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Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol.9 (3&4): 430-433. 2011
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Effects of different soil management practices on production and quality of oli\ t
groves in Southern Albania
Bardhosh Ferraj \ Zydi Teqja \ Lush Susaj \ Ndoc Fasllia
2
, Zef Gjeta
2
, Ndoc Vata
1
and Astrit Bali _
Agricultural University of Tirana, Horticultural Department, Koder Kamez, 1029, Tirana, Albania.
2
Ministry of Agricvk
Food and Consumer Protection, Tirana, Albania. *e-mail: aballiu@ubt.edu.al
Received 23 June 2011, accepted 28 September 2011.
Abstract
Theexperiment was conducted in threeconsecutiveyears from2006 to 2008, in Vloraregion, south of Albania, in a25 years old olivegrove |
with alocal cultivar named Kalinjot. Theplot was situated in an uniformhill with asloping gradient of 5 to 6% and aplanting density of I
ha
1
(7 mx7 m). A randomized completeblock design (RCBD) with 5 replications and plot sizeof 245 m
2
containing 11 olivetrees was
weather was dry in the summer with atypical Mediterranean distribution of precipitation fromautumn to spring, and no irrigation was c
throughout thewholeexperimental period. Several crop management practices were applied: Conventional (no intervention, fallow anc en
chemical control (glyphosate and diuron applications) and organic (cover crop and straw mulching). Production of olives per plant (POP|
mean weight (DMW), drupe oil content (DOC) and drupe oil acidity (DOA) were recorded for a 3-year period. The different soil i
practices influenced theoliveproduction per plant and drupeoil content under therainfed growing conditions. Compared to common co
farmer practices, organic soil management practices and chemical control of weeds provided higher yield dueto reduced competition of olh e1
soil water reserves, thanks to reduced number of weeds and improved soil physical properties. Organic mulching and mixed leguminous (
seems to bethemost sustainablepractices in terms of yearly production and nature preservation.
Key words: Fallow, grazing, organic mulching, leguminous cover crop, weed chemical control, olivedrupeproduction, oliveoil quality.
yf
Introduction
Olive tree is considered owe of the most important frui t tree to
I onian and Adriatic coastline. Albaniacounts about 5 million olive
trees scattered across 118,639 small agricultural farms. The annual
oliveoil production ranges from5000 to 6000 tons
9
, with revenues
reaching about 30 million, whileoil consumption is 2.1 litres per
capita. 'Kalinjot' is themost widespread olivecultivar in Albania,
occupying over 55% of theareaunder olivetrees. Dueto the high
envi ronmental adaptability and hi gh oil content, 'Kal i nj ot'
continues to dominatethevariety structureof new olive orchards
in Albania.
Actually farmers areapplying quiteextensive soil management
practices of olivegroves, whileobviously better soil management
practices are needed to improve olive growth and productivity.
Thesoil has to maintain agood structure, allowing roots to explore
the maxi mum possible volume. It should be well aerated, wi t h
regulated ratios of air and soil water; not too much water 10 induce
erosion and water logging, and not too little to saf eguard the
olive tree functionality, especially during the cni ci al pen :o> : f
plant development and fructification
7
. High-yi el di ng : . -1 -re-
develop buds of optimal length, promote f l ower byd - ~
giveagood percentageof fruiting, and stimulatefrail dei ci apanC.
Hence, maintaining good availability of waier. ~_ - r ~: i re
430
e'diboVrydvates dvxrmg the crop rae essential to mzi
Maximal oil yield and quality arekey components of oil nl
production that must be maintained if an orchard is to
economically viable
5
. In recent years, the greater awareness]
sustainable development in the economic and social sector-1
associated with agrowing interest in organic agriculture, wi
defined as a cultivation system that seeks to produce croc* |
maximumnutritional quality whilerespecting theenvironmeii i
conserving soil fertility, by means of optimal utilization of W|
resources wi thout the appl i cati on of syntheti c chemi l
products
2
.
The aimof the present work was to evaluate the effect of I
different types of crop management (conventional, i ntegrai
and organic) and weed control (tillage, mulching, and hei bkj
application) on theyield and production quality of olive orcha^
Materials and Methods
The experiment was conducted in three consecutive years fr:
1 X - :e 2008. in Vloraregion, south of Albania. The experimes
r ;: \\ i s situated in a 25 years-old orchard, planted with a
c _ : IT named 'Kalinjoti', widespread in Albania and kno^r
->argeenvironmental adaptability and high oil content. The
f F xxl Agriculture& Environment, Vol.9 (3&4), J uly-October J i
situated in auniformhill with a sloping gradient of 5 :: - '
aplanting density of200 plants ha"
1
(7 mx7 m). Arandami zec
leteblock design (RCBD) with 5 replications and plot size ;:
;
m
:
containing 11 olivetrees was used. A sampleof 2 randomh
:ted olive trees was monitored to collect experimental da:^.
irrigation possibilities existed in theplot and no irrigation v* zs
ucted throughout thewholeexperimental period. The climate
dry in the summer with atypical Mediterranean distribution
precipitation fromautumn to spring.
Prior theexperiment to commence adeep tillagewas performed
fy thesoil subsurface, in terms of water permeability, aeration
weeds population. Further on, several crop management
ces wereapplied; conventional (control with no intervention,
and grazing), chemical control (glyphosate and diuron
cations) and organic (cover crop and straw mulching).
Conventional practices were adopted as common farmer's soil
agement practices. In the control variant, no intervention at
is applied throughout the course of experiment and weeds
left freely grown. In case of grazing variant, cereals were
at end of autumn (25 kg of seeds per hectare), and grazing
conducted by natural pasturing of 5 sheep/variant from
ry to May. Thefallow systemwas conducted and maintained
nechani cal tillage in J anuary at the depth of 17-20 cm, and a
quent tillage (15-17 cm) in the end of April or beginning of
Chemical control of weeds was conducted through the
ration of respectively glyphosate (Roundup 36), 6 L/ha
1 in 500 L water, and diuron (Toterban 50), 4 L/hadiluted in
1 of water. Diuron was spread over the soil after tillage in
ry, while glyphosate was spread over vegetation cover
- May, when most of weeds reached 10 cmheight,
cover crop was composed by amixture of leguminous and
crops (2:1). Plants were seeded in October and foraged as
grasses in May. Meanti me, the organic mul chi ng was
ted by soil coveragewith a 10 cmthick wheat straw. Prior
ching the mechanical tillage was conducted in December
-ni chi ng itself was laid down during J anuary. Except of
ni rol (no intervention) and organic mulching whereno fertilizers
% ere :o therest of variants acommon fertilization program
u i r .ed as basic dressing. Fertilizers were broadcasted by
hsn d during J anuary. A common and unified pesticide application
program, also, was applied to all variants to control plant pests
and diseases.
Production of olives per plant (POP), drupemean weight (DM W),
drupeoil content (DOC) and drupeoil acidity (DOA) were recorded
for a 3-year period. POP was obtained as average per plant by
hand harvesting the drupes fromall trees in the sampling area
within each plot. DOC was determined by crushing small olive
samples in amortar by hand and determination of oil content with
the Soxhlet method and oil acidity by the titration method with
potassi um hydroxide (0.1 N KOH). DMW was obtained by
wei ghi ng 1000 drupes per sample, whi l e weed density was
expressed by thetotal number of grasses and small shrubs counted
in a fixed frame(0.5 mx0.5 m). Data obtained were subjected to
ANOVA conducted by MSTAT-C. Thesignificanceof differences
among mean values was tested by LSD test.
Results and Discussion
Appropriate soil management is essential to enhancing soil quality
and sustaining and improving olive production. Production of
olives per plant (POP) was affected by the soil management
practi ces and by the years (Tabl es 1 and 2). Control (no
intervention) and grazing recorded the lowest yield, while there
was meantime a high acidity level. As McGarry
6
noticed, soil
structure degradation is regarded as themost serious formof land
degradation caused by conventional farming practices. Our data
confi rms that grazi ng shoul d be consi dered as the most
inappropriate method of soil management. Generally speaking, it
seems that conventional land management practices are not
appropriate to optimize water flow into, and its retention within
the root zone of the crop. Thus, \\ seems that poor yields in such
cases aremostly related to an insufficiency of water conservation.
Organic mulching and fallow practice provided in our case the
highest yield, as well as thelowest rateof drupe's acidity. It could
1. Mean values of estimated yield and production quality parameters and weeds density according
to different soil management practices (mean values, different letters indicate significant
differenceat P<0.05).
nent
nonal
i\ control
Variant
Yield
kg/plant
1000 fruit
weight g
Oil content % Fruit acidity %
Weeds
plants/m
2
No intervention 24.1 c 330.2 ab 23.5 1.18 416a
Grazing 23.9 c 328.1 b 23.5 1.15 182 b
Fallow 35.5 ab 346.4 ab 23.4 1.10 115 be
Glyphosate 30.7 be 344.5 ab 23.1 1.14 16c
28.8 be 342.6 ab 23.7 1.20 102 be
Cover crop 28.4 be 338.4 ab 23.7 1.13
Mulching 38.0 a 349.2 a 23.7 1.05 52 be
2. Mean val ues of yi el d per pl ant (POP) accordi ng to di fferent
soil management practices over years (mean values, different letters
indicate significant differenceat P<0.05).
nent
tional
I control
Variant Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
No intervention 20.5 ij 25.1 fghij 26.7 efghi
Grazing 19.1 ij 25.9 efghi 26.7 efghi
Fallow 31.2 cdef 36.6 abed 38.7 ab
Glyphosate 24.2 ghij 32.5 bede 35.4 abed
Diuron 21.9 ij 30.8 cdefg 33.7 abed
Cover crop 23.8 hij 30.4 defgh 31.0 cdef
Mulching 36.5 abed 37.5 abc 40 a
of Food, Agriculture& Environment, Vol.9 (3&4), J uly-October 2011
431
be explained with better water availability to olivetrees, because
both practices reduced competition fromweeds, as well as in case
of mulching reduced evaporation rate. Since, with the exception
of mulching, therewas no significant differenceamong different
crop management practices regarding theaverageweight of drupes
(Table 1), theproduction differences per plant are mostly due to
differences regarding the number of fruits settled by the trees.
In our experiments, no significant differences werefound among
fallow, cover crop and mulching (Table 1). Anyway, the frequent
tillagewhich is widely practiced is of doubtful agronomic values
1
.
Sincein non-irrigated regions, with low rainfall, soil moistureis of
vital importance, tillagecould haveanegativeeffect on soil water,
because by turni ng the soil, stored water is lost through
evaporation. Continuous tillage can also give rise to a loss of
organic matter and, as aresult, can substantially reducesoil fertility
and the ability of the soil to supply nutrients. Obviously, the
management techniques, which imply less machinery needs, would
cause less soil compaction and erosion
8
.
It is well known that the cover crops have direct and indirect
effects on soil properties, particularly on their capacity to promote
an increased biodiversity in the agro-ecosystem. The cover
cropping is themost suitable soil management practiceto protect
the soil surface from erosion, to preserve the environment, to
reduce production costs and to enhance the quality of olive oi l
2
.
As also Corleto and Cazzato
4
concluded, we found that among
the soil management practices, the use of annual legume species
appears to be more appropriate for soil management than cereal
species or weed cover, with thelatter contributing to higher water
consumption and nitrogen uptake. However, cover crops could
compete with olive trees for minerals, water and fertilizer if they
arenot well managed.
Considering weeds as strong competitors for water resources it
is of highest importance to evaluate theinfluenceof thedifferent
soil management practices on the composition and density of
weeds
10
. Compared with control (no intervention) all other
methods showed a strong significant effect on the reduction of
Table 3. Mean val ues of drupe wei ght (g) accordi ng to di fferent soil
management practices over years (mean values, different letters
indicate significant differenceat P<0.05).
Management Variant Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
Conventional No intervention 321 d 334.5 bed 335.1 bed
Grazing 328.9 cd 334.6 bed 320.8 d
Fallow 345.7 abc 345.3 abc 348.2 abc
Chemical control Glyphosate 338.4 abed 342.9 abed 352.3 ab
Diuron 342.4 abed 340.4 abed 345.0 abc
Organic Cover crop 333.4 bed 337.2 abed 344.6 abc
Mulching 339.6 abed 348.6 abc 359.4 a
Table 4. Mean val ues of weed number (pl ants/m
2
) accordi ng to di fferent
soil management practices over years (mean values, different letters
indicate significant differenceat P<0.05).
total number of weeds. All chemical and organic prac~
to thesame statistical group regarding thetotal number
though it seems that the best results were obtained by
glyphosate. There was evidenced a total action over i
(Trifolium sp.(L.), Sonchus sp. L., Xanthium spr
Heliotropium europaeum (L.), Centaurea solstitial^
sp. (L.), Cynodon dactylon (Pers.), Bromus sp. (L.), A*
(L.), Koeleria gracilis (L.)) and shrubs(Rubus ulmifol:
Dittrichia viscosa (L.)), apart fromweedAram italicum \ L
was not affected by glyphosate. Even by grazing tfeers
significant reduction of weeds, except the fact that sh
not affected at all. Due to that, a gradual increase
population was evidenced overyears. Organic mulching
a good option to reduce natural weeds, but one mighi
that wheat straw is used to carry large quantities of
Triticum, Phalaris, Lilium and other species, whi ci
contribute to the increase of weed number in olive ore
In terms of oliveproduction per plant, chemical control
provided similar results with cover crop and follow
Obviously the positive effect of herbicides was rel att:
reduction of weed population and minimizing the com
-
olive trees for water reserves. Anyway, avoi di ng c
herbicides provides a two-fold benefit: the quality of die
product is superior and the ecological balance is preserve:
systems which involve an excessively intensiveuseof he
can expose the soil to severe erosion
1
.
Soil management practice seems to play aroleto sust~
of olive production. Mulching was the best method in t
production sustainability. It was the only method that
significant differenceamong years regarding the produc
plant. Despite the trend of gradual increase of production
the first to the third year, all other methods showed sign
di fferences among years (Table 2). As a matter of f att
differences regarding average weight of olive drupes were
significant. With theexception of control and grazing, the a\
fruit weight cramped to almost the same statistical group
management practices and over years (Table5
fact confirms theprevious conclusion that di ffa
on pl ant producti on seem to be mostl y d
differences regarding thenumber of fruits se~
The influence of soil management practices
limited in terms of weed population density over
(Table4). Therewerealarger number of weeds
second year versus the first one, but it seems
due to weed bi ol ogy and/or weather cond:
(rai nfed) rather than the di rect effects of
management practi ces. General l y speaking,
number of weeds was reduced in thethird year,
remained unchanged in case of grazing, and
was increased (though not statistically signifi
in caseof fallow.
Management Variant Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
Conventional No intervention 296 be 553 a 400 b
Grazing 183 cd 183 cd 180 cde
Fallow 175 cde 68 defgh 102 defgh
Chemical control Glyphosate 7 h 28 fgh 14 gh
Diuron 81 defg 154 defgh 93 defgh
Organic Cover crop 151 defg 158 cdef 124 defgh
Mulching 44 efgfa 89 defgh 22 fgh
Conclusions
The soil management practices influence the
production per plant and drupe oil content
rainfed growing conditions. Compared to co
conventional fanner practices, organic soil manag
practices and chemical control of weeds prof
higher yield dueto reduced competition of olive
432 J ournal of Food, Agriculture& Environment, Vol.9 (3&4), J uly-October
soil water reserves, thanks to reduced number of w eeds and
proved soil physical properties. Organi c mul chi ng and
.iminous cover crops seemto bethemost sustainable practices
:erms of year by year production and nature preservation.
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