&c
f
o
r
:
where:
For soils with zero value for the angle of internal friction the following expressions are
employed to determine the coefficients of passive earth pressure:
where:
;iteratureM
Sokolovski, V.V., 1960. Statics of Soil Media,Butterworth, London.
$ssi+e erth pressure 0 totl stress
When determining the passive earth pressure in cohesive fully saturated soils, in which case
the consolidation is usually prevented (undrained conditions), the horizontal normal total stress
H
*
receives the form:
where: H
*
- horizontal total stress (normal)
- 504 -
H
)
(
uc
- coefficient of earth pressure
c
u
- total cohesion of soil
The coefficient of earth pressure (
uc
is given by:
where: (
uc
- coefficient of earth pressure
c
u
- total cohesion of soil
%
u
- total adhesion of soil to the structure
5rth pressure t rest
Earth pressure at rest is the horizontal pressure acting on the rigid structure. It is usually
assumed in cases, when it is necessary to minimize the lateral and horizontal deformation of
the sheeted soil (e.g. when laterally supporting a structure in the excavation pit up to depth
below the current foundation or in general when casing soil with structures sensitive to non-
uniform settlement), or when structures loaded by earth pressures are due to some
technological reasons extremely rigid and do not allow for deformation in the direction of
loading necessary to mobilize the active earth pressure.
Earth pressure at rest is given by:
For !ohesi+e soils the Terzaghi formula for computing (
,
is implemented in the program:
where: I - Poisson ratio
For !ohesionless soils the Jky expression is used:
When computing the pressure at rest for cohesive soils H
0
using the Jky formula for the
determination of coefficient of earth pressure at rest (
0
, it is recommended to use the
alternate angle of internal friction J
'
.
The way of computing the earth pressure at rest can be therefore influenced by the selection
of the type of soil (cohesive, cohesionless) when inputting its parameters. Even typically
cohesionless soil (sand, gravel) must be introduced as cohesive if we wish to compute the
pressure at rest with the help of the Poisson ratio and vice versa.
For o+er!onsolidted soils the expression proposed by Schmertmann to compute the
coefficient of earth pressure at rest (
,
is used:
where: (
,
-coefficient of earth pressure at rest
4CR -overconsolidation ratio
The value of the coefficient of earth pressure at rest can be inputted lso dire!tl3.
&n)luen!e o) the in!lined ground sur)!e t the .!" o) stru!ture on erth pressure t
rest is described here.
- 505 -
;iteratureM
5rth pressure t rest )or in!lined ground sur)!e t
the .!" o) stru!ture
For inclined ground surface behind the structure =0.[ P \ J> the earth pressure at rest
assumes the form:
H
)
(
,
For inclined back of wall the values of earth pressure at rest are derived from:
where: X - back face inclination of the structure
H
)
(
,
Normal and tangential components are given by:
H
)
(
,
The deviation angle from the normal line to the wall W reads:
(
,
Alternte ngel o) internl )ri!tion o) soil
In some cases it appears more suitable for the analysis of earth pressures to introduce for
cohesive soils an alternate angle of internal friction J
'
that also accounts for the influence of
cohesive soil in conjunction with the normal stress developed in the soil. The magnitude of the
normal stress for determining the value of alternate angle of internal friction depends on the
type of geotechnical problem, foundation conditions, etc. For deep seated foundation pits or
constructions in homogeneous or relatively simple environment the normal stress is introduced
in the centroid of the loading mass. In case of shallow pits or complex environment the normal
stress is assumed in the heel of the loading diagram see figure:
- 506 -
Determination of normal stress for alternate angle of internal friction of soil J
'
The alternate angle of internal friction of soil is given by:
where: H
)
When computing the pressure at rest for cohesive soils H
,
using the Jky formula for the
determination of coefficient of earth pressure at rest (
0
, it is recommended to use the
alternate angel of internal friction J
'
.
Determination of alternate angel of internal friction of cohesi#e soil
8istri.ution o) erth pressures in !se o) .ro"en
terrin
Figures show the procedure of earth pressure analysis in the case of sloping terrain. The
resulting shape of earth pressure distribution acting on the construction is obtained from the
sum of triangular distributions developed by individual effects acting on the construction.
- 507 -
!rinciple of the earth pressure computation in the case of bro-en terrain
!rinciple of the earth pressure computation in the case of bro-en terrain for P ] J
&n)luen!e o) wter
The influence of ground water can be reflected using one of the following variants:
Without ground water, water is not considered
Hydrostatic pressure, ground water behind structure
Hydrostatic pressure, ground water behind and in front of structure
Hydrodynamic pressure
Special distribution of water pressure
- 508 -
-ithout ground wter4 wter is not !onsidered
-ithout ground wter4 wter is not !onsidered
In this option the influence of ground water is not considered.
Complementary information:
If there are fine soils at and below the level of GWT, one should carefully assess an influence of
full saturation in the region of capillary attraction. The capillary attraction is in the analysis
reflected only by increased degree of saturation, and therefore the value of N
s%t
is inserted into
parameters of soils.
To distinguish regions with different degree of saturation, one may insert several layers of the
same soil with different unit weights. Negative pore pressures are not considered. However, for
layers with different degree of saturation it is possible to use different values of shear
resistance influenced by suction (difference in pore pressure of water and gas u
%
2 u
:
).
H3drostti! pressure4 ground wter .ehind stru!ture
H3drostti! pressure4 ground wter .ehind stru!ture
The heel of a structure is sunk into impermeable subsoil so that the water flow below the
structure is prevented. Water is found behind the back of structure only. There is no water
acting on the front face. Such a case may occur when water in front of structure flow freely
due to gravity or deep drainage is used. The back of structure is loaded by the hydrostatic
pressure:
where: N
:
-unit weight of water
h
:
-water tables difference
,ction of h%drostatic pressure
- 509 -
H3drostti! pressure4 ground wter .ehind nd in
)ront o) stru!ture
H3drostti! pressure4 ground wter .ehind nd in )ront o) stru!ture
The heel of a structure is sunk into impermeable subsoil so that the water flow below the
structure is prevented. The loading due water is assumed both in front of and behind the
structure. The water in front of structure is removed either with the help of gravity effects or is
shallowly lowered by pumping. Both the face and back of structure is loaded by hydrostatic
pressure due to difference in water tables =h
1
and h
2
>. The dimension h
:
represents the
difference in water tables at the back and in front of structure - see figure:
,ction of h%drostatic pressure
H3drod3n,i! pressure
H3drod3n,i! pressure
The heel of a structure is sunk into permeable subsoil, which allows free water flow below the
structure see figure. The unit weight of soil lifted by uplift pressure N
su
is modified to account
for flow pressure. These modifications then depend on the direction of water flow.
- 510 -
,ction of h%drod%namic pressure
When computing the earth pressure in the area of descending flow the program introduces the
following value of the unit weight of soil:
and in the area of ascending flow the following value:
where: N
su
- unit weight of submerged soil
TN - alteration of unit weight of soil
i - an average seepage gradient
N
:
An average hydraulic slope is given:
where: i - an average seepage gradient
h
:
- water tables difference
d
d
- seepage path downwards
d
u
- seepage path upwards
If the change of unit weight of soil TN provided by:
where: i - an average seepage gradient
N
:
is greater than the unit weight of saturated soil N
su
, then the leaching appears in front of
structure - as a consequence of water flow the soil behaves as weightless and thus cannot
transmit any loading. The program then prompts a warning message and further assumes the
value of N @ 0. The result therefore no longer corresponds to the original input is safer.
- 511 -
Spe!il distri.ution o) wter pressure
Spe!il distri.ution o) wter pressure
This option allows an independent (manual) input of distribution of loading due to water at the
back and in front of structure using ordinates of pore pressure at different depths. The
variation of pressure between individual values is linear. At the same time it is necessary to
input levels of tables of full saturation of a soil at the back h
1
and in front h
2
of structure
including possible decrease of unit weight W
9
in front of structure due to water flow.
5',ple? Two separated horizon lines of ground water.
There are two permeable layers (sand or gravel) with one impermeable layer of clay in
between, which causes separation of two hydraulic horizon lines see figure:
E(ample of pore pressure distribution
The variation of pore pressure above the clay layer is driven by free ground water table 5QT
1
.
The distribution of pore pressure below the clay layer results from ratio in the lower separated
ground water table 5QT
2
, where the ground water is stressed. The pore pressure distribution
in clay is approximately linear.
The capillary attraction is in the analysis reflected only by increased degree of saturation, and
therefore the value of N
s%t
is inserted into parameters of soils.
To distinguish regions with different degree of saturation, one may insert several layers of the
same soil with different unit weights. Negative pore pressures are not considered. However, for
layers with different degree of saturation it is possible to introduce values of shear resistance
influenced by suction.
- 512 -
Upli)t pressure in )ooting .otto,
The variation of uplift pressure in the footing bottom due to difference in water tables is
assumed according to expected effect linear, parabolic or is not taken into account.
9plift pressure in footing bottom
&n)luen!e o) tensile !r!"s
The program makes possible to account for the influence of tensile surface cracks filled with
water. The analysis procedure is evident from the figure. The depth of tensile cracks is the only
input parameter.
+nfluence of tensile crac-s
6ini,l di,ensioning pressure
When determining the magnitude and distribution of earth pressures it is very difficult to
qualify proportions of individual effects. This situation leads to uncertainty in the determination
of earth pressure loading diagram. In reality we have to use in the design the most adverse
distribution in favor of the safety of structure. For example, in case of braced structures in
cohesive soils when using reasonable values of strength parameters of soil along the entire
structure we may encounter tensile stresses in the upper part of the structure see figure.
Such tensile stresses, however, cannot be exerted on the sheeting structure (consequence of
separation of soil due to technology of construction, isolation and drainage layer). In favor of
the safe design of sheeting structure particularly in subsurface regions, where tensile stresses
are developed during computation of the active earth pressure, the program offers the
possibility to call the option "6ini,l di,ensioning pressure" in the analysis.
To determine the minimal dimensioning pressure the program employs for layers of cohesive
soils as the minimal value of the coefficient of active earth pressure an alternate coefficient (
%
@ 0,2. Therefore it is ensured that the value of the computed active earth pressure will not drop
below 208 of the vertical pressure =(
%
^ 0,2> see figure. Application of the minimal
dimensioning pressure assumes for example the possibility of increasing the lateral pressure
due to filling of joint behind the sheeting structure with rain water. If the option of minimal
dimensioning pressure is not selected the program simply assumes tension cutoff =(
%
^ 0,0>.
- 513 -
Minimal dimensioning pressure
5rth < pressure wedge
Providing a structure with a cantilever jump (foundation slab of cantilever wall, modification for
reduction of earth pressures) is considered when computing earth pressures it is possible to
compute earth pressures acting either on the real back of structure with the inputted angle of
friction W \ 2/<J or on an alternate back of structure. The alternate back of sheeting structure
replaces the real broken one by a slip plane passing from the upper point of the back of wall
towards the outer upper point of the jump and forms an earth wedge see figure. A fully
mobilized angle of friction W @ J is assumed along this plane. The weight of earth wedge
created under this alternate back further contributes to loading applied to the structure. To
introduce the alternate back of structure into the analysis it is necessary to select in the
program GEO5 Earth pressures the option "Consider de+eloping o) erth<pressure
wedge". In other programs the earth wedge is introduced automatically.
Calculation with and without earth&pressure wedge
- 514 -
Determination of earth&pressure wedge in case of acti#e earth pressure
The slip plane of the earthpressure wedge is inclined from the horizontal line by angle _
%

given by:
h - height of earth wedge
The shape of the earth wedge in the layered subsoil is determined such that for individual
layers of soil above the wall foundation the program computes the angle _
%
, which then serves
to determine the angle _
%s
. Next, the program determines an intersection of the line drawn
under the angle _
%s
from the upper right point of the foundation block with the next layer. The
procedure continues by drawing another line starting from the previously determined
intersection and inclined by the angle _
%s
. The procedure is terminated when the line intersects
the terrain or wall surface, respectively. The wedge shape is further assumed in the form of
triangle (intersection with wall) or rectangle (intersection with terrain).
Sur!hrge
The following types of surcharges are implemented in the GEO5 program:
A!ti+e erth pressure
Surface surcharge
Strip surcharge
- 515 -
Trapezoidal surcharge
Concentrated surcharge
Line surcharge
5rth pressure t rest Surface surcharge
Strip surcharge
Trapezoidal surcharge
Concentrated surcharge
$ssi+e erth pressure Surface surcharge
Sur)!e sur!hrge
The increment of active earth pressure at rest due to surface surcharge is given by:
where: & -vertical uniform loading
(
%
-coefficient of active earth pressure
The vertical uniform loading & applied to the ground surface induces therefore over the entire
height of the structure a constant increment of active earth pressure see figure:
- 516 -
+ncrement of acti#e earth pressure due to #ertical
uniform ground surface surcharge
Strip sur!hrge
For vertical strip loading f
%
acting parallel with structure on the ground surface along an
infinitely long strip the trapezoidal increment of active earth pressure applied to the structure
over a given segment h
f
is assumed see figure.
Diagram of increment of acti#e earth pressure due to strip loading f
%
This segment is determined by intersection of the structure and lines drawn from the edge
points of the strip loading having slopes associated with angles J and `
%
. The angle `
%
corresponding to critical slip plane follows from:
The formula is described in details in section "Active earth pressure line surcharge".
Variation of pressure increment is trapezoidal; the larger intensity of TH
fs
is applied at the
upper end while the smaller intensity of TH
fi
at the bottom end. The two increments are given
by:
- 517 -
where: f
%
-magnitude of strip surcharge
N -width of the strip surcharge acting normal to the structure
h
f
-section loaded by active earth pressure increment
where: `
%
-angle of critical slip plane
J -angle of internal friction of soil
W -angle of friction structure - soil
The resultant of the increment of active earth pressure due to strip loading f
%
is provided by:
where: `
%
-angle of critical slip plane
J -angle of internal friction of soil
W -angle of friction structure - soil
f
%
-magnitude of strip surcharge
N -width of the strip surcharge
For non-homogeneous soils the program proceeds as follows.
(rpe2oidl sur!hrge
The trapezoidal surcharge is subdivided in the program in ten segments. Individual segments
are treated as strip loadings. The resulting earth pressure is a sum of partial surcharges
derived from individual segments.
Con!entrted sur!hrge
The concentrated load (resultant F due to surface or concentrated load see figure) is
transformed into a line load with a limited length. If the width of surface loading N is smaller
than the distance % from the back of wall (see figure) the alternate line loading f having length
1I2=%IN> receives the form:
where: F - resultant due to surface or concentrated load
% - distance of loading from the back of wall
l - length of load
N - width of surface loading
If the width N of surface loading is greater than the distance % from the back of wall (see
- 518 -
figure) the alternate line loading f having length 1I2=%IN> and width =%IN> reads:
where: F - resultant due to surface or concentrated load
% - distance of loading from the back of wall
l - length of load
N - width of surface loading
,lternate loading for calculation of increment of acti#e earth pressure
*ine sur!hrge
Vertical infinitely long line loading f acting on the ground surface parallel with structure leads to
a triangular increment of active earth pressure applied to the structure over a given segment
h
f
J see figure:
- 519 -
Diagram of increment of acti#e earth pressure due to #ertical
line loading acting on ground surface
Action of the line surcharge is deterimened such that two lines are drawn from the point of
application following angles J and `
%
(corresponding to the critical slip surface), which is
provided by:
c - angle derived from the following formulas
where: - slope inclination
h - assumed depth
For non-homogeneous soil and inclination of ground surface P smaller than the angle of
internal friction of the soil J the value of the angle K is given by:
- 520 -
where: - slope inclination
The resultant of the increment of active earth pressure due to line loading f is provided by:
where: `
%
- angle of critical slip plane
f - magnitude of line surcharge
Sur!hrge in non<ho,ogeneous soil
For non-homogeneous soil we proceed as follows:
- compute the angle _
%
for a given soil layer
- determine the corresponding magnitude of force S
%
and size of the corresponding pressure
diagram
- determine the magnitude of earth pressure acting below the bottom edge of a given layer,
and its ratio with respect to the overall pressure magnitude
- the surcharge is reduced using the above ratio, then the location of this surcharge on the
upper edge of the subsequent layer is determined
- compute again the angle _
%
for the next layer and repeat the previous steps until the
bottom of a structure is reached or the surcharge is completely exhausted
Sur)!e sur!hrge
An increment of uniformly distributed earth pressure at rest TH
,
caused by the vertical surface
loading applied on the ground surface behind the structure is computed using the following
formula:
where: f -magnitude of surface surcharge
(
,
- 521 -
Diagram of increment of earth pressure at rest due to #ertical
uniform loading acting on ground surface
Strip sur!hrge
Uniform strip loading f
%
acting on the ground surface behind the structure parallel with vertical
structure (see figure) creates an increment of earth pressure at rest TH
,
having the magnitude
given by:
where: f
%
- vertical strip surcharge
X,X
1
,X
2
, - evident from figure
+ncrement of earth pressure due to #ertical strip surcharge
(rpe2oidl sur!hrge
The trapezoidal surcharge is subdivided in the program in five segments. Individual segments
are treated as strip loadings. The resulting earth pressure is a sum of partial surcharges
derived from individual segments.
- 522 -
Con!entrted sur!hrge
Application of concentrated load yields an increment of earth pressure at rest TH
,
acting on the
vertical structure and having the magnitude of:
where: F - concentrated force acting on ground surface
*,) - coordinates evident from figure
+ncrement of earth pressure at rest due to #ertical concentrated force
Sur)!e sur!hrge
For passive earth pressure only an increment due to vertical uniform loading f
%
is determined
using the formula:
where: f
%
-vertical surface surcharge
(
&
-coefficient of passive earth pressure
The vertical uniform loading B acting on the ground surface therefore results in a constant
increment of passive pressure applied over the whole length of wall - see figure.
- 523 -
+ncrement of the passi#e earth pressure
&n)luen!e o) erthDu"e
Earthquake increases the effect of active pressure and reduces the effect of passive pressure.
The theories used in GEO5 (Mononobe-Okabe, Arrango) are derived assuming cohesionless
soils without influence of water. Therefore, all inputted soils are assumed cohesionless when
employing these theories to address the earthquake effects. Earthquake effects due to
surcharge are not considered in the program the user may introduce these effects
(depending on the type of surcharge) as "&nputted )or!es"
The coefficient 0
h
is assumed always positive and such that its effect is always unfavorable.
The coefficient 0
6
may receive both positive and negative value. If the equivalent acceleration
%
6
acts downwards (from the ground surface) the inertia forces 0
6
Q
s
will be exerted on the soil
wedge in the opposite direction (lifting the wedge up). The values of equivalent acceleration %
6
(and thus also the coefficient 0
6
) and inertia forces 0
6
Q
s
are assumed as positive. It is clearly
evident that the inertia forces act in the direction opposite to acceleration (if the acceleration is
assumed upwards %
6
= - 0
6R
# then the inertia force presses the soil wedge downwards: -
0
6
Q
s
. The direction with most unfavorable effects on a structure is assumed when examining
the seismic effects.
For sheeting structures it is possible to neglect the effect of vertical equivalent acceleration
0
6
Q
s
and input 0
6
@ 0.
- 524 -
ign con#ention
The seismic angle of inertia is determined from the coefficients 0
h
and 0
6
(i.e. angle between
the resultant of inertia forces and the vertical line) using the formula:
where: 0
6
- seismic coefficient of vertical acceleration
0
h
- seismic coefficient of horizontal acceleration
$ressure )ro, seis,i! e))e!ts
Increment of active earth pressure due to seismic effects (computed from the structure
bottom) follows from:
where: N
i
-
unit weight of soil in the i
th
layer
(
%+,
i
-
coefficient of active earth pressure (static and seismic) in the i
th
layer
(
%
-
magnitude of earth pressure in the i
th
layer due to Coulomb
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
0
6
Reduction of passive pressure due to seismic loading (computed from the structure bottom) is
provided by:
where: N
i
-
unit weight of soil in the i
th
layer
(
&+,
i
-
coefficient of active earth pressure (static and seismic) in the i
th
layer
- 525 -
(
&
-
magnitude of earth pressure in the i
th
layer due to Coulomb
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
0
6
Active earth pressure coefficients (
%+,i
and (
&+,i
are computed using the Mononobe-Okabe
theory or the Arrango theory. If there is ground water in the soil body the program takes that
into account.
The basic assumption in the program when computing earthquake is a flat ground surface
behind structure with inclination P. If that is not the case the program approximates the shape
of terrain by a flat surface as evident from figure:
Terrain shape appro(imation
$oint o) ppli!tion o) resultnt )or!e
The resultant force is automatically positioned by the program into the centre of the stress
diagram. Various theories recommend, however, different locations of the resultant force
owing to that it is possible to select the point of application of the resultant force in the range
of 0,<< 2 0,GS =Sis the structure height). Recommended (implicit) value is 0,FFS. Having the
resultant force the program determines the trapezoidal shape of stress keeping both the
inputted point of application of the resultant force and its magnitude.
6onono.e0%".e theor3
The coefficient (
%+
for active earth pressure is given by:
The coefficient (
&+
for passive earth pressure is given by:
S - height of the structure
- 526 -
0
6
0
h
R - seismic inertia angle
Deviation of seismic forces R must be for active earth pressure always less or equal to the
difference of the angle of internal friction and the ground surface inclination (i.e. J - P). If the
values R of is greater the program assumes the value R @ J - P. In case of passive earth
pressure the value of deviation of seismic forces R must be always less or equal to the sum of
the angle of internal friction and the ground surface inclination (i.e. J + P). The values of
computed and modified angle R can be visualized in the output in latter case the word
6%8&F&58 is also displayed.
E(ample of the program output
;iteratureM
Mononobe N, Matsuo H 1929, On the determination of earth pressure during earthquakes. In
Proc. Of the World Engineering Conf., Vol. 9, str. 176
Okabe S> 1926 General theory of earth pressure. Journal of the japanese Societz of civl
Enginners, tokz, Japan 12 =1>
Arrngo theor3
The program follows the Coulomb theory to compute the values of (
%
and (
&
while taking into
account the dynamic values =X
R
, P
R
>.
For !ti+e erth pressure?
For pssi+e erth pressure?
R - seismic forces inclination
The coefficients of earth pressures (
%+
and (
&+
are found by multiplying the coefficients F
%+
and F
&+
by the values of (
%
and (
&
, respectively.
- 527 -
R - seismic forces inclination
If the value of the angle P
R
becomes larger than J the program assumes the value =P
R
@ J>.
The values of computed and modified angle P
R
can be visualized in the output in latter case
the word 6%8&F&58 is also displayed. It is the user's responsibility to check in such case
whether the obtained results are realistic.
E(ample of the program output
;iteratureM
Design of sheet pile walls, Pile Buck Inc., Vero beach, Florida, www.pilebuck.com
&n)luen!e o) wter
When examining the influence of ground water on the magnitudes of earth pressure the
program GEO5 differentiates between restricted water and free water.
- 1estri!ted wter
This type is used in soils with lower permeability app. below the value of 0 @ 1*10
2<
c$?s. In
such soils the water flow is influenced, e.g. by actual grains (by their shape and roughness) or
by resistance of fraction of adhesive water. General formulas proposed by Mononobe-Okabe or
Arrango are used to analyze seismic effects. The only difference appears in substituting the
value of the seismic angle R by R
R
:
where: N
s%t
- unit weight of fully saturated soil
N
su
0
h
0
6
- Free wter
This type is used in soils with lower permeability app. above the value of 0 T 1*10
21
c$?s. In
such soils it is assumed that water flow in pores is more or less independent of soil grains (e.g.
turbulent flow in coarse grain soils). General formulas proposed by Mononobe-Okabe or
Arrango are used to analyze seismic effects. The only difference appears in substituting the
value of the seismic angle R
+

by R
+
I
:
- 528 -
where: N
d
- unit weight of dry soil
N
su
0
h
0
6
5
S
- specific gravity of soil particles
where: Z
S
- density of the soil solids
Z
:
- density of water
Apart from dynamic pressure the structure is also loaded by hydrodynamic pressure caused by
free water manifested by dynamic pressure applied to the structures. The actual parabolic
distribution is in the program approximated by the trapezoidal distribution.
The resultant of hydrodynamic pressure 1
:d
is distant by 9
:d
from the heel of structure:
where: S - height of the structure
and its magnitude follows from:
where: N
:
0
h
S - height of the structure
&n)luen!e o) )ri!tion .etween soil nd .!" o)
stru!ture
The magnitude of active or passive earth pressure, respectively, depends not only on the
selected solution theory but also on friction between the soil and the back of wall and by the
adhesion of soil to the structure face represented by the angle W. If W @ 0 then the pressure H
acts in the direction normal to the back of wall and the resultant of earth pressure 1 is also
directed in normal to the back of wall see figure:
- 529 -
Distribution of earth pressure along structure for W a 1
Providing the friction between the soil and the back of wall is considered in the analysis of
earth pressures, the earth pressure H and also its resultant 1 are inclined from the back of wall
by the angle W. Orientation of friction angles W from normal to the back of wall must be
introduced in accord with the mutual movement of structure and soil. With increasing value of
W the value of active earth pressure decreases, i.e. the resultant force of active earth pressure
deviates from the normal direction see figure:
Distribution of earth pressure along structure for W b 0
The magnitude W can be usually found in the range of W \ 1/< J to W @ 2/< J. The values of
orientation of the friction angle between the soil and the structure are stored in table of
values of W for various interfaces and in table of recommended values for || / J. The value of
W\ 1/< J can be used if assuming smooth treatment of the back of sheeting structure (foil and
coating against ground water). For untreated face it is not reasonable to exceed the value of
W @ 2/< J. When selecting the value of W it is necessary to reflect also other conditions,
particularly the force equation of equilibrium in the vertical direction. One should decide
whether the structure is capable of transmitting the vertical surcharge due to friction on its
back without excessive vertical deformation. Otherwise it is necessary to reduce the value of W,
since only partial mobilization of friction on the back of wall may occur. In case of uncertainty it
is always safer to assume smaller vale of W.
(.le o) ulti,te )ri!tion )!tors )or dissi,ilr
,terils
Values of the angle for different interfaces (after NAVFAC)
Interface material Friction factor
t# ()
Friction
angel
- 530 -
6ss !on!rete on the )ollowing )oundtion ,terils?
Clean sound roc- 0,G <7
Clean gra#el0 gra#el-sand mi(tures0 coarse sand 0,77 to 0,F 2" to <1
Clean fine to medium sand0 silt% medium to coarse sand0 silt%
or cla%e% gra#el
0,E7 to 0,77
Clean fine sand0 silt% or cla%e% fine to medium sand 0,<7 to 0,E7 1" to 2E
Fine sand% silt0 nonplastic silt 0,<0 to 0,<0 1G to 1"
)er% stiff and hard residual or preconsolidated cla% 0,E0 to 0,70 22 to2F
Medium stiff and stiff cla% and silt% cla% 0,<0 to 0,<7 1G to 1"
Steel sheet piles ginst the )ollowing soils?
Clean gra#el0 gra#el-sand mi(tures0 well-graded
roc- fill with spalls
0,E 22
Clean sand0 silt% sand-gra#el mi(ture0 single si$e
hard roc- fill
0,< 1G
ilt% sand0 gra#el or sand mi(ed with silt or cla% 0,27 1E
Fine sand% silt0 nonplastic silt 0,20 11
For,ed !on!rete or !on!rete sheet piling ginst the
)ollowing soils?
Clean gra#el0 gra#el-sand mi(ture0 well-graded
roc- fill with spalls
0,E0 to 0,70 22 to2F
Clean sand0 silt% sand-gra#el mi(ture0 single si$e
hard roc- fill
0,< to 0,E 1G to 22
ilt% sand0 gra#el or sand mi(ed with silt or clay 0,< 1G
Fine sand% silt0 nonplastic silt 0,27 1E
Vrious stru!turl ,terils?
Dressed soft roc- on dressed soft roc- 0,G <7
Dressed hard roc- on dressed soft roc- 0,F7 <<
Dressed hard roc- on dressed hard roc- 0,77 2"
Masonr% on wood 5Gross grain6 0,7 2F
teel on steel at sheet pile interloc-s 0,< 1G
(.le o) re!o,,ended +lues 85*(A#FT
.ecommended #alues || /J
- 531 -
Material Concrete Steel Wood
Surface Smooth Rough Smooth Rough Smooth Rough
Loose noncohesive soil 0,85 0,9 0,7 0,8 0,75 0,8
Firm noncohesive soil 0,8 0,8 0,6 0,7 0,7 0,7
Dense noncohesive soil 0,7 0,7 0,5 0,7 0,65 0,65
Silt 0,8 0,9 0,6 0,8 0,8 0,9
Clayey soil 0,8 0,9 0,5 0,7 0,7 0,8
Clay 0,8 0,9 0,5 0,6 0,6 0,7
Adhesion o) soil
When performing the analysis in the total stress state it is necessary not only to use the total
shear strength parameters of soil J
u
, c
u
but also to know the adhesion % of soil to the structure
face. The value of adhesion % is usually considered as a fraction of the soil cohesion c. The
typical values of % for a given range of the cohesion c are listed in the following table.
Common #alues of the adhesion of soil %
Soil Cohesion c -01%/ Adhesion % -01%/
Soft and very soft cohesive soil 0 - 12 0 12
Cohesive soil with medium consistency 12 - 24 12 24
Stiff cohesive soil 24 - 48 24 - 36
Hard cohesive soil 48 - 96 36 46
$r,eters o) ro!"s
Rock parameters of orientation with respect to strength of rock in pure compression
Compressive
strength of
rock
H
ci
[MPa]
Strength parameter of rock
after Hoek
$
i
[-]
GSI
[-]
Cohesion of rock
c [kPa]
Angle of internal friction
of rock
J []
150 25 75 7000 - 13000 46 - 68
80 12 50 3000 - 4000 30 - 65
50 16 75 2000 - 4000 40 - 60
30 15 65 1000 - 2000 40 - 60
20 8 30 400 - 600 20 - 44
15 10 24 300 - 500 24 - 38
5 10 20 90 - 100 23 - 28
- 532 -
Unlike soils (both cohesive and cohesionless) the magnitude of the angle of internal friction
(sometimes refer to as the angle of shear strength) varies and depends on the current state of
stress in the rock body. Graphically it is represented by the angle of the tangent to the
envelope of Mohr circles constructed for the ultimate stress state. The value of J gradually
decreases with the increasing value of stress H. If the elastic regime is exceeded (onset of
plastic deformation) we set J = 0. As a representative value of the angle of internal friction J
we denote the value J
0
associated with the stress H = 0. In practical applications the part of
the Mohr envelope between tensile R
t
and compressive R
d
circles is usually replaced by the
tangent to both circles (see Fig.) The magnitude of the angle of internal friction then follows
from:
Determination J
0
from Mohr circle
The angle of internal friction can be estimated by measuring angles of slip planes on remaining
parts of tested specimens together with the following formula:
Some values of orientation:
weathered sand conglomerate, lowly cracked 35 44
unweathered clay slate, medium cracked 30 - 40
unweathered tuff, medium cracked 33 42
unweathered diabase 39 50
unweathered phantanite, lowly cracked 45 52
9iled slopes
The program "9iled slopes" allows for the following verifications:
- verification of structure internal stability
- verification fictitious wall - the same as gravity wall
- verification of structure concrete cover
- verification nails bearing capacity
- verification of overall stability using the program FSlope st.ilit3F
Anl3sis o) nils .ering !p!it3
For each nail the following bearing capacities are either computed or inputted:
R
f
nail cap bearing capacity
R
t
nail strength against breaking
- 533 -
T
&
pull-out nail bearing capacity
Strength !hr!teristi!s o) nil represent the basic parameters to compute the actual
force in a nail.
(he tensile strength o) the nil follows from:
where: R
t
- strength against breaking
d
s
- nail diameter
f
9
- strength of nail material
SU
T
- factor of safety against breaking
(he pull<out resistn!e is provided by:
where: T
&
- pull-out nail bearing capacity
d - hole diameter
% - ultimate bond strength
SU
&
- factor of safety against pull-out
The nil hed strength is given by:
where: l - nail length
S
$%*
- maximum spacing of nails in a structure
R
t
- nail strength against breaking
T
&
Providing the nail is not anchored to the structure cap, it is possible set the nail cap bearing
capacity to zero.
5sti,ted .ond strength
Esti$%t+d No'd st,+'#th of soil '%ils i' soil %'d ,oc0 =sou,c+H Eli%s % Du,%', 1""1>
#ater$a% &o'struct$o'
method
(o$% ) rock t*pe +%t$mate ,o'd stre'gth
-
s
.k/a0
Roc0 Rot%,9 d,ill+d 3%,l ? li$+sto'+ <00 2 E00
1h9llit+ 100 2 <00
Ch%l0 700 2 F00
Soft dolo$it+ E00 2 F00
Fissu,+d dolo$it+ F00 2 1000
Q+%th+,+d s%'dsto'+ 200 2 <00
- 534 -
Q+%th+,+d sh%l+ 100 2 170
Q+%th+,+d schist 100 2 1G7
U%s%lt 700 2 F00
Sl%t+ ? h%,d sh%l+ <00 2 E00
Coh+sio'l+ss soils Rot%,9 d,ill+d S%'d ? #,%6+l 100 2 180
Silt9 s%'d 100 2 170
Silt E0 2 120
1i+d$o't ,+sidu%l E0 2 120
Fi'+ collu6iu$ G7 2 170
D,i6+' c%si'# S%'d ? #,%6+l
lo: o6+,Nu,d+'
hi#h o6+,Nu,d+'
1"0 2 2E0
280 2 E<0
D+'s+ $o,%i'+ <80 2 E80
Collu6iu$ 100 2 180
Au#+,+d Silt9 s%'d fill 20 2 E0
Silt9 fi'+ s%'d 77 2 "0
Silt9 cl%9+9 s%'d F0 2 1E0
D+t #,out+d S%'d <80
S%'d #,%6+l G00
Fi'+ 2 #,%i'+d soils Rot%,9 d,ill+d Silt9 cl%9 <7 2 70
D,i6+' c%si'# Cl%9+9 silt "0 2 1E0
Au#+,+d !o+ss 27 2 G7
Soft cl%9 20 2 <0
Stiff cl%9 E0 2 F0
Stiff cl%9+9 silt E0 2 100
C%lc%,+ous s%'d9 cl%9 "0 2 1E0
Not+H Co'6+,t 6%lu+s i' 01% to &sf N9 $ulti&l9i'# N9 20."
Co'6+,t 6%lu+s i' 01% to &si N9 $ulti&l9i'# N9 0.1E7
Anl3sis o) internl st.ilit3
An internal stability of a structure is checked assuming two types of a slip surface:
- plne slip sur)!e?
- 535 -
!lane slip surface
- .ro"en slip sur)!e?
7ro-en slip surface
In both cases a specific slip surface is examined for a variation of angle u.
When running an opti,i2tion analysis the calculation is carried out for all benches with a
variation of the angle of slip surface I changing from < up to Ac degrees with a one degree
step.
A verification analysis of internal stability can be performed using either the factor of safety of
the theory of limit states depending on the setting in the frame "Setting".
The analysis checks whether a ratio of resisting and shear (driving) forces acting on a slip
surface is greater than the inputted factor of safety. The following forces are employed:
Sher )or!es?
2
component of gravity force parallel to slip surface
2
in case of broken slip surface component of active earth pressure acting on vertical part
of structure and parallel to slip surface (pressure is determined without reduction of input
parameters)
2
horizontal forces due to earthquake
1esisting )or!es?
2
soil friction and cohesion along slip surface
2
sum of forces of transmitted by nails
For!e o) trns,itted .3 nils
The nail force is determined based on the location of its intersection with a slip surface. If a
nail is found completely in front of the slip surface, then it does not enter the calculation. If a
nail crosses the slip surface, then its force is determined as:
where: * - nail length behind slip surface in direction of soil body
9 - nail length in front of slip surface
R
f
- nail cap bearing capacity
- 536 -
R
t
- strength of nail against breaking
T
&
Distribution of tensile force along nail
F!tor o) s)et3
The analysis checks whether a ratio of resisting and sher (driving) forces acting on a slip
surface is greater than the inputted factor of safety.
A factor of safety on the inputted slips forces is thus provided by:
where: 5 - gravity force
S
%,s6
- vertical component of active pressure
S
%,6od
- horizontal component of active pressure
d
i
-
length of i
th
section slip surface
d - length of slip surface
- 537 -
F
h,'
-
bearing capacity of n
th
nail behind slip surface per 1m run
c
i
-
cohesion of i
th
soil layer
q
i
-
angle o internal friction of i
th
layer
_ - inclination of slip surface
d - inclination of nails from horizontal direction
(heor3 o) li,it sttes
The analysis checks whether pssi+e (resisting) )or!es %
p
acting on a slip surface are greater
than the !ti+e (shear) )or!es %
a
:
where: 5 - gravity force
S
%,s6
- vertical component of active pressure
S
%,6od
- horizontal component of active pressure
d
i
-
length of i
th
section slip surface
d - length of slip surface
F
h,'
-
bearing capacity of n
th
nail behind slip surface per 1m run
c
i
-
cohesion of i
th
soil layer
q
i
-
angle o internal friction of i
th
layer
_ - inclination of slip surface
d - inclination of nails from horizontal direction
Veri)i!tion o) .ering !p!it3 o) nils
This verification is required only in certain countries and is performed only when checked in the
frame "Setting". The magnitude of !ti+e erth pressure is reduced using a coefficient Q
'
,
which can also be introduced in the frame "Setting". The recommended (experimentally
determined) value is &
'
' 10AB.
Forces transmitted by individual nails are determined such that a particular portion of the
calculated earth pressure is assigned to gi+en .en!h. Each nail is then loaded by the
corresponding portion of the active earth pressure.
- 538 -
Forces transmitted b% indi#idual nails
The nil )or!e is provided by:
where: N - nail spacing
X - nail inclination
(
'
- reduction coefficient
T
%,6od
- active earth pressure acting on a given bench
8i,ensioning o) !on!rete !o+er
(he !on!rete !o+er o) niled slope is designed to sustain an active earth pressure. To
that end, the structure is assumed to be subdivided into individual intermediate design strips.
In the +erti!l dire!tion the nail cap is modeled as a support and joint between benches as
an internal hinge.
In the hori2ontl dire!tion the program generates (by default) a structure with five supports
uniformly loaded by the magnitude of active pressure up to a depth of the nail cap.
The program further allows for the verification of concrete cover reinfocement of a structure
loaded by the bending moment.
A scheme of constructing a design ,odel including loading is evident from figure:
- 539 -
Dimensioning of concrete co#er
Anl3sis o) wlls
Verification analysis of walls can be performed with the help of:
- theory of limit states
- factor of safety
In addition, the bearing capacity of foundation soil is examined for both cases.
Following forces are used in the verification:
- weight o) wll depends on the shape and unit weight of wall (for input use the
"6teril" dialogue window) uplift pressure is introduced for walls found below the
ground water table
- resistn!e on )ront )!e when inputting the resistance on front face the corresponding
force acts as the pressure at rest, or passive pressure or reduced passive pressure
- gravity forces of earth wedges an arbitrary number of these forces may occur depending
on the shape of structure
- active earth pressure or pressure at rest acting on the structure the basic loading of
structure due earth pressures - depending on the selected option in the frame "Settings"
the pressure is computed either with or without reduction of input soil parameters.
- force due to water effects or pore pressure, respectively
- forces due to surcharge a single force corresponds to each inputted surcharge. If the
magnitude of force due to surcharge is equal to zero (the surcharge has no effect on a
structure) then it does not appear in the picture but only in the table listing.
- inputted )or!es forces entering the analysis are displayed
- )or!es due to erthDu"e several forces enter the analysis due to earthquake
increase of earth pressure acting on a structure, reduction of passive pressure on the front
face of a structure, or force due to free water behind structure
- 540 -
- mesh step joints and georeinforcements are displayed and included providing they appear
in the analysis
- base anchorage of wall
1ein)or!e,ents
Reinforcements or overhangs of mesh behind the wall, respectively, may considerably increase
the wall stability. The basic parameter of reinforcement is the tensile strength R
t
. A design
value of this parameter is used in all programs (except for the RediRock wall program), i.e. the
tensile strength of reinforcement reduced by coefficients taking into account the effect of
durability, creep, environment chemistry and installation damage. The force transmitted by
reinforcement !n ne+er e'!eed the ssigned tensile strength 1
t
(a default value of E00N?
$ is used for gabions).
The second characteristic is the pull<out strength T
&
. This parameter determines the
anchoring length, i.e. the required length of reinforcement in the soil, for which the
reinforcement is fully stressed attaining the value R
t
. Since the realistic values of the pull-out
strength are difficult to determine, the program offers three options for their calculation,
respectively for the calculation of the force F transmitted by the reinforcement.
;ength of mesh step *oint or reinforcement behind bloc-s0 respecti#el%
Cl!ulte rein)or!e,ent .ering !p!it3
The pull-out force F is given by:
where: H - normal stress due to self weight at the intersection of mesh and slip surface
C - coefficient of interaction (0,8 by default)
l - length of mesh step joint behind the slip surface into the soil body
Computation of the angle _
%
is described in chapter earth wedge.
&nput rein)or!e,ent n!hor length %
k
An anchoring length l
0
is specified. This parameter is determined by the shear strength
developed between the mesh and the soil gradually increasing from zero to its limit value
(measured from the end of reinforcement fixed in soil).
- 541 -
where: l - length of mesh step joint behind the slip surface into the soil body
l
0
- anchoring length of reinforcement
R
t
- tensile strength
&nput ,esh pull<out resistn!e !
p
T
&
- pull-out resistance of mesh
&nternl sliding
This limit state evaluates the possibility of structure to slide along the reinforcement. For the
selected reinforcement the program sesrches for a critical slip surface in the range of E72"0
o
from the end of given reinforcement.
For each slip surfaces the program calculates the shear and resisting forces and performs
verification.
(he sher )or!es in!lude?
- active pressure on a fictitious wall
- forces due to surcharge behind the wall
(he resisting )or!es in!lude?
- resistance of the wall structure against slip (it is calculated as for the wall dimensioning)
- friction between reinforcement and the sliding block
- forces due to other reinforcements
The resisting force due to friction between georeinforcement and the sliding block is given by:
where: N - normal force acting on reinforcement (due to self weight of soil and
surcharge behind the fictitious wall)
J - angle of internal friction of soil surrounding the reinforcement
C
d
s
- coefficient of reduction of friction on reinforcement
The actual verification is then performed based on the input specified in the frame "Setting"
according to the theory of limit states of factor of safety: It has to hold:
resp.
- 542 -
where: F
,+s
- resisting force
F
%ct
- active force
SU
)%d
- required factor of safety
Bse n!horge
An anchorage of wall footing can be specified for cantilever walls. It is necessary to specify an
anchor location, dimensions of a drill hole, and spacing of anchors.
Two limit states of bearing capacity are defined for an anchor .ering !p!it3 ginst
pulling<out 1
e
(0N?$) and strength o) n!hor 1
t
(0N). Final force is determine as minimum
of these forces.
7ase anchorage
Bearing capacities can be either input or computed from the input values using the following
expressions:
where: T
&
- pull-out resistance
d - drill hole diameter
% - ultimate bond
FS
&
- safety factor against pulling-out
where: R
T
- strength of anchor
d
s
- anchor diameter
f
9
- yield strength of anchor
FS
T
- safety factor against pulling-apart
Approximate values of bearing capacity against pulling-out
- 543 -
Material Ultimate
bond
d4/mm
2
e
Ultimate strength for nominated hole dia d-4/me
65 mm 75 mm 90 mm 100 mm 150 mm
Soft shale 0,21 -
0,83
42 - 169 49 - 195 59 - 234 65 - 260 98 - 391
Sandstone 0,83 -
1,73
169 - 350 195 - 407 234 - 486 260 - 543 391 - 562
Slate, Hard
Shale
0,86 -
1,38
175 - 281 202 - 325 243 - 390 270 - 433 405 - 562
Soft Limestone 1,00 -
1,52
204 - 310 235 - 358 282 - 429 314 - 477 471 - 562
Granite, Basalt 1,72 -
3,10
351 - 562 405 - 562 486 - 562 540 - 562 562 - 562
Concrete 1,38 -
2,76
281 - 562 325 - 562 390 - 562 433 - 562 562 - 562
Veri)i!tion 0 li,it sttes
After computing forces acting on the structure the program determines the overall vertical and
horizontal forces F
6
and F
h
, computes the forces acting in the footing bottom (normal force N
and tangent force T):
Forces acting in the footing bottom
Next the program performs verification for overturning stability and translation. For walls with
a flat footing bottom and specified jump it is possible to account for the wall jump either in the
form of pressure acting on the front face or by considering a wall with an inclined footing
bottom.
Che!" )or o+erturning st.ilit3 (the moment rotates around the point B of the wall - see
picture)?
where: 3
o6,
- overturning moment
N
s
- coefficient of overall stability of structure
3
,+s
- resisting moment
- 544 -
Che!" )or slip?
where: N - normal force acting in the footing bottom
J
d
- design angle of friction structure-soil
c
d
- design cohesion structure-soil
d - width of wall heel
+ - eccentricity
N
s
T - tangent force acting in the footing bottom
where eccentricity +:
where: 3
o6,
3
,+s
- resisting moment
N - normal force acting in the footing bottom
d - width of wall heel
Veri)i!tion < )!tor o) s)et3
After computing forces acting on the structure the program determines the overall vertical and
horizontal forces F
6
and F
h
, computes the forces acting in the footing bottom (normal force N
and tangent force T):
Forces acting at the footing bottom
Next the program performs verification for overturning stability and translation. For walls with
a flat footing bottom and specified jump it is possible to account for the wall jump either in the
form of pressure acting on the front facel or by considering a wall with an inclined footing
bottom.
Che!" )or o+erturning st.ilit3? (the moment rotates around the point B of the wall - see
picture)
- 545 -
where: 3
o6,
-overturning moment
3
,+s
-resisting moment
FS -factor of safety against overturning
Che!" )or slip?
where: N -normal force acting in the footing bottom
J -angle of friction structure of soil
c -cohesion structure-soil
d -width of wall heel
+ -eccentricity
f -coefficient of overall stability of structure
FS -factor of safety against translation
where eccentricity +:
where: 3
o6,
-overturning moment
3
,+s
-resisting moment
N -normal force acting in the footing bottom
The "Settings" dialogue window serves to assign the factors of safety FS (standard values are
set to <0B).
A!!ounting )or wll ;u,p
Two options are available to account for the foundation wall jump in the analysis as shown in
the figure.
Options to account for wall *ump
If the jump is assumed as an in!lined )ooting .otto,, then a new shape of the footing
bottom is considered and the structure front face resistance is included only up to a depth of
the wall front face.
- 546 -
If the jump influence is considered as a )ront )!e resistn!e the analysis assumes a flat
footing bottom (as if there was no jump), but the structure front face resistance included up to
a depth of jump. In such a case computation of the structure front face resistance must also
be inputted otherwise the jump influence is neglected.
The jump introduced below the wall foundation is always considered as a structure front face
resistance.
,ssuming wall *ump in the middle
8i,ensioning o) ,sonr3 wll !!ording to 59
199L<1<1
The reinforced masonry is verified for the loading caused by the combination of the
compressive normal force and the bending moment and for the loading due to the shear force.
Veri)i!tion )or pressure nd .ending
Analysis assumptions:
- plane cross-sections remain plane
- the strain of steel is the same as the strain of the attached masonry
- the compressive strength of masonry is assumed equal to zero
- the limit strain of masonry in compression is 0.00<7
- the limit strain of steel in tension is 0.01
- variation of stress as a function of strain of masonry is assumed parabolic-rectangular
- variation of stress as a function of strain of steel is assumed bounded by a horizontal upper
branch
- the properties of filling concrete are considered the same as the properties of masonry (it
is necessary to use the worse of the two materials)
- design strength of masonry (concrete) is provided by:
where: f
0
- characteristic strength of masonry (concrete) - shear force
y
3
- 1,8
- if the slenderness ratio given by the ratio of the height and width of the wall is greater than
12, the effect of the II-nd order theory is considered by including and additional design
bending moment given by:
- 547 -
where: N
Ed
- design value of the normal force
h
+f
- buckling height of wall
t - wall thickness
- If the slenderness ratio is greater than 2G, then it is not possible to perform the analysis
and it is necessary by changing geometry to obtain more favorable slenderness ratio.
Veri)i!tion )or sher
kde: ;
Ed
- design value of the shear force
h
+f
- design value of the shear strength of masonry (concrete)
t - wall thickness
l - wall length 1$ run
8i,ensioning o) ,sonr3 wll !!ording to AS 7IMM
Reinforced masonry is verified for loading due to bending moment, shear force and
combination of compressive normal force and bending moment. When loading due normal
force is considered, it is necessary to specify also the slenderness ratio S
,
.
8esign )or ,e,.ers in !o,pression nd .ending
where: F
d
- the design compression force acting on the cross-section
q - the capacity reduction factor - 10>B
0
s
- a reduction factor taken as 1,18 - 0,03 S
,
but not greater than 1,0
fV
uc
- the characteristic uncofined compressive strength of masonry
fV
$
- the characteristic compressive strength of masonry
A
N
- the bedded area of the masonry cross-section
f
s9
- the design yield strength of reinforcement
A
s
- the total cross-sectional area of main reinforcement
8esign )or ,e,.ers in .ending
- 548 -
where: 3
d
- the design bending moment acting on the cross-section of member
J - the capacity reduction factor - 10>B
f
s9
A
sd
- the portion of the cross-sectional area of the main tensile reinforcement
used for design purposes in a reinforced masonry member
the lesser of and A
st
fV
$
- the characteristic compressive strength of masonry
d - the effective depth of the reinforced masonry member
f
uc
- the characteristic uncofined compressive strength of masonry
%ut<o)<plne sher in wll
A reinforced wall subject to out-of-plane shear shall be such that:
but not more than:
where: ;
d
- the design shear force acting on the cross-section of the masonry wall
J - the capacity reduction factor - 10>B
fV
6$
- the characteristic shear strength of reinforced masonry - 10"B Mpa
d - the effective depth of the reinforced masonry wall
f
6s
- the design shear strength of main reinforcement - <>0B Mpa
f
s9
A
st
- the cross-sectional area of fully anchored longitudinal reinforcement in
the tension zone of the cross-section
Bering !p!it3 o) )oundtion soil
Verification analysis of the bearing capacity of foundation soil takes into account forces
obtained from all already performed verifications of the overall stability of structure (limit
states, factor of safety). To that end, the following relationships are used:
where: N -normal force acting in the footing bottom
R
d
-bearing capacity of foundation soil
+ -eccentricity
- 549 -
+
%l
:
-allowable eccentricity
-ll di,ensioning
After computing forces acting on the structure the program determines all internal forces in the
verified cross-section (normal force N, shear force W and moment 3) and then verifies the
cross-section bearing capacity employing one of the standards selected in the Frame
"$ro;e!t".
Only the forces found above the verified joint (see figure) are assumed for dimensioning.
These forces are not multiplied by any design coefficients.
Forces entering the anal%sis
(he )ront ;u,p o) wll as well as the back jusmp of wall is verified against the loading
caused by the bending moment and shear force. Stress in the footing bottom can be assumed
either !onstnt (CSN) or liner (EC).
Assuming liner +rition o) stress in the footing bottom the distribution of stress is
provided by:
or when excluding tension:
where: + - eccentricity of normal force N
d - width of wall foundation
N - normal force acting in the footing bottom (see verification according to
limit states or factor of safety, respectively)
Bending moment and shear force are determined as reaction developed on the cantilever beam
as shown in figure:
+nternal forces acting on wall *ump
- 550 -
Veri)i!tion o) the .!" ;u,p of wall (top tensile reinforcement in the wall jump,
respectively) is performed only in some countries and usually is not required. The programs
"Cantilever wall" and "Reinforced wall" allow in version 5.5 for designing the reinforcement in
the back jump of wall. The cross-section is then assumed to be loaded by the self weight of
structure, earth wedge, surcharge, anchorage force and the force associated with contact
pressure in the soil. Forces due to pressure are accounted for only if having a negative impact.
Forces introduced by the user are not reflected at all.
The cross-section is checked against the loading caused by the bending moment and shear
force.
&nternl st.ilit3 o) g.ion
The internal stability of gabion wall can be examined with the help of:
- the theory of limit states
- factor of safety
Verification of joints between individual blocks is performed in the "8i,ensioning" dialogue
window. The structure above the block is loaded by active pressure and corresponding forces
are determined in the same way as for the verification of the entire wall. A loose filling is used
in the analysis not hand-placed rockfill but its effect can be simulated using a very high
angle of internal friction. It can be assumed that after some time due to action of filling
aggregate the stress in meshes will drop down. Individual sections of the gabion wall are
checked for the maximum normal and shear stress. With the help of these variables it is
possible to modify the slope of structure face by creating terraces or by increasing the slope of
face of wall d.
Assu,ing loding pplied to the .otto, .lo!" is schematically represented as:
;oading on the bottom bloc-
Normal stress in the center of the bottom block is given by:
where: N - normal resultant of loading acting on the bottom block
U - width of upper block
+ - eccentricity
3 - moment acting on the bottom block
h - height of bottom block
N - unit weight of the bottom block material
- 551 -
X - gabion slope
$ressure !ting on the wll o) the .otto, .lo!" is determined an increased active
pressure:
where: J
d
- design angle of internal friction of the bottom block material
c
d
- design cohesion of the bottom block material
N - unit weight of material of the bottom block
X - gabion slope
T - average value of pressure acting on face of the bottom block
H - maximal normal stress acting on the bottom block
-idths o) ,eshes o) the .otto, .lo!" per one meter run of the gabion wall are:
where: D
ho,
- width of upper mesh between blocks loaded in tension
D
c+l0
- overall width of meshes loaded in compression T
6 - spacing of vertical meshes
The program allows for analysis of gabions with both simple and double mesh placed between
blocks. For double meshes the inputted tensile strength of mesh (the "5dit ,teril" dialogue
window) should be twice as large as the value assumed for simple meshes.
- 552 -
Geometr% of gabions
&nternl st.ilit3 o) g.ion wll 0 li,it sttes
Reduced parameters of the gabion material, which depend on the coefficients set in the
"Settings" dialogue window, are used in the verification analysis.
) Che!" )or o+erturning st.ilit3?
where: 3
o6,
3
,+s
- resisting moment
.) Che!" )or slip?
where: N - normal force acting on the upper joint of the bottom block
J
d
- design angle of internal friction of the bottom block material
c
d
- design cohesion of the bottom block material
W - shear force
!) Che!" )or .ering !p!it3 with respe!t to the lterl pressure?
where: T - average value of pressure acting on the face of bottom block
S - force per one meter run joint
S
u
- joint bearing capacity (for input use the "6teril" dialogue window)
- 553 -
N - width = <m
d) Che!" )or .ering !p!it3 o) ;oint .etween .lo!"s?
where: N
d
- tensile force per one meter run of the upper joint of the bottom block
N
u
- strength of mesh (for input use the "6teril" dialogue window)
W
t,
- shear force transmitted by friction and cohesion between blocks
(
t
- coefficient of reduction of friction between blocks (for input use the
"Setting" dialogue window default value is 10OO)
&nternl st.ilit3 o) g.ion wll 0 )!tor o) s)et3
The following cases are assumed when examining the internal stability of the gabion wall using
the concept of factor of safety:
) Che!" )or o+erturning st.ilit3?
where: 3
o6,
3
,+s
- resisting moment
FS
o6,
- factor of safety against overturning
.) Che!" )or slip?
!) Che!" )or .ering !p!it3 with respe!t to the lterl pressure?
where: T - average value of pressure acting on face of the bottom block
S - force per one meter run joint
S
u
- joint bearing capacity (for input use the "6teril" dialogue window)
FS
$+sh
- factor of safety of stressed mesh (for input use the "Settings" dialogue
window default value is <=B)
N - width = <m
d) Che!" )or .ering !p!it3 o) ;oint .etween .lo!"s?
- 554 -
where: N
d
- tensile force per one meter run of the upper joint
N
u
- strength of mesh (for input use the "6teril" dialogue window)
FS
$+s
h
- factor of safety of stressed mesh (for input use the "Settings" dialogue
window default value is <=B)
W
t,
- shear force transmitted by friction and cohesion between blocks
0
t
- coefficient of reduction of friction between blocks (for input use the
"Setting" dialogue window default value is 10OO)
Cl!ulting .ut,ent )or!es
OpraAn abutment is analyzed per 1m 5<ft6 run. All forces entering the analysis are therefore
adjusted in the program as follows:
- the .ut,ent sel) weight, assumed per <m 5<ft6 run, is calculated from the inputted
transverse cross-section
- re!tions inserted .3 the .ridge nd the ppro!h sl. are inputted
in -4 5-pi6 using the values for the whole abutment, these values are in the analysis
divided by the .ut,ent length
- soil pressure is determined per <m 5<ft6 run and then reduced by the ratio length o)
lod due to soil # .ut,ent length,
- weight o) soil wedges is determined per <m (1ft) run and then reduced by the
ratio length o) lod due to soil # .ut,ent length,
- sur!hrge is determined per 1m 5<ft6 run and then reduced by the ratio length o) lod
due to soil # .ut,ent length,
- inputted )or!es and )ront )!e resistn!e are assumed per 1m run without reduction
- wing wlls the wing walls self-weight is computed from their geometry; before
introduced in the stem design and foundation verification it is divided by the .ut,ent
length (it is the user responsibility to either include or exclude the effect of wing walls in
from the analysis).
Computation of individual abutment forces is described in more details in chapter "Wall
analyses".
All forces acting in the foundation joint that are introduced in the verification analysis (except
for the front face resistance) are reduced by the ratio .ut,ent length # )oundtion
length.
- 555 -
Geometri% of bridge abutment
1edu!ed pssi+e erth pressure
Evolution of passive earth pressure H
&
corresponds to the maximal displacement of a structure
pushed into the soil. Such a displacement might not, however, occur (e.g. in the case of fixed
sheeting structures) and the structure is loaded by the reduced passive earth pressure H
&s
. The
value of reduced passive earth pressure H
&s
can range from the value of earth pressure at rest
H
,
(in the case of zero deformation) up to the value of passive earth pressure H
&
. Figure shows
the dependence of values of earth pressure of a cohesionless soil (soil resistance) on the actual
displacement d

to maximal displacement d
$%*
ratio (when activating passing earth pressure
H
&
).
Dependence of earth pressure #alues on the ratio of actual structure deformation
Sheeting design
Analyses in the program "Sheeting design" can be divided into three groups:
- analysis of anchor free walls (e.g. sheet pile wall)
- analysis of anchored walls fixed in heel
- analysis of anchored walls simply supported at heel
Analysis of braced sheeting is also available in the program.
- 556 -
Anl3sis o) sheet pile wll
A sheet pile wall is analyzed using standard approach that account for effect of earth pressures
(in general, the active earth pressure develops behind the structure while the passive earth
pressure appears in front of the structure).
Based on the theor3 o) li,it sttes the program searches in an iterative way a point on the
wall to satisfy the moment equation of equilibrium in the form:
3
o6+,tu,'i'#
a 3
,+sisti'#
Once this is accomplished, the program continues by determining the wall heel location for
which the equilibrium of shear forces is fulfilled (computation of depth of fixed end). This way
is found the overall length of the analyzed structure.
When applying approach based on the )!tor o) s)et3 the program searches in an iterative
way a point to get:
It is obvious that the distribution of internal forces resulting from this approach is not very
realistic. In some countries, however, this approach is required.
The computation can be driven either by choosing a minimal dimensioning pressure or by
reduction of pssi+e pressure. Assuming the actual magnitude of the passive earth pressure
provides deformations of the analyzed structure, which cannot usually occur. The actual
passive pressure can attain for walls free of deformation the value of pressure at rest as well
as all intermediate values up to the value of passive pressure for fully deformed wall (rotation
app. <1 m.ad i.e. deformation <1 mm per <m of structure height). Therefore it is reasonable
to consider reduced values of the passive earth pressure setting the value of the "Coe))i!ient
o) redu!tion o) pssi+e pressure" to less than or equal to one. The following values are
recommended:
0,67 reduces deformations app. by one half,
0,5 approximately corresponds to deformation of structure loaded by increased active earth
pressure,
0,33 approximately corresponds to deformation of structure loaded the pressure at rest,
structure reaches app. 20 percent of its original deformations.
Anl3sis o) n!hored wll )i'ed in heel
Anchored wall fixed in heel is analyzed as a continuous beam using the deformation variant of
the finite element method such as to comply with the assumption of heel fixed in the soil. The
actual analysis is preceded by the determination of load due to earth pressure applied to the
structure. The pressure acting on the back of a structure is assumed as active pressure, while
the front face is loaded by passive pressure.
The passive pressure can be reduced with the help of the !oe))i!ient o) redu!tion o)
pssi+e pressure. Assuming the actual magnitude of the passive earth pressure provides
deformations of the analyzed structure, which cannot usually occur. The actual passive
pressure can attain for walls free of deformation the value of pressure at rest as well as all
intermediate values up to the value of passive pressure for fully deformed wall (rotation app.
<1 m.ad i.e. deformation <1 mm per <m of structure height). Therefore it is reasonable to
consider reduced values of the passive earth pressure setting the value of the "Coe))i!ient o)
redu!tion o) pssi+e pressure" to less than or equal to one. The following values are
recommended:
0,33 deformations attain approximately twenty percent of their original values.
The program offers two options to deter,ine !ti+e pressure:
- calculation from inputted soil parameters, water, surcharge, terrain including introduction
of the minimal dimensioning pressure
- 557 -
- inputting an arbitrary distribution of earth pressure up to the depth of zero point (this way
it is possible to introduce an arbitrary redistribution of earth pressure)
Zero-value point, i.e. the point at which the overall pressure equals zero is determined by the
following expression:
where: u - depth of zero-value point
H
%
- magnitude of active pressure behind structure at the ditch bottom
( - coefficient of overall pressure
N - unit weight of soil below the ditch bottom
The analysis of structure fixed at heel assumes that the point of zero loading N (at depth u) is
identical with the point of zero moment. For the actual analysis the structure is divided into
two parts an upper part (upper beam) up to zero-value point and a lower beam:
,nal%sis of anchored wall fi(ed in heel
The upper beam is analyzed first together with evaluation of anchor forces F and the reaction
force R at the zero-value point. Then, the lower beam length * is determined such that the
moment equilibrium condition with respect to the heel is satisfied (the beam is loaded by the
reaction R and by the difference of earth pressures). To satisfy the shear force equilibrium the
computed length of fixed end is extended by the value T( as shown in figure:
Determination of the e(tension of the length of wall b% *
Anl3sis o) n!hored wll si,pl3 supported t heel
Anchored wall fixed in heel is analyzed as a continuous beam using the deformation variant of
- 558 -
the finite element method such as to comply with the assumption of simply supported
structure at heel. The actual analysis is preceded by the determination of load due to earth
pressure applied to the structure. The pressure acting on the back of a structure is assumed as
active presure, while the front face is loaded by passive pressure.
The passive pressure can be reduced with the help of the !oe))i!ient o) redu!tion o)
pssi+e pressure. Assuming the actual magnitude of the passive earth pressure provides
deformations of the analyzed structure, which cannot usually occur. The actual passive
pressure can attain for walls free of deformation the value of pressure at rest as well as all
intermediate values up to the value of passive pressure for fully deformed wall (rotation app.
<1 m.ad i.e. deformation <1 mm per <m of structure height). Therefore it is reasonable to
consider reduced values of the passive earth pressure setting the value of the "Coe))i!ient o)
redu!tion o) pssi+e pressure" to less than or equal to one. The following values are
recommended:
0,33 deformations attain approximately twenty percent of their original values.
The program offers two options to deter,ine !ti+e pressure:
- calculation from inputted soil parameters, water, surcharge, terrain including introduction of
the minimal dimensioning pressure
- inputting an arbitrary distribution of earth pressure up to the depth of zero point (this way it
is possible to introduce an arbitrary redistribution of earth pressure).
Zero-value point, i.e. the point at which the overall pressure equals zero is determined by the
following expression:
where: u - depth of zero-value point
H
%
- magnitude of active pressure behind structure at the ditch bottom
( - coefficient of overall pressure
N - unit weight of soil below the ditch bottom
For simply supported structures it is assumed that the moment and shear force are zero at the
heel. The program first places the end of a structure into the zero-value point, and then it
looks for the end beam location *, where the above condition is fulfilled (see Fig.). Solution
procedure for multiplied anchored walls is identical.
,nal%sis of anchored wall simpl% supported at heel
Sheeting !he!"
The program evaluates the inputted structure using the method of dependent pressures. The
loading applied to the structure is derived from its deformation, which allows for realistic
- 559 -
modeling of its behavior and provides cost effective designs. The analysis correctly accounts
for the !onstru!tion pro!ess such as individual stages of progressive construction of the wall
(stges o) !onstru!tions) including gradual evolution of deformations and post-stressing of
anchors, makes possible to model braced sheeting.
The use of the method of dependent pressures requires determination of the modulus of
subsoil reaction, which is assumed either linear or nonlinear.
The program also allows the user to check internal stability of the anchorage system.
The actual analysis is carried out using the deformation variant of the finite element method.
Displacements, internal forces and the modulus of subsoil reaction are evaluated at individual
nodes.
The following procedure for dividing the structure into finite elements is assumed:
- first, the nodes are inserted into all topological points of a structure (starting and end
points, points of location of anchors, points of soil removal, points of changes of cross-
sectional parameters),
- based on selected subdivision the program computes the remaining nodes such that all
elements attain approximately the same size.
A value of the modulus of subsoil reaction is assigned to each element it is considered as the
Winkler spring of the elastic subsoil. Supports are placed onto already deformed structure
each support then represents a forced displacement applied to the structure. Anchors, in the
load case at which they were introduced or post-stressed, are considered as forces (variant I in
Fig). In other load cases, the anchors are modeled as forces and springs of stiffness 0 (variant
II. in Fig):
7raced sheeting
The change of anchor force due to deformation is provided by:
where: 6 -horizontal distance between anchors
T: -increment of deformation at the point of anchor application
E -anchor Youngs modulus
A -anchor cross-sectional area
l -anchor length
0 -anchor stiffness
- 560 -
X -anchor inclination
6ethod o) dependent pressures
The basic assumption of the method is that the soil or rock in the vicinity of wall behaves as
ideally elastic-plastic Winkler material. This material is determined by the modulus of subsoil
reaction 0
h
, which characterizes the deformation in the elastic region and by additional limiting
deformations. When exceeding these deformations the material behaves as ideally plastic.
The following assumptions are used:
- the pressure acting on a wall may attain an arbitrary value between active and passive
pressure but it cannot fall outside of these bounds,
- the pressure at rest acts on an undeformed structure (:@0).
The pressure acting on a deformed structure is given by:

where: H
,
-pressure at rest
0
h
-modulus of subsoil reaction
: -deformation of structure
H
%
-active earth pressure
H
&
-passive earth pressure
The computational procedure is as follows:
- the modulus of subsoil reaction 0
h
is assigned to all elements and the structure is loaded
by the pressure at rest see figure:
cheme of structure before first iteration
- the analysis is carried out and the condition for allowable magnitudes of pressures acting
on the wall is checked. In locations at which these conditions are violated the program
assigns the value of 0
h
@0 and the wall is loaded by active or passive pressure, respectively
see figure:
- 561 -
cheme of structure during the process of iteration
The above iteration procedure continues until all required conditions are satisfied.
In analyses of subsequent stages of construction the program accounts for plastic deformation
of the wall. This is also the reason for specifying individual stges o) !onstru!tion that
comply with the actual construction process.
The following options are available in the program to introduce the modulus of subsoil
reactions:
- in the )or, o) distri.ution (the assumed distribution of the modulus of subsoil reaction in
front and behind the structure is inputted)
- s soil pr,eter with a respective value (either linear or nonlinear)
- according to Schmitt
- according to CUR166
- according to Mnard
- according to Chadeisson
- iterate using deformation characteristics of soils
The modulus of horizontal reaction of a soil body generally corresponds to spring stiffness in
the Winkler model describing the relation between load applied to a rigid plate and the
resulting soil deformation in the form:
where: & - load acting along plate-soil interface
0 - stiffness of Winkler spring
9 - translation of plate into subsoil
- 562 -

Definition of the modulus of subsoil reaction
6odulus o) su.soil re!tion !!ording to CU1 1LL
The following table stores the values of the modulus of subsoil reaction derived from
experimental measurements carried out in Nederland (described in CUR 166). The table offers
secant modules, which are in the program directly transformed into secant modules of subsoil
reaction see nonlinear modulus of subsoil reaction.
0
h,1
=0N?$
<
>
&
0
O &
h
O 0,7 &
&%s
0
h,2
=0N?$
<
>
0,7 &
&%s
X &
h
X0,8
&
&%s
0
h,<
=0N?$
<
>
0,7 &
&%s
X &
h
X 1,0
Snd
loose
medium dense
dense
12000 - 27000
20000 - 45000
40000 - 90000
6000 - 13500
10000 - 22500
20000 - 45000
3000 - 6750
5000 - 11250
10000 - 22500
Cl3
soft
stiff
very stiff
2000 - 4500
4000 - 9000
6000 - 13500
800 - 1800
2000 - 4500
4000 - 9000
500 - 1125
800 - 1800
2000 - 4500
$et
soft
stiff
1000 - 2250
2000 - 4500
500 - 1125
800 - 1800
250 - 560
500 - 1125
where: &
0
-
value of pore pressure at rest in -4/m
2
&
&%s
-
passive pore pressure in -4/m
2
&
h
-
horizontal pressure in -4/m
2
corresponding to a given shift of a structure
- 563 -
Diagram of determination of the modulus of subsoil reaction
;iteratureM
C9. <OO Damwandconstructies0 a#ailable at Ci#ieltechnisch Centrum 9it#oering .esearch en
.egelge#ingM !=O=7o( ?210 2A11 ,Q Gouda 54;6
6odulus o) su.soil re!tion !!ording to S!h,itt
This analysis draws on the relation between oedometric modulus and stiffness of the structure
introduced by Schmitt in Revue Francaise de Gotechnique n
o
71 and 74:
where: E+ -structure stiffness
E
o+d
-oedometric modulus
;iteratureM
chmitt= !=5<ccB6= "Estimating the coefficient of subgrade reaction for diaphragm wall and
sheet pile wall design"0 in French= .e#ue Frangaise de Ghotechni8ue0 4= ><0 2i trimestre <ccB0
"-<1
6odulus o) su.soil re!tion !!ording to 6Snrd
Based on the results from experimental measurements (presiometer) of soil response loaded
by rigid plate Mnard derived the following expression:
where: E
3
-presiometric modulus, if necessary it can be substituted by oedometric
modulus of soil
a -characteristic length depending on a depth of fixed-end structure, according
to Mnard assumed at a depth of 2/3 of length of fixed-end structure below
- 564 -
final depth of sheeted ditch
d -rheological coefficient of soil
Values of rheological coefficient of soil d:
Clay Silt Sand Gravel
Overconsolidated 1 2/3 1/2 1/3
Normally consolidated 2/3 1/2 1/3 1/4
Non-consolidated 1/2 1/2 1/3 1/4
;iteratureM
Menard ;=0 <c>B0 "The Menard !ressuremeterM +nterpretation and ,pplication of the
!ressuremeter Test .esults to Foundations Design"0 ols-oils0 4o= 2O0 !aris0 France=
6odulus o) su.soil re!tion !!ording to Chdeisson
Based on measurements on sheeting structures in different soils and computation of a shift of
structure needed to mobilize the limit value of passive pressure R. Chadeisson derived
expression for the determination of the modulus of subsoil reaction in the form:
where: EI - structure stiffness
(
&
- coefficient of passive pressure
(
0
- coefficient of soil pressure at rest
c
V - effective cohesion
A
&
- coefficient of influence of cohesion (1 - 15)
;iteratureM
Chadeisson0 .= <cO< !arois continues moulhes dans le sols= !roceedings of the B
th
European
Conf= on oil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering0)ol= 2= Dunod0 !aris0 BO"-BOA"
6odulus o) su.soil re!tion deri+ed )ro, itertions
The program allows for automatic calculation of the modulus of subsoil reaction from
deformational characteristics of soil from iteration process. The procedure builds on the
assumption that deformation of the elastic subspace characterized by the deformation modulus
Ed+f dM!ae when changing the stress state associated with the change of earth pressures is the
same as deformation of the underground wall.
The goal therefore is to find such values of 0
h
[M4/m"] so that the continuity of deformations
of wall and adjacent soil is maintained. $lsti! de)or,tion o) stru!ture is not !onsidered
- 565 -
when performing analysis with 0
h
iteration. This approach is schematically cleared by
computing the modulus of subsoil reaction of the i
th
segment of wall free of anchor, see figure:
Determination of modulus of subsoil reaction of i
th
segment
For change of stress H
,
-H the program determines uniform loading H
ol
[M!a] of individual
segments of a structure. Next, the overall change of stress passing the i
th
segment (H
i
@l
[M!a@m]) is computed. This change is caused by additional loading of the soil body due to
segments < to n (H
ol,1
- H
ol,'
). The overall change of stress TH
i
is reduced by structural
strength $
i
H
o,,i
[M!a]. The new value of the spring stiffness then follows from:
where: Ed+f -deformation modulus of elastic subspace
H
ol
-uniform load applied to segments of structure
H
i
l -
overall change of stress behind i
th
segment of structure
The change of stress inside the soil body is determined according to Boussinesque. Inserting
the new value of 0 directly into the next calculation would cause instable iteration therefore
the value of 0 that is introduced into the next analysis of the wall is determined from the
original value of 0
&
and the new value of 0
'
of the modulus of subsoil reaction.
where: 0
&
-original value of modulus of subsoil reaction
0
'
-new value of modulus of subsoil reaction
Maximum modulus of the subsoil reaction of the i
th
layer is limited by the value:
where: Ed+
f,i
-
deformation modulus of i
th
layer
The iterative procedure used when computing the modulus of subsoil reaction is as follows:
1) Determine the matrix of influence values for deriving change of stress in a depth of the soil
body passing the i
th
segment of a structure due to surcharge caused by the change of stress in
other segments.
2) The first approximation of the modulus 0
h
in front of the wall is introduced a triangular
distribution of values at the wall heel 0
h
a <1 M4/m
<
is assumed.
- 566 -
3) Perform analysis of the wall.
4) Compute new values of 0
h
and determine new values for the next analysis.
5) The dialogue window to check iteration appears and the program resumes till the next
command. If the next n iterations are selected, the steps 3 and 4 are repeated ntimes to
arrive again at the step No. 5. The analysis is terminated in this dialogue window by pressing
the "Stop" button.
This iterative process is controlled by the user her or she has to decide whether the results
make sense.
Veri)i!tion o) internl st.ilit3 o) stru!ture
The internal stability of an anchorage system of sheeting is determined for each layer
independently. The verification analysis determines an anchor force, which equilibrates the
system of forces acting on a block of soil. The block is outlined by sheeting, terrain, line
connecting the heel of sheeting with anchor root and by a vertical line passing through the
center of anchor root and terrain. The analysis is performed per one meter run of a sheeting
structure. Anchor forces are therefore computed with respect to their spacing in individual
layers.
,nal%sis of internal stabilit%
Scheme for verification of the i
th
layer of anchors is shown in figure. The force equilibrium for
the block ,7CD is being determined. The following forces enter the analysis:
E
A
- resultant of active earth pressure acting on sheeting (on line ,D)
E
Ai
- resultant of active earth pressure above the root of verified anchor (on line 7C)
5
i
- weight of the soil block ,7CD; in addition, this value incorporates the surcharge &
applied on the ground surface providing the slope q of slip surface ,7 is greater
than an average value of the angle of internal friction on this surface; in case of a
smaller slope of slip surface ,7 the ground surchage is not considered
C
i
- resultant of soil cohesion on slip surface ,7
- 567 -
F
Y
, F
0
,
.
- forces developed in other anchors; only some of them enter the equilibrium analysis
of the i
th
layer, whether a given anchor (say the $
th
one) will enter the equilibrium
of the i
th
block is determined as follows:
from two anchors m, i select the lower one, a plane slip surface, inclined by ?B
o
-J
'
/
2 from a vertical line, is placed in a body such that it passes through the center of
the selected anchor (lines ab and 7c in figure), J
'
is an average value of the angle
of internal friction above the root of lower anchor location of the root of anchor
found above the inserted slip surface is then decisive, if the i
th
root is found above
the $
th
one and the i
th
root is located outside the block cut by the slip surface, then
the $
th
anchor force is included into the analysis and vice versa, figure shows an
example in which the force F
Y
is included while the force F
0
is excluded from the
stability analysis of the i
th
block
W
i
- reaction on slip surface ,7
F
i
force in the analyzed anchor, the maximum allowable magnitude of this force is the
result of the equilibrium analysis carried out for the i
th
block
Solution of the equilibrium problem for a given block requires writing down vertical and
horizontal force equations of equilibrium. These represent a system of two equations to be
solved for the unknown subsoil reaction W
i
and the maximum allowable magnitude of the
anchor force F
i
. The stability analysis then provides a factor of safety for each layer of anchors.
The factor of safety for the i
th
layer of anchors is found as a ratio of the allowable force in the
i
th
anchor (derived from the equilibrium condition written for the i
th
block) and the actual force
in the i
th
anchor.
Br!ed sheeting
When analyzing braced sheeting the following approach is adopted to determine earth
pressures:
Up to depth of ditch the pressures are determined with respect to one meter run of the
structure width. Below the ditch bottom the earth pressures are multiplied by the coefficient of
reduction k (the "Coe)). o) redu!tion o) pressures .elow dit!h .otto," can be inputted
in the frame "Geo,etr3" as a parameter of the section of a structure) the pressures are
determined with respect to a reduced structure width 0RN. In case of continuous wall the
coefficient is set to one and no reduction of pressures is assumed. If "*nding o) soil" above
the ditch ("5'!+tion" dialog window) is inputted, then the pressures within this section are
computed with respect to the whole width of wall (0@1).
- 568 -
7raced sheeting
The coefficient 0 can be approximatelly determined (for safer design) according to:
where: $ -longitudinal spacing of soldier beams
t -width of soldier beam
9onliner ,odulus o) su.soil re!tion
Nonlinear model describes dependence of the modulus of subsoil reaction 0
h
i.e. change of 0
h
in between the threshold values corresponding to failure due to passive earth pressure T
&
and
active earth pressure T
%
see figure (the modulus of subsoil reaction is given by slope of the
curve; for pore pressure at rest acting on a structure it is possible to consider the value of 0
h1
).
This model also accounts for spring supports and forced deflections of the structure, various
boundary conditions, application of struts and anchors, etc.
- 569 -
+nteraction model to determine 0
h
The values of the modulus of subsoil reaction can be derived subsequently from the values of
secant modules of subsoil reaction (CUR 166) see figure:
+nteraction model to determine 0
h
2 CUR 1FF
Slope st.ilit3 nl3sis
The slope stability problem is solved in a two dimensional environment. The soil in a slope
body can be found below the ground water table, water can also exceed the slope ground,
which can be either partially or completely flooded. The slope can be loaded by a surcharge of
a general shape either on the ground or inside the soil body. The analysis allows for including
the effect of anchors expected to support the slope or for introduction of horizontal reinforcing
elements geo-reinforcements. An earthquake can also be accounted for in the analysis.
Two types of approaches to the stability analysis are implemented in the program classical
analysis according to the factor of safety and the analysis following the theory of limit states.
The slip surface can be modeled in two different ways. Either as a circular one, then the user
may choose either from the Fellenius/Petterson, Bishop or Spencer method, or as a polygonal
one, in which case the program exploits the Sarma or Spencer method.
Soil .od3
The soil body is formed by a l3ered pro)ile. An arbitrary number of layers can be used. Each
layer is defined by its geometry and material. The material of a layer is usually represented by
a soil with specified properties. The geostatic stress in a soil body is determined during the
analysis.
A layer can be specified also as a rigid .od3. Such layer then represents bedrock or a
sheeting wall. The slip surface can never pass through the rigid body.
&n)luen!e o) wter
Ground water can be assigned to the slope plane section using one of the four options:
1. Ground wter t.le
The ground water table is specified as a polygon. It can be arbitrarily curved, placed totally
within the soil body or introduced partially .o+e the ground sur)!e.
When using the circular slip surface the water influence is accounted for through the pore
pressure acting within a soil and reducing its shear bearing capacity. The pore pressure is
considered as the hydrostatic pressure. Assuming inclined slip surface the pore pressure is
determined by taking into account the actual shape of phreatic line. Below the ground water
table the analysis proceeds using the unit weight of saturated soil N
s%t
and uplift pressure;
above the ground water table the analysis assumes the inputted unit weight of soil N. The
shear forces along the slip surface are provided by:
- 570 -
where: T - shear force along slip surface segment
N - normal force along slip surface segment
U - pore pressure resultant along slip surface segment
J - angle of internal friction
c - cohesion
d - length of slip surface segment
When selecting the polygonal slip surface the unit weight of soil under water N
su
is considered
and the corresponding equations of equilibrium are modified by adding the flow pressure D
written as:
where: A - block area
N
:
X - inclination of section along given block
=. Ground wter t.le in!luding su!tion
Suction table can be introduced above the inputted ground water table. A negative value of
pore pressure U is then assumed with the region separated by the two tables. Suction
increases as negative hydrostatic pressure from the ground water table towards the suction
table.
7. Coe))i!ient o) pore pressure r
u
The coefficient of pore pressure ,
u
represents the ratio between the pore pressure and
hydrostatic pressure in a soil body. The inputted unit weight of soil N is used within the entire
slope regardless of the magnitudes of inputted coefficients ,
u
.
..
The values of ,
u
are introduced with the help of isolines connecting points with the same value
of ,
u
. Linear interpolation is assumed to obtain intermediate values. Computation of shear
forces is then influenced in the following way:
where: T - shear force along slip surface segment
N - normal force along slip surface segment
5 - resultant of geostatic stress along slip surface segment
J - angle of internal friction
c - cohesion
d - length of slip surface segment
H. $ore pressure +lues
Ground water can be introduced directly through the pore pressure values with the plane
section of a soil body.
The inputted unit weight of soil N is used within the entire slope regardless of the magnitudes
of inputted pore pressure values.
The pore pressure values are introduced with the help of isolines connecting points with the
same value of pore pressure. Linear interpolation is assumed to obtain intermediate values.
The magnitudes of resultants of pore pressure are then derived from the values of pore
pressure obtained in specific points within the slope plane section.
- 571 -
Sur!hrge
The slope stability analysis takes into account even the surcharge caused by neighboring
structures. The surcharge can be introduced either as a concentrated force or distributed load
acting either on the ground surface or inside the soil body.
Since it is usually assumed that the surcharge is caused by the weight of objects found on the
slope body, the vertical component of surcharge having the direction of weight is added to the
weight of blocks (slices). It means that if the earthquake effects are included this component is
also multiplied by the factor of horizontal acceleration or vertical earthquake. The components
that do not act in the direction of weight are assumed in equations of equilibrium written for a
given block (slice) as weightless thus do not contribute to inertia effects of the earthquake.
The surcharge is always considered in the analysis with respect to one meter run. Providing
the surcharge, essentially acting over the area N x l, is introduced as a concentrated force it is
transformed before running the analysis into a surface loading spread up to a depth of slip
surface along the slope 2M< as displayed in figure.
cheme of spreading the concentrated load on the slip surface
The analysis then proceeds with the resultant of surface load & having the value:
An!hors
Anchor is specified by two points and a force. The first point is always located on the ground
surface; the force always acts in the direction of a soil body. The anchor force when computing
equilibrium on a given block (slice) is added to the weightless surcharge of the slope.
Two options are available to account for anchors:
- Co,pute n!hor )or!es analysis assumes infinite lengths of anchors (anchors are
always included in the analysis) and computes the required lengths of links anchors
(distance between the anchor head and intersection of anchor with the slip surface)
subsequently. The anchor root is then placed behind the slip surface. This approach is
used whenever we wish the anchor to be always active and thus contribute to increase the
slope stability and we need to know its minimum distance.
- Anl3sis with spe!i)ied lengths o) n!hors the analysis takes into account only
those anchors that have their end points (center of roots) behind the slip surface. This
approach is used always whenever we wish to evaluate the current state of slope with
already existing anchors, since it may happen that some of the anchors may prove to be
short to intersect the critical slip surface so that they do not contribute to increase the
slope stability.
1ein)or!e,ents
Reinforcements are horizontal reinforcing elements, which are placed into the soil to increase
the slope stability utilizing their tensile stiffness. If the reinforcement intersects the slip
- 572 -
surface, the force developed in the reinforcement enters the force equation of equilibrium of a
given block. If it be to the contrary, the slope stability is not influenced.
The basic parameter of reinforcement is the tensile strength R
t
. A design value of this
parameter is used - i.e. the strength of reinforcement reduced by coefficients taking into
account the effect of durability, creep and installation damage. The force transmitted by
reinforcement !n ne+er e'!eed the ssigned tensile strength 1
t.
cheme of accounting for reinforcement
The second characteristic is the pull<out strength T
&
. This parameter determines the
anchoring length, i.e. the required length of reinforcement in the soil, for which the
reinforcement is fully stressed attaining the value R
t
. Since the realistic values of the pull-out
strength are difficult to determine, the program offers three options for their calculation,
respectively for the calculation of the force F transmitted by the reinforcement.
Cl!ulte rein)or!e,ent .ering !p!it3
where: H - normal stress due to self weight at the intersection of mesh and slip surface
see Fig.
C - coefficient of interaction (0,8 by default)
l - length of mesh step joint behind the slip surface into the soil body
&nput rein)or!e,ent n!hor length %
k
An anchoring length l
0
is specified. This parameter is determined by the shear strength
developed between the mesh and the soil gradually increasing from zero to its limit value
(measured from the end of reinforcement fixed in soil).
l
0
- anchoring length of reinforcement
R
t
- tensile strength
&nput ,esh pull<out resistn!e !
p
- 573 -
T
&
- pull-out resistance of mesh
5rthDu"e e))e!t
The program allows for computing the earthquake effects with the help of two variables
factor of horizontal acceleration (
h
or the coefficient of vertical earthquake (
6
.
Coe))i!ient o) +erti!l erthDu"e K
2
The coefficient of vertical earthquake either increases ((
6
> 0) or decreases ((
6
< 0) the unit
weight of a soil, water in a soil and surcharge by multiplying the respective values by 1I(
6
. It
is worth to note that the coefficient (
6
may receive both positive and negative value and in
case of sufficiently large coefficient of horizontal acceleration the slope relieve ((
6
[ 1) is more
unfavorable than the surcharge.
F!tor o) hori2ontl !!elertion K
h
In a general case the computation is carried out assuming a zero value of the factor (
h
. This
constant, however, can be exploited to simulate the effect of earthquake by setting a non-zero
value. This value represents a ratio between horizontal and gravity accelerations. Increasing
the factor (
h
results in a corresponding decrease of the factor of safety FS.
The coefficient of horizontal acceleration introduces into the analysis an additional horizontal
force acting in the center of gravity of a respective slice with the magnitude (
h
@Q
i
, where Q
i
is
the slice overall weight including the gravity component of the slope surcharge.
The following table lists the values of the factor (
h
that correspond to different degrees of
earthquake based on M-C-S scale.
M-C-S degree Horizontal acceleration Factor of horizontal acceleration
(MSK-64)
[mm/s
2
]
(
h
1 0,0 - 2,5 0,0 - 0.00025
2 2,5 - 5,0 0,00025 - 0.0005
3 5,0 - 10,0 0,0005 - 0.001
4 10,0 - 25,0 0,001 - 0.0025
5 25,0 - 50,0 0,0025 - 0.005
6 50,0 - 100,0 0,005 - 0.01
7 100,0 - 250,0 0,01 - 0.025
8 250,0 - 500,0 0,025 - 0.05
9 500,0 - 1000,0 0,05 - 0.1
10 1000,0 - 2500,0 0,1 - 0.25
11 2500,0 - 5000,0 0,25 - 0.5
12 > 5000,0 > 0.5
- 574 -
Anl3sis !!ording to the theor3 o) li,it sttes #
)!tor o) s)et3
The verification analysis can be carried out according to the theor3 o) li,it sttes:
where: 3
o6,
N
s
3
,+s
- resisting moment
Soil parameteres (angle of internal friction, cohesion) are in this case redu!ed using the
design !oe))i!ients introduced in the frame "Settings". The value of utilization ;
u
is
calculated and then compared with the value of 100%. The value of utilization is given by:
where: FS - factor of slope stability computed with reduced soil parameters
N
s
The second option offers the verification analysis using the )!tor o) s)et3:
where: 3
o6,
3
,+s
- resisting moment
SU - factor of safety for overturning
FS - factor of safety for overturning
$ol3gonl slip sur)!e
Solution of the slope stability problem adopting the polygonal slip surface is based on the
determination of the limit state of forces acting on the soil body above the slip surface. To
introduce these forces the above the slip surface is subdivided into blocks by dividing planes.
Typically, these planes are assumed vertical, but this is not a required condition, e.g. the
Sarma methods considers generally inclined planes.
- 575 -
tatic scheme of bloc-
The figure shows forces acting on individual blocks of soil. If the region above the slip surface
is divided in blocks, then for the evaluation of unknowns we have: ' normal forces N
i
acting on
individual segments and corresponding ' shear forces T
i
; '21 normal forces between blocks E
i
and corresponding '21 shear forces X
i
; '21 values of )
i
representing the points of application of
forces E
i
, ' values of l
i
representing the points of application of forces N
i
and one value of the
factor of safety FS. Forces X
i
can be in some methods replaced by the values of inclination of
forces E
i
.
To following set of equations is available to solve the problem of equilibrium: ' horizontal and '
vertical equations of equilibrium written for individual blocks, ' moment equations of
equilibrium for individual blocks and ' relations between N
i
and T
i
forces developed on blocks
according to the Mohr-Coulomb theory. In total there are E' equations for F'22 unknowns. This
suggests that 2'22 unknowns must be chosen a priory. Individual methods differ from each
other in the way these values are selected.
Most often the points of application of individual forces acting between blocks or their
inclinations are selected. Solving the problem of equilibrium then proceeds in an iterative
manner, where the selected values must allow for satisfying both the equilibrium and
kinematical admissibility of the obtained solution.
The program allows for adopting one of the following two methods:
- Sarma
- Spencer
Sr,
The Sarma method falls within a category of general sliced methods of limit states. It is based
on fulfilling the force and moment equilibrium conditions on individual slices. The slices are
created by dividing the soil region above the potential slip surface by planes, which may in
general experience a different inclination. Forces acting on individual slices are displayed in
figure.
- 576 -
tatic scheme & arma method
Here, E
i
0 3
i
represent the normal and shear forces between slices. N
i
0T
i
are normal and shear
forces on segments of a slip surface. Q
i
is the slice weight and 0.Q
i
is the horizontal force that
is used to achieve in the Sarma method the limit state. Generally inclined surcharge can be
introduced in each block. This surcharge is included in the analysis together with the surcharge
due to water having the free water table above the terrain, and with forces in anchors. All
these forces are projected along the horizontal and vertical directions, which are then summed
up into components F*
i
and F9
i
. 0 is a constant named the factor of horizontal acceleration
and it is introduced into the analysis in order to satisfy the equilibrium on individual slices.
There is a relationship between 0 and the factor of slope stability FS allowing for the safety
factor computation. In ordinary cases the analysis proceeds with the value of 0 equal to zero. A
non-zero value of 0 is used to simulate the horizontal surcharge, e.g. due to earthquake (see
below).
Anl3sis pro!ess
Co,puttion o) li,it eDuili.riu,
The computation of limit equilibrium requires the solution of O'-< unknowns, where ' stands
for the number of slices dividing the soil region above the potential slip surface. These are:
E - forces developed between slices
N - normal forces acting on slip surface
T - shear forces acting on a slip surface
X - shear forces developed between slices
) - locations of points of applications of forces
l
i
- locations of points of applications of forces
0 - factor of horizontal acceleration
5'-1 equations are available for the required unknowns. In particular, we have:
a) horizontal force equations of equilibrium on slices:
b) vertical force equations of equilibrium on slices:
c) moment equations of equilibrium on slices:
- 577 -
where ,
*i
and ,
9ii
are arms of forces F
*i
a F
9i
d) relationship between the normal and shear forces according to the Mohr-Coulomb theory:
It is evident that '-1 must be selected (estimated) a priory. Relatively small error is received
when estimating the points of application of forces E
i
. The problem then becomes statically
determined. Solving the resulting system of equations finally provides the values of all
remaining unknowns. The principal result of this analysis is the determination of the factor of
horizontal acceleration 0.
Co,puttion o) )!tor o) slope st.ilit3 3(
The factor of slope stability FS is introduced in the analysis such as to reduce the soil strength
parameters c and tgJ. Equilibrium analysis is then performed for the reduced parameters to
arrive at the factor of horizontal acceleration 0 pertinent to a given factor of slope stability FS.
This iteration is repeated until the factor 0 reaches either zero or a specified value.
&n)luen!e o) e'ternl loding
The analyzed slope can be loaded on its ground by inclined loading having general trapezoidal
shape. This loading enters the analysis such that its vertical component (if having the direction
of weight) is added to the weight of a corresponding slice. This results in change of both the
slice weight and its center of gravity. Providing the vertical component acts against the
direction of gravity it is added to force F
9i
. The horizontal component is added to force F
*i
. The
load centroid is always assumed on the ground.
;iteratureM
arma0 = Q=M tabilit% anal%sis of emban-ments and slopes0Ghotechni8ue 2"0 ?2"&?""0 <c>"=
Spen!er
The Spencer method is a general method of slices developed on the basis of limit equilibrium.
It requires satisfying equilibrium of forces and moments acting on individual slices. The slices
are created by dividing the soil above the slip surface by planes, which in general may have
different inclinations. Forces acting on individual slices are displayed in figure.
tatic scheme & pencer method
Each slice assumes contribution due to the following forces:
Q
i
- slice weight, including surcharge having the character of weight including the
influence of the coefficient of vertical earthquake
- 578 -
0.Q
i
- horizontal inertia force representing the effect of earthquake, 0 is the factor of
horizontal acceleration during earthquake
N
i
- normal force on the slip surface
T
i
- shear force on the slip surface
E
i
,
E
iI1
- forces exerted by neighboring slices, they are inclined from horizontal plane by angle
W
F
*i
F
9ii
- other horizontal and vertical forces acting on slice
3
li
- moment of forces F
*i
,F
9i
rotating about point 3, which is the center of the ith
segment of slip surface
U
i
- pore pressure resultant on the ith segment of slip surface
The following assumptions are introduced in the Spencer method to calculate the limit
equilibrium of forces and moment on individual slices:
- dividing planes between slices are always vertical
- the line of action of weight of slice Q
i
passes through the centre of the ith segment of slip
surface represented by point 3
- the normal force N
i
is acting in the center of the ith segment of slip surface, at point
- inclination of forces E
i
acting between blocks is constant for all slices and equals to W, only
at slip surface end points is W=1
The solution adopts the following expressions:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Equation (1) represents the relationship between effective and total value of the normal force
acting on the slip surface. Equation (2) corresponds to the Mohr-Coulomb condition
representing the relation between the normal and shear forces on a given segment of the slip
surface. Equation (3) represents the force equation of equilibrium in the direction normal to
the ith segment of the slip surface, whereas Equation (4) represents equilibrium along the i
- 579 -
th segment of the slip surface. F is the factor of safety, which is used to reduce the soil
parameters. Equation (5) corresponds to the moment equation of equilibrium about point 3,
where 9
5
is the vertical coordinate of the point of application of the weight of slice and 9
3
is
the vertical coordinate of point 3. Modifying equations (3) and (4) provides the following
recursion formula:
This formula allows us to calculate for given values of W and FS all forces acting between
blocks. This solution assumes that at the slip surface origin the value of E is known equal to
E
1
@0.
Additional recursion formula follows from the moment equation of equilibrium (5) as:
This formula allows us to calculate for a given value of all arms ) of forces acting between
blocks, knowing the value on the left at the slip surface origin, where )
1
@0.
The factor of safety FS is determined by employing the following iteration process:
1. The initial value of W is set to zero W @ 0.
2. The factor of safety FS for a given value of W follows from Equation (6), while assuming the
value of E
'I1
@ 0 at the end of the slip surface.
3. The value of W is provided by equation (7) using the values of E determined in the previous
step with the requirement of having the moment on the last slice equal to zero. Equation (7)
does not provide the value of )
'I1
as it is equal to zero. For this value the moment equation
of equilibrium (5) must be satisfied.
4. Steps 2 and 3 are then repeated until the value of W does not change.
Influence of water is introduced in the program with the help of stream pressure instead of
pore pressure. The way of introducing water in the analysis is described hereafter:
For the process of iteration to be stable it is necessary to avoid instable solutions. Such
instabilities occur at points where division by zero in expressions (6) and (7) takes place. In
equation (7), division by zero is encountered for W @ j?2 or W @ 2j?2. Therefore, the value of
angle W must be found in the interval =2j?2Lj?2>.
Division by zero in expression (6) appears when:
Therefore, the value of FS
$%*
being the maximal value of FS satisfying equation (8) is found
first. The iteration then starts from the value of FS "just right from FS
$%*
and all values of FS
entering the iteration process are larges than FS
$%*
.
%pti,i2tion o) pol3gonl slip sur)!e
The slip surface optimization proceeds such that the program changes subsequently locations
- 580 -
of individual points of this surface and checks, which change of location of a given point results
in the maximal reduction of the factor of slope stability F
S
. The end points of the optimized slip
surface are moved on the ground surface, internal points are moved in the vertical and
horizontal directions. The step size is initially selected as one tenth of the smallest distance of
neighboring points along the slip surface. With every new run the step size is reduced by one
half. Location of points of slip surface is optimized subsequently from the left to the right and it
is completed when there was no point moved in the last run.
When optimizing the polygonal slip surface the iteration process may suffer from falling into
the lo!l ,ini,u, (with respect to gradual evolution of locations of nodal points) so not
always the process is terminated by locating the critical slip surface. Especially in case of
complex slope profile it is therefore advantageous to introduce several locations of the initial
slip surface. Combination with the approach used for circular slip surfaces is also
recommended. Therefore, the critical slip surface assuming circular shape is found first and the
result is then used to define the initial polygonal slip surface.
The optimization process can be restri!ted .3 +rious !onstrints. This becomes
advantageous especially if we wish the searched slip to pass through a certain region or to
bypass this region. The restriction on optimization process can be performed in two different
ways:
1.
Optimization constrains are specified as a set of segments in a soil body. The optimized slip
surface is then forced to bypass these segments during optimization.
2.
Another way of constraining the optimization process is to fix location of selected points
along the optimized slip surface or allow for moving these point only in one of two
directions, either vertically or horizontally.
Chnging in!lintion o) di+iding plnes
It is evident from figure that the planes dividing individual slices do not have to be vertical and
not even mutually parallel. In the first stage of analysis when the optimization procedure
moves points along the slip surface assumes vertical alignment of dividing planes. To arrive at
even smaller value of the slope stability it is possible to change the mutual alignment of
dividing planes. This process is again performed in several runs with limited value of rotation
step and this step is again reduced in the course of optimization. This stage of optimization is
terminated once the rotation step drops below the value of <
o
and no change of rotation
occurred during the last optimization run.
tatic scheme & arma method
Folition
Soils can be introduced with foliation. It means that along an angle specified in terms of a
certain interval, which in turn is introduced as one of the soil parameters <tarting lope ;
- 581 -
End lope> the soil experiences significantly different (usually worth) parameters (c a J).
If the slope of a slip surface segment or the slope of interface between blocks is assumed
within the interval <tarting lope ; End lope>, the analysis proceeds with the modified
parameters of c and J.
Cir!ulr slip sur)!e
All methods of limit equilibrium assume that the soil body above the slip surface is subdivided
into slices (dividing planes between slices are always vertical). Forces acting on individual
slices are displayed in figure.
tatic scheme of slice
Here, X
i
and E
i
are the shear and normal forces acting between individual slices, T
i
and N
i
are
the shear and normal forces on individual segments of the slip surface, Q
i
are weights of
individual slices.
Individual methods of slices differ in their assumptions of satisfying the force equations of
equilibrium and the moment equation of equilibrium with respect to the center O.
The program allows for adopting one of the following methods:
- Fellenius / Petterson
- Bishop
- Spencer
Ground water specified within the slope body (using one of the four options) influences the
analysis in two different ways. First when computing the weight of a soil block and second
when determining the shear forces. Note that the effective soil parameters are used to relate
the normal and shear forces.
&ntrodu!ing n!hor )or!es nd wter .o+e the ground sur)!e into the nl3sis
Anchor forces are considered as external loading applied to the slope. They are taken with
respect to one meter run d-4/me and introduced into the moment equation of equilibrium.
These forces should contribute to additional stability, if that cannot be achieved in a different
way. There is no limitation to the magnitudes of anchor forces and therefore it is necessary to
work with realistic values.
Influence of water above the ground surface is considered as a set forces acting on the ground
surface together with pore pressure along the slip surface, which is derived depending on the
depth of slip surface measured from the ground water table. The forces acting on the ground
surface enter the moment equation of equilibrium as forces acting on respective arms
measured towards the center of the slip surface.
Fellenius # $etterson
The simplest method of slices assumes only the overall moment equation of equilibrium written
- 582 -
with respect to the center of the slip surface. The shear and normal forces between slices X
i
and E
i
are neglected. The factor of safety FS follows directly from the following expression:
where: u
i
- pore pressure within slice
c
i,
J
i
- effective values of soil parameters
Q
i
- slice weight
N
i
- normal force on the segment of slip surface
d
i
- inclination of the segment of slip surface
l
i
- length of the segment of slip surface
;iteraturaM
!etterson QE 5<cBB6 The earl% histor% of circular sliding surfaces= Geotechni8ue BM2>B&2cO
Bishop
The simplified Bishop assumes zero forces between slices X
i
. The method is based on satisfying
the moment equation of equilibrium and the vertical force equation of equilibrium.
The factor of safety FS is found through a successive iteration of the following expression:
where: u
i
- pore pressure within slice
c
i,
J
i
- effective values of soil parameters
Q
i
- slice weight
d
i
- inclination of the segment of slip surface
l
i
- length of the segment of slip surface
;iteraturaM
7ishop0 ,='= 5<cBB6 "The 9se of the lip Circle in the tabilit% ,nal%sis of lopes"0
Geotechni8ue0 Great 7ritain0 )ol= B0 4o= <0 Mar=0 pp= >-<>
Spen!er
This method assumes non-zero forces between slices. The resultants of shear and normal
forces acting between slices have constant inclinations. The Spencer method is a rigorous
method in a sense that it satisfies all three equations of equilibrium the force equations of
equilibrium in the horizontal and vertical directions and the moment equation of equilibrium.
The factor of safety FS is found through the iteration of inclination of forces acting between
slices and the factor of safety FS. Further details can be found in section describing the
analysis of polygonal slip surface.
- 583 -
%pti,i2tion o) !ir!ulr slip sur)!e
The goal of the optimization process is to locate a slip surface with the smallest factor of slope
stability FS. The circular slip surface is specified in terms of 3 points: two points on the ground
surface and one inside the soil body. Each point on the surface has one degree of freedom
while the internal point has two degrees of freedom. The slip surface is defined in terms of four
independent parameters. Searching for such a set of parameters that yields the most critical
results requires sensitivity analysis resulting in a matrix of changes of parameters that allows
for fast and reliable optimization procedure. The slip surface that gives the smallest factor of
slope stability is taken as the critical one.
This approach usually succeeds in finding the critical slip surface without encountering the
problem of falling into a local minimum during iteration. It therefore appears as a suitable
starting point when optimizing general slip surfaces such as the polygonal slip surface.
The optimization process can be restri!ted .3 +rious !onstrints. This becomes
advantageous especially if we wish the searched slip surface to pass through a certain region
or to bypass this region. Optimization constrains are specified as a set of segments in a soil
body. The optimized slip surface is then forced to bypass these segments during optimization.
&n)luen!e o) tensile !r!"s
The program makes possible to account for the influence of tensile that appear on terrain
surface and are filled with water h. The only input parameter is the depth of tensile cracks. The
effect of cracks is incorporated when calculating normal and shear forces in sections of a slip
surface containing cracks in a section with tensile cracks the shear strength parameters are
set to zero =c @ 0, J a 1>. Next, a horizontal force F due to presence water in a tensile crack is
introduced in the analysis (see figure):
)li# taho#Dch trhlin
Anl3sis o) .ering !p!it3 o) )oundtion
The vertical bearing capacity of foundation soil is verified according to the theory of limit states
using the following inequality:
or based on the factor of safety as:
where: H - extreme design contact stress in the footing bottom
R
d
- design bearing capacity of foundation soil
N
R;
- coefficient of vertical bearing capacity of foundation (for input use the
frame "Settings")
FS - inputted factor of safety
- 584 -
Extreme design contact stress in the footing bottom is assumed the form:
where: ;
d+
- extreme design vertical force
A
+f
- effective area of foundation
The vertical bearing capacity of foundation soil R
d
is determined for three basic types of
foundation conditions:
- drained subsoil
- undrained subsoil
- bedrock
The above computations are applicable only for the homogeneous soil. If there is a non<
ho,ogeneous soil under the footing bottom (or there is ground water present), then the
inserted profile is transformed into a homogeneous one.
Bering !p!it3 on drined su.soil
One of the following approaches is available to assess the horizontal bearing capacity of a
foundation if drained conditions are assumed:
- standard analysis
- according to CSN 731001 "Zkladov pda pod plonmi zklady" approved 8.6. 1987
- according to Polish standard PN-81 B - 03020 "Grunty budowiane, Posudowienie
bezporednie budowli, Obliczenia statyczne i projekktowanie" from year 1982
- according to Indian standard IS:6403-1981 "Code of Practice for Determination of Bearing
Capacity of Shallow Foundations" from year 1981
- according to EC 7-1 (EN 1997-1:2003) "Design of geotechnical structures Part 1: General
rules"
- according to NCMA Segmental retaining walls manual, second edition.
All approaches incorporate coefficients due to Brinch Hansen (see standard analysis) to
account for inclined ground surface and inclined footing bottom.
Assuming drained conditions during construction the soil below spread footing deforms
including both shear and volumetric deformations. In such a case the strength of soil is
assumed in terms of effective values of the angle of internal friction J
+f
and the effective
cohesion c
+f
. It is also assumed that there is an effective stress in the soil equal to the total
stress (consolidated state). Effective parameters J
+f
, c
+f
represent the peak strength
parameters.
Owing to the fact that the choice of drained conditions depends on a number of factors (rate of
loading, soil permeability, degree of saturations and degree of overconsolidation) it is the
designer's responsibility to decide, depending on the actual problem being solved, if the
effective parameters should be used.
Stndrd nl3sis
By default the solution proposed by J. Brinch Hansena is used, where the bearing capacity of
foundation soil follows from:
where:
coefficients of bearing capacity:
for: J

T 0
- 585 -
for: J = 0
coefficients of influence of depth of foundation:
coefficients of slope of footing bottom:
coefficients of influence of slope of terrain:
Not%tio' of %'#+ls %'d co+ffici+'ts N,#
where: c - cohesion of soil
B
0
- equivalent uniform loading accounting for the influence of
foundation depth
d - depth of footing bottom
N - unit weight of soil above the footing bottom
N - width of foundation
N - objemov tha zeminy
N
c
,N
d
,N
N
- coefficient of bearing capacity
s
c
,s
d
,s
N
- coefficients of shape of foundation
d
c
,d
d
,d
N
- coefficients of influence of depth of foundation
i
c
,i
d
,i
N
- coefficients of influence of slope of loading
- 586 -
#
c
,#
d
,#
N
- coefficients of influence of slope of terrain
l - length of foundation
W - angle of deviation of the resultant force from the vertical direction
P - slope of terrain
X - slope of footing bottom
;iteratureM
7rinch Hansen0 k= 5<c>160 , re#ised and e(tended formula for bearing capacit%0 Danish
Geotechnical +nstitute0 7ulletin 2A0B-<<
Bering !p!it3 on undrined su.soil
One of the following approaches is available to assess the horizontal bearing capacity of a
foundation if undrained conditions are assumed:
- standard analysis
- according to CSN 731001 "Zkladov pda pod plonmi zklady" approved 8.6. 1987
- according to Indian standard IS:6403-1981 "Code of Practice for Determination of Bearing
Capacity of Shallow Foundations" from year 1981
- according to EC 7-1 (EN 1997-1:2003) "Design of geotechnical structures Part 1: General
rules"
In addition the coefficients due to Brinch Hansen are used to account for inclined footing
bottom (see standard analysis).
In case of undrained conditions it is assumed that during construction the spread footing
undergoes an instantaneous settlement accompanied by shear deformations of soil in absence
of volumetric changes. When the structure is completed the soil experiences both primary and
secondary consolidation accompanied by volumetric changes. The influence of neutral stress
appears in the reduction of soil strength. The strength of soil is then presented in terms of
total values of the angle of internal friction J
u
and the total cohesion c
u
(these parameters can
be considered as the minimal ones). Depending on the degree of consolidation the value of the
total angle of internal friction J
u
ranges from 1 to J
+f
, the total cohesion c
u
is greater than c
+f
.
Owing to the fact that the choice of undrained conditions depends on a number of factors (rate
of loading, soil permeability, degree of saturations and degree of overconsolidation) it is the
designer's responsibility to decide, depending on the actual problem being solved, if the
effective parameters should be used. Nevertheless, the total parameters are generally used for
fine-grained soil.
Stndrd nl3sis
The following formula is used by default:
with dimensionless coefficients:
where: c
u
- 587 -
N -width of foundation
l -length of foundation
d -depth of foundation
W -angle of deviation of the resultant force from the vertical direction
X -slope of footing bottom from horizontal direction
Bering !p!it3 o) )oundtion on .edro!"
The following methods can be used to compute the design bearing capacity R
d
of foundation
with a horizontal footing bottom providing the rock mass composed of rocks or weak rocks:
Standard approach
Solution according to CSN 73 1001
Solution according to EC7
Stndrd nl3sis
The bearing capacity of foundation soil composed of rocks or weak rocks is found from the
expression proposed by Xiao-Li Yang and Jian-Hua Yin
1
:
where:
where: s - nonlinear parameter depending on rock properties (according to Hoek
and Brown)
5SI - Geological Strength Index
D - coefficient reflecting damage of a rock mass
N
s
,N
B
,N
Z
- coefficients of bearing capacity depending on the angle of internal
friction
N
s
- coefficient of strength of a rock depending on GSI and strength
parameter $
i
J - angle of internal friction of rock
H
c
- uniaxial compressive strength of rock > 10B M!a
B
0
- equivalent uniform loading accounting for the influence of foundation
depth
N
2
- unit weight of soil above the footing bottom
N - width of foundation
1
Xiao-Li Yang, Jian-Hua Yin: Upper bound solution for ultimate bearing capacity with a
modified HoekBrown failure criterion, International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining
- 588 -
Sciences 42 (2005),str. 550560
Solution !!ording to CS9 I7 1MM1
The bearing capacity of foundation soil composed of rocks or weak rocks follows from articles
97 99 of standard CSN 73 1001 "Foundtion soil .elow spred )ooting" approved 8.6.
1987.
As input parameters the analysis requires the unit weight of soil N, uniaxial compression
strength H
c
, Poisson's ratio and deformation modulus E
d+f
.
Anl3sis !!ording to 5C I<1 (59 199I<1?=MM7)
The bearing capacity of the foundation R
d
with a horizontal footing bottom is determined
according to a design method for the derivation of expected bearing capacity of spread
footings resting on a bedrock outlined in a supplement G (informative) EC 7-1 (EN 1997-
1:2003) "Design of geotechnical structures Part 1: General rules". For low strength or
damaged rocks with closed discontinuities including chalks with low porosity less than "BU the
derivation of expected bearing capacity follows classification of rocks into groups of rocks
stored in the table below. The analysis further requires an input of discontinuity spacing S
d
,
unit weight of rock N, Poisson's ratio I and uniaxial compressive strength H
c
. It is assumed that
the structure is able to transmit a settlement equal to 10B U of the foundation width. The
expected values of bearing capacity for other settlements can be estimated using direct
proportion. For weak and broken rocks with opened or filled discontinuities it is recommended
to use lower values than the expected ones.
1o!" groups
Group (3pe o) ro!"
1 Pure limestones and dolomites
Carbonate sandstones of low porosity
2 Igneous
Oolitic and marly limestones
Well cemented sandstones
Indurated carbonate mudstones
Metamorphic rocks, including slates and schist (flat cleavage / foliation)
3 Very marly limestones
Poorly cemented sandstones
Slates and schist (steep cleavage / foliation)
4 Uncemented mudstones and shales
;iteratureM
Eurocode >MGeotechnical design & !art <MGeneral rules
$r,eters to !o,pute )oundtion .ering !p!it3
$r,eters to !o,pute +erti!l .ering !p!it3 o) )ondtion resting on .edro!"
The following parameters are used in program GEO5 to compute the foundation vertical
bearing capacity:
- values of coefficient D reflecting a state of damage of a rock mass
- values of strength parameter $
i

- 589 -
- strength of rocks in simple compression H
c
- Poisson's ration of rocks I
- bulk weight of rocks N
Estimating disturbance coefficient D
Description of rock mass Suggested value of D
Rock mass, intact strong rock, excavation by blasting or by
open TBM
0
Rock mass, poor quality rock, mechanical excavation with
minimal disturbance
0
Rock mass, poor rock, mechanical excavation, significant
floor heave, temporary invert or horizontal geometry of
excavation sequence
0,5
Rock mass,very poor rock often very altered, rock very ,
local damage of surrounding rock (app. 3 m )
0,8
Rock slope or rock outcrop, modification with controled
blasting
0,7
Rock slope or rock outcrop, modification with blasting results
to the some disturbance
1,0
Open pit mines, excavatin with blasting 1,0
Open pit mines, mechanical excavation 0,7
Values of strength parameter $
i

Type of rock Representatiiv rocks $
i
[-]
Carbonate rocks with well
developed cleavage
Dolomite, limestone and marble = 7
Lithified argillaceous rocks Mudstone, siltsone shale, slate = 10
Arenaceous rock with strong
crystal and poorly developed
crystal cleavage
Sandstone and qurtzite = 15
Fine grained polyminerallic igneous
crystalline rocks
Andesite, dolerite, diabase, ryolite = 17
Coarse grained polyminerallic
igneous and metamorphic rocks
Amphibolite, gabbro, gneiss,
granite and quartz diorite
= 25
Uniaxial compressive strength H
c ,
Poisson number I and Unit weight of rock N
- 590 -
trength
of roc-s
T%pes of roc- 5e(amples6 9nia(ial
compr=
strength
H
c
-31%/
!oisson
number
I
9nit weight of roc-
N
-0N?$
<
/0
Extremly
hard rock
Very hard, intact rock strong and
solid quartzite, basalt and other
extremely hard rock
>150 0,1 28,00 - 30,00
Very
hard rock
Very hard granite, quartz
porphyry, quartz slate, very hard
sandstones and limestones
100 -
150
0,15 26,00 - 27,00
Hard
rock
Solid and compact granite, very
hard sandstone and limestone,
silicious iron veis, hard pudding
stones, very hard iron ores hard
calcite, not very hard granite,
hard sandstone, marble,
dolomite, pyrite
80 - 100 0,20 25,00 - 26,00
Fairly
hard rock
Normal sandstone, medium hard
iron ore, sandy shale, flagstone
50 - 80 0,25 24,00
Medium
hard rock
Hard mudstones, not very hard
sandstones and calcite, soft
flagstone, not very hard shales,
dense marl
20 - 50 0,25
0,30
23 - 24,00
Fairly
weak
rock
Soft schist, soft limestones,
chalk, rock salt, frost soils,
anthracite, normal marl,
disturbed sandstones, soft
flagstones and soils with
aggregates
5 - 20 0,3 0,35 22,00 26,00
Weak
rock
Compact clay, hard soil (eluvium
with soil texture)
0,5 - 5 0,35
0,40
22,00 - 18,0
Hori2ontl .ering !p!it3 o) )oundtion
The foundation horizontal bearing capacity is verified according to the theory of limit states
using the following inequality:
or based on the factor of safety as:
where:
where: R
d
- angle of internal friction between foundation and soil
%
d
- cohesion between foundation and soil
- 591 -
A
+f
- effective area of foundation
S
&d
- earth resistance
S
*
,S
9
- components of horizontal force
W - extreme design vertical force
N
RS
- coefficient of horizontal bearing capacity of foundation (for input use
the frame "Settings"
FS - factor of safety
The analysis depends on the design angle of internal friction below the footing bottom J
d
, the
design value of cohesion below the footing bottom c
d
and the design value of earth resistance
S
&d
. If the soil-footing frictional angle and the soil-footing cohesion are less than the values of
soil below the footing bottom, then it is necessary to use those values.
The earth resistance is assumed as displayed in figure:
Earth resistance
The earth resistance S
&d
is found with the help of the reduction of passive earth pressure or
pressure at rest employing influence coefficients:
where: S
&
- passive earth pressure, pressure at rest or reduced passive pressure
N
$R
- coefficient of reduction of earth resistance (for input used the frame
"Settings") - for the analysis according to CSN it assumes the value N
$R
= 1,5 for passive pressure, N
$R
= 1,3 for pressure at rest
Coe))i!ients o) erth pressures are found from the following formulas:
for passive pressure:
for pressure at rest in drained soils:
for pressure at rest in other soils:
When determining the redu!ed pssi+e pressure4 the resultant force includes contributions
due to the passive pressure and pressure at rest.
The passive pressure can be considered, if the deformation needed for its activation do not
cause unallowable stresses or deformations in upper structure.
Ho,ogeni2tion o) l3ered su.soil
If the soil below the footing bottom is inhomogeneous (or if there is ground water present)
- 592 -
then the inputted profile is transformed into a homogeneous soil based on the Prandtl slip
surface (see Fig.), which represents the type and location of failure of the foundation.
The !randtl slip surface
Determination of equivalent values of J (angle of internal friction), c (cohesion of soil) N (unit
weight of soil below footing bottom) is evident from the following and subsequent formulas.
The unit weight of soil above foundation is derived in the same way.
!rocedure for computation of au(iliar% #alues
5))e!ti+e re
When solving the problem of eccentrically loaded foundations the program GEO5 offers two
options to deal with an effective dimension of the foundation area:
- a rectangular shape of effective area is assumed
- general shape of effective area is assumed
1e!tngulr shpe
A simplified solution is used in such cases. In case of axial eccentricity (bending moment acts
in one plane only) the analysis assumes a uniform distribution of contact stress H applied only
- 593 -
over a portion of the foundation l
1
, which is less by twice the eccentricity + compared to the
total length l.
Determination of effecti#e area in case of a(ial eccentricit%
An effective area (N R l
1
) is assumed to compute the contact stress, so that we have:
In case of a general eccentric loading (foundation is loaded by the vertical force ; and by
bending moments 31 and 32 the loading is replaced by a single force with given eccentricities:
The size of effective area follows from the condition that the force ; must act eccentrically:
Generl shpe o) !ont!t stress
In case of an eccentric loading the effective area is determined from the assumption that the
resultant force ; must act in the center of gravity of the compressive area. The theoretically
correct solution appears in Fig.
Determination of contact stress for general eccentricit% & general shape
Owing to a considerable complexity in determining the exact location of the neutral axis, which
in turn is decisive when computing the effective area, the program GEO 5 follows the solution
proposed by Highter a Anders
1>
, where the effective areas are derived with help of graphs.
1>
Highter, W.H. Anders,J.C.: Dimensioning Footings Subjected to Eccentric Loads Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering. ASCE, Vol. 111, No GT5, pp 659 - 665
- 594 -
8eter,intion o) !ross<se!tionl internl )or!es
*ongitudinl rein)or!e,ent o) )oundtion is checked for the loading due to bending
moment and shear force. The stress in the footing bottom is assumed either as uni)or, (CSN)
or liner (EC). Stresses in individual directions *, 9 are determined independently.
When the liner distri.ution o) stress in the footing bottom is considered the distribution of
stress over the cross-section is provided by:
or when excluding tension:
where: + - eccentricity of normal force N
d - width of foundation
Bending moment and shear force are determined as reaction developed on the cantilever beam
as shown in figure:
+nternal forces acting on wall *ump
Internal forces in the cross-section corresponding to !onstnt distri.ution o) stress are
provided by:
where: H - maximal stress in the footing bottom
d
6
- length of jump
+ - eccentricity of normal force N
d - width of wall foundation
$ile nl3sis
Analyses available in the program "$ile" can be divided into three main groups:
- 595 -
- analysis of vertical bearing capacity according to CSN
- analysis of vertical bearing capacity using the Shear depression spring method
- analysis of horizontal bearing capacity of a pile
Verti!l .ering !p!it3 0 nl3sis !!ording to
CS9
There are three methods implemented in the program to compute the vertical bearing capacity
of a pile following the Commentary to the standard CSN 73 1002 "Pilotov zklady":
< nl3sis !!ording to the theor3 o) the 1st group o) li,it sttes
The solution procedure is described in the Commentary to the standard CSN 73 1002 "Pilotov
zklady" in Chapter 3 "Design" part B general solution according to the theory of the 1st
group of limit states (pp. 15). All computational approaches are based on formulas presented
therein. The original geostatic stress H
o,
is assumed from the finished grade. The coefficient of
conditions of the behavior of foundation soil is considered for the depth ) (measured from the
finished grade).
The effective pile length used for the computation of skin bearing capacity is reduced by a
segment:
where: d - pile diameter
< nl3sis o) pile dri+en into !o,pressi.le su.soil 0 li,it loding !ur+e
The solution procedure for the computation of limit loading curve is based on part G Analysis
of vertical bearing capacity U
6d
according to CSN 73 1004 - Commentary to CSN 73 1002
"Pilotov zklady". The description begins in page 29 titled "Piles driven into compressible
subsoil". The procedure used in the program is identical. Coefficients I
1
0 R
0
0 R
h
are in the
program interpolated from the built in values corresponding to Figs. 6-8. Table 17 containing
regression coefficients for various types of soils or rocks is also built in the program and
appears as a help when introducing these parameters into individual layers of soils or rocks.
The secant modulus E
s
is interpolated depending on the location of a layer and a width of the
pile from the built in Tables 18-20.
< nl3sis o) pile resting on in!o,pressi.le su.soil
Analysis of a pile resting on incompressible subsoil (rocks class R1, R2) is based on part G -
Analysis of vertical bearing capacity U
6d
according to CSN 73 1004 - Commentary to CSN 73
1002 "Pilotov zklady". The description begins in page 27 titled "Piles resting on
incompressible subsoil". The solution procedures used in the program are identical. The
influence coefficient of settlement I
:&
is interpolated from Table 16, which is also built in the
program.
Verti!l .ering !p!it3 < Spring ,ethod
This analysis provides the limit loading curve and distributions of forces and displacements
developed along the pile.
The main advantage of this module is availability of the required input parameters of soils
around the pile the user is asked to specify the ngle o) internl )ri!tion4 !ohesion4 unit
weight nd de)or,tion ,odulus of a given soil.
- 596 -
The solution procedure is based on a semi-analytical approach. The pile is represented by
standard beam elements. The response of surrounding soil follows from the well known
solution of layered subsoil as a generalization of the Winkler-Pasternak model. The elastic rigid
plastic response in shear is assumed along the pile-soil interface in view of the Mohr-Coulomb
failure criterion. The normal stress acting on the pile is determined from the geostatic stress
and soil (concrete mixture) pressure at rest.
The in)luen!e o) wter in the vicinity of pile is not only introduced into the shear bearing
capacity of the pile skin, but also affects the depth of influence zone below the pile heel.
The pile may reach incompressible subsoil, which substantially influences its response. This
effect is also taken into account in the program. The pile settlement can also be influenced by
the settlement of the surrounding terrain. In particular, settlement of soil may reduce the pile
bearing capacity. The pile settlement increases without increasing load. This phenomenon is
modeled in the program as so called negative skin friction.
The analysis may also account for the influence of technological process of pile construction on
the stiffness of pile foundation.
The solution procedure consists of several steps:
1) The pile is represented as a member composed of several beams. Subdivision into
individual element complies with the condition that the ratio between the pile length and its
diameter should be approximately equal to 2,5. The minimum number of beams, however,
is 10.
2) Each element is supported at its bottom node by a spring. The spring stiffness serves to
model both the shear resistance of skin and at the pile heel the stiffness of soil below the
pile heel.
3) For each element the limit value of shear force transmitted by skin T
li$
is determined.
4) The pile is loaded at its top end by increments of the vertical load. For each load increment
the magnitude of spring force for each element is determined. This value is then compared
with the value of T
li$
for a given element. If a certain spring force exceeds the value of T
li$
its magnitude is set equal to T
li$
.
Analysis for this load increment is then repeated so that the force is redistributed into other
springs. Such an iteration within each load increment proceeds as long as each currently
active spring does not transmit force that is less than its corresponding T
li$
. Gradual
"softening" of individual springs results in deviation of the limit loading curve from linear
path. It is evident that for a certain load level all springs will no longer be capable of
increasing its force and the bile begins to settle in a linear manner supported only by the
heel spring that has no restrictions on the transmitted force.
5) As a result the analysis provides the limit loading curve, forces developed in the pile and a
graph showing variation of shear as a function of deformation at a given location.
*i,it loding !ur+e
The limit loading curve describes the variation of vertical load W as a function of the pile
settlement.
By default the program offers the construction of this curve for the maximal value of
settlement equal to 2B mm. This magnitude, however, can be adjusted up to the value of
<11 mm before running the calculation. An example showing a typical shape of the limit
loading curve appears in the figure.
- 597 -
;imit loading cur#e
Sher strength o) s"in
For each beam element of the analyzed pile the program determines the limiting value of the
force that can be transmitted by the pile skin at the location of a given element. Its value
depends on the geostatic stress H
)
found at a depth of a given element.
h - depth below the ground surface
Summation sign denotes that H
)
is summed over individual layers of the soil.
The allowable shear stress is then given by:
where: c - cohesion of soil at the location of beam
J - angle of internal friction of soil at the location of beam
0 - coefficient of increase of allowable skin friction due to technology
If the beam is found below the ground water table, the allowable skin friction is then reduced
to receive the form:
,
where: u - pore pressure below the ground water table
The allowable shear force then follows from:
,
where: 4 - length of perimeter of pile skin
l - length of pile beam
- 598 -
Coe))i!ient o) in!rese o) li,it s"in )ri!tion
A specific input parameter is the coefficient of increase of limit skin friction 0 due to applied
technology of construction. By default the value of this coefficient is set equal to one. There is
no recommendation by standard for its specific value its adjustment depends solely on the
practical experiences of the designer. It has been found from the in situ measurements on real
piles that the value of 0 is usually greater than < and may reach the value of <=B. Theoretically,
however, it may attain values even less than <=
8epth o) de)or,tion 2one
The assumed depth of influence is a variable, which considerably influences the stiffness of soil
below the pile heel. It is one of the input parameters for the determination of parameters C
1
and C
2
of the Winkler-Pasternak model. The deeper the influence zone the smaller the stiffness
of subsoil. When the depth of influence zone approaches in the limit zero the stiffness of
subsoil tends to infinity.
The depth of influence zone depends both on subsoil parameters and magnitude of the applied
surcharge, thus on stress below the pile heel. The program assumes that the depth of
influence zone is found in the location, where the stress below the heel equals the geostatic
stress. Such an idea is depicted in the following figure:
Determination of the depth of influence $one below the pile heel
For digital determination of the depth of influence zone H serves the function F(P). Its
distribution appears in figure. This function was derived using the above assumptions and in
the program appears in the form of table. Its application is evident from the following steps.
The values of F(P) are determined for the current value of stress f
)
below the pile heel and for
the original geostatic stress N
h
. For this value of F(P) we determine the parameter P. This value
serves to determine for the actual value Poisson's number I and pile diameter r the
corresponding depth of influence zone H.
- 599 -
)ariation of function F(P)
The depth of influence zone can be affected by the presence of ground water. In such s case its
determination is outlined in following figure:
Determination of the depth of influence $one below the pile heel including water
For digital determination of the depth of influence zone H is then used the function G(P). Its
distribution appears in figure. In the analysis this function is exploited in the similar way as
function F(P). The only difference when determining the values of G(P) appears in the use of
hydrostatic pressure N
:
h
:
.
- 600 -
)ariation of function G(P)
&n!o,pressi.le su.soil
At a certain depth below the ground surface it is possible to specify incompressible subsoil. If
the pile exceeds this specified depth then all beam elements found below this value are fixed
instead of being spring supported. The pile then essentially experiences no settlement. If there
is incompressible subsoil below the pile heel but not deeper than the reach of influence zone
below the heel, the depth of influence zone for the stiffness computation is then reduced such
that the influence zone just reaches the incompressible subsoil. This way also the
incompressible subsoil below the heel increases its stiffness and consequently also the bearing
capacity of the pile heel. If the incompressible subsoil is found below the reach of the influence
zone, then it does not influence the analyzed pile.
A negative skin friction is a phenomenon that arises from a settlement of soil in the vicinity of
a pile. The soil deforming around the pile tends to pull the pile downwards thus reducing its
bearing capacity for a given pile settlement.
The input parameters for assessing the influence of negative skin friction is the settlement of
ground surface : and a depth of influence zone of this deformation h. For a uniformly
distributed load around the pile the value of : should be measured in the distance equal to
three times the pile diameter from its outer face. The value of then represents the depth
influenced by the ground surface settlement and below which the soil is assumed
incompressible with no deformation.
Computation of negative skin friction is carried out first while determining the limit shear
forces transmitted by the pile skin T
li$
. The solution procedure assumes that the soil
settlement decreases linearly with depth from the value of : on the ground surface up to 0 at a
depth of h. The specific value of the soil settlement is therefore assumed for each level below
the ground surface till the depth of h. The forces developed in springs (springs supporting
- 601 -
individual elements) due to their deformation are determined and then subtracted from T
li$
to
reduce the bearing capacity of the pile skin.
From the presented theory it is evident that for large settlement : or large depth h the values
of T
li$
may drop down to zero. In extreme cases the negative skin friction may completely
eliminate the skin bearing capacity so that the pile is then supported only by the elastic subsoil
below the pile heel.
&n)luen!e o) te!hnolog3
The pile bearing capacity is considerably influenced by technological processes applied during
construction. The module Pile FEM allows for specifying the technology of pile construction. The
mobilized skin friction and the resistance at the pile heel are then reduced with the help of
reduction coefficients depending on the selected technology. The values of these coefficients
follow from the Dutch standard NEN 6743 Pile foundation.
Apart from technologies offered by the program and corresponding coefficients the users are
free to assign to these coefficients their own values. This way the users may introduce their
own practical experiences or information provided by other sources into the analysis.
Sher resistn!e on s"in
The shear resistance on pile skin is in the analysis represented by stiffness of springs
supporting individual beams of a pile. This stiffness is associated with material parameters of
the Winkler-Pasternak model C
1
and C
2
. The values of C
1
and C
2
are determined from
parameter E
d+f
. They depend on the depth of influence zone, which varies with the pile
deformation (settlement). The variability of influence zone is in the analysis determined such
that for zero deformation it receives the value of <( the pile diameter and for deformation at
the onset of skin failure equals 20B( the pile diameter.
The decisive parameter for the determination of magnitudes of C
1
and C
2
is the deformation
modulus. Caution must be taken when estimating the value of E
d+f
from deformational
characteristics of soil using standards. In particular, in case of long piles we are essentially
dealing with deep seated foundations and the soil at the pile heel will certainly experiences
higher stiffness than that proposed by the standard for spread footings. This holds particularly
for cohesive soils. The most reliable estimates are of course those obtained directly from
experimental measurements.
Formulas given below serve to determine the stiffness of springs representing the shear
resistance of pile skin as a function computed parameters of the elastic subsoil. They depend
on the shape of cross-section and for the implemented cross-sections they receive the
following forms:
Cir!le?
where: , - radius of pile cross-section
C
1
, C
2
- subsoil parameters
(
1
=X ,>, (
2
=X ,> - values of the modified Bessel functions
Parameter X attains the value:
.
1e!tngle?
,
where a,b are lengths of rectangle edges and C
1
, C
2
are subsoil parameters and 0
,+d
is the
- 602 -
reduction coefficient, which reduces the stiffness with respect to slenderness of the rectangle.
It receives the following values
for: ,
for: ,
where a is the length of a shorter edge of the rectangle and H is the depth of influence zone.
Croos4 F&<se!tionF?
For these cross-sections the stiffness is derived from the stiffness for rectangular cross-section
reduced by subtracting the stiffness corresponding to four "removed" parts of the cross-
section.
,
%
1
, N
1
- evident from the following figure
Sti))ness o) su.soil .elow the pile heel
The soil stiffness below the pile heel follows from the value of stiffness of the Winkler model
C
1
. The value of C
1
is determined for parameters E
d+f
and I of a soil at the location of pile
heel. The value of C
1
further depends on the depth of influence zone beneath the heel. The
spring stiffness introduced into the support of the beam at the pile heel is then provided by:
,
where: A - cross-sectional area at the pile heel
&n!re,ents o) +erti!l loding
The analyzed pile is loaded gradually in ten increments. The magnitude of load increments in
individual steps is determined prior to the actual analysis. In particular, the program searches
for such a magnitude of load that causes the pile to exceed the limiting value of settlement
specified for the computed limit loading curve. This value is then divided into <1 increments
subsequently applied to the structure.
8istri.utions o) )or!es !ting on pile
Apart from the limit loading curve it is also possible to keep track of the distribution of normal
force in the pile and the distribution of shear force developed along the pile skin. The normal
forces decreases from the top to the bottom as the load is gradually taken by the shear force
developed along the pile skin. Unlike the normal force the shear force thus increases from the
top to the bottom. Both forces are evaluated in relative values related to the magnitude of
- 603 -
vertical load.
8ependen!e o) sher on de)or,tion
At an arbitrary (selected) depth it is possible to view the distribution of skin friction as a
function of deformation (settlement) of a given point of the pile. This graph shows the process
of gradual reduction of shear stiffness of pile skin until zero with increasing deformation. This
dependency is initially linear, particularly in stage, where the spring force does not exceed the
value T
li$
. When this value is exceeded the spring stiffness starts to gradually decrease
manifested by the flattening of the curve.
Hori2ontl .ering !p!it3
Hori2ontl .ering !p!it3 o) pile4 di,ensioning
The horizontally loaded pile is analyzed using the finite element method as a beam on elastic
Winkler foundation. The soil parameters along the pile are represented by the modulus of
subsoil reaction. By default the pile is subdivided into 30 segments. For each segment the
program determines the values of the modulus of subsoil reaction, internal forces and
deformations. The program also allows for dimensioning of the steel-reinforced concrete pile
based on the standard specified in the frame "$ro;e!t"
The program also enables to analyze a pile loaded by the pres!ri.ed displ!e,ents
(translation or rotation of the pile head). In such a case the analysis is carried out only with
the prescribed displacement. The inputted mechanical loading is excluded.
The following options for inputting the ,odulus o) su.soil re!tion are available in the
program:
- .3 distri.ution (distribution of the modulus of subsoil reaction along the pile is specified)
- constant distribution
- linear distribution (Bowles)
- according to CSN 73 1004
- according to Matlock and Rees
- according to Vesic
In general, the modulus of subsoil reaction corresponds to the spring stiffness in the Winkler
model. This model describes settlement of a rigid plate as a function of the applied load. The
corresponding relationship is represented by the following formula:
where: & - load acting along plate-soil interface
0 - stiffness of Winkler spring
9 - translation of plate into subsoil

Definition of the modulus of subsoil reaction
- 604 -
Constnt distri.ution o) ,odulus o) su.soil re!tion
The modulus of subsoil reaction of the i-th layer is provided by:
where:
E
d+f
- deformation modulus of soil
, - reduced width of pile given by:
where:
d - pile diameter
P - angle of dispersion is inputted with respect to the angle of internal friction in the range
of J/?-J
*iner ,odulus o) su.soil re!tion
The modulus of subsoil reaction at a depth $ follows from the formula:
where: d -pile diameter
l -length of pile
0 -soil parameter after Bowles
, -reduced width of pile
where: d -pile diameter
P -angle of dispersion introduced by the user is inputted with respect to the
angle of internal friction in the range of J/?-J
(ossible values of modulus ) after 7owles dM4/m
<
e M
dense sandy gravel 200 - 400
medium dense gravel 150 - 300
medium-graded sand 100 - 250
fine sand 80 - 200
stiff clay 60 - 180
saturated stiff clay 30 - 100
plastic clay 30 - 100
saturated plastic clay 10 - 80
soft clay 2 - 30
;iteratureM
)esic0 ,==0 Design of !ile Foundations0 4ational Cooperati#e Highwa% .esearch !rogram
%nthesis ?20 Transportation .esearch 7oard0 <c>>
- 605 -
6odulus o) su.soil re!tion !!ording to CS9 I7 1MMH
The modulus of subsoil reaction for !ohesi+e soil assumes the form:
where: E
d+f
- deformation modulus of soil
d - pile diameter
For !ohesionless soils it is provided by:
where: '
h
- modulus of horizontal compressibility
d - pile diameter
) depth of a given section from finished grade
Soil
'
h
-3N?$
<
/
Relative density I
D
0,33 0,50 0,90
Dry sand and gravel
Wet sand and gravel
1,5
2,5
7,0
4,5
18,0
11,0
1ossiNl+ 6%lu+s of $odulus '
h
fo, coh+sio'l+ss soils
6odulus o) su.soil re!tion )ter 6tlo!" nd 1ees
This method is applicable for !ohesionless soils. The modulus of subsoil reaction then follows
from the expression:
where: '
h
- modulus of horizontal compressibility
) depth of a given section from finished grade
Soil
'
h
-3N?$
<
/
Dry sand and gravel
- loose
- medium dense
- dense
1,8 J 2,2
7,7 J G,0
17,0 2 18,0
Wet sand and gravel
- loose
- medium dense
- dense
1,0 J 1,E
<,7 J E,7
",0 2 12,0
1ossiNl+ 6%lu+s of $odulus '
h
fo, coh+sio'l+ss soils
6odulus o) su.soil re!tion )ter Vesi!
The modulus of subsoil reaction is provided by:
- 606 -
where: E
&
- modulus of elasticity of pile
l
&
- moment of inertia of pile
E
s
- modulus of elasticity of soil
d - pile diameter
- Poisson number
;iteratureM
)esic0 ,==0 Design of !ile Foundations0 4ational Cooperati#e Highwa% .esearch !rogram
%nthesis ?20 Transportation .esearch 7oard0 <c>>
Settle,ent nl3sis
One of the following method is available to compute settlement:
- with the help of oedometric modulus
- with the help of compression constant
- with the help of compression index
- according to NEN (Buismann, Ladde)
- using the Soft soil model
- employing Janbu theory
- using DMT (constrained modulus)
The program offers two options to constrain the depth of influence zone:
- exploiting the theory of structural strength
- using the percentage of the magnitude of geostatic stress
The theory of elasticity (Boussinesq theory) is employed to determine stress in a soil state in
all methods available for the settlement analysis.
General theories of settlement analysis serve as bases in all the above methods.
When computing settlement below the footing bottom the programs first calculates the stress
in the footing bottom and then determines the overall settlement and rotation of foundation.
The general approach in all theories draws on subdividing the subsoil into layers of a different
thickness based on the depth below the footing bottom or ground surface. Vertical deformation
of each layer is then computed the overall settlement is then defined as a sum of partial
settlements of individual layers within the influence zone (deformations below the influence
zone are either zero or neglected):
where: s -settlement
s
i
-
settlement of the i
th
layer
Stress in the )ooting .otto,
The stress in the footing bottom can be assumed as:
- re!tngulr (uniform in the footing bottom)
- generl (trapezoidal) with different edge values
- 607 -
General distribution of stress follows from figure:
tress in the footing bottom
where:
where: W - vertical loading of footing
l,N - footing width and length
+
N
- loading eccenricity
3 - moment acting on the footing
S - horizontal force
N - normal force at eccentric footing
& - column axis offset from the footing center
If in some points the stress becomes negative, the program continues with adjusted
dimensions NRl while excluding tension from the analysis. Before computing the stress
distribution due to surcharge the stress in the footing bottom is reduced by the geostatic stress
in the following way:
There are three options in the program to specify the geostatic stress in the footing bottom:
- Fro, the originl ground
It is therefore considered, whether the footing bottom in the open pit measured from the
original ground is free of stress for the time less than needed for soil bulkage and
subsequent loss of stress in the subsoil.
- Fro, the )inished grde
The same assumptions as above apply.
- 9ot !onsidered t ll
%+erll settle,ent nd rottion o) )oundtion
The foundation settlement is substantially influenced by the overall stiffness of the system
represented by foundation structure and foundation soil given by:
- 608 -
where: E
)%0l
-modulus of elasticity of footing
t -foundation thickness
E
d+f,&,u$
-weighted average of the deformation modulus up to depth of influence
zone
l -footing dimension in the direction of searched stiffness
For 0 T 1the foundation is assumed to be rigid and as a representative point for the
determination of its settlement is assumed the !hr!teristi! point (distant by 0,<Gtimes the
foundation dimension from its axis).
For 0 O 1the foundation structure is assumed to be rigid and as a representative point for the
determination of foundation settlement is assumed the )oundtion !enter point.
The )oundtion rottion is determined from the difference of settlements of centers of
individual edges.
&n)luen!e o) )oundtion depth nd in!o,pressi.le
su.soil
When computing settlement it is possible to account for the in)luen!e o) )oundtion depth
by introducing the reduction coefficient k
1
:
for strip footing:
for spread footing:
where: d - depth of footing bottom
) - depth under footing bottom
&n)luen!e o) in!o,pressi.le l3er is introduced into the analysis by the reduction
coefficient k
2
:
where: )
ic
- depth of rigid base under footing bottom
Incorporating the above coefficients allows trns)or,tion of the vertical component of
stress H
)
such that the actual depth is replaced by a su.stitute +lue *
r
given by:
where: k
1
- coefficient of footing bottom depth
k
2
- coefficient of rigid base
&n)luen!e o) snd<gr+el !ushion
If the sand-gravel cushion is specified below the spread footing, the material parameters X in
individual layers are computed in the following way:
- 609 -
For layer h
%,i
:
where: X
i
-
material parameters at i
th
layer
X
c
- material parameters of sand-gravel cushion
For layer h
N,i
:
where: A
c
- area of sand-gravel cushion
X
c
- material parameters of sand-gravel cushion
X
N,i
- material parameters of N,i layer
N
i
-
cushion widths in the i
th
layer
l
i
-
cushion length in the i
th
layer
,nal%sisX
i
in the sand-gra#el cushion
Anl3sis using the oedo,etri! ,odulus
Equation to compute compression of an i
th
soil layer below foundation having a thickness h
arises from the definition of deformation modulus E
o+d
:
where: H
),i
-
vertical component of incremetal stress in the middle of i
th
layer
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
E
o+d,i
-
oedometric modulus of the i
th
layer
The oedometric modulus E
o+d
can be specified for each soil either as constant or with the help
of an oedometric curve (H
+f
/ K relation). When using the oedometric curve the program
assumes for each layer the value of E
o+d
corresponding to a given range of original and final
- 610 -
stress. If the value of oedometric modulus E
o+d
is not available, it is possible to input the
deformation modulus E
d+f
and the program carries out the respective transformation.
where: I - Poisson's number
E
d+f
- deformation modulus
Anl3sis using the !o,pression !onstnt
Equation to compute compression of an i
th
soil layer below foundation having a thickness h
arises from the definition of compression constant C:
where: H
o,,i
-
vertical component of original geostatic stress in the middle of i
th
layer
H
),i
- vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure
surcharge) inducing layer compression
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
C
i
-
compression constant in the i
th
layer
The program allows for inputting either the compression constant C
i
or the compression
constant C
10
(the program itself carries out the transformation).
;iteratureM
,rnold )errui*tM oil mechanics0 Delft 9ni#ersit% of Technolog%0 211<0 211O0
httpM//geo=#errui*t=net/
Anl3sis using the !o,pression inde'
Equation for settlement when employing the compression index C
c
of the ith layer arises from
the formula:
where: H
o,,i
-
vertical component of geostatic stress in the middle of i
th
layer
H
),i
-vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure
+
o
-initial void ratio
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
C
c,i
-
compression index in the i
th
layer
;iteratureM
,rnold )errui*tM oil mechanics0 Delft 9ni#ersit% of Technolog%0 211<0 211O0
httpM//geo=#errui*t=net/
- 611 -
Anl3sis !!ording to 959 (Buis,nn4 *dd)
This method computes both the primary and secondary settlement. When computing the
methods accounts for overconsolidated soils and differentiates between two possible cases:
(1) sum of the current vertical effective stress in a soil and stress due to external surcharge is
less than the preconsolidation pressure so that only additional surcharge is considered
(2) sum of the current vertical effective stress in a soil and stress due to external surcharge is
greater than the preconsolidation pressure so that the primary consolidation is set on again.
The primary settlement is then larger when compared to the first case
Primary settlement
Primary settlement of the i
th
layer of overconsolidated soil (OCR > 1) is provided by:
for: H
o,
+ H
)
H
&
(sum of the current vertical stress and its increment is less than the
preconsolidation pressure)
for: H
o,
+ H
)
> H
&
(sum of the current vertical stress and its increment is greater than the
where: H
o,,i
-
th
layer
H
),i
-vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure
H
&,i
-
preconsolidation pressure in the i
th
layer
+
o
-initial void ratio
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
C
c,i
-
compression index in the i
th
layer
C
,,i
-
recompression index in the i
th
layer
Primary settlement of the i
th
layer of normally consolidated soil (OCR = 1) reads:
where: H
o,,i
-
th
layer
H
),i
+
o
- initial void ratio
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
C
c,i
-
compression index the i
th
layer
Secondary settlement
Primary settlement of the i&th layer assumes the form:
for: H
o,
I H
)
X H
&
(sum of the current vertical stress and its increment is less than the
- 612 -
pro H
o,
I H
)
T H
&
(sum of the current vertical stress and its increment is greater than the
where: h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
C
[,,i
-
secondary compression index below preconsolidation pressure in the i
th
layer
C
[
-
index of secondary compression in the i
th
layer
t
&
-time to terminate primary consolidation
t
s
-time required for secondary settlement
If we specify the value of preconsolidation index of secondary compression the same as for the
index of secondary compression, the program does not take into account in the computation of
secondary settlement the effect of preconsolidation pressure.
;iteratureM
4etherlandish standard 4E4O>?10 <cc<0 Geotechnie- TG7<cc1 7asisen en belastingen0
4ederlands normalisatie-+nstitut
Anl3sis using the So)t soil ,odel
The analysis employs the modified compression index V and is based on the Soft soil elastic-
plastic model developed in university of Cambridge. The soil deformation assumes the
volumetric strain to be linearly dependent on the change of effective mean stress plotted in
natural logarithmic scale. The settlement of the i
th
layer is then provided by:
kde: H
o,,i
-
th
layer
H
),i
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
V -
modified compression index in the i
th
layer
The analysis requires inputting the modified compression index V usually obtained from triaxial
laboratory measurements.
If the modified compression index V is not known, it is possible to specify the compression
index C
C
together with an average value of the void ratio + (if that is also not know it is
sufficient to provide the initial void ratio +
o
) and the program then performs an approximate
computation of the modified compression index using the available information.
;iteratureM
7urland k=7= The %ielding and dilatation of cla% 5correspondence60 Ghotechni8ue0 <B 5260<cOB0
str= 2<<-2<?
- 613 -
Anl3sis !!ording to the Gn.u theor3
It is based on principles of nonlinear elastic deformation, where the stress-strain relationship is
described by a function of two dimensionless parameters unique for a given soil. The
parameters are the exponent Y and the Janbu modulus $. Equations describing the settlement
are obtained by specifying K from the definition of deformation modulus E
t
and by subsequent
integration. The program allows the user to compute settlement for the following types of soil:
- noncohesive soils
- coarse - grained soil
- sands and silts
- overconsolidated sands and silts
- cohesive soils
- overconsolidated cohesive soils
;iteratureM
Method of settlement computation for #arious t%pes of soils0 oil Mechanics and foundation
engineering0 pringer0 > 5"60 <c>10 str0 21<-21O
Anl3sis )or !ohesionless soils )ter Gn.u
For cohesionless soils the stress exponent is not equal to zero. For layered subsoil the resulting
settlement equals to the sum of partial settlements of individual layers:

where: H
o,,i
-
th
layer
H
),i
Y
i
-
stress exponent in the i
th
layer
$
i
-
Janbu modulus in the i
th
layer
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
Anl3sis )or !orse<grined soils )ter Gn.u
For dense coarse-grained soils (e.g. ice soil) the stress-deformation (settlement) relationship is
usually assumed as "elastic", i.e. the stress exponent Y is equal to one. Thus for Y a < and the
reference stress H
,
= <11 -!a the resulting settlement equals to the sum of partial settlements
of individual layers:
where: H
),i
surcharge) inducing layer compression - i.e. change of effective stress
$
i
-
th
layer
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
- 614 -
Anl3sis )or snds nd silts )ter Gn.u
For sands and silts the stress exponent Y receives the value around 10B, for the reference stress
H
,
= <11 -!a the resulting settlement equals to the sum of partial settlements of individual
layers. It can be derived from the following formula:

where: H
o,,i
th
layer
H
),i
vertical component of incremental stress (e.g. stress due to structure
$
i
th
layer
h
i
thickness of the i
th
layer
Anl3sis )or o+er!onsolidted snds nd silts )ter
Gn.u
Providing the final stress in soil exceeds the preconsolidation pressure (H
o,
+ H
)
> H
&
), the
settlement of layered subsoil is found from the following equation:

where: H
o,,i
-
th
layer
H
&,i
-
th
layer
H
),i
$
i
-
th
layer
$
,,i
- Janbuv modul optnho stlaen v i-t vrstv
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
If the stress due to surcharge does not cause the final stress to exceed the preconsolidation
pressure (H
o,
+ H
)
H
&
), it is possible to assume the following forms of equations for the
computation of settlement of layered sand or silt subsoil:

where: H
o,,i
-
th
layer
H
&,i
-
th
layer
H
),i
$
,,i
-
Janbu modulus of recompression in the i
th
layer
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
Anl3sis )or !ohesi+e soils )ter Gn.u
In case of cohesive soils the stress exponent is equal to zero. For normally consolidated soils
we obtain from the definition of the tangent modulus of deformation (by modification and
- 615 -
subsequent integration) E
t
equation for the settlement of layered subsoil formed by cohesive
soils in the form:
where: H
o,,i
-
th
layer
H
),i
$
i
-
th
layer
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
Anl3sis )or o+er!onsolidted !ohesi+e soils )ter
Gn.u
Most cohesive soils in the original order except very young or organic clays are
overconsolidated. If the final stress in the soil exceeds overconsolidation stress (H
o,
+ H
)
> H
&
)
than the settlement of the layered subsoil composites from cohesive soils is computed from
following relation:
for: H
o,
+ H
)
> H
&
for: H
o,
+ H
)
H
&
where: H
o,,i
-
th
layer
H
&,i
-
th
layer
H
),i
$
i
-
th
layer
$
,,i
-
Janbu modulus of recompression in the i
th
layer
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
Settle,ent nl3sis using 86( (!onstrined
,odulus)
Constrained modulus #
D#!
[31%] is defined as the vertical drained confined tangent modulus
at H
6o
. #
D#!
is obtained from dilatometer test.
If the value of the constrained modulus #
D#!
is not available, it is possible to input the
coefficient of volume compressibility m
;
[$
2
?3N] (determined from the oedometer test) and
the program carries out the respective transformation:
- 616 -
where: 3
D3T
- constrained modulus
$
;
- coefficient of volume compressibility
The analysis employs the constrained modulus #
D#!
or coefficient of volume
compressibility m
;
and is based on Marchetti method. This approach being based on linear
elasticity, provides a settlement proportional to the load and is unable to provide non linear
predictions.
The settlement of the i
th
layer is then provided by:
where: H
),i
-
vertical component of incremental stress in the middle of i
th
layer
h
i
-
thickness of the i
th
layer
3
D3T
- constrained modulus
;iteraturaM
Marchetti = 5<ccc6 " The Flat Dilatometer and its applications to Geotechnical Design "0
;ecture notes 5c1 pp6 +ntnl eminar on DMT held at the kapanese Geot= ociet%0 To-%o0 <2
Feb <ccc
(heor3 o) settle,ent
If the stress in a soil caused by ground surface surcharge, change in stress with the soil or in
the currently built earth structure is known, it is possible to determine the soil deformation.
The soil deformation is generally inclined and its vertical component is termed the settlement.
In general, the settlement is non-stationary dependent on time, which means that it does not
occur immediately after introducing the surcharge, but it rather depends on consolidation
characteristics of a soil. Permeable, less compressible soils (sand, gravel) deform fast, while
saturated low permeability clayey soils experience gradual deformation called consolidation.
Time dependent settlement of soil
Applied load yields settlement, which can be subdivided based on time dependent response
into three separate components:
- instantaneous settlement (initial)
- primary settlement (consolidation)
- 617 -
- secondary settlement (creep)
Instantaneous settlement
During instantaneous settlement the soil experiences only shear deformation resulting into
change in shape without volumetric deformation. The loss of pore pressure in the soil is zero.
Primary settlement
This stage of soil deformation is characterized by skeleton deformation due to motion and
compression of grains manifested by volume changes. If the pores are filled with water
(particularly in case of low permeability soils), the water will be carried away from squeezed
pores into locations with lower pressure (the soil will undergo consolidation). The consolidation
primary settlement is therefore time dependent and is terminated by reaching zero pore
pressure.
Secondary settlement
When the primary consolidation is over the skeleton deformation will no longer cause the
change in pore pressure (theoretically at infinite time). With increasing pressure the grains
may become so closely packed that they will start to deform themselves and the volumetric
changes will continue this is referred to as creep deformation of skeleton or secondary
consolidation (settlement). Unlike the primary consolidation the secondary consolidation
proceeds under constant effective stress. Particularly in case of soft plastic or squash soils the
secondary consolidation should not be neglected in case of overconsolidated soils it may
represent app. <1U of the overall settlement, for normally consolidated soils even app. 21U.
$ri,r3 settle,ent
The final primary settlement s is often is often substituted by the term settlement. Most of the
computational approaches can be attached to one of the two groups:
- linear elastic deformation
- nonlinear elastic deformation
;inear elastic deformation
The linear stress-strain relationship follows the Hook law:
where: K -induced deformation of the soil layer
H
+f
-induced change of effective stress in the soil layer
E -Young modulus in the soil layer
I -Poisson number
The applicability of Young's modulus E of elasticity is substantiated only in cases, in which the
stressed soil is allowed to stretch in the horizontal direction. This, however, is acceptable only
for small spread foundations. When applying the load over a larger area, the stressed soil
cannot, except for its edges, to deform sideways and experiences therefore only a vertical
(one-dimensional) strain related to the oedometric modulus E
o+d
, that is larger than the elastic
modulus E=
The settlement of a soil layer s is determined by multiplying the deformation of a soil layer K
by the layer thickness (height) S
o
:
where: K -deformation of the soil layer
S
o
-thickness of the soil layer
V In case of layered subsoil we get the total settlement by summing up settlements of
individual layers:
- 618 -
where: s -settlement of the layered subsoil
Ki -
deformation of the i
th
soil layer
S
oi
-
thickness of the i
th
soil layer
4onlinear elastic deformation
For most soils the stress-strain relationship is nonlinear and often influenced by the loading
history. This nonlinearity cannot be neglected, particularly when computing the settlement of
fine-grained soils (silts, clays). Clearly, the procedure based on application of Young's modulus
of elasticity is not generally applicable. Even if employing the stress dependent oedometric
modulus of deformation, it will not be possible to receive reasonable estimates of the behavior
of certain overconsolidated soils. Nonlinear elastic deformation is generally modeled using the
void ratio and deformation characteristics derived from one-dimensional deformation of a soil
sample (e.g. compression constant, compression index, etc.).
Procedure for the computation of settlement of a compressible saturated soil layer using the
void + is described on the following soil element having the height S
o
and the width U = < m:
,nal%sis of settlement from phase diagram
Owing to the fact that the soil is a three phase medium (it contains solid particles and pore
filled with fluid and gas) it is possible to describe the solid particles (rock particles and mineral
grains) by their volume ;
s
(and assumed to be equal to unity), while the porous phase can be
described using the void ratio e=
The soil element is subjected on its upper surface to a uniform loading B causing the change in
stress inside the sample and also the vertical displacement S, which in turn leads to the
reduction of pores ;
&
and therefore also to the reduction of void ratio (from its original value
+
o
to a new value +). The vertical strain K of a soil sample is given by the ratio of S to the
original sample height S
o
, and can be expressed using the void ratio +:
where: K - vertical relative compression
S - vertical deformation
- 619 -
S
o
- origin height of the element
s - settlement
+ - void ratio
T+ - change of void ratio
By modifying this equation we arrive at the formula describing the sample settlement with the
help of void ratio:
where: K -vertical relative compression
S
o
-origin height of the element
s -settlement
+ -void ratio
T+ -change of void ratio
Se!ondr3 settle,ent
To describe a gradual creep of soil during secondary settlement the program employs the
Buissman method (it incorporates the index of secondary compression C
[
derived by Lade).
From observations suggesting that the soil deformation follows a linear path when plotted in
semi-logarithmic scale against time Buissman proposed the variation of K due to long-term
stress in the form:
where: K - total deformation
K
&
- deformation associated with primary consolidation
K
s
- deformation associated with secondary consolidation
t - time of consolidation
t
0
- refereference time
Time dependent #ariation of strain 5primar% and secondar% consolidation6
- 620 -
8eter,intion o) the depth o) in)luen!e 2one
From the theoretical point of view when applying a load on the ground surface we may expect
the change of stress in subsoil into an infinite depth. The soil, however, deforms only up to a
certain depth within so called influenced zone.
The program offers two options to specify the influence zone:
- using the theory of structural strength
- by specifying a certain percentage of the primary geostatic stress
(heor3 o) stru!turl strength
The structural strength represents the resistance of soil against deformation for a loading at
the onset of failure of its internal structure. With decreasing coefficient $ the soil responds
tends to be linear.
If the structural strength is accounted for during settlement analysis, then:
a) the influence zone is characterized by the depth below the footing bottom at which the
increment of vertical stress H
)
becomes equal to the structural strength of soil (determined by
multiplying the original geostatic stress H
o,
by the coefficient $):
where: $ -coefficient of structural strength
H
o,
-original geostatic stress
b) when computing the settlement of a layer, the increment of vertical stress H
)
due to
surcharge and reduced by the structural strength of soil is provided by:
H
o,
H
)
-incremetal stress in the middle layer
and the settlement s then follows from the stress denoted in figure by hatching and is given
by:
H
o,
H
)
-incremetal stress in the middle layer
- 621 -
Depth of influnece $one based on theor% of structural strength
5area of effecti#e surcharge is hatched6
6ethod o) restri!tion o) the ,gnitude o) pri,r3
stress
Pokud If we assume in the settlement analysis the constrains in terms of the percentage of
primary geostatic stress, then:
a) the influence zone is represented by a depth below the footing bottom where the
incremental stress H
)
reaches a certain percentage of the original geostatic stress:
where:
*8
-considered magnitude of the geostatic stress
H
o,
-geostatic stress
b) the settlement s is derived from stress value denoted in figure by hatching and it receives
the form:
where: H
)
-incremetal stress
H
o,
-geostatic stress
- 622 -
Depth of influence $one gi#en b% constraining the magnitude of primar% stress
Chr!teristi!s o) settle,ent nl3ses
Depending on the selected solution method the program GEO5 employs for the computation of
settlement the following characteristics that may differ by the type of experiment needed for
their determination or in the way of representation of measured variables:
- Compression index C
c
- Oedometric modulus E
o+d

- Compression constant C
- Compression constant C
10
- Void ratio +
- Recompression index C
,
- Janbu characteristics
- Correcting coefficient $
- Modified compression index V
- Index of secondary compression C
[
- Overconsolidation index of secondary compressionC
[ ,
Co,pression inde'
It describes variation of the void ratio + as a function of the change of effective stress H
+f
plotted in the logarithmic scale:
- 623 -
)oid ratio + versus effective stress H
+f
It therefore represents a deformation characteristic of overconsolidated soil:
where: + - variation of void ratio
lo#H
+f
- variation of effective stress
.ange of compression inde( C
c
54a#al Facilities Engineering Command oil MechanicsDE+G4
M,49,; >=1<6
A typical range of the compression index is from 10< to <1. Approximate values for
homogeneous sand for the loading range from cB -!a to "c2O -!a attain the values from 101B
to 101O for loose state and 1012 to 101" for dense state. For silts this value is 1021.
For lightly overconsolidated clays and silts tested in USA Louisiana Kaufmann and Shermann
(1964) present the following values:
Soil Effective consolidation
stress H
c+f
[kPa]
Final effective
stress in the soil
H
+f
[kPa]
Compression
index
C
c
[-]
CL soft clay 160 200 0,34
CL hard clay 170 250 0,44
ML silt of low plasticity 230 350 0,16
CH clay of high plasticity 280 350 0,84
CH soft clay with silt layers 340 290 0,52
Prof. Juan M.Pestana-Nascimento (University of California, Berkeley) offers the following typical
values of the compression index C
c
:
Soil Compression index
C
c
[-]
Normal consolidated clays 0,20 0,50
Chicago clay with silt (CL) 0,15 - 0,30
- 624 -
Boston blue clay (CL) 0,3 0,5
Vickburgs clay - dray falls into lumps (CH) 0,3 0,6
Swedish clay (CL CH) 1 3
Canada clay from Leda (CL CH) 1 4
Mexico City clay (MH) 7 10
Organic clays (OH) 4 a vce
Peats (Pt) 10 15
Organic silts and claye silts (ML MH) 1,5 4,0
San Francisco sediments (CL) 0,4 1,2
Clay in the old San Francisco Bay 0,7 0,9
Bangkok clay (CH) 0,4
In addition, there are empirical expressions available to determine approximate values of C
c
for silts, clays and organic soils; their applicability, however, is more or less local:
Soil Equations Reference
Transformed clays Skempton 1944
Clays Nishida 1956
Brazilian clays
Sao Paulo clays
Cozzolino 1961
New York clays Terzaghi a Peck 1948
Clays of low plasticity Sowers 1970
Taipei clays and silts Moh a kol. 1989
Clays Pestana 1994
%edo,etri! ,odulus
If the results from oedometric test are represented in terms of oedometric curve (K =
f(H
+f
)), it becomes evident that for each point on the curve we receive a different ratio H
+f
/
K=
- 625 -
Determination of oedometric modulus E
o+d
If the stress-strain curve is replaced for a certain interval of two neighboring stresses H
1+f 2
H
2+f
by a secant line, it is acceptable to assume a linear behavior of soil within this interval and
represent the soil compressibility by as H
+f
/ K called the oedometric modulus of
deformation. The oedometric modulus of deformation is therefore a secant modulus linked to a
certain stress interval H
1+f 2
H
2+f
selected on the stress-strain diagram K = (H
+f
):
In general, the oedometric modulus of deformation E
o+d
tends to decrease its value with the
increasing stress interval. Therefore we should consider for each layer a specific value of E
o+d
pertinent to a given stress interval (from original to final stress state). This is reflected in the
program by the way of inputting E
o+d
, where it is possible to specify for each soil the respective
oedometric curve (H
+f
/ K diagram).
Practical experience, however, suggests (e.g. for clays) a several orders of magnitude
difference between the value of E
o+d
derived from the deformation modulus E
d+f
and that
provided by the in situ measured loading curve.
Appro'i,te rnge o) +lues o) oedo,etri! ,odulus o) de)or,tion E
o+d
for individual
soils and typical stress range (Vanek: Mechanika zemin (soil mechanics)):
Soil %edo,etri! ,odulus E
o+d
dM!ae
gravels 60 600
medium dense sands to dense
sands
7 130
cohesive 2 30
Co,pression !onstnt
When plotting the effective vertical stress against the vertical strain in the semi-logarithmic
scale we often arrive at a linear dependency.
- 626 -
Detemination of compression constant C
Slope of this curve is one of the soil parameters particularly in case of one-dimensional
deformation and is referred to as the compression constant C:
where: H
1+f
-initial effective stress of soil in oedometer
H
2+f
-final effective stress of soil in oedometer
Margins of compression constant C 5k=lime-M Mechani-a $emin6
Soil Compression constant
C [-]
Loess silt 15 45
Clay 30 120
Silts 60 150
Medium dense and dense sands 150 200
Sand with gravel > 250
Co,pression !onstnt 1M
In engineering practice the natural logarithm with base is sometimes replaced by logarithm
with base 10 when plotting the stress H
+f
. In this case it is common to denote the compression
constant with subscript 10: C
10
. Since it holds:
it is possible to derive a relationship between compression constant C and C
10
:
Arnold Verruijt (Soil Mechanics) offers the following values of compression constant:
- 627 -
Soil C C
10
Sand 50 500 20 200
Silt 25 125 10 50
Clay 10 100 4 40
Peat 2 - 25 1 - 10
Void rtio
The void ratio + describes porosity of a soil and is provided by:
where: ;
&
-volume of voids
;
s
-weight of soil solids
Ranges of void ratio e 57ra*a M= D,M !rinciples of Foundation Engineering6
Soil Void ratio
+ [-]
Poorly graded sand with loose density 0,8
Well graded dense sand 0,45
Loose density sand with angular particles 0,65
Dense density sand with angular particles 0,4
Stiff clay 0,6
Soft clay 0,9 1,4
Loess 0,9
Soft organic clay 2,5 3,2
Glacial till 0,3
1e!o,pression inde'
The recompression index C
,
is determined from the graph representing the variation of void
ratio + as a function of the effective stress H
+f
plotted in the logarithmic scale for unloading
reloading sequence:
- 628 -
Determination of recompression inde( C
,
where: + - change of void ratio for the unloading-reloading curve
lo#H
+f
- change of effective stress for the unloading-reloading curve
If no results from either laboratory or in situ measurements are available, the recompression
index C
,
can be approximately derived from:
where: C
c
-compression constant
Gn.u !hr!teristi!s
Values of the Janbu modulus $ and of stress exponent Y (according Canadian Foundation
Engineering Manual 1992)
Soil Janbu modulus $ Stress index Y
Very dense to dense till, glacial till 1000 300 1
Gravel 400 40 0,5
Dense sand 400 250 0,5
Medium condition sand 250 150 0,5
Loose sand 150 100 0,5
Dense silt 200 80 0,5
Medium condition silt 80 60 0,5
Loose silt 60 40 0,5
Hard to very stiff clay 60 20 0
Medium to stiff clay 20 10 0
- 629 -
Soft claye silt 10 5 0
Soft marine clays 20 5 0
Organic clays 20 - 5 0
Peats 5 1 0
&n)luen!e o) loding histor3
The loading history has a substantial influence on the distribution of deformation curve and
therefore also on the values of deformation characteristics. The following figure displays the
deformation curve (+ @ f(H
+f
) diagram) derived from oedometric loading test corresponding,
e.g. to natural dense sandy soil.
;oading histor%
a6 Deformation cur#e for cla%e% soils from oedometric test
b6 implified interpretation of deformation cur#e
VzorekThe soil sample was gradually loaded to reach the stress level H
N+f
, the stress-strain
relationship (H
N+f
-K6 within the section a-b is linear and is denoted as primary or virgin (i.e.,
relative compression is encountered). Upon exceeding the stress level H
N+f
the sample was
elastically unloaded and the soil moved up the b-c section of the deformation curve. Upon
reloading the soil moved down the b-c section till reaching the original stress H
N+f
prior to
unloading. When loading beyond H
N+f
the deformation curve aproaches asymptotically within
the d-e section the primary line accompanied by inelastic deformation of a soil sample. Such a
complex stress-strain curve is often simplified by the idealized deformation curve (fig. b). Such
a curve characterizes so called overconsolidated soils, which were in the past subjected large
stresses and subsequamtly unloded. The overconsolidation ratio (OCR) then represents the
ratio between the maximum preconsolidation stress the soil has ever experienced and the
current vertical stress. Overconsolidated soils typicaly follow the deformation curve given by
points c-d-e. The change in slope along this line (given app. by point d) corresponds either to
the vertical geostatic stress H
o
(normally consolidated soils) or to preconsolidation pressure H
c
(overconsolidated soils). This point influences the soil deformation, which is smaller within the
c-d section when compared to the d-e section (where for the large degree of overconsolidation
the soil deformation increases). Additional deformation characteristics such as deformation
modulus upon unloading E
+
, one-dimensional swelling index C
+
, recompression index C
,
, etc.
were introduced to describe such a complex soil behavior. Currently the most often used
parameter is the recompression index C
,
suitable for the computation of settlement of
overconsolidated soils.
Coe))i!ient ,
Correction coefficient of surcharge due to structural strength $ determines the structural
strength of soil.
Values of the correction coefficient of surcharge $
- 630 -
Type of fundamental soil $
Very compressible fine soils class F1 -F8
- with deformation modulus E
d+f
< ? M!a
- nonoverconsoludated
- soft to hard consistency
(all 3 attributes must be fullfiled),
filling, made ground
secondary and tertiary sedimets
rocks class R1, R2
0,1
fine soils class F1-F8, not belonging to coefficient
m = 0,1 nor 0,4 nor 0,6
sands and gravels class S1, S2, G1, G2 under GWT
rock class R3, R4
0,2
Sands and gravels class S1, S2, G1, G2
above GWT
sands and gravels with clay, silt or fine soil admixture
soils class S3, S4, S5, G3, G4, G5
rocks class R5, R6
0,3
eluvium of igneous and metanorphic rocks 0,4
6odi)ied !o,pression inde'
The analysis employing the Soft soil model builds on the elastic-plastic model developed in the
university in Cambridge. Here, the vertical deformation of soil K assumes linear dependence on
the logarithmic variation of effective stress in a soil. Application of this model requires an
introduction of the modified compression index V usually obtained from triaxial tests.
If the modified compression index V is not available from laboratory measurements, it can be
approximately found from the compression index C
C
:
where: C
C
-compression index
+ -average void ratio (if this value is not available, it can be approximately
substituted by the initial void ratio +
o
)
&nde' o) se!ondr3 !o,pression
The index of secondary compression is proportional to the logarithm of time and the slope of
primary consolidation (it is strongly dependent on the final effective stress in soil):
where: CX - index of secondary compression
X - deformation of a soil layer
t
1
- initial time of a period of monitoring (measured from the start of
consolidation)
- 631 -
t
2
- final time of a period of monitoring
Determining the value of index of secondary compression C
[
requires either laboratory (e.g.
one-dimensional consolidation in oedometer) or in-situ measurements:
Determination of inde( of secondar% compression C
[
Ranges of values of index of secondary compression C
[
sand 0,00003 0,00006
silty loess 0,0004
clay 0,01
The ratio between the index of secondary compression C
[
and the compression index C
c
is
approximately constant for most of the normally consolidated clays for loading typical in
engineering practice. Its average value is 0,07.
Variation of natural moisture of soil as a function of the index of secondary compression C
[
derived by Mesri appears in figure:
)ariation of natural moisture of soil as a function
- 632 -
of the inde( of secondar% compression C
[
after Mesri
1 Whangamarino clay
2 Mexico City clay
3 Calcareous organic silt
4 Leda clay
5 Norwegian plastic clay
6 Amorphous and fibous peat
7 Canadian muskeg
8 Organic marine deposits
9 Boston blue clay
10 Chicago blue clay
11 Organic silty clay
%+er!onsolidtion inde' o) se!ondr3 !o,pression
The overconsolidation index of secondary compression depends on laboratory measurements
(e.g. one-dimensional consolidation) and is proportional to the logarithm of time and slope of
virgin consolidation line providing the preconsolidation pressure was not exceeded:
where: CX
,
-overconsolidation index of secondary compression
K -deformation of a soil layer
t
1
-initial time of a period of monitoring (measured from the onset of
consolidation)
t
2
-final time of a period of monitoring
Anl3ses in progr, Ground *oss
Analyses performed in the program "Ground *oss" can be divided into the following groups:
- analysis of the shape of subsidence trough above excavations
- analysis of failure of buildings
The failure analysis of building is based on the shape of subsidence trough.
Anl3sis o) su.siden!e trough
The analysis of subsidence trough consists of several sequential steps:
- determination of the ,'i,u, settle,ent and di,ensions o) su.siden!e trough for
individual excavations
- back calculation of the shape and dimensions of subsidence trough providing it is calculated
at a given depth below the terrain surface.
- determination of the overall shape of subsidence trough for more excavations
- post-processing of other variables (horizontal deformation, slope)
The analysis of maximum settlement and dimensions of subsidence trough can be carried out
using either the theory of volume loss or the classical theories (Peck, Fazekas, Limanov).
- 633 -
Volu,e loss
The volume loss method is a semi-empirical method based partially on theoretical grounds.
The method introduces, although indirectly, the basic parameters of excavation into the
analysis (these include mechanical parameters of a medium, technological effects of
excavation, excavation lining etc) using 2 comprehensive parameters (!oe))i!ient k )or
deter,intion o) in)le!tion point and per!entge o) +olu,e loss 45). These
parameters uniquely define the shape of subsidence trough and are determined empirically
from years of experience.

ettlement e(pressed in terms #olumes
The maximum settlement S
$%*
, and location of inflection point !
i'f
are provided by the
following expressions:
where: A - excavation area
Z - depth of center point of excavation
0 - coefficient to calculate inflection point (material constant)
;! - percentage of volume loss
The roof deformation u
%
follows from:
where: , - excavation radius
;
!
- percentage of volume loss
;iteratureM
"http://www.groundloss.com/"
1e!o,,ended +lues o) pr,eters )or +olu,e loss
nl3sis
Data needed for the determination of subsidence trough using the volume loss method:
- 634 -
Coe))i!ient to !l!ulte in)le!tion point "
Soil or ro!" "
cohesionless soil 0,3
normaly consolidated clay 0,5
overconsolidated clay 0,6-0,7
clay slate 0,6-0,8
quartzite 0,8-0,9
$er!entge o) +olu,e loss V*
(e!hnolog3 V*
TBM 0,5-1
Sequential excavation method 0,8-1,5
Several relationships were also derived to determine the value of lost volume ;! based on
stability ratio N defined by Broms and Bennermarkem:
where: H
6
- overall stress along excavation axis
H
t
- excavation lining resistance (if lining is installed)
S
u
- undrained stiffness of clay
For N O 2 the soil/rock in the vicinity of excavation is assumed elastic and stable. For N O 2,E
local plastic zones begin to develop in the vicinity of excavation, for N O E,F a large plastic
zone develops around excavation and for N @ F the loss of stability of tunnel face occurs.
Figure shows the dependence of stability ration and lost volume ;!.
;iteratureM
Broms, B.B., Bennemark, H., 1967. Stability of clay at vertical openings. ASCE, Journal of Soil
- 635 -
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Division, SMI 93, 7194.
Clssi!l theor3
Convergence analysis of an excavation and calculation of the maximum settlement in a
ho,ogeneous .od3 are the same for all classical theories. The subsidence trough analyses
then differ depending on the assumed theory (Peck, Fazekas, Limanov).
When calculating settlement the program first determines the radial loading of a circular
excavation as:
where: H
)
- geostatic stress in center of excavation
(
,
- coefficient of pressure at rest of cohesive soil
The roof u
%
and the bottom u
N
deformations of excavation follow from:
where: Z- depth of center point of excavation
, - excavation radius
E- modulus of elasticity of rock/soil in vicinity of excavation
I- Poisson's number of rock/soil in vicinity of excavation
The maximum terrain settlement and the length of subsidence trough are determined as
follows:
E- modulus of elasticity of rock/soil in vicinity of excavation
When the tunnel roo) displ!e,ent is pres!ri.ed the maximum settlement is provided by
the following expression:
- 636 -
u
%
- tunnel roof displacement
Anl3sis )or l3ered su.soil
When determining a settlement of layered subsoil the program first calculates the settlement
at the interface between the first layer above excavation and other layers of overburden S
i't
and determines the length of subsidence trough along layers interfaces. In this case the
approach complies with the one used for a homogeneous soil.
Next (as shown in Figure) the program determines the length of subsidence trough ! at the
terrain surface.
,nal%sis of settlement for la%ered subsoil
The next computation differs depending on the selected analysis theory:
Solution )ter *i,no+
Limanov described the horizontal displacement above excavation with the help of lost area F:
where: ! - length of subsidence trough
F - volume loss of soil per 1m run determined from:
where: !
i't
- length of subsidence trough along interfaces above excavation
S
i't
- settlement of respective interface
Solution )ter F2e"s
Fazekas described the horizontal displacement above excavation using the following
expression:
- 637 -
where: ! - length of subsidence trough
!
i't
S
i't
Solution )ter $e!"
Peck described the horizontal displacement above excavation using the following expression:
where: !
i't
S
i't
!
i'f
- distance of inflection point of subsidence trough from excavation axis at
terrain surface
;iteraturaM
Szchy, Kroly, The art of tunelling,Budapest : Akadmiai Kiad, 1966
Shpe o) su.siden!e trough
The program offers two particular shapes of subsidence troughs according to Gauss or
Aversin.
Cur+e .sed on Guss
A number of studies carried out both in the USA and Great Britain proved that the transverse
shape of subsidence trough can be well approximated using the Gauss function. This
assumption then allows us to determine the horizontal displacement at a distance * from the
vertical axis of symmetry as:
where: S
i
- settlement at point with coordinate *
i
S
$%*
- maximum terrain settlement
!
i'f
- distance of inflection point
Cur+e .sed on A+ersin
Aversin derived, based on visual inspection and measurements of underground structures in
Russia, the following expression for the shape of subsidence trough:
kde: S
i
- settlement at point with coordinate *
i
S
$%*
- maximum terrain settlement
! - reach of subsidence trough
- 638 -
;iteraturaM
Szchy, Kroly, The art of tunelling,Budapest : Akadmiai Kiad, 1966
Coe))i!ient o) !l!ultion o) in)le!tion point
When the classical methods are used the inputted coefficient 0
i'f
allows the determination of
the inflection point location based on !
i'f
=!/0
i'f
. In this case the coefficient 0
i'f
represents a
very important input parameter strongly influencing the shape and slope of subsidence trough.
Its value depends on the average soil or rock, respectively, in overburden literature offers
the values of 0
i'f
in the range 2,1 2 E,0.
Based on a series of FEM calculations the following values are recommended:
- gravel soil G1-G3 0
i'f
=<,7
- sand and gravel soil S1-S5,G4,G5, rocks R5-R6 0
i'f
=<,0
- fine-grained soil F1-F4 0
i'f
=2,7
- fine-grained soil F5-F8 0
i'f
=2,1
The coefficient for calculation of inflection point is inputted in the frame "Project".
Su.siden!e trough with se+erl e'!+tions
The principal of superposition is used when calculating the settlement caused by structured or
multiple excavations. Based on input parameters the program first determines subsidence
troughs and horizontal displacements for individual excavations. The overall subsidence trough
is determined subsequently.
Other variables, horizontal strain and gradient of subsidence trough, are post-processed from
the overall subsidence trough.
Anl3sis o) su.siden!e trough t depth
A linear interpolation between the maximal value of the settlement S
$%*
at a terrain surface
and the displacement of roof excavation u
%
is used to calculate the maximum settlement S at a
depth h below the terrain surface in a homogeneous body.
,nal%sis of subsidence trough at a depth
The width of subsidence trough at an overburden l is provided by:
- 639 -
where: ! - length of subsidence trough at terrain surface
Z - depth of center point
) - analysis depth
The values l and are then used to determine the shape of subsidence trough in overburden
above an excavation.
Cl!ultion o) other +ri.les
A vertical settlement is accompanied by the evolution of horizontal displacements which may
cause damage to nearby buildings. The horizontal displacement can be derived from the
vertical settlement providing the resulting displacement vectors are directed into the center of
excavation. In such a case the horizontal displacement of the soil is provided by the following
equation:
where: * - distance of point * from axis of excavation
s=*> - settlement at point *
The horizontal displacements are determined in a differential way along the * axis and in the
transverse direction they can be expressed using the following equation:
where: * - distance of point * from axis of excavation
s=*> - settlement at point *
!
i'f
- distance of inflection point
Anl3sis o) )ilure o) .uildings
The program first determines the shape and dimensions of subsidence trough and then
performs analysis of their influence on buildings.
The program offers four types of analysis:
- determination of tensile cracks
- determination of gradient damage
- determination of a relative deflection of buildings (hogging, sagging)
- analysis of the inputted section of a building
(ensile !r!"s
One of the causes responsible for the damage of buildings is the horizontal tensile strain. The
- 640 -
program highlights individual parts of a building with a color pattern that corresponds to a
given class of damage. The maximum value of tensile strain is provided in the text output.
The program offers predefined zones of damage for masonry buildings. These values can be
modified in the frame "Settings". Considerable experience with a number of tunnels excavated
below build-up areas allowed for elaborating the relationship between the shape of subsidence
trough and damage of buildings to such precision that based on this it is now possible to
estimate an extent of compensations for possible damage caused by excavation with accuracy
acceptable for both preparation of contractual documents and for contractors preparing
proposals for excavation of tunnels.
Recommended values for masonry buildings from one to six floors are given in the following
table.
Horizontal strains (per mille)
$roportionl h.s. (per
,ille)
8,ge 8es!ription
0.2 J 0.7 Microcracks Microcracks
0.7 2 0.G7 Little damage - superficial Cracks in plaster
0.G7 J 1.0 Little damage Small cracks in walls
1.0 J 1.8 Medium damage, functional Cracks in walls, problems with
windows and doors
1.8 2 Large damage Wide open cracks in bearing
walls and beams
Grdient d,ge
One of the causes leading to the damage of buildings is the slope subsidence trough. The
program highlights individual parts of a building with a color pattern that corresponds to a
given class of damage. The maximum value of tensile strain is provided in the text output.
The program offers predefined zones of damage for masonry buildings. These values can be
modified in the frame "Settings". Considerable experience with a number of tunnels excavated
below build-up areas allowed for elaborating the relationship between the shape of subsidence
trough and damage of buildings to such precision that based on this it is now possible to
estimate an extent of compensations for possible damage caused by excavation with accuracy
acceptable for both preparation of contractual documents and for contractors preparing
proposals for excavation of tunnels.
Recommended values for masonry buildings from one to six floors are given in the following
table.
Gradient
Grdient 8,ge 8es!ription
1H1200 2 800 Microcracks Microcracks
1H800 2 700 Little damage - superficial Cracks in plaster
1H700 2 <00 Little damage Small cracks in walls
1H<00 2 170 Medium damage, functional Cracks in walls, problems with
windows and doors
1H170 2 0 Large damage Wide open cracks in bearing
walls and beams
- 641 -
1elti+e de)le!tion
Definition of the term relative deflection is evident from the figure. The program searches
regions on buildings with the maximum relative deflection both upwards and downwards.
Clearly, from the damage of building point of view the most critical is the relative deflection
upwards leading to "tensile opening" of building.
.elati#e deflection
Verification of the maximum relative deflection is left to the user the following tables list the
ultimate values recommended by literature.
(3pe o) stru!ture (3pe o) d,ge Ulti,te relti+e de)le!tion U)%
Burland and Wroth Meyerhof Polshin a
Tokar
SN
73
1001
Unreinforced
bearing walls
Cracks in walls For L/H = 1 -
0.0004
For L/H = 5 -
0.0008
0,0004 0,0004 0,0015
Cracks in bearing
structures
For L/H = 1 -
0.0002
For L/H = 5 -
0.0004
- - -
Filure o) se!tion o) .uilding
In a given section the program determines the following variables:
- maximum tensile strain
- maximum gradient
- maximum relative deflection
- relti+e grdient between inputted points of a building
Evaluation of the analyzed section is left to the user the following tables list the
recommended ultimate values of relative rotation and deflection.
- 642 -
(3pe o)
stru!ture
(3pe o)
d,ge
Ulti,te relti+e grdient
Skempton Meyerhof Polshin a
Tokar
Bjerrum SN
73 1001
Frame
structures
and
reinforced
bearing walls
Structural 1/150 1/250 1/200 1/150
Cracks in
walls
1/300 1/500 1/500 1/500 1/500
(3pe o) stru!ture (3pe o) d,ge Ulti,te relti+e de)le!tion U)%
Burland and Wroth Meyerho
f
Polshin a
Tokar
SN
73
1001
Unreinforced
bearing walls
Cracks in walls For L/H = 1 -
0.0004
For L/H = 5 -
0.0008
0,0004 0,0004 0,0015
Cracks in bearing
structures.
For L/H = 1 -
0.0002
For L/H = 5 -
0.0004
- - -
1o!" slope
Program for stability analysis of rock slope treats the following types of failure of rock faces:
- sliding on the plane slip surface
- translation on the polygonal slip surface
- fall of the rock wedge
Failure of a roc- face due to sliding on the plane slip surface
- 643 -
Translation on the pol%gonal slip surface
Fall of the roc- wedge
$lne slip sur)!e
Failure on the plane slip surface is manifested by a rock block sliding down along this surface.
The solution procedure requires determination of the nor,l )or!e N acting on the slip
surface, the sher )or!e !
act
(!ti+e) and the resisting sher )or!e !
res
(pssi+e).
Forces on the slip surface
The shear strength parameters and the normal force N acting on the slip surface are the main
input data for the determination of the resisting shear forces !
res
. Calculation of the active
shear force !
act
and the normal force + is further influenced by the weight of block (depends
on the geometry and bulk weight of rock), anchorage, surcharge, influence of water and
seismic effects. The active force and the normal force are determined as a sum of all forces
entering the analysis.
The program offers several types of plane slip surfaces:
- smooth
- undulating
- 644 -
- stepped
The slip surface can be specified with a tension crack.
The resulting verification can be carried out either according to the theory of limit states or
factors of safety.
;iteratureM
Charles ,= QlicheM.oc- slope stabilit%0 ME0 9,0 <ccc0+74 1-A>""B-<><-<
Stepped slip sur)!e
If the rock body contains a system of parallel discontinuous cracks inclined to the top face of a
rock and the second system is indistinctive, then it is possible to consider a formation of a
stepped (jagged) slip surface in the rock body. This surface can be introduced into the
program using the Calla and Nicholas theory, which increases resistance on the slip surface by
TY.
where: H
'
- normal stress acting in the direction normal to the slip surface
I - waviness angle
T - effective tensile strength of steps in the intact rock
0 - part of the height h
t
associated with steps in the intact rock (not
created by a secondary system of planes)
h
t
- normal height of stepped wedge resting on an inclined plane of
principal system of discontinuity planes
T
0
- tensile strength of intact rock
tepped slip surface
;iteratureM
Characteri$ing roc- *oint geometr% with *oint s%stem models kournal .oc- Mechanics and .oc-
Engineering0 pringer 'ien +4 1>2"-2O"2 0 +ssue )olume 2<0 4umber < / kanuar%0
<cAA !ages 2<-B<
- 645 -
(ensile strength o) ro!"
Tensile strength T
+
is 20 to <0 * smaller than the strength of rock in simple compression H
c.
Strength in simple tension T
o
for selected intact rocks [MPa]
Basalt " - <A
Gneiss > - <O
Granite << - 2<
Limestone " - B
Marble > - <2
Quarzite ? - 2"
Sandstone B - <<
Schist B - <2
Slate 2 - <>
Tuff 2 - ?
Undulting slip sur)!e
If undulating surface is considered (on scale I to 10 $) it is possible to account for waviness
by angle IH
where: X -slip surface gradient
X
i
-gradient of the i-th fault of slip surface
The waviness increases the tensile strength Y on slip surface by TYH
where: H
'
-normal stress acting in the direction normal to the slip surface
I -waviness angle
9ndulating slip surface
- 646 -
An!horge o) ro!" slope
Two types of anchors can be defined when running the slope stability analysis on a plane slip
surface:
A!ti+e
An active anchor is represented by a pre-stressed anchor, for which the anchor forces are
activated before the sliding of a rock block takes place. The normal force increases the normal
stress on a slip surface and as such also the resisting forces; the tangent component of the
normal force is either added to or subtracted from the shear (active) forces.
$ssi+e
A passive anchor is activated by sliding of a rock block (i.e. not pre-stressed anchors). The
normal force increases the normal stress on a slip surface and as such also the resisting
forces; the tangent component of the normal force is added to the resisting forces.
.esolution of anchor force
Sur!hrge o) ro!" slope
The surcharge resultant is determined first. The normal component of the resultant force
increases the normal stress on a slip surface and as such also the resisting forces !
res
, the
tangent component is either added to or subtracted from the shear (active) forces !
act
.
.esolution of surcharge
- 647 -
&n)luen!e o) wter !ting on slip sur)!e
The following options to account for water effects are available in the program:
Without ground water, water is not considered
Hydrostatic pressure, GWT above toe of slope
Hydrostatic pressure, GWT on tension crack
Hydrostatic pressure, GWT on tension crack, max
Hydrostatic pressure, water acting on tension crack only
Own water force acting on slip surface only
Own water force behavior
G-( .o+e toe o) slope
H3drostti! pressure4 G-( .o+e toe o) slope
The slip surface is either entirely or partially below the ground water table, the maximal water
pressure is at the toe of face.
H%drostatic pressure on slip surface
The value of water pressure u at the heel of slope is given by:
where: N
:
-bulk weight of water
h
t
-height of GWT above toe of slope
- 648 -
The resulting compressive water force acting in the direction normal to the slip surface is given
by:
where: N
:
h
t
X -deflection of slip surface from horizontal
G-( on tension !r!"
G(- on tension !r!"
The slip surface is entirely below the ground water table; the GWT either intersects the tension
crack or is aligned with terrain, the maximal value of uplift pressure is at the toe of face.
H%drostatic pressure on slip surface and on tension crac-0 ma(= #alue at the toe of slope
The value of uplift pressure u at the intersection of slip surface and tension crack is given by:
where: N
:
h
t
-height of GWT above the line of intersection of slip surface and tension
crack
The resulting compressive water force ; acting in the direction normal to the tension crack is
given by:
where: N
:
h
t
crack
J -deflection of tension crack from vertical
The value of pressure u
1
at the toe of slope is given by:
where: N
:
- 649 -
S
:
The resulting compressive water force U acting in the direction normal to the tension crack is
given:
where: u -water pressure acting on the line of intersection of slip surface and tension
crack
u
1
-water pressure at toe of slope
h
t
crack
S
:
G-( on tension !r!"4 ,'
G-( on tension !r!"
The slip surface is entirely below the ground water table, the GWT either intersects the tension
crack or is aligned with terrain, the maximal value of uplift pressure is at the intersection of
tension crack and slip surface.
H%drostatic pressure on slip surface and on tension crac-
where: N
:
h
t
crack
given by:
where: N
:
h
t
crack
- 650 -
The resulting value of pressure u
1
at the toe of slope is equal to zero.
The resulting compressive water force U acting in the direction normal to the tension crack is
given:
where: u -water pressure acting on the line of intersection of slip surface and tension
crack
h
t
crack
S
:
-ter !ting on tension !r!" onl3
-ter !ting on tension !r!" onl3
The slip surface is fully dry; the GWT either intersects the tension crack or is aligned with
terrain, the maximal value of uplift pressure is at the intersection of slip surface and tension
crack.
'ater acting on tension crac- onl%
where: N
:
h
t
crack
given by:
where: N
:
h
t
crack
- 651 -
The value of water pressure acting on slip surface is equal to zero.
%wn wter )or!e !ting on slip sur)!e onl3
%wn wter )or!e !ting on slip sur)!e onl3
The program allows for a manual input of the value of water pressure &
s
in [01%] acting on a
slip surface, providing the pressure distribution is constant.
Own #alue of water pressure acting on slip surface
%wn wter )or!e .eh+ior
%wn wter )or!e .eh+ior
The program allows for a manual input of the value of water pressure &
t
in [01%] acting on a
tension crack, providing the pressure distributions are constant.
Own #alues of water pressure on slip surface and on tension crac-
$ol3gonl slip sur)!e
The program performs stability analysis of rock blocks moving along the polygonal slip surface.
Owing to the complexity of the general solution the program admits the following assumptions:
- motion of rock blocks is only translational
- blocks translate along the polygonal slip surface formed either by planar planes or planes
- 652 -
with moderate waviness
- rock blocks are divided by joints with known directions
- actual deformation of rock mass inside the blocks is negligible
- failure on the polygonal slip surface and along joints is driven by the Mohr-coulomb failure
criterion
- the same factor of safety is assumed for all joints and along the entire polygonal slip
surface
- all rock blocks are in contact (opening of joints is not allowed)
- the shear forces on the polygonal slip surface have the same sign
The Mohr-Coulomb shear strength parameters on the slip surface and on joints separating
individual block are the main input data for the determination of stability of rock blocks. The
solution is further influenced by the weight of block (depends on the geometry and bulk weight
of rock), anchorage, surcharge, influence of water and seismic effects.
The basic theoretical grounds of the solution are described here.
!ol%gonal slip surface
;iteratureM
.oc- mechanics A0 tabilitmtsberechnung ebener und rmumlicher Felsbnschungen0<c>O0 pp= >"
& <<"
Geo,etr3 o) ro!" .lo!"
The block geometry is determined by the gradient d, by the length of a given slip surface and
by the gradient of a dividing joint J separating the subsequent block as well as by the gradient
d and the length l of the top face of external surface of a rock slope (natural profile). Lengths
of planes can be defined either by the total length or by the lengths of their horizontal and
vertical projections. It is necessary to ensure the condition that all rock blocks are in contact
(the opening between joints is not allowed).
- 653 -
Geometr% of the i-th element
An!hor )or!es4 sur!hrge
It is possible to introduce anchor forces and surcharges of rock blocks. The resultant of forces
acting on the i-th block in -4/m is then determined. All forces acting on the block excluding
the water pressure on the slip surface and the joints are taken into account.
Sur!hrge !ting on the .lo!"
It is possible to input surface, strip and trapezoidal surcharge of terrain. The program then
determines their effect on individual rock blocks.
An!hor )or!es
The applied anchor force is adjusted per 1$ run based on the specified horizontal spacing of
anchors.
E(ternal forces on the i-th element
&n)luen!e o) wter
The water pressure along the joints and on the slip surface can be taken into account. It is
introduced as external loading:
- 654 -
-ter pressure on ;oints (wter .etween .lo!"s) 3
2
It must be introduced into the analysis whenever the presence of water in the joints between
blocks is expected. It is applied as a resultant force F
6
in 0N (the pressure acting on the
immerse part of the joint per 1m run is considered).
-ter pressure on the e'ternl slip sur)!e (upli)t pressure) +
It is defined as hydrostatic pressure on each slip surface of the polygon (external slip surface)
separately and introduced as an external loading (uplift pressure) + in 0N, which can be
reduced depending on the slip surface permeability (the pressure acting on the immerse part
of the slip surface per 1m run is considered).
'ater forces acting on a roc- bloc-
Solution pro!edure
For each rock block resting on the polygonal slip surface the program applies the basic
equation of the stability of rock slope sliding along the plane slip surface as:
where: R - resultant of all active forces
0
1
,0
2
- coefficients depending on slope gradient, inclination of anchor force,
angle of internal friction and factor of safety
c - cohesion on slip surface
5 - tha horninovho tlesa ohrozenho weight of a rock body in danger of
sliding
such that the resultant of all active forces is assumed as an unknown interaction force (
i
between rock blocks (see figure). If, apart from interaction force, the i-th rock block is further
loaded by other external forces, it is possible to write the interaction force of the i-th block in
the form:
where: c
i
- cohesion on slip surface of i-th block
5
i
- weight of i-th rock block
1
i
5 - overall external force acting on i-th block in vertical direction
1
i
( - overall external force acting on i-th block in the direction of interaction
force
- 655 -
(
i
5 - magnitude of interaction force on i-th block in vertical direction
(
i
( - magnitude of interaction force on i-th in the direction of Q
0
1i
- coefficient depending on gradient of slip surface X, gradient of external
loading P
i
, stability of rock slope and angle of internal friction J
i
0
2i
- coefficient depending on gradient of slip surface X, gradient of external
loading P
i
, stability of rock slope and angle of internal friction J
i
By combining the above forces it is possible to implicitly express the gradient of interaction
force (
i
of the i-th block as:
where: W
i
-gradient of interaction force Ki of i-th block
c
i
-cohesion on slip surface of i-th block
A
i
-slip surface of i-th rock block
R
i
-interaction force on i-th block
F -ratio of maximal shear resistance and acting shear force
J
i
-angle of internal friction on slip surface of i-th block

Forces acting on slip surfaces between bloc-s 5internal slip surfaces6
1o!" wedge
The program performs stability analysis of a rock wedge that is wedged in between two
surfaces (planes) and slides in the direction of the line of interaction (tray) of these planes.
Gradient of this intersection must be considerably larger than the angle of internal friction
along dividing planes, whereas the falling line of both dividing planes must be directed towards
the line of intersection. It is further assumed that the tray is located in a stable rock body.
- 656 -
The solution requires determination of the nor,l )or!e 9, the sher )or!e !
act
(active) and
the resisting (pssi+e) sher )or!e !
res
acting on slip surfaces A1 and A2. The active force
T
%ct
and the normal force N are obtained as a summation all forces entering the analysis after
performing the space resolution of these forces.
The Mohr-Coulomb shear strength parameters and the nor,l )or!e N acting on the slip
surface are the main input data for the determination of the resisting sher )or!es !
res
.
Calculation of the active shear force !
act
and the normal force + is further influenced by the
weight of block (depends on the geometry and bulk weight of rock), anchorage, surcharge,
influence of water and seismic effects.
The slip surface can be specified with a tension crack. The resulting verification can be carried
out either according to the theory of limit states or factors of safety.
Components acting on a roc- wedge
;iteraturaM
Charles ,= QlicheM .oc- slope stabilit%0 ME0 9,0 <ccc0+74 1-A>""B-<><-<
Geo,etr3 o) ro!" wedge
Entering geometry of a rock wedge using either gradient or falling line gradient direction
requires definition of space orientation of the rock face, terrain (top face), slip surfaces N1 and
N2 and/or tension crack, such that:
- Grdient (gradient angle) is an inclination angle X representing inclination of surface from
horizontal (it may receive values from 0 to 90)
- Grdient dire!tion (falling line) is an angle J between horizontal projection of the line
normal to the strike direction measured as an azimuth angle (from the north in the
clockwise direction) (the falling line corresponds to inclination of the plane), it may receive
values from 0 to 360
The program when defining space orientation of planes displays these planes using a
stereographic projection.
- 657 -
Description of orientation of surfaces 5#ertical cut through a roc- mass and plane pro*ection6
Stereogrphi! pro;e!tion
When defining geometry of the wedge and slip surfaces using space projection, the program
displays individual surfaces with the help of great circles of Lambert's hemispherical projection.
Hemispherical pro*ection of the inclined plane
&n)luen!e o) ground wter
By default the program performs the stability analysis of a rock wedge without considering
ground water. If interested on the influence of ground water on a rock wedge it is necessary to
introduce the height of GWT from the line of intersection of slip surfaces and rock face (the
GWT takes an arbitrary position over the entire height of a rock wedge). The program assumes
that water can flow freely discontinuities located below the GWT (no restrictions, e.g. due to
ice blocks, are considered).
The water pressure acts in the direction normal to the slip surfaces against normal components
of the passive forces. If the height 9
:
above the point of maximal pressure 1
$%*
is equal or
larger than Z?2 and it is fully contained by the rock wedge, then its value is assumed to be
equal to Z?2 (case A). If the height 9
:
above the point of maximal pressure 1
$%*
is less than Z?
2 (case B), then its value reduced as:
where: !R - length of the line of intersection of slip surfaces A1, A2
X
1
- gradient of rock face
- 658 -
W - gradient of the of line of intersection of slip surfaces
The resulting water pressure on slip surfaces 1 and 2 is given by:
where: Z - height of GWT above the line of intersection of slip surfaces and rock face
1
$%
*
- maximal water pressure on the line of intersection of slip surfaces
N
:
- bulk weight of water
A
1
:
- are of the wetted part of the slip surface 1
A
2
:
- area of the wetted part of the slip surface 2
A> U>
Distribution of water pressure on the line of intersection of slip surfaces
If a tension crack is found either entirely or partially below the GWT, then the influence of
water pressure is reflected both on slip surfaces 1 and 2 through forces 1
1
and 1
2
acting on
intersection of these surfaces and on tension crack through force 1
<
acting in the direction
normal to the tension crack.
Distribution of water pressure when considering G'T in tension crac-
1esolution o) !ting )or!es
Forces acting on a rock wedge (weight of rock wedge, external loading, anchor force) are
resolved into directions normal to planes A1 and A2 (the block is wedged in between these
surfaces) and into the direction of their intersection. The resolution of forces results into the
normal forces 4<0 42 acting on planes A1 and A2, resisting (passive) forces !
res1
, !
res6
acting
along planes A1 and A2.
- 659 -
This step further generates the sher (!ti+e) )or!e !
act
acting in the direction of the line of
intersection of slip surfaces. The resulting sher (!ti+e) )or!e !
act
is obtained as a sum of
individual shear forces !
act,$
.
(he resisting (pssi+e) )or!e !
res
is found by summing up the components !
res1
, !
res6
(e.g.
due to external loading) and friction forces on planes A1 and A2 due to normal forces:
where: c
1
-cohesion on slip surface A
1
c
2
-cohesion on slip surface A
2
J
1
-angle of internal friction on slip surface A
1
J
2
-angle of internal friction on slip surface A
2
T
6)d1
-resisting forces on slip surface A
1
T
6)d2
-resisting forces on slip surface A
2
pace resolution of self weight of earth wedge '
Veri)i!tion
Verification can be carried out either according to the theory of limit states or factor of safety.
Veri)i!tion !!ording to the )!tor o) s)et3
When performing verification according to the factor of safety the program directly determines
the value of the factor of safety F
S
. Verification condition has the form:
where: T
&os
-shear forces along the slip surface
T
6)d
-passive forces along the slip surface
F
s
-required factor of safety
When analyzing the polygonal slip surface the program directly determines the value of the
factor of safety F
S
.
Verification condition has the form:
- 660 -
where: F
S
- calculated factor of safety
SU - required factor of safety
Typical values for most cases when studying stability of rock slopes are, e.g. for walls of
foundation pits F @1,1 to 1,27, for rock cuts of highways F @1,2 to 1,7, etc.
Veri)i!tion !!ording to the theor3 o) li,it sttes
When performing verification according to the theory of limit states the program reduces
material parameters of rocks (angle of internal friction or tangent of the angle of internal
friction, cohesion) using partial coefficients entered in the frame "Settings".
where: T
&os
-shear forces along the slip surface
T
6)d
-passive forces along the slip surface
N
s
-coefficient of the overall stability of the structure
When analyzing the polygonal slip surface the program compares the calculated value with the
value corresponding to the fully stressed design (state of equilibrium with zero reserve).
where: F
S
-factor of safety calculated with the reduced material parameters
N
s
-coefficient of the overall stability of the structure
Recommended partial coefficients according to EC7:
- coefficient of reduction of the angle of internal friction N
$\
a <=2B
- coefficient of reduction of the cohesion N
$c
a <=2B
1o!" < sher resistn!e !riteri
The shear strength is the basic criterion to determine resisting passive forces. The resisting
force is given by the following expression:
where: Y -shear strength on the slip surface
l -length of the slip surface
The shear strength for the planar slip surface can be written as:
- Mohr - Coulomb
- Hoek - Brown
- Barton - Bandis
6ohr < Coulo,.
The shear strength according to the Mohr-Coulomb is given by:
- 661 -
where: N - normal force acting on the slip surface
l - length of the slip surface
c - cohesion of soil / rock
Approximate ranges of parameters of the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion for selected soils are
given here.
;iteraturaM
Charles ,= QlicheM .oc- slope stabilit%0 ME0 9,0 <ccc0+74 1-A>""B-<><-<
$r,eters 6ohr 0 Coulo,.
If possible the strength parameters should be determined in-situ measurements. The results of
in-situ and laboratory experiments show that the angle of internal friction is found for majority
of discontinuities in the rock mass in the range of 2G to EG. Approximate values of the angle
of internal friction J and cohesion c for rocks based on the RMR classification are stored in the
following table:
Rock class I II III IV V
RMR 100 - 81 80 - 61 60 - 41 40 - 21 < 20
angle of internal friction
J []
> 45 35 - 45 25 - 45 15 - 25 < 15
cohesion c -01%/ > 400 300 - 400 200 - 300 100 - 200 < 100
Hoe" < Brown
The modified Hoek-Brown failure criterion describes the failure of a rock mass (based on the
performed analyses of hundreds of underground structures and rock slopes) as:
where: H
1+f
- major principal stress during rock failure
H
<+f
- minor principal stress during rock failure
H
c
- strength of the intact rock in simple compression
$
N
,s - nonlinear material constant depending on the rock quality
% - coefficient depending on the rock breaking
Basic parameters of the modified Hoek-Brown model should be determined from in-situ and
laboratory measurements. To become more acquainted with this model, a brief list of ranges of
individual parameters is provided.
If ro!" ,ss !lssi)i!tion using GS& is known then it is possible to let the program to
determine the H-B parameters by itself.
For actual analysis the H-B parameters are transformed into the M-C parameters. The solution
procedure then becomes identical to that of the Mohr-Coulomb criterion.
This transformation employs the solution derived by Hoek and Brown in 1990 for known value
of the effective normal stress H
'
, which is typical for the solution of slope stability problem.
- 662 -
where: H
c
- strength of the intact rock in simple compression
$ - nonlinear material constant depending on the rock quality
% - coefficient depending on the rock breaking
;iteratureM
tabilit% anal%sis of roc- slopes with a modified Hoe--7rown failure criterion0 ,4G 3iao-;i o
;+,4G ;+ o p+4 kian-Hua +nternational *ournal for numerical and anal%tical methods in
geomechanics +4 1"O"-c1O<0 211?0 #ol= 2A0 no20 pp= <A<-<c1
$r,eters Hoe" 0 Brown
$r,eter o) ro!" .re"ing a
Parameter a is an exponent receiving values from 0,7 to 0,F7 (for the original Hoek-Brown
condition it is equal to 0,7) and depends on the degree of rock breaking.
9onliner pr,eters m
,
7 m, s )or a O 0,5
(index , denotes residual values)
- 663 -
Carbonate
rocks with
well
developed
cleavage
dolomite,
limestone,
marble
Argillaceous
rocks
mudstone,
siltstone,
shale, slate
Arenaceous
rocks
sandstone,
quartzite
Fine grained
igneous
crystalline
rocks
andesite,
dolerite,
basalt,
rhyolite
Coarse
metamorphic
and igneous
rocks
gabbro, gneiss,
granite
Intact rock
material
Laboratory
specimens have
no discontinuities
RMR=100
Q=500
$ @ G.00
s @ 1.00
$, @ G.00
s, @ 1,00
$ @ 10.00
s @ 1.00
$, @ 10.00
s, @ 1.00
$ @ 17.00
s @ 1.00
$, @ 17.00
s @ 1.00
$ @ 1G.00
s @ 1.00
$, @ 1G.00
s @ 1.00
$ @ 27.00
s @ 1.00
$, @ 27.00
s @ 1.00
Very good quality
rock mass
Rocks without
isolated blocks,
with non-
weathered
discontinuities
RMR=85
Q=100
$ @ 2.E0
s @ 0.082
$, @ E.10
s, @ 0.18"
$ @ <.E<
s @ 0.082
$, @ 7.87
s, @ 0.18"
$ @ 7.1E
s @ 0.082
$, @ 8.G8
s, @ 0.18"
$ @ 7.82
s @ 0.082
$, @ "."7
s, @ 0.18"
$ @ 8.7F
s @ 0.082
$, @ 1E.F<
s, @ 0.18"
Good quality rock
mass
Slightly damaged
rocks with non-
weathered
discontinuities
spaced from 1 to
3 m
RMR=65
Q=10
$ @ 0.7G7
s @ 0.002"<
$, @ 2.00F
s, @ 0.0207
$ @ 0.821
s @ 0.002"<
$, @ 2.8F7
s, @ 0.0207
$ @ 1.2<1
s @ 0.002"<
$, @ E.2"8
s, @ 0.0207
$ @ 1.<"7
s @ 0.002"<
$, @ E.8G1
s, @ 0.0207
$ @ 2.072
s @ 0.002"<
$, @ G.1F<
s, @ 0.0207
Fair quality rock
mass
Partially
weathered
discontinuities
spaced from 0,3
to 1 m
RMR=44
Q=1
$ @ 0.128
s @ 0.0000"
$, @ 0."EG
$ @ 0.18<
s @ 0.0000"
$, @ 1.<7<
$ @ 0.2G7
s @ 0.0000"
$, @ 2.0<0
$ @ 0.<11
s @ 0.0000"
$, @ 2.<01
$ @ 0.E78
s @ 0.0000"
$, @ <.<8<
- 664 -
s, @ 0.001"8 s, @ 0.001"8 s, @ 0.001"8 s, @ 0.001"8 s, @ 0.001"8
Poor quality rock
mass
Numerous
weathered
discontinuities
spaced from 30 to
500 mm
RMR=23
Q=0,1
$ @ 0.02"
s @ 0.00000<
$, @ 0.EEG
s, @ 0.0001"
$ @ 0.0E1
s @ 0.00000<
$, @ 0.F<"
s, @ 0.0001"
$ @ 0.0F1
s @ 0.00000<
$, @ 0."7"
s, @ 0.0001"
$ @ 0.0F"
s @ 0.00000<
$, @ 1.08G
s, @ 0.0001"
$ @ 0.102
s @ 0.00000<
$, @ 1.7"8
s, @ 0.0001"
Very poor quality
rock mass
Numerous
extremely
weathered
discontinuities
with filling spaced
by less than 50
mm, fine grained
waste rock
RMR=3
Q=0,01
$ @ 0.00G
s @ 0.0000001
$, @ 0.21"
s, @ 0.00002
$ @ 0.010
s @0.0000001
$, @ 0.<1<
s, @ 0.00002
$ @ 0.017
s @ 0.0000001
$, @ 0.EF"
s, @ 0.00002
$ @ 0.01G
s @ 0.0000001
$, @ 0.7<2
s, @ 0.00002
$ @ 0.027
s @ 0.0000001
$, @ 0.G82
s, @ 0.00002
Strength o) ro!"s in si,ple !o,pression ,
c ,
Poisson's number I and bulk weight of rock N
- 665 -
.oc-
strength
T%pes of roc- 5e(amples6 trength
H
c
-31%/
!oissonqs
number
I
7ul- weight of
roc- N
-0N?$
<
/
Solid rock most hard solid rock, intact,
compact and dense quartz rock and
basalt, other extraordinary hard
rocks
T170 0,1 28,00 2 <0,00
Highly
hard rock
very hard granit rock, quartz
porphyry, very hard granite, hard
flinty shale, quartzite, very hard
sand rock and very hard cacite
100 2 170 0,17 2F,00 2 2G,00
Hard rock granite, very hard sandstone and
calcite, quarzite lode, hard
conglomerate, very hard ore, hard
limestone, marble, dolomite, pyrite
80 2 100 0,20 27,00 2 2F,00
Rock sandstone, ore, medium sandy
shale, flagstone
70 2 80 0,27 2E,00
Medium
rock
hard mudstone, softer sand rock and
calcite, chalky clay
20 2 70 0,27 J 0,<0 2< 2 2E,00
Soft rock shale, soft limestone, calk, salt rock,
frozen ground, anthracite, marl,
remoulded sandstone, soft
conglomerate, ground with fels
7 2 20 0,< J 0,<7 22,00 J 2F,00
Weak soil compact clay, soil eluvium, black
coal
0,7 2 7 0,<7 J 0,E0 20,00 2 22,0
18,00 2 20,00
Cl!ultion o) Hoe"<Brown pr,eters
If rock mass classification using GSI (Geological Structure Index) is known then it is possible
to let the program to determine the H-B parameters as follows:
where: 5SI - Geological Structure Index
D - damage coefficient of rock mass
$
i
- strength material constant of the intact rock for peak conditions
Vlues o) d,ge !oe))i!ient 8 )or ro!" slope
- 666 -
8es!ription o) ro!" ,ss
Suggested value of
coefficient D
Small scale blasting in engineering slopes results in modest rock
mass damage, particularly if controlled blasting is used. However,
stress relief results in some disturbance.
(Good blasting).
0,7
Small scale blasting in engineering slopes results in modest rock
mass damage, particularly if controlled blasting is used. However,
stress relief results in some disturbance.
(Poor blasting).
1
Very large open pit mine slopes significant disturbance due to
heavy production blasting and due to stress relief from overburden
removal.
(Production blasting).
1
In some softer rocks excavation can be carried out by ripping and
dozing and the degree of damage to the slope is less.
(Mechanical excavation).
0,7
Appro'i,te +lues o) strength ,teril !onstnt o) the int!t ro!" m
$
(after Hoek)
Type of rock Representative rocks $
i
-2/
Limestone rocks with well
developed crystalline cleavage
Dolomite, calcite, marble = 7
Consolidated clayey rocks Mudstone, siltstone, silty
shale, slate
= 10
Sandy rocks with solid crystals
and poorly developed
crystalline cleavage
Sandstone, quarzite = 15
Fine grained igneous
crystalline rocks
Andesite, dolerite, diabase,
rhyolite
= 17
Coarse grained and
metamorphic rocks
Amphibolite, gabbro, gneiss,
granite, diorite
= 25
Brton < Bndis
The Barton-Bandis shear strength failure criterion for the rock mass takes the following form:
where: DRC - joint roughness coefficient
H
'
- normal stress acting on the surface of the rock joint
DCS - joint compressive strength
J
N
- basic angle of internal friction of the slip surface
If possible the shear strength parameters should be determined from in-situ measurements.
- 667 -
Approximate ranges of parameters of the Barton-Bandis failure criterion are given here.
;iteratureM
7romhead0 EM 5<cc26= rThe tabilit% of lopes 52nd Edition6s0 7lac-ie ,cademic t
!rofessionalM ;ondon
Brton 0 Bndis pr,eters
Goint roughness !oe))i!ient G1C
If the value of JRC cannot be determined by direct measurements on the joint surface, it is
possible to obtain this value from the Barton graph (see figure) showing the variation of the
coefficient JRC as a function of length of profile and roughness depth.
- 668 -
Diagram to determine k.C 5after 7arton6
.oc- *oint roughness profiles showing the t%pical range of k.C are plotted ne(t=
- 669 -
.oc- *oint roughness profiles showing the t%pical range of k.C 57arton t Chube% <c>>6
Co,pressi+e strength o) dis!ontinuit3 GCS
Methods allowing us to determine the compressive strength of discontinuity (slip surface) JCS
are generally recommended by ISRM. The value of JCS can be obtained from the Deer-Miller
graph showing its dependence on the rock strength found from the Schmidt hammer
measurements, see figure below.
- 670 -
Bsi! ngle o) internl )ri!tion on slip sur)!e J
,
The basic value of the angle of internal friction on the surface is approximately equal to the
residual value J
r
. Nevertheless, it can be generally measured in laboratories using shear
measurement devices (typical area of the specimen is 50 x 50 mm). Typical ranges of the basic
angle of internal friction for weathered rock surfaces are 25 to 35.
Bul" weight o) ro!"s
Bulk weight or rock N
- 671 -
.oc- strength .oc- categor% 5e(amples6 Uul0 :+i#ht of ,oc0 N
-0N?$
<
/
Solid rock most hard solid rock, intact, compact and dense
quartz rock and basalt, other extraordinary hard
rocks
28,00 2 <0,00
Highly hard
rock
very hard granit rock, quartz porphyry, very hard
granite, hard flinty shale, quartzite, very hard sand
rock and very hard cacite
2F,00 2 2G,00
Hard rock granite, very hard sandstone and calcite, quarzite
lode, hard conglomerate, very hard ore, hard
limestone, marble, dolomite, pyrite
27,00 2 2F,00
Rock sandstone, ore, medium sandy shale, flagstone 2E,00
Medium rock hard mudstone, softer sand rock and calcite, chalky
clay
2< 2 2E,00
Soft rock shale, soft limestone, calk, salt rock, frozen ground,
anthracite, marl, remoulded sandstone, soft
conglomerate, ground with fels
22,00 J 2F,00
Weak soil compact clay, soil eluvium, black coal 20,00 2 22,0
18,00 2 20,00
&n)luen!e o) seis,i! e))e!ts
The programs allows for taking into account the earthquake effects using two variables
coefficient of horizontal acceleration (
h
and coefficient of vertical acceleration (
6
.
The coefficient of acceleration is a dimensionless number, which represents the seismic
acceleration as a fraction of the gravity acceleration. Earthquake effects are introduced through
the seismic force S, which is determined by multiplying the weight of the rock subjected to
earthquake (i.e. rock block) by the coefficient of acceleration. When assuming seismic waves
only in the horizontal direction the seismic force is given by:
where: (
h
-coefficient of horizontal acceleration
Q -weight of the rock body
The seismic force always acts in the center of gravity of the rock body. Usually, only seismic
effects in the horizontal direction are considered. Nevertheless, the program also allows for
treating the vertical direction (with the help of vertical coefficient of acceleration (
6
). Effects in
both directions are then combined.
M_C_S grade horizontal acceleration coefficient of horizontal acceleration
=3S(2FE>
-$$?s
2
/
(
h
1 0,0 2 2,7 0,0 2 0.00027
- 672 -
2 2,7 2 7,0 0,00027 2 0.0007
< 7,0 2 10,0 0,0007 2 0.001
E 10,0 2 27,0 0,001 2 0.0027
7 27,0 2 70,0 0,0027 2 0.007
F 70,0 2 100,0 0,007 2 0.01
G 100,0 2 270,0 0,01 2 0.027
8 270,0 2 700,0 0,027 2 0.07
" 700,0 2 1000,0 0,07 2 0.1
10 1000,0 2 2700,0 0,1 2 0.27
11 2700,0 2 7000,0 0,27 2 0.7
12 T 7000,0 T 0.7
The #alues of factor Qh correspond to indi#idual degrees of earth8ua-e according to M-C-
scale
;iteratureM
Charles ,= QlicheM.oc- slope stabilit%0 ME0 9,0 <ccc0+74 1-A>""B-<><-<
6i!ropile
The program performs verification analysis of micropiles (reinforced by steel tube)
- based on limit states
- based on factor of safety
Both the root section and micropile tube (micropile cross-section) are examined for both
cases. When examining the micropile tube the analysis may include excpected lifetime of the
micropile.
Veri)i!tion .sed on li,it sttes
The program performs verification analysis of the micropile tube and base:
< +eri)i!tion o) the !ross<se!tion (tu.e)
where: N
$%*
-maximum normal force
N
$f
-coefficient of reduction of critical force
N
c,d
-critical normal force
Soil parameters (angle of internal friction, cohesion) and parameters of the micropile tube are
in such a case reduced using design coefficients specified in the frame "Setting".
< +eri)i!tion o) the root
where: N
$%*
N
$,
-coefficient of reduction of bearing capacity of root
F
,d
-design bearing capacity of micropile root
- 673 -
Soil parameters (angle of internal friction, cohesion) are in such a case reduced using design
coefficients specified in the frame "Setting".
Veri)i!tion .sed on )!tor o) s)et3
The program performs verification analysis of the micropile tube and root:
- +eri)i!tion o) the !ross<se!tion (tu.e)
where: N
c,
N
$%*
FS -factor of safety of critical force
The required factor of safety of the cross-section bearing capacity can be specified in the frame
"Setting".
< +eri)i!tion o) the root
where: F
,d
-bearing capacity of micropile root
N
$%*
FS -factor of safety of critical force
The required factor of safety of the root bearing capacity can be specified in the frame
"Setting".
Veri)i!tion o) the ,i!ropile tu.e
When calculating the tube bearing capacity (micropile cross-section) the program differentiates
between a micropile loaded in tension or in compression.
When in tension the program determines the bearing capacity of steel cross-section (the
bearing capacity of the cement slurry is not considered). The analysis also accounts for the
reduction of bearing capacity due to corrosion.
When in compression the program examines both the internal and external bearing capacity of
the tube depending on the method set in the frame "Project".
&nternl .ering !p!it3
In the case of internal bearing capacity the micropile tube is examined against the failure due
to buckling or loading caused by bending and axial force.
When determining the internal bearing capacity it is possible to introduce in the verification
analysis the expected life time of the micropile.
6i!ropile li)e ti,e
The micropile life time is introduced by reducing the area of the reinforcing tube using the
reduction coefficient of the influence of corrosion of steel tube ,
+
and coefficient F
ut
taking into
account connection of the micropile and the surrounding soil.
- 674 -
where: D -external diameter of reinforcing tube
t -wall thickness of reinforcing tube
F
ut
-coefficient taking into account connection of micropile and surrounding soil
,
+
-coefficient of influence of corrosion of steel tube
;iteratureM
7 E4 <?<ccM211B E(ecution of special geotechnical wor-s= Micropiles 7ritish-,dopted
European tandard / "1-Mar-211B / B2 pages +74M 1BA1?B>2?c
Coe))i!ient Fut
Coe))i!ient 3
ut
t"ing into !!ount !onne!tion o) ,i!ropile nd surrounding soil
(3pe 3
ut
.80
Using sleeve of external double spiral without
reduction in cross-section
1,0
Spiral with increasing cross-section 1,0
Other types of connection 1,0
Other cases 0,7
Coe))i!ient o) in)luen!e o) !orrosion
Coe))i!ient o) in)luen!e o) !orrosion o) steel tu.e r
e
.mm0 9,ased o' EN 1:1;;<
(3pe o) soil 1eDuired li)e ti,e o) ,i!ropile V3ersW
7 27 70 G7 100
Soils in natural deposition 0,0 0,<0 0,F0 0,"0 1,20
Soils in natural deposition
contaminated
0,17 0,G7 1,70 2,27 <,00
Organic soils 0,20 1,00 1,G7 2,70 <,27
Loose soils 0,18 0,G0 1.20 1,G0 2,20
Special soils (containing soluble
salts)
0,70 2,00 <.27 E,70 7,G7
Note.: Values of the coefficient of influence of corrosion of steel tube ,
+
are for intermediate
values.
Bering !p!it3 during .u!"ling
Buckling is examined in accordance with the standard CSN 73 1401 for the verification of steel
components. The analysis is preceded by the determination of characteristics of an ideal cross-
section, in which the effect of concrete cross-section is transformed into steel. Slenderness of a
steel component is determined as:
- 675 -
where: l
c,
- element buckling length
i - radius of gyration of ideal cross-section
Based on standard expressinon this slenderness is assigned a value of the buckling coefficien
.
Bearing capacity of the cross-section in compression is determined as:
where: u - buckling coefficient
A
o
- area of cross-section of steel tube
R
d
- desing strength of steel
A
N
- area of cross-section of concrete filling
R
N
- design strength of concrete in compression
;iteratureM
7 E4 <?<ccM211B E(ecution of special geotechnical wor-s= Micropiles 7ritish-,dopted
European tandard / "1-Mar-211B / B2 pages +74M 1BA1?B>2?c
Bering !p!it3 o) !ross<se!tion loded in !o,.intion
o) .ending nd nor,l )or!e
A cross-section loaded in combination of bending and normal force requires first the
determination of neutral axis dividing the cross-section into tensile and compressive parts.
Buckling is included into the resultant neutral axis. The neautral axis is searched following the
procedure known from the dimensioning of steel reinforced concrete cross-sections as a
method limit equilibrium. Compression is transmitted by a part of a steel tube and concrete
filling. Tension is taken by the remaining part of the tube, concrete in tension is not
considered. Recall that the higher the moment in comparison to the normal force the closer the
neutral axis to the centroind of the neutral axis. Increasing the normal force brings the neutral
axis closer to the cross-section edge. The bearing capacity in bending then follows from:
where: R
d
- design strength of steel
A
ot
- area of cross-section of steel tube in tension
t
ot
- location of cross-section of steel tube in tension
A
o
c
- area of cross-section of steel tube in compression
t
oc
- location of cross-section of steel tube in compression
R
N
A
N
c
- area of cross-section of concrete in compression
t
Nc
- location of cross-section of concrete in compression
- 676 -
5'ternl .ering !p!it3
External bearing capacity examines the failure of a micropile as its buckling into the
surrounding soil. The crucial step for the determination of external bearing capacity of the
micropile is the determination of the normal force N
c
that depends on the micropile buckling
length, the surrounding soil and other effects. The program GEO5 Micropile allows for selecting
the following expression for the determination of the critical normal force N
c
:
- solution derived from equation of bending of straight beam
- solution after Salas
- solution after Souch
Solution deri+ed )ro, eDution o) .ending o) stright
.e,
The soil surrounding the micropile is represented in the program by the modulus of subsoil
reaction E
&
(Winkler constant 0) defined by the user. A model of a structure is displayed in the
figure.
Model of structure
For a micropile in compression it is expected that a varying number of half waves occurs
depending on the geometry and stiffness of the structure and surrounding soil, respectively.
The solution of this case arises from the equation of bending of a straight beam.
After some manipulations the bending equation can be expressed as:
where:
- 677 -
Integration constants are found from four boundary conditions depending on the assumed end
point supports.
Assu,ing s,ooth pins on .oth ends the following equation can be derived:
providing the number of half waves in the form:
where: E
i
- modulus of elasticity of ideal cross-section
I
i
- moment of inertia of ideal cross-section
l
&
- micropile length
E
&
- modulus of subsoil reaction
' - number of half waves
Assu,ing s,ooth pin on the one side nd )i'ed end on the other side the following
equation holds:
providing the number of half waves in the form:
where: E
i
I
i
l
&
- micropile length
E
&
- modulus of subsoil reaction
' - number of half waves
- 678 -
Force N
c,
is determined from the following equation by iterations:
where: E
i
I
i
N
c,
- critical normal force
l
c,
- buckling length of micropile cross-section in compression
Solution )ter Sls
The critical force N
c,
for basic support conditions in the micropile head (determining micropile
deflection) follows from:
where: E
%
I
%
-bending stiffness of micropile reinforcing tube
l -free length of micropile length
I
+f
-length of fictitious fixed end
A -constat reflecting the type of support in micropile head
where: f -coefficient depending on the ratio of modulus of elasticity of soil in
micropile head and base
l -elastic length of micropile given by:
where: E
%
I
%
E
l
-modulus of elasticiy of soil in the micropile base
;iteratureM
Jimnez Salas J.A. a kol:Geotecnica y Cimientos III, Capitulo 3, Rueda, Madrid (Spanish)
Constnt A re)le!ting the t3pe o) support in the ,i!ropile
hed
Constnt = re)le!ting the t3pe o) support in the ,i!ropile hed
- 679 -
(3pe o) support in the ,i!ropile hed = .80
Smooth pin 2.0E7
Free 0,27
Fixed E,0
Sliding pin in horizontal direction 1,0
Coe))i!ient )
Coe))i!ient f
E
o
) E
%
1<
.80
f .80
0 1,G0
0,7 1,27
1 1,00
1>
E
o
2 the modulus of elasticity of soil below terrain surface (at the micropile head)
E
l
2 the modulus of elasticity of soil at the micropile root
Solution )ter Sou!he
Calculation of the force N
c
follows from graphs published by Vas a Souche in "tude du du
flamberment de pieux partiellernent immergs dans un milieu offrant latralement une
raction lastique pure", Annales de +v+T7T!0 n=
o
?2"0 ene "Soils et Foundations", 187, mars
avril 1984, pp. 38 60. The grapths for the determination of the critical normal force N
c
are
constructed for dimesionless quatitites o,$H
where: l
1
-micropile length
E
%
I
%
w -ratio of free length of micropile (from beginning of base) and its length in
soil
E
,d
-design value of modulus of horizontal reaction
where: E
,
-reaction of soil in horizontal direction
F
:
-coefficient reducing the value of E
,
=F
:
@ 1,27>
;iteratureM
Vase, Souche: tude du fla,berment de pieux partiellernent immergs dans offrant
latralement une raction lastique pure, Annales de IITBTP, No. 423, Sene Soils et
- 680 -
Foundations, 187, mars avril 1984, str. 38 60 (French)
6odulus o) hori2ontl re!tion o) su.soil
The soil surrounding the micropile can be represented using horizontal springs along micropile
characterized by the Winkler constant 0. For buckling of micropile into the soil in the direction
of the * axis it is possible to write:
where: &
h
-reaction of soil caused by the shift of micropile in direction of * axis (soil in
compression)
0
h
-stiffness of Winkler spring (modulus of subsoil reaction E
&
>
* -shift of micropile in direction of * axis
Providing we consider the reaction of soil to pressing of micropile per one meter run of the
micropile we arrive at:
where: E
,
-reaction of soil in horizontal direction
1
h
-reaction of soil caused by shift of micropile in direction of * axis per one
meter run of micropile
* shift of micropile in direction of ( axis
The above equations identify the relation between the modulus of subsoil reaction E
&
-0N?$
<
/
and the reaction of soil in the horizontal direction E
,
-0N?$
2
/ (assuming constant E
,
in the soil):
where: D -diameter of micropile
0
h
-stiffness of Winkler spring (modulus of subsoil reaction E
&
>
Reaction of soil in the horizontal direction E
,
can be post calculated based on the knowledge of
the modulus E
$
.
Cl!ultion o) the ,odulus o) hori2ontl re!tion o) su.soil 5r
The modulus of horizontal reaction of subsoil can be determined when knowing the piesometric
modulus E
$
and coefficient X
&
as:
kde: E
$
- piesometric modulus
X
&
- coefficient of type of soil (see the table below)
1e)eren!e +lues E
m
a'd /
%$m
- 681 -
Soils E
m
.#pa0 /
%$m
.#/a0
non-cohesive loose 0 J <,7 0 J 0,7
medium dense <,7 J 12 0,7 J 1,7
dense 12 J 22,7 1,7 J 2,7
very dense T 22,7 T2,7
cohesive slush 0 J 2,7 0 2 0,2
soft 2,7 J 7 0,2 J 0,E
stiff 7 J 12 0,E J 0,8
solid 12 J 27 0,8 J 1,F
hard T27 T1F
Vlues o) !oe))i!ient o) t3pe o) soil -
p
(3pe o) soil pet !l34 silt sedi,ent snd snd nd
gr+el
d
&
d
&
E
$
?1
li$
d
&
E
$
?1
li$
d
&
E
$
?1
li$
d
&
E
$
?1
li$
overconsolidated - 1 >16 2/3 >14 1/2 >12 1/3 >10
normally
consolidated
1 2/3 9-16 1/2 8-14 1/3 7-12 1/4 6-10
methamorfous - 1/2 7-9 1/2 5-8 1-3 5-7 1|4 -
Vlues o) the ,odulus o) su.soil re!tion 5p
Vlues o) the ,odulus o) su.soil re!tion E
p
.#N)m0
(o$%
Ep #$')#a> .#N)m
0 =2erage 2a%ue k
h
.#N)m
0
soft clay 20 2 70 <7
stiff clay <0 2 80 77
solid clay F0 2 1F0 110
sand naturally wet loose F0 2 1<0 "7
sand naturally wet medium
dense
200 2 E00 <00
sand naturally wet dense E70 2 "00 FG7
sand aquiferous loose E0 2 80 F0
sand aquiferous medium dense 100 2 200 170
sand aquiferous dense <00 2 F00 E70
- 682 -
sandy clay soft <0 2 F0 E7
sand clay stiff 70 2 "0 G0
sandy clay solid 80 2 1G0 127
clayey sand wet loose E0 2 "0 F7
clayey sand wet medium dense 120 2 <20 220
clayey sand wet dense 2E0 2 EE0 <E0
clayey sand aquiferous loose <7 2 F7 70
clayey sand aquiferous medium
dense
G0 2 110 "0
clayey sand aquiferous dense 117 2 1<7 127
Bering !p!it3 o) steel !ross<se!tion
The bearing capacity of the steel cross-section in simple tension follows from:
where: A
o
- area of cross-section of steel tube
R
d
- design strength of steel in tension
Bering !p!it3 o) the ,i!ropile root se!tion
The micropile bearing capacity can be determined computationally using one of the approaches
available in the literature and standards. The program GEO5 "6i!ropile" provides a set of
methods representing the basic approaches to the solution of bearing capacity of the micropile
root. The analysis is accrued out according to setting in the frame "Project" employing one of
the following procedures:
Lizzi - average limit friction on root skin is specified
Littlejohn - grouting pressure is specified
Zweck, Bowles - both methods depend on geostatic stress and soil parameters of
surrounding soil
Vas - the way the micropile is built and soil parameters of surrounding soil are
specified
root in rock - rock parameters of surrounding soil are specified
Solution )ter *i22i
The Lizzi method is currently the most popular method used. The root bearing capacity is
provided by:
where: d -root diameter
l -root length
Y
$
-average limit skin friction
D -coefficient reflecting influence of bore hole
- 683 -
Coefficient D reflects the influence of the bore hole diameter it ranges from 1,0 for hole
100$$ and smaller, 0,8 for 200$$ hole and greater. Intermediate values are interpolated.
Average limit skin friction of the micropile root can be found in the literature the program
three tables with reference values of limit skin friction the first one is created by the program
authors using various literature sources, the second one contains values of Y
$
according to DIN
4128, the third one then contains values published in Inzenrskch stavby 1984 by ing.K.Klein,
CSc and ing.P. Miova. This table contains meaured values of skin friction of anchor roots for
various soils, root diameters, number if grountings, etc. (using this tables yields rather realistic
results).
;iteratureM
Lizzi, F. (1982). "The pali radice (root piles)". %mposium on soil and roc-impro#ement
techni8ues including geote(tiles0 reinforced earth and modern pilingmethods, Bangkok, D-3.
S"in )ri!tion o) the ,i!ropile root
1e)eren!e +lues o) li,it s"in )ri!tion (re!o,,end .3 the uthors)
Soil S"in )rition .k/a0
soft clay E0 J F0
stiff clay F7 2 87
solid clay 1<0 J 1G0
sand naturally wet, loose 110 J 170
sand naturally wet, medium dense 140 180
sand maturally wet, dense 170 230
aquiferous sand, loose 80 130
aquiferous sand, medium dense 120 160
aquiferous sand, dense 160 200
sandy clay, soft 50 70
sandy clay, stiff 75 95
sandy clay, solid 125 165
clayey sand, wet, loose 90 135
clayey sand, wet, medium dense 135 165
clayey sand, wet, dense 150 170
clayey sand, aquiferous, loose 80 105
clayey sand, aquiferous, medium dense 90 130
clayey sand, aquiferous, dense 115 155
Vlues o) li,it s"in )ri!tion !!ording to 8&9 H1=X
- 684 -
Soil A+erge li,it s"in )ri!tion
piles in !o,pression .k/a0 piles in tension .k/a0
medium to coarse-grain sand 200 100
sand and gravel sand 170 80
cohesive soils 100 70
1e!o,,ended pr,eters o) n!hor roots (Miove, Klein, Inzenrsk stavby 5/1986)
(3pe o) support o)
,i!ropile in hed
Finl
grouting
press.
.#/a0
9u,.er
o)
groutings
1oot
di,eter
.mm0
1oot
length
.m0
S"in
)ri!tion
.k/a0
bedrock 2 0 120 5-3 1000-1600
semirock 0,72<,0 0-1 120-220 7-3 300-1000
gravel, injectable soils 1,0 1-2 250-400 7-5 250-320
gravel, non-injectable soils 2,02E,0 1-2 280-350 7-5 230
medium and fine-grain sand 1,5-4,0 2-3 220-350 12-7 150-180
cohesive stiff and solid soils 1,5-3,0 1-3 200-280 17-8 130-190
cohesive solid to rigid plastic
soils
1,0-2,5 2-3 150-400 20-9 100-130
cohesive soft plastic soils 0,5-2,0 3-4 300-450 27-13,5 50-70
Solution )ter *ittle;ohn
When using the Littlejohn method the root bearing capacity is provided by:
l -root length
&
i
-magnitude of grouting pressure
It follows from experimental measurements of micropiles that their bearing capacity also
depends on the course of grouting and on the grouting pressure (grouting course often
governs the micropile bearing capacity). The bearing capacity considerably increases with
repeated grouting. Grouting pressures range from 0,1 to < 3&%, in some case they may reach
up to 3&%. The Littlejohn method gives the bearing capacity directly proportional to the
grouting pressure.
;iteratureM
LITTLEJOHN, G. S. y BRUCE, D. A. (1975).: "Rock Anchors -State of the Art. Part 1. Design".
En Ground Engineering, Vol. 8, N 4.
Solution )ter Ywe!"
The last methods were developed for the analysis of anchor roots they depend mainly on the
- 685 -
geostatic stress in the location of the micropile root. The Zweck and Bowles methods arise
from the same priciples the pressure magnitude is however reduced using the coefficient of
pressure at rest (
o
.
l -root length
(
o
-magnitude of grouting pressure
H
)
-average gestatic stress at the micropile root
J -average value of friction angle at the micropile root
Solution )ter Bowles
The Bowles solution allows for incorporating the influence of the cohesion on the root bearing
capacity therefore it is more suitable for cohesive soils.
l -root length
(
o
-coefficient of pressure at rest
H
)
-average geostatic stress at the micropile root
J -average magnitude of angle of internal friction at the micropile root
;iteratureM
J.E. Bowles - Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw Hill book Company
Solution )ter VSs
This solution takes into account the effect of geostatic stress at the micropile root and course
of grouting.
Bering !p!it3 o) the ,i!ropile root is pro+ided .3?
where: R
N0
-bearing capacity of the micropile root
R
s0
-skin bearing capacity of the micropile root
6i!ropile s"in .ering !p!it3?
where: ' -number of layers passed by the micropile root
A
si
-area of wall of the micropile base in the i2th layer
- 686 -
B
si
-skin friction in the i2th layer
Bering !p!it3 o) the ,i!ropile root is pro+ided .3?
Skin friction B
s
at a depth of $ below the terrain surface:
where: ) -depth ) bellow the terrain surface, where the magnitude of skin friction is
determined
c -effective cohesion of soil at a depth of )
W -friction angle along the interfave of the micropile root and the soil at a depth of )H
JV -effective angle of internal friction of soil at a depth of )
H
h
=
)>
-horizontal component of geostatic stress at a depth of )H
-for grouting course of type IR and IRS (with monitoring of grouting pressure) and
depth $ 5 m:
-other cases:
(
o
-for normally consolidated soils:
-for overconsolidated soils:
H
6
=)
>
-vertical component of geostatic stress at a depth of )
&
i
-grouting pressure for grouting course of type IR and IRS and depth
) ] 7 $, in other cases &
i
@ 0
F
c
,
F
\
-coefficients of type of application of micropile
;iteratureM
Vase, Souche: tude du fla,berment de pieux partiellernent immergs dans offrant
latralement une raction lastique pure, Annales de IITBTP, No. 423, Sene Soils et
Foundations, 187, mars avril 1984, str. 38 60 (French)
- 687 -
Coe))i!ients o) t3pe o) ppli!tion o) ,i!ropile
Coe))i!ients o) t3pe o) ppli!tion o) ,i!ropile
(3pe o) ppli!tion o)
,i!ropile
3
c
.80 3
\
.80
Newly constructed
foundations
1,70 1,70
Existing foundations 1,20 1,20
Bering !p!it3 o) the root in ro!"
This solution is suitable for the mircopile root reaching into rocks with index RWD T F0 or
having the strength in simple compression H
c
> 20 31% (ISRM < III). The root bearing
capacity is given by:
where: A
s
-area of wall of micropile root
B
s,
-skin friction in rock
A
N
-area of the micropile root
B
N,
-bearing capacity of the microple root in rock
;iteraturaM
Gua para el proyecto y la ejecucin de micropilotes en obras de carretera, Ministerio de
fomento, 2005 (Spanish)
S"in )ri!tion nd .ering !p!it3 o) the ,i!ropile root in
ro!"
S"in )ri!tion in ro!" -
sr
nd .ering !p!it3 o) the ,i!ropile root in ro!" -
,r
(3pe o) ro!" -
sr
.#/a0
-
,r
.#/a0
1<
Sediments 0,17 J 0,E0 0,0G H
c
slates and fylits 0,20 J 0,<0 0,0G H
c
Sandstones 0,<0 J 0,E7 0,0G H
c
Lime stones and dolomites 0,E0 J 0,70 0,10 H
c
granites, basalts 0,E0 J 0,F0 0,10 H
c
1>
H
c
2 strength in simple tension v31%
Anl3ses in progr, $ile C$(
The program Pile CPT serves to verify the bearing capacity and settlement of a single pile or a
group of piles based on the results of penetration tests.
- 688 -
The main objective is to determine the toe and shaft bearing capacities. This analysis can be
carried according to the following standards and approaches.
- EN 1997-3
- NEN 6743
- LCPC (Bustamante)
- Schmertmann
These methods are used to determine the toe and shaft bearing capacities. The determination
of total pile bearing capacity, actual verification and calculation of settlement is then performed
for all methods in the same way.
For all methods the essential input parameters are dimensionless coefficients adjusting the
magnitude of bearing capacity and shaft friction, respectively. Different notation of these
parameters can be encountered in various publications. The following notation is used in
program Pile CPT:
X
&
-pile toe coefficient
X
s
-shaft friction coefficient
These coefficients are automatically calculated based on the type pile and the surrounding soil
these parameters can be, however, also specified manually (X
&
can be entered in the
"Geometry" input mode, X
s
as a soil parameter).
When analyzing rectangular piles the pile shape coefficient s is introduced to reduce the toe
bearing capacity. When analyzing piles with enlargement the expanded pile toe coefficient P is
introduced to adjust the expanded toe bearing capacity. When calculating the toe bearing
capacity the program automatically accounts for the influence of the change of terrain
elevation. The program allows for the calculation of limit load curve and pile settlement for a
given load. This analysis adopts the values of calculated toe and shaft bearing capacities and
follows the NEN 6743 standard. A negative skin friction can also be taken into account when
calculating pile settlement.
Bering !p!it3
The maximum bearing capacity of a single pile based on the values of tip resistance B
c
of the i-
th static penetration test is give by:
where: F
$%*,i
-maximum bearing capacity of the pile from i-th CPT test
F
$%*,to+%,i
-maximum toe resistance from i-th CPT test
F
$%*,sh%ft,i
-maximum shaft resistance from i-th CPT test
Providing there is ' CPT tests then the bearing capacity of a single pile is obtained as an
arithmetic average of ' calculated bearing capacities:
If performing the analysis according to the NEN 6743 standard then the approach for more CPT
tests is different and follows directly the NEN 6743 standard (article 5.3.2.2).
(he ,'i,u, pile toe resistn!e F
$%*,to+
is provided by:
- 689 -
where: A
to+
-pile toe cross-sectional area
&
$%*, to+
-maximum pressure at pile toe from CPT results
(he ,'i,u, sh)t resistn!e F
$%*,sh%ft
is provided by:
where: 4
&
-pile periphery in bearing soil
&
$%*, sh%ft
-maximum force on shaft (friction) from CPT results
T! -pile length, either length of actived shaft friction or length of expanded
toe
) -vertical dimension alog pile axis
Actual calculation of the maximum pressure at pile toe &
$%*,to+
and the maximum force
developed along the shaft &
$%*,sh%ft
is performed according to the method selected in the
"Anl3ses" tab sheet, frame "Project".
59 199I<7
The Eurocode 7-2 "8esign .sed on )ield tests" standard determines the ,'i,u,
pressure t pile toe &
$%*,to+
from the corresponding i-th penetration test as follows:
where: B
c,I,$
-mean of the cone tip resistance B
c,I
(see Addenum B4 in EN 1997-
3)
B
c,II,$
-mean of the minimum cone tip resistances B
c,II
(see Addenum B4 in
EN 1997-3)
B
c,III,$
c,III
(see Addenum B4 in EN 1997-
3)
X
&
s -pile shape coefficient
P -expaned pile toe coefficient
The ,'i,u, pressure t pile toe &
$%*,to+
is limited by the value of 17 31%. In cohesionless
soils the analysis takes into account the influence of overconsolidation (OCR).
The ,'i,u, sh)t )ri!tion &
$%*,sh%ft
is given by:
where: X
s
B
c,),%
-tip resistance at depth h
;iteratureM
E4) <cc>-" Design of geotechnical structures & !art "M Design based on field tests0 C$ech
institute for standards0 !rague 2111
- 690 -
959 LIH7
The NEN 6743 "Piled Foundations" standard determines the ,'i,u, pressure t pile toe
&
$%*,to+
from the corresponding i-th penetration test as follows:
kde: B
c,I,$
c,I
(see article 5.3.3.3 in NEN 6743
standard)
B
c,II,$
-mean of the minimum cone tip resistance B
c,II
(see article 5.3.3.3 in
NEN 6743 standard)
B
c,III,$
c,III
(see article 5.3.3.3 in NEN 6743
standard)
X
&
s -pile shape coefficient
P -expanded pile toe coefficient
The ,'i,u, pressure t pile toe &
$%*,to+
is limited by the value of 17 31%. In cohesionless
soils the analysis takes into account the influence of overconsolidation (OCR).
$%*,sh%ft
is given by:
where: X
s
B
c,),%
-tip resistance at depth h
;iterature M
4E4 O>?"M<cc</,<M<cc>0 Geotechnie- - 7ere-eningsmethode #oor funderingen op palen -
Dru-palen
*C$C (Bust,nte)
The LCPC - Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chausees method (also known as Bustamante
method based on the works of Bustamanteho and Gianeselliho) determines the ,'i,u,
pressure t pile toe &
$%*,to+
as follows:
where: X
&
B
c,+B
-equivalent average cone tip resistence
$%*,sh%ft
is given by:
where: X
s
B
c,),%
-tip resistence
- 691 -
8eter,intion o) eDui+lent +erge !one tip resistn!e
An equivalent average cone tip resistance is obtained in the following way:
1) calculate the average tip resistance B
c,$
at the tip of the pile by averaging 8
c
values over a
zone ranging from 1,7d below the pile tip to 1,7d above the pile tip (d is the pile diameter)
2) eliminate B
c
values in the zone which are higher than 1,< multiple of the mean of the cone
tip resistance B
c,$
and those are lower than 0,G multiple of the mean of the cone tip
resistance B
c,$
as shown in figure
3) calculate the equivalent average cone tip resistance B
c,+B
by averaging the remaining cone
tip resistance (B
c
) values over the same zone that were not eliminated (i.e. from values in
the range 0,G to 1,< multiple of the cone tip resistance B
c,$
)
Determination of e8ui#alent a#erage cone tip resistance B
c,+B
;iteratureM
Tom ;unne0 !eter Q= .obertson0 kohn k=M= !owellM Cone !enetration Testing in Geotechnical
!ractice0 pon !ress0 <cc>0 ;ondon
S!h,ert,nn
The Schmertmann method determines the maximum pressure at pile toe &
$%*,to:
as follows:

where: X
&
B
c,+B
-equivalent average cone tip resistence
In cohesionless soils the analysis takes into account the influence of overconsolidation (OCR).
$%*,sh%ft
is given by:
where: X
s
- 692 -
B
c,u&,
-filtered cone tip resistence
where: B
c1
, B
c2
-minimum value of mean of the cone tip resistance
;iteraturaM
chmertmann k=H=M Guidelines for Cone !enetration Test0 !erformance and deign0 9==
Departments of Transportation0 report 4o= FH',-T->A-21c0 'ashington0D=C=0 <c>A
8eter,intion o) +erge !one tip resistn!e
The minimum mean value of the cone tip resistance B
c
s determined by the minimum value of
the mean of the cone tip resistance B
c
over the influenced zone ranging from 0,Gd, to Ed below
the pile toe (d is the pile diameter). The minimum mean value of the cone tip resistance B
c2
is
determined over the influence zone extending from 8d above the pile toe (d is the pile
diameter). The procedure for obtaining the mean value of the cone tip resistance B
c1
, B
c2
is as
follows (see figure):
1) determine two averages of the cone stress within the zone below the pile toe, one for a
zone depth of 0,Gd and one for 0,Ed along the path "a" through "b". The smaller of the two is
retained. (The zone height 0,Gd applies to where the cone stress increases with depth below
the pile toe).
2) determine the smallest cone stress within the zone used for the Step 1
3) determine the average of the two values per Steps 1 and 2. Step 4 is determining the
average cone stress in the zone
4) determine the average cone stress in the zone 8d above the pile toe that gives the value B
c
.
Finally, the average of the Step 3 and Step 4 values is determined.
- 693 -
Determination of a#erage cone tip resistance B
c1
0 B
c2
A negative skin friction is an effect that arises as a result of the settlement of soil around the
pile. A soil deforming around the pile tends to pull the pile down thus reducing its bearing
capacity. In extreme cases this effect may completely eliminate the influence of shaft friction.
The pile is then supported only by elastic subsoil below the pile toe.
The negti+e s"in )ri!tion F
s,'0,,+&
is given by:
where: 4
&
-pile periphery
' -number of layers in the negative friction zone
h
i
-depth of i2th layer
(
0,i,,+&
-representative value of the coefficient of earth pressure at rest
W
i,,+&
-friction between soil and pile at i2th layer
J
i,,+&
-representative value of the angle of internal friction at i2th layer
H
6,i21,,+&
-horizontal stress in soil at i21 layer
H
6,1,,+&
-horizontal stress in soil at i2th layer
&
i,%,,+&
-surcharge at i2th layer
TH
i,6,:,,+&
-change of vertical stress H
6
i2th at layer
the following
relation holds:
If a slip surface is defined then the value of negative skin friction F
s,'0,,+&
is provide by:
where: 4
&
-pile periphery
h
i
-depth of i2th layer
c
i,,+&
-representative cohesion of slip surface
- for bitumen 10.10
<
N?$
2
- for bentonite 20.10
<
N?$
2
- for synthetic material 70.10
<
N?$
2
The value of representative cohesion along a slip surface can also be introduced directly by the
user.
Sh)t )ri!tion !oe))i!ient A*FA s
When calculating the maximum shaft friction the shaft friction coefficient X
s
is considered. For
methods based on 959 LIH7 5C 199I<7 standard the values used by the program are
listed in the following table:
- 694 -
Coe))i!ient -
s
$iles -
s
.80
prefabricated driven piles or steel piles 0,010
Franki pile 0,01E
driving wooden pile 0,012
vibrating 0,012
cast in place screw piles 0,00"
prefabricated screw pile 0,00"
cast in place screw piles with additional grouting 0,00F
prefabricated screw pile with additional grouting 0,00F
steel tubular piles 0,00G7
continuous Flight Auger (CFA) 0,00F
bored piles or piles sheeted by bentonite suspense 0,00F
bored piles with steel casing 0,007
If the S!h,ert,nn method is used the shaft friction coefficient X
s
is used depending on the
depth to equivalent diameter ratio )?D
+B
(see Literature for more details) and for the *C$C
(Bust,nte) method its value is calculated based on the tip resistance B
c
(orientation
values are available in the following table).
%rienttion +lues o) the sh)t )ri!tion !oe))i!ient -
s
.sed on the !one tip resistn!e
-
c
LCPC
(Bustamante)
Soil type
Cone stress (tip
resistance)
B
c
-31%/
X
s
for bored piles
X
s
for driven piles
Maximum shaft
resistance
-01%/
Clay O 1 0,011 0,033 15
1 O B
c
O 7 0,025 0,011 35
7 O B
c
0,017 0,008 35
Sand B
c
O 7 0,017 0,008 35
7 O B
c
O 12 0,010 0,005 80
12 O B
c
0,007 0,005 120
;iteratureM
chmertmann k=H=M Guidelines for Cone !enetration Test0 !erformance and deign0 9==
Departments of Transportation0 report 4o= FH',-T->A-21c0 'ashington0D=C=0 <c>A
&n)luen!e o) o+er!onsolidtion (%C1)
For sand and gravel the maximum pressure at pile toe &
$%*,to+
(determined according to the
- 695 -
selected method set in the "Anl3ses" tab sheet, frame "Project") is reduced depending on
the value of overconsolidation OCR (defined as a soil parameter in the frame "Soils") as
follows:
Anl3sis !!roding to 5C I<74 959 LIH7?
- for all cohesionless soils the maximum pressure at pile toe &
$%*,to+
is 17 31%
- for OCR 2 no reduction is performed
- for 2 < OCR E the maximum pressure at pile toe &
$%*,to+
is multiplied by 0,FG
- for OCR > E the maximum pressure at pile toe &
$%*,to+
is multiplied by 0,70
-hen using the S!h,ert,nn ,ethod the reduction is performed according to the
following graph:
Reduction of equivalent mean cone tip resistance according to OCR (Schmertman)
$ile shpe !oe))i!ient s
This coefficient represents the influence of a re!tngulr pile, the N?% ratio in particular. Its
values are evident from the following graph (function of N?%):
Graph to determine pile shape coefficient s
5% & length of the smallest side0 N & the largest side6
- 696 -
5'pnded pile toe !oe))i!ient B5(A
This coefficient denoted as P represents the influence of an expanded pile shank (toe), its
values are evident from the following figure:
(as a function of ):
Graph to determine the coefficient P
where: S -pile length
D
+B
-equivalent pile diameter
d
+B
-equivalent pile shank diameter
$ile toe !oe))i!ient A*FA p
The pile toe coefficient X
&
identifies the type of pile. Its values are determined from one of the
available calculation methods or they can be entered manually by the user. For the LCPC and
Schmertmann methods the values of pile toe coefficient X
&
are calculated based on the values
of cone tip resistance B
c
(orientation values are stored in the table below), for the NEN 6743
and EC 1997-3 standards the built-in values are as follows:
Coe))i!ient -
p
$iles -
p
.80
prefabricated driven piles or steel piles 1,0
Franki pile 1,0
driving wooden pile 1,0
Vibrating 1,0
cast in place screw piles 0,"
- 697 -
prefabricated screw pile 0,8
cast in place screw piles with additional grouting 0,"
prefabricated screw pile with additional grouting 0,8
steel tubular piles 1,0
continuous Flight Auger (CFA) 0,8
bored piles or piles sheeted by bentonite suspense 0,7
bored piles with steel casing 0,7
%rienttion +lues o) the pile toe !oe))i!ient -
s
.sed on the !one tip resistn!e -
c
LCPC (Bustamante)
Soil type
Cone stress (tip
resistance)
B
c
-31%/
X
&
for bored piles
X
&
For driven piles
Jl O 1 0,04 0,50
1 O B
c
O 7 0,35 0,45
7 O B
c
0,45 0,55
Psek B
c
O 12 0,40 0,50
1< O B
c
0,30 0,40
Cl!ultion o) li,it lod !ur+e
One of the program outputs is a loading diagram of vertically loaded pile li,it lod !ur+e,
which plots the pile vertical settlement as a function of the applied load.
The limit load curve is determined as a sum of the settlements due to forces at the pile toe and
on the shaft derived from graphs used to calculate the pile settlement. A typical example of the
limit load curve appears in the following figure.
- 698 -
;imit load cur#e
Cl!ultion o) pile hed settle,ent
The magnitude of pile head settlement :
1,d
is determined as follows:
where: :
to+,d
-pile toe settlement due to acting force
:
to+,d,1
-pile toe settlement due to force acting at toe
:
to+,d,2
-pile toe settlement due to force acting on the shaft
:
+l,d
-pile settlement due to elastic compression
The magnitudes of settlements :
to+,d,1
and :
to+,d21
are determined from built in graphs
according to the NEN6743 standard. The value :
+l,d
is given by:
where: ! -pile length
F
$+%',d
-mean of force acting on the pile
A
&l%st
-pile shank cross-sectional area
E
&,$%t,d
-modulus of elasticity of pile material
Grphs to !l!ulte settle,ent
Graphs to calculate settlement are taken from the NEN6743 standard (article 6.2.1), which
allow us to determine:
- pile settlement due to toe vertical force (pile settlement in percentage of the equivalent pile
diameter plotted as a function of the toe vertical force given in percentage of the maximum
- 699 -
toe resistance F
$%*,to+
)
- pile settlement due to shaft force (pile settlement in mm plotted as a function of the shaft
force given in percentage of the maximum shaft resistance F
$%*,sh%ft
)
Graph to determine :
to+,d,1
5< & dri#en piles0 2 & continuous auger0 " & bored piles6
Graph to determine:
to+,d,2
5< & dri#en piles0 2 & continuous auger0 " & bored piles6
$ile group
Analysis of a group of piles depends on the stru!ture sti))ness. The basic assumption is that
for a stiff structure all piles experience the same settlement, while for a compliant structure
- 700 -
each pile deforms independently no interaction is assumed.
The ,'i,u, .ering !p!it3 o) rigid pile )oundtion is given by:
where: 3 -number of piles in the pile foundation
F
,,$%*,,+&
-single pile bearing capacity in the pile foundation
If adopting the NEN6743 standard then a coefficient of capacity reduction is introduced into
the analysis depending on the number piles 3 and the number of CPT tests (article 5.3.2.1).
The maximum .ering !p!it3 o) !o,plint pile )oundtion is determined according to
the bearing capacity of the most stressed pile in the group as:
where: F
,,i
-bearing capacity of fully stressed pile in the group
Veri)i!tion
The program verifies a single pile or a group of piles:
- using factor of safety
- using limit states
In both cases the program independently verifies both the pile bearing capacity (for design
load) and settlement. In the case of settlement (determined for both the design and standard
loading) is possible to use either a limit load curve or a load-displacement curve when adopting
the NEN 6743 standard.
Veri)i!tion !!ording to )!tor o) s)et3
The verification analysis according to factor of safety is selected from the frame "Setting". This
frame also serves to define the required factor of safety for bearing capacity. Pile verification
then assumes the form:
where: F
s,fou'd
FS -safety factor for bearing capacity
F
s,fou'd,$%*
The pre-set value of the factor of safety for bearing capacity is 1,7, the values recommended in
literature are in the range of 1,7 to <,0.
Veri)i!tion !!ording to li,it sttes
The verification according to limit states is selected in the frame "Setting". When using the
NEN 6743 standard the program automatically performs the verification analysis as specified
by this standard and therefore the frame "Setting" is no accessible. Pile verification for the
)irst li,it stte assumes the form:
where: F
s,fou'd,d
-design value of surcharge
- 701 -
N
t
-pile bearing capacity reduction coefficient (range 0,7 - 1,0)
F
s,fou'd,$%*,
d
-design pile bearing capacity
8i,ensioning o) !on!rete stru!tures
Concrete structures can by analyze by folowing standards:
- CSN 73 1201R
- EC2 (EN 1992 1-1)
- PN-B-03264
- BS 8110
- IS 456
- ACI 31802
- AS 3600-2001
CS9 I7 1=M1 1
This help contains the following computationals methods:
- Materials, coefficients, notation
- Verification of cross-section made from plain concrete
- RC rectangular cross-section under M
- RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force
- Verification of spread footing for punching shear
- Verification of circular RC cross-section
6terils4 !oe))i!ients4 nottion
The following notation for material parameters is used:
R
Nd
R
Ntd
- design strength of concrete in tension
y
u
- coefficient of the shape of cross-section
) - lever arm (arm of internal forces)
Coefficient y
u
is given by equation:
The most common notation for geometrical parameters:
N - cross-section width
h - cross-section depth
h
+
- effective depth of cross-section
Veri)i!tion o) !ross<se!tions ,de )ro, plin !on!rete
The cross-section is rectangular, loaded by the bending moment 3, normal force N (applied in
- 702 -
the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force x= The cross-section bearing capacity
subjected to bending moment is given by:
The shear strength is provided by:
Strength of concrete cross-section subject to the combination of bending moment and normal
force is derived from the following expressions depending on the normal force eccentricity +:
for:
The ultimate bearing capacity is checket using the following formula:
1C re!tngulr !ross<se!tion under 6
The cross-section is rectangular, reinforced on one side and loaded by the bending moment
3
d
.
The ultimate moment is provided by:
The program further checks whether the location of neutral axis * is less than the limit location
of neutral axis *
li$
given by:
The computed degree of reinforcement is checked using the following expressions:
- 703 -
1C re!tngulr !ross<se!tion under the .ending
,o,ent nd nor,l !o,pression )or!e
The cross-section is rectangular, unilaterally reinforced and loaded by the bending
moment 3 and normal compression force. The location of the neutral axis follows from:
where:
For * < *
li$
permissible normal force is given by:
For * > *
li$
the corrected location of neutral axis is found from:
where:
Permissible normal force is given by:
Permissible bending moment is provided by:
Compression reinforcement is not taken into account.
Veri)i!tion o) spred )ooting )or pun!hing sher
The program allows for the verification of spread footing for punching shear or for the design
of shear reinforcement. The critical section loaded in shear U
c,
is distant from the column edge
by one half of the footing thickness. It is loaded by the prescribed moments 3
*
, 3
9
and by the
shear force W
,
provided by:
- 704 -
where: A - area of footing
W - assigned vertical force developed in column
A
t
- hatched area in fig.
Dimensioning of shear reinforcement area ,
t
The program computes the maximal shear force W
d$%*
developed in the critical section, the
shear force transmitted by concrete with no shear reinforcement W
Nu
, and the maximal
allowable force W
$%*
:
where for: is: or else:
For W
d$%*
< W
Nu
no shear reinforcement is needed.
For W
d$%*
> W
Nu
and W
d$%*
< W
$%*
the shear reinforcement must be introduced. The ultimate
shear force is given by:
where: U
c,
- critical cross-section span
X - is angle of crooks
A
s
- overall area of crooks in footing
For W
d$%*
> W
$%*
the shear reinforcement cannot be designed. It is therefore necessary to
increase the cross-section height.
Veri)i!tion o) !ir!ulr 1C !ross<se!tion
The program verifies a reinforced concrete pile using the method of limit deformation. The
maximum allowable strain of concrete in compression is 10112 - 1=11"B. The degree of
reinforcement is checked using the formula:
- 705 -
A
s
- reinforcement area
5C= (59 199= 1<1)
- Standard values of coefficiens
f
c0
- charakteristic value of cylindrical strength of concrete in copression
f
cd
f
c$
- average value of tensile strength of concrete
f
ct00,07
- doln hodnota charakteristick pevnosti betonu v tahu
f
ctd
f
90
- characteristic strength of steel
f
9d
The characteristic compressive strength of concrete is the basic input parameter given by the
class of concrete it serves to derive the remaining coefficients of reliability.
pro:
pro :
- 706 -
Standard values of coefficients X
cc
,N
c
,X
ct
,N
s
are built in the program these values can also be
inputted by the user depending on the sele!ted 9tionl supple,ent.
d - effective depth of cross-section
Stndrd +lues o) !oe))i!ients
The standard contains a number of coefficients, which can be adjusted in supplements of
9tionl stndrds. The table provides description of individual coefficients, their values and
corresponding artical of the standard. In some cases the formula contains a variable, which
has no symbol in the standard - in such a case the variable in the e'pression is denoted .3
".
Coefficient Value Annotations Article
N
c 1,5 2.4.2.4
N
s 1,15 2.4.2.4
X
cc 1 3.1.6
X
ct 1 3.1.6
X
cc,&l 0,8 12.3.1
X
ct,&l 0,8 12.3.1
0
f 1,1 2.4.2.4
0 1,5 12.6.3
Z
$i' 0,0013 9.2.1.1
X 0,26 9.2.1.1
Z
$%* 0,04 9.2.1.1
X 0,18 6.2.2
I
$i' - 6.2.2
X 0,5 6.2.2
I - 6.2.2
- 707 -
3
sd
.
The permissible moment for a given area of reinforcements A
s
reads:
Standard values of coefficientsZ
$i'
, Z
$%*
where:
For * < *
li$
For * > *
li$
- 708 -
where:
The critical section loaded in shear u is distant from the column edge by one half of the footing
thickness. It is loaded by the prescribed moments 3
E*
, 3
E9
and by the shear force ;
+
provided
by:
; - assigned vertical force developed in column
A
t
t
The program computes the maximal shear force ;
+d
developed in the critical section, the shear
force transmitted by concrete with no shear reinforcement ;
Rd,c
and the maximal allowable
force ;
Rd,$%*
:
- 709 -
Standard values of coefficients C
Rd,c
, I
$i'
,I
$%*
are built in the program these values can also
be inputted by the user depending on the sele!ted 9tionl supple,ent.
The subsequent verification then depends on the magnitude of maximal shear force ;
Ed
.
For ;
Ed O
;
Rd,c
For ;
Ed T
;
Rd,c
and ;
Ed O
;
Rd,$%*
the shear reinforcement must be introduced. The ultimate
shear force is given by:
where: u - critical cross-section span
A
s:
For ;
Ed T
;
Rd,$%*
The cross-section is rectangular, loaded by the bending moment 3
sd
, normal force N
sd
(applied
in the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force ;
sd
=
where: A
cc
2 tlaen plocha betonu
Standard value of the coefficient 0 is built in the program (Art. 12.6.3) this value can also be
adjusted in the program based on the sele!ted 9tionl supple,ent.
- 710 -
Standard values of coefficients X
cc,&l
, X
ct,&l
, N
c
are built in the program these values can also
be inputted by the user depending on the sele!ted 9tionl supple,ent.
maximum allowable strain of concrete in compression is 10112 - 1=11"B. Cocrete strength
q*f
cd
is reduced by ten percent due to shape of cross-section (Art. 3.1.7).
The degree of reinforcement is checked using the formula:
A
s
- cross sectional area of reinfocement
Standard values of coefficientsZ
$i'
, Z
$%*
$9<B<M7=LH
Materials, coefficients, notation
RC rectangular cross-section under M
RC rectangular cross-section under the bending moment and normal compression force
Verification of spread footing for punching shear
Verification of cross-section made from plain concrete
Verification of circular RC cross-section
- 711 -
f
c0
- characteristic strength of concrete in compression
f
cd
f
ct0
- characteristic strength of concrete in tension
f
ctd
f
90
f
9d
- design strength of steel
f
ct$
where: X
cc
@1
X
ct
@1
N
c
@1,7 -for steel reinforced concrete structures
N
c
@1,8 -for concrete strustures
3
d
.
s
reads:
of neutral axis *
li$
given by:
- for steel class A0
- for steel class AI
- for steel class AII
- 712 -
- for steel class AIII
- for steel class AIIIN
where:
where:
For * < *
li$
For * > *
li$
where:
- 713 -
The critical section loaded in shear u is distant from the column edge by one half of the footing
thickness. It is loaded by the prescribed moments 3
*
, 3
9
and by the shear force N
sd
provided
by:
A
t
t
The program computes the maximal shear force N
sd
force transmitted by concrete with no shear reinforcement N
,d1
and the maximal allowable
force N
$%*
:
For N
sd O
N
,d
For N
sd T
N
,d
and N
sd O
N
$%*
the shear reinforcement must be introduced. The ultimate shear
force is given by:
where: u - critical cross-section span
- 714 -
A
s:
For N
sd T
N
$%*
The cross-section is rectangular, loaded by the bending moment 3
sd
, normal force N
sd
(applied
in the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force ;
sd
= The cross-section bearing capacity
subjected to bending moment is given by:
where:
where:
ProgramThe program verifies a reinforced concrete pile using the method of limit deformation.
The maximum allowable strain of concrete in compression is 10112 - 1=11"B. The degree of
where:
- 715 -
A
s
BS X11M
- Verification of cross-sections made from plain concrete
f
cu
- characteristic cube compressive strength of concrete
f
9
- characteristic strength of reinforcement
f
9d
class of concrete.
All computations are carried out according to the theory of limit states.
The cross-section is rectangular, reinforced on one side and loaded by the bending moment M.
s
reads:
- 716 -
of neutral axis *
$%*
given by:
where:
- for f
9
= ?O1 4/mm
2
- for f
9
= 2B1 4/mm
2
where:
For * < *
li$
For * > *
li$
where:
- 717 -
The critical section loaded in shear (U
c,
) is distant from the column edge by one half of the
footing thickness. It is loaded by the prescribed moments 3
*
, 3
9
,
provided by:
A
t
t
The program computes the maximum shear force ; developed in the critical section, the shear
c
, and the maximal allowable force
;
u
:
where: I
c
-is design concrete shear stress given by following table:
- 718 -
Effective dept d [mm]
100.=
s
) ,.h 15M 1I5 =MM ==5 =5M 7MM HMM
1,15 0,50 0,48 0,47 0,45 0,44 0,42 0,40
0,25 0,60 0,57 0,55 0,54 0,53 0,50 0,47
0,50 0,75 0,73 0,70 0,68 0,65 0,63 0,59
0,75 0,85 0,83 0,80 0,77 0,76 0,72 0,67
1,00 0,95 0,91 0,88 0,85 0,83 0,80 0,74
1,50 1,08 1,04 1,01 0,97 0,95 0,91 0,84
2,00 1,19 1,15 1,11 1,08 1,04 1,01 0,94
3,00 1,36 1,31 1,27 1,23 1,19 1,15 1,07
The I
c
values are for f
cu
below ?14/mm
2
multiplied by (f
cu
/?1)
1?<

o, 7 N?$$2
I
c
-is ultimate shear stress
For ;<;
c
For ;>;
c
and ;
c
<;
u
it is necessary to design shear reinforcement. The permissable shear force
is given by:
where: u -critical cross-section span
X -angle of crooks
A
us
-overall area of crooks in footing
For ;
c
>;
u
the shear reinforcement cannot be designed. It is therefore necessary to increase
the cross-section depth.
the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force ;.
force with eccentricity e is derived from the following expressions:
where:
- 719 -
where: I
c
- is the design value of shear stress in concrete for degree of longitudinal
reinforcement Z=0 (see :Verification of spread footing for punching shear).
maximum allowable strain of concrete in compression is 10112 - 1=11"B.
where:
- for f
9
= ?O1 4/mm
2
- for f
9
= 2B1 4/mm
2
A
s
&S H5L
f
c0
- characteristic cube compressive strength of concrete
f
cd
f
ct0
- characteristic strength of concrete in tension
- 720 -
f
ctd
f
90
f
9d
class of concrete it serves to derive the remaining coefficients of reliability.
s
reads:
of neutral axis *
$%*
given by:
- for steel Fe 250
- for steel Fe 400
- for steel Fe 500
- 721 -
where:
For * < *
li$
For * > *
li$
where:
- 722 -
The critical section loaded in shear U
c,
is distant from the column edge by one half of the
footing thickness. It is loaded by the prescribed moments 3
*
, 3
9
,
provided by:
A
t
t
The program computes the maximum shear force ; developed in the critical section, the shear
c
;
$%*
:
where:
where: c
*
,c
9
-are dimensions of footing column
Y
c,$%*
-is the maximum allowable shear stress in concrete listed in table 20 of
the IS 456 standard
For ;<;
c
For ;>;
c
and ;
c
<;
$%*
it is necessary to design shear reinforcement. The permissable shear
force is given by:
- 723 -
where: u -critical cross-section span
X -is angle of crooks
A
us
-overall area of crooks in footing
For ;
c
>;
$%*
the shear reinforcement cannot be designed. It is therefore necessary to increase
the cross-section depth.
the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force ;:
where: Y
c
- is the design value of stress in concrete obtained from table 19 of the IS456
standard for degree of longitudinal reinforcement Z=0.
force with eccentricity + is derived from the following expressions:
where:
maximum allowable strain of concrete in compression is 10112 - 1=11"B.
where:
- 724 -
A
s
&S 1od Bridges
AC& 71XM=
fV
c
E
c
- modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity is provided by:
the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force ;
'
=
force is derived from the following expressions:
for
compression
side:
where:
- 725 -
A
1
2 loaded area
for tension
side:
where:
3
d
.
The ultimate moment is provided by:
- 726 -
where:
For * < *
li$
For * > *
li$
where:
The program allows for the verification of spread footing for punching shear or for the design
of shear reinforcement. The critical section loaded in shear U
c,
is distant from the column edge
by one half of the footing thickness. It is loaded by the prescribed moments 3
*
, 3
9
and by the
- 727 -
shear force ;
u
provided by:
A
t
t
The program computes the maximal shear force ;
u
c
;
$%*
:
For ;
u
< q;
c
For ;
u
> q;
c
and ;
c
< ;
$%*
the shear reinforcement must be introduced. The ultimate shear
force is given by:
where: U
c,
- critical cross-section span
A
s
For ;
c
> ;
$%*
- 728 -
A
s
AS 7LMM<=MM1
f^
c
-characteristic copressive cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days
E
c
-mean value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete at 28 days
Z -density of concrete , in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
f^
cf
-characteristic flexural tensile strength of concrete
f^
ct
-characteristic principal tensile strength of concrete
f
s9
-yield strength of reinforcing steel
class of concrete.
D - cross-section depth
- 729 -
the cross-section centroid) and by the shear force ;.
force is derived from the following expressions:
where:
A
#
- loaded area
s
reads:
The program further checks whether the of neutral axis parameter (
u
is less than the limit
value:
where:
* - depth of neutral axis
- 730 -
where:
The program further checks ultimate shear strength:
where:
where:
For * < *
li$
For * > *
li$
- 731 -
where:
where: D - pile diameter
A
s
The program allows for the verification of spread footing for punching shear. The critical section
loaded in shear U
c,
is distant from the column edge by one half of the footing thickness. It is
loaded by the prescribed moments 3
*
, 3
9
R
provided by:
A
t
- 732 -
t
The program checks, whether the cross-section bursting strength is sufficient according to the
relation:
where:
where: P
h
- the ratio of the longest overall dimension of the effective loaded area, p, to
the overall dimension, 3, measured perpendicular to p
% - the dimension of the critical shear perimeter measured parallel to the
direction of 3
R
6
3
R
6
- the bending moment transferred from the slab to a support in the direction
being considered
The analysis is carried out independently in directions *and 9, as the decisive one the lower
value of ;
u
is accepted.
Veri)i!tion !!ording to CS9 I7 L=ML
When selecting "CS9 I7 L=ML", frame F$ro;e!tF, the verification analysis of decisive joints is
performed according to the standard CSN 73 6206 "Design of concrete and steel reinforced
concrete bridge structures", including changes a-10/1989 a Z2/1994. The program allows for
verification of cross-sections from plain concrete or single-ended steel reinforced concrete. All
calculations related to concrete are carried out using the theor3 o) llow.le stresses.
The main difference when compared to other standards appears in the dimensioning of
concrete joints where the earth pressure is computed lw3s without redu!tion o) input
pr,eters independently of the input in the frame "Settings".
When performing the verification analysis of cross-sections made either from plain or steel
reinforced concrete it is possible input the !oe))i!ient o) llow.le stress according to art.
- 733 -
47 CS9 I7 L=ML to increase the material allowable stress.
The following joints can be verified by the program:
A.ut,ent ste, 0 )oundtion4 !onstru!tion ;oint < the cross-section can be made either
from plain or steel reinforced concrete. The joint is verified for the load due to normal force
and bending moment. The allowable stresses of concrete, steel and concrete in concentric
pressure are checked. In case of reinforced concrete the program also checks the degree of
reinforcement, cross-sections from plain concrete are then checked for overturning (h?2+[<0"B)
and translation (N.f[<0B; friction concrete-concrete is assumed as fa1=B),
Closure wll < .ering .lo!" - the cross-section is verified for the load due to normal force
and bending moment. The steel reinforced concrete cross-section is always assumed. The
allowable stresses of concrete and steel and the degree of reinforcement are checked.
-ing wll 0 .ut,ent the joint can be made either from concrete or steel reinforced
concrete. The allowable stresses of concrete, steel and concrete in concentric pressure are
checked. In case of reinforced concrete the program also checks the degree of reinforcement.
Front ;u,p o) .ut,ent )oundtion the front jump of abutment is verified according to
its projection. In case of jump projection 6 O 0.7 h
)
(h
)
is the height of foundation jump) the
program checks the magnitude of stress in principal tension due to forces developed in the
above-foundation joint. The stress is determined as:
where: d - width of above-foundation joint
3,N - moment and normal force in above-foundation joint
In case of jump projection 6 T 0.7 h
)
the jump is analyzed as cantilever bended by the reaction
(stress) of foundation soil. The joint can be made either from concrete or steel reinforced
concrete. The allowable stresses of concrete, steel and concrete in concentric pressure are
checked. In case of reinforced concrete the program also checks the degree of reinforcement.
- 734 -
&nde'
1st stage of construction analysis...............................................................................436
2nd stage of construction - analysis..............................................................................416
2nd stage of construction collector lining input............................................................423
2nd stage of construction surcharge input...................................................................416
2nd stage of construction surcharge, analysis..............................................................453
3rd stage of construction anchor, analysis...................................................................453
3rd stage of construction soil excavation, anchor input, GWT change..............................436
ACI 31802.................................................................................................................702
Active earth pressure......................................................................491-495, 515, 517, 526
Activity................................................................................................369, 433, 446, 449
Advanced input....................................................................................................331-333
Analyses in program Pile CPT.......................................................................................464
Analysis..49-51, 63, 67-72, 79-81, 83-85, 93-95, 99, 100, 105, 107, 115, 117, 119, 121, 124-
126, 129, 133, 134, 137, 141-143, 146, 150, 151, 153, 156-158, 161, 164, 165, 170-172,
175, 180, 188, 189, 192, 197, 202, 203, 206, 210, 211, 213, 215, 220, 224-229, 233-236,
238, 239, 243, 246, 248, 252, 256, 257, 260, 263, 264, 267, 270-272, 276, 278-282, 284,
287, 295, 296, 301, 320, 321, 331, 332, 335, 351, 372, 396, 399, 400, 407, 413, 415, 416,
419-421, 431, 434, 444, 447, 448, 451, 452, 454, 457, 459, 460, 462, 463, 466, 469, 476,
547, 556, 572, 577, 583, 596, 597, 610, 686, 696, 700
Anchors..........................77, 96, 111, 293, 300, 329, 372, 373, 385, 386, 449, 459, 560, 685
Angle of dilation..................................................................................................417, 453
Applied forces.........................................................................................................82, 96
Arrango theory...........................................................................................................526
AS 3600-2001............................................................................................................702
Assign. 43, 66, 75, 92, 109, 110, 123, 140, 155, 169, 187, 201, 214, 231, 243, 255, 269, 281,
304, 324, 348, 369, 371, 404, 438, 472
Automatic arc length control.................................................................................403, 404
Barton - Bandis...................................................................................................288, 661
Base anchorage...................................................................................................129, 146
Basic data. 65, 73, 87, 107, 122, 139, 154, 167, 185, 200, 212, 229, 253, 268, 302, 306, 310,
321, 463, 483
Beam loads.................................................................................................372, 374, 394
Beams...........................................................................349, 372, 373, 375, 376, 432, 445
Bearing capacity.........................131, 148, 162, 176, 194, 207, 261, 275, 473, 676, 686, 687
Bishop..........................................................................................115, 461, 570, 582, 583
Blocks................................................................................................................180, 291
Bore holes.................................................................................................................310
BS 8110....................................................................................................................702
Buildings...................................................................................................................278
Catalogue of cross-sections...........................................................................377, 380, 381
Catalogue of materials...................................................................................377, 379-381
Change of stiffness matrix...........................................................................................399
Circular slip surface......................................................................................115, 116, 118
- 735 -
Coefficient of influence of corrosion...............................................................................675
Coefficients of type of application of micropile................................................................688
Compression constant..........................................................................................623, 627
Compression index..............................................................................................623, 624
Concentrated surcharge...............................................................................................516
Construction stages......................................................................................................28
Contact types.............................................................................................................349
Contacts.....................................................................................................349, 382, 436
Control menu......................................................................................................477, 478
Convergence criterion.................................................................................................399
Coordinate systems....................................................................................................303
Copy to clipboard...........................................................................................38, 475, 480
Damages...................................................................................................................283
Design coefficients........................................................................................................50
Determination of average cone tip resistance.................................................................694
Determination of equivalent average cone tip resistance..................................................692
Dimensioning 119, 132-134, 149-151, 163, 164, 177, 194, 208, 210, 216, 226, 248, 249, 262-
264, 276, 551, 594, 705, 709, 714, 718, 723, 728, 733
Drucker-Prager...............................................................338, 339, 397, 406, 413, 423, 455
Earth cut............................................................................................................106, 241
Earth grading.............................................................................................................311
Earth pressure.40, 65, 66, 74, 87, 88, 122, 123, 139, 140, 154, 155, 167, 168, 185, 186, 200,
201, 253, 254, 268, 269, 487, 505, 514, 516
Earthquake..........41, 70, 82, 99, 114, 128, 145, 160, 174, 191, 205, 259, 272, 294, 524, 672
EC2 (EN 1992 1-1).....................................................................................................702
Edges................................................................................................................308, 309
Editor of cross-sections.................................................................................377, 380, 381
Editor of materials........................................................................................377, 379, 380
Elastic model......................................................................................................336, 338
Embankment......................................................................................................105, 240
EN 1997-3...................................................................................................462, 689, 690
Envelopes..................................................................................................................104
Estimated bond strength..............................................................................................534
Evaluation of results........................................................416, 422, 423, 434, 452, 453, 461
Excavation....................................................................................................93, 332, 568
External bearing capacity.............................................................................................677
External stability.................................................................................................103, 277
Fellenius / Petterson....................................................................................................582
Foliation....................................................................................................................107
Footing...............................................................................................................182, 594
Foundation steps........................................................................................................251
Frames................................................................................................................32, 352
Free lines.....................................................................................352, 354, 360, 426, 442
- 736 -
Free points......................................................................351-353, 359, 361, 425, 436, 442
Front face resistance.......................................................127, 144, 159, 173, 190, 204, 258
Generate..................................................................55, 307, 314, 397, 418, 428, 443, 456
Generator of anchored regions..............................................................................353, 354
Generator of anchors on free line..................................................................................373
Generator of shape of lining..................................................................................353, 354
Geometry....64, 76, 89, 90, 120, 129, 136, 146, 152, 166, 177, 181, 195, 198, 215, 218, 219,
221, 233, 249, 250, 265, 266, 282, 297, 298, 323, 423, 467, 568, 689
Global coordinate system.............................................................................................328
Graphs to calculate settlement.....................................................................................699
GWT + NSF.................................................................................................466, 468, 469
GWT above toe of slope........................................................................................648-651
GWT on tension crack..........................................................................................648, 650
Height multiplier.........................................................................................................118
Hoek - Brown......................................................................................................288, 661
Horizontal bearing capacity...........................................................................227, 238, 604
Hydrodynamic pressure........................................................................................508, 510
Hydrostatic pressure, ground water........................................................................508-510
Import gINT.................................................................................................................62
Incompressible subsoil................................................................................................242
Index of secondary compression...................................................................................623
Influence of ground water............................................................................................301
Influence of water.............68, 80, 94, 125, 142, 157, 171, 188, 203, 256, 271, 292, 580, 582
Initial solution step.....................................................................................................399
Inputting data using template........................................................................................56
Interface............................................45, 105, 240, 333, 334, 353, 417, 436, 437, 454, 530
IS 456...............................................................................................................702, 723
Janbu characteristics...................................................................................................623
Ko procedure......................................................................................................331, 333
Launching...................................................................................................307, 316, 318
LCPC (Bustamante)...............................................................................462, 689, 695, 698
Line constructions........................................................................................307, 316, 317
Line refinement............................................................................................352, 355, 363
Line search method......................................................................................399, 405, 407
Linear models.............................................................................................................336
Lining...........................................................................................351, 352, 358, 359, 372
List of variables..........................................................................................................410
Load.................................................216, 232, 236, 248, 254, 325, 330, 353, 483, 594, 630
Material. 90, 119, 121, 134, 137, 151, 153, 197, 210, 218, 220, 227, 233, 248, 252, 264, 267,
288, 323, 532, 534, 540, 544, 553-555, 702, 706, 711, 716, 720, 725, 729
Maximum number of iterations.....................................................................................399
Measurement.............................................................................................................283
Mesh generation............................................................................364, 416, 423, 436, 453
- 737 -
Micropile................................................................................321, 322, 675-677, 683, 686
Minimal dimensioning pressure.....................................................................................513
Modified compression index.........................................................................................623
Modified elastic model..........................................................................................336, 423
Modifying template during data input..............................................................................56
Modulus of subsoil reaction.............................................................................87, 101, 229
Mohr - Coulomb..................................................................................................288, 661
Monitors.............................................................................................................411, 412
Nailed slopes........................................................................................268, 275, 277, 533
Negative skin friction...................................................................................................235
NEN 6743........................................................462, 473, 602, 689, 691, 694, 696, 697, 701
Oedometric modulus.....................................................................................229, 623, 626
Options...................................................................................23, 25, 27, 37-40, 210, 480
Overconsolidation index of secondary compression.........................................................623
Own water force acting on slip surface only............................................................648, 652
Own water force behavior.....................................................................................648, 652
Page properties...................................................................................................479, 480
Passive earth pressure....................................................................496-498, 501, 502, 516
Picture list..........................................................................................30, 31, 44, 476-478
Pile analysis...............................................................................................................230
Plasticity............................................................................................................399, 406
PN-B-03264...............................................................................................................702
Point constructions.......................................................................................307, 316, 317
Point refinement..................................................................................................361, 362
Point supports............................................................................................................383
Points........................................................................................................................305
Polygonal slip surface...................................................................................116, 117, 653
Primary settlement..............................................................................................612, 618
Print and export document..........................................................27, 31, 475, 477, 479, 480
Print and export picture..........................................................27, 31, 39, 44, 475, 479, 480
Profile...64, 73, 86, 90, 121, 138, 153, 167, 185, 199, 211, 228, 252, 267, 279, 320, 463, 470
Project.40, 63, 72, 85, 104, 119, 134, 151, 165, 180, 197, 210, 226, 227, 239, 247, 264, 278,
286, 302, 319, 331, 339, 454, 462, 481, 483, 550, 604, 639, 674, 683, 690, 696, 733
Props.............................................................................................................77, 97, 389
RC rectangular cross-section under M................................702, 706, 711, 716, 720, 725, 729
Reading data into template............................................................................................56
Recompression index...................................................................................................623
Reinforcements......................................................................111, 112, 184, 390, 541, 572
Results.......................................................................................................408, 409, 565
Rigid bodies........................................................................................................109, 347
Rock.....192, 280, 288, 294, 532, 534, 541, 588-590, 645, 653, 657, 662, 664, 666, 669, 672,
673, 685
Root verification.........................................................................................................327
- 738 -
Sand-gravel cushion....................................................................................................219
Sarma...........................................................................................115, 461, 570, 575-578
Scale color definition...............................................................................................54, 55
Schmertmann.................................................................462, 505, 689, 692, 693, 695-697
Secondary settlement..........................................................................................612, 618
Selecting and storing views............................................................................................52
Setbacks...................................................................................................................181
Setting and analysis description....................................................................................397
Setting arc length.......................................................................................................403
Setting results visualization...........................................................................................53
Setting visualization style. .28, 30, 31, 34, 71, 84, 116, 118, 131-133, 148-150, 162-164, 166,
176, 177, 193-195, 198, 207, 208, 224-226, 236-238, 247, 261-263, 274, 275, 284, 285,
295, 296, 301, 303, 306, 309, 310, 313, 314, 316, 317, 397, 409, 473, 474, 476
Settings...71, 83, 100, 102, 115, 130, 131, 133, 147, 148, 150, 161, 163, 175, 178, 192, 195,
206, 215, 218, 223, 236, 246, 260, 272, 273, 283, 295, 301, 326, 352, 355, 473, 540, 546,
553-555, 575, 584, 592, 641, 661, 733
Settlement........................................28, 40, 53, 56, 212, 243, 246, 247, 317, 423, 474, 634
Sheeting check.....................................................................................................87, 100
Sheeting design....................................................................................................73, 556
Slope stability analysis..................................................................................108, 114, 416
Soil classification.....................................................................................................41, 44
Soil input and their assignment to interfaces..................................................................453
Soils.....32, 65, 73, 87, 93, 107, 122, 127, 139, 144, 154, 159, 167, 173, 185, 190, 200, 204,
212, 220, 228-230, 243, 253, 258, 268, 280, 304, 321, 334, 430, 438, 463, 469, 565, 581,
675, 680, 682, 687, 696
Solution according to CSN 73 1001...............................................................................588
Solution method.........................................................................................................399
Solution procedure.......................................................................................292, 301, 559
Special distribution of water pressure.....................................................................508, 512
Spencer.........................................................................115, 570, 576, 578, 579, 582, 583
Stability...............133, 150, 164, 179, 196, 209, 263, 332, 403, 413, 578, 583, 635, 663, 668
Standard analysis................................................................................................343, 344
Standard values of coefficients...............................................................707, 708, 710, 711
Stress in the footing bottom.........................................................................................550
Strip surcharge...................................................................................................515, 516
Structure....................................................................................................465, 466, 666
Style manager.............................................................................................................30
Supports.................................................................................................78, 98, 384, 560
Surcharge. 69, 81, 95, 112, 126, 143, 158, 172, 189, 203, 221, 244, 249, 257, 271, 292, 299,
300, 329, 393, 419, 421, 454, 458, 654
Surface surcharge...............................................................................................515, 516
Tables............................................................................................31, 495, 496, 502, 596
Task input...................................................................................................423, 436, 453
Terrain 60, 61, 64, 67, 73, 79, 86, 93, 121, 124, 138, 141, 153, 156, 167, 170, 185, 188, 199,
202, 211, 228, 252, 256, 267, 270, 279, 287, 304, 317, 319, 321, 416, 418, 463
- 739 -
Topology..............................................................................................352, 358, 369, 372
Trapezoidal surcharge..................................................................................................516
Tunnels..............................................................................................................332, 379
Type of analysis setting...............................................................................................453
Types of blocks...........................................................................................................135
Types of nails.............................................................................................................265
Types of reinforcements.......................................................................................183, 184
User catalogue........................................................................................................90, 91
Verification.....49, 131, 132, 148, 149, 162, 176, 193, 194, 207, 254, 261-263, 274, 275, 295,
296, 301, 326, 327, 473, 540, 547-549, 551, 642, 660, 661, 702, 706, 711, 716, 720, 725,
729
Vertical bearing capacity.......................................................................................236, 237
Void ratio....................................................................................................623, 624, 628
Volume loss........................................................................................................278, 282
Water. .31, 68, 80, 94, 113, 125, 142, 157, 171, 188, 203, 222, 234, 245, 256, 271, 292, 301,
309, 310, 325, 369, 444, 447, 509, 651, 655
Wings................................................................................................................249, 263
World coordinates.........................................................................................................45
- 740 -
Fine Ltd. 2009
www.finesoftware.eu
- 741 -

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