Machining Part I - Cutting Theory

Machining
Part I
Metal cutting theory
1
Figures taken from
Kalpakjian S. and Schmid S., Manufacturing Engineering and
Technology, Addison-Wesley
Computer Aided Manufacturing
Learning targets
Design chip removal
manufacturing processes.
Improve manufacturing
processes
Optimize costs in machining
2
Outline
Recall of material mechanical properties
Theory of metal cutting
Cutting forces
Cutting power
3
Machining processes
Goal: to remove material to transform the raw part
into the desired geometry.

In general they are the last processes performed
on the mechanical components.

If we compare them to casting or forming,
machining processes allow to obtain:
Good tolerances
Good surface finish
4
Turning
Drilling
Milling
Grinding
Other
processes
Machining processes
5
Engineering stress-strain plot
6
o
A
P
R =
P: applied force
A
o
: original area of test specimen
l: length at any point during elongation
l
o
: original gage length
E: modulus of elasticity
o
o
l
l l
e
=
o = E e
True stress-strain plot
7
1100-O aluminum
plotted on a log-log
scale
A
P
= o
A: actual (instantaneous)
area resisting the load
| |
o
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
dl
o
ln ) ln(
0
= = =
}
c
n
kc o =
Loading & unloading
8
Flow curve for various materials
9
Elastic and perfectly plastic
- Stiffness defined by E
- Once Y reached, deforms
plastically at same stress
level
- Flow curve: K = Y, n = 0
- Metals behave like this
when heated to
sufficiently high
temperatures (above
recrystallization)

10
Ductility
Ability of a material to plastically strain without fracture

Ductility measure = elongation EL
where EL: elongation; l
f
: specimen length at fracture; and l
o
: original
specimen length
l
f
is measured as the distance between gage marks after two pieces
of specimen are put back together.
o
o f
l
l l
EL
=
11
Elongation
12
13
Toughness
Amount of energy per unit volume that the material
dissipates prior to fracture
14
Y
Mechanical properties
Strength
Ductility
Elastic Plastic
UTS
Toughness
Malleability
Stiffness
Mechanical properties
15
Recrystallization in Metals
Most metals strain harden at room temperature
according to the flow curve (n > 0)
But if heated to sufficiently high temperature
and deformed, strain hardening does not occur
o Instead, new grains are formed that are free of strain
o The metal behaves as a perfectly plastic material; that
is, n = 0
16
n = 0
Temperature effect
17
Most materials display
similar temperature
sensitivity for elastic
modulus, yield strength,
ultimate strength, and
ductility.
Increasing T o
c
Strain rate effect
18
The effect of strain rate on the
ultimate tensile strength of
aluminum.

Note that as temperature
increases, the slope increases.
Thus, tensile strength becomes
more and more sensitive to
strain rate as temperature
increases. Source: After J. H.
Hollomon.
Machining processes
We will study:
- Orthogonal cutting
A simplified process

- Industrial processes
Cinematically more complex:
Turning
Drilling
Milling
etc
19
Orthogonal cutting
Not much used in the real world, we study it
because:
It is simple to describe from the cinematic
(motions) and dynamic (forces) points of
views.
It allows us to understand the elementary
mechanism of chip formation.
Many of the variables met in orthogonal
cutting are present in the industrial processes
(turning, milling, etc).
20
Orthogonal cutting
We have orthogonal cutting when the cinematic and
dynamic variables belong to a plane.

21
Relevant Variables:
v
c
= cutting speed
b = cutting width
h
D
= cutting thickness
(Uncut chip thickness)

Section
plane
HKLM
Section
tool
h
D
b
h
D
v
c
Orthogonal cutting
Uncut chip area:
22
- Chip thickness: h
ch
- Chip transversal section: A
D
= h
D
b
- Cutting ratio:

Chip
transversal
section
ch
D
h
h
r =
tool
Section
plane
v
c
b
h
D
The tool
The tool is composed of:
Rake face: surface
on which the chip
flows.
Flank face: surface
looking at the
machined surface.
Cutting edge:
intersection line
between rake face
and flank.

23
Rake
Flank
Cutting
edge
The tool
Cutting angles:

- Rake angle
Between the rake face and the
normal to the cutting direction:
-15 < < 30

- Clearance (or relief) angle o
Between the flank and the
direction of the cutting direction:
2 < o < 15
- Solid angle |
Between rake and flank faces:
o + | + = 90

24
v
c
o

|
chip
thickness
The chip removal mechanism
A relative motion between
tool and part
The tool stresses very much
the material
The working stock (or
machining stock) is
plastically deformed,
separates from the part and
is transformed into chip
The chip flows on the tool
and moves away from the
machining zone
25
Cutting process
Workpiece
Machining allowance
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

t
o
o
l
-
p
a
r
t

m
o
t
i
o
n

Heat
Chip
Forces
Machined
surface
Tool
Cutting process
Part
Uncut chip
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

t
o
o
l
-
p
a
r
t

m
o
t
i
o
n

Heat

Chip
Forces
Machined
surface
Associated to chip removal:

Forces: The tool and the part
exchange the forces needed to
deform the working stock, separate
it from the part and transform it into
chip.

Heat: Plastic deformation of the
uncut chip plus the friction
between the tool and the chip
involve the generations of a large
heat amount.
26
Tool
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

s
t
r
e
s
s
e
s

Stress and temperature
Temperature
28
How does the machining allowance
transforms into chip ?
29
The tool stresses the material until
this deforms plastically. With good
approximation it can be said that the
area where the material is deformed
is a plane, called shear plane.

The deformation proceeds until the
separation between chip and part. It
is therefore the working stock that is
transformed into chip, that flows on
the tool.
Shear
plane
Chip
Shear stress
Comparison with reality
30
Shear plane
Shear zone
31
h
D
h
ch
v
c

b
Cutting edge
o
Shear plane Shear zone
32
Source: After M.C. Shaw, P.K. Wright, and S.
Kalpakjian.
Discontinuos chip
33
Source: After M.C. Shaw, P.K.
Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.
Continuous chip
34
Serrated (segmented) chip
35
Built Up Edge
36
Chip orientation
37
(a) tightly curled chip
(b) chip hits workpiece and breaks
(c) continuous chip moving away from workpiece
(d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off
Source: G. Boothroyd, Fundamentals of Metal Machining and Machine Tools. Copyright 1975; McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company.
Chip breakers
38
Grooves as
chip breakers
Card deck model of chip formation
Mechanics of chip formation
39
( ) | | o + = + = = tan cot
OC
OB
OC
AO
OC
AB
Shear strain
Shear Strain:
b
a
= o
( ) |
|
= =
cos
sin
ch
D
h
h
r
Cutting ratio

|
a
Mechanics of chip formation
40

ch D c
h v h v =
Since h
ch
> h
D
v

< v
c

From the velocity diagram:
( ) | |
sin cos cos

v
v v
sh c
= =
Where v
sh
is the velocity at which shearing takes place in the shear plane.
( ) |
|
= = =
cos
sin
c c
ch
D
c
v r v
h
h
v v
Mass continuity
90|+
|
|

90
v
c
v

v
sh
Shear strain rate
41
The shear strain rate is then the ratio of
v
sh
to the thickness a of the sheared
element (shear zone), or:
a
v
a dt
dAB
OC
AB
dt
d
dt
d
sh
= =
|
.
|
\
|
= =
1 o
o
Experimental evidence indicates that a is on the order of 10

-2
to
10
-3
mm. This means that, even at low cutting speed, the shear
strain rate is very high, on the order of 10
3
to 10
6
s
-1
.

|
a
Shear strain rate
42
v
c
o
o

Force circle
43
| : friction angle
|
Between the tool and the part a force F is developed that can be
subdivided in two components according to different directions:
rake
shear plane
cutting direction
F
and F
N

44
- F
: force tangential to the rake plane

F
N
: force normal to the rake plane
F
= F sen |
F
N
= F cos |
F

F
N

|
F
c
and F
f
- Cutting force (F
c
), parallel
to the cutting speed .
Feed force (F
f
), normal to
the cutting speed.

These forces are not known,
but they can be measured or
predicted with mathematical
models.

45
F
c
= F cos (| )
F
f
= F sen (| )
F
f

F
c

F
sh
and F
shN

46
F
sh
= F cos (| + | )
F
shN
= F sen (| + | )
- F
sh
: force in the shear plane
F
shN
: force normal to the shear plane
Estimation of forces (theory)
47
c
sh
D
cos sen
cos
F ( )
A ( )
| | |
t
|
+
=

f c f c
N c f c f
cos sen tan
tan
cos sen tan
F
F F F F
F F F F F

|

+ +
= = = =

Parameters:
is a property of the cutting tool
| can be estimated:
, |, |, t
sh
|
|
|
|
) cos(
sen ) ( sen sen ) ( sen sen
D
c
D D
shN
sh
|
| | | | | |
o

+
=
+
=
=
A
F
A
F
A
F
Estimation of forces (theory)
48
F
c
= F cos (| )
F
sh
= F cos (| + | )
) cos(
sh
| | +
=
F
F
) cos(
) cos(
sh
c
| |
|
+

=
F
F
|
t t
sen
D
sh sh sh sh
A
A F = =
) cos(
) cos(
sen
D
sh c
| |
|
|
t
+
=
A
F
c
sh
D
cos sen
cos
F ( )
A ( )
| | |
t
|
+
=

Estimation of shear angle
49
Cutting ratio method

ch ch ch D
c
ch D D D
b l l h
r
h b l l
= = =
ch ch D ch D D
c
ch D D D
b l h b l h h
r
h b l h M

= = =

c
c
cos
tan
1 sen
r
r
=

Chip length
Chip mass
D D D ch ch ch
h b l h b l =
Constant chip volume:
( )
D ch
b b b = =
Orthogonal cutting:
( ) ( )
c
ch
sin sin
cos cos
D
h A' B
r
h A' B
| |
| |
= = =

Pijspanen model
No strain hardening
No Built Up Edge
No friction on the flank
Plastic deformation begins
when t
max
= t
sh
(elastic strain is
not considered)
No friction between tools rake
and chip
Angle | assumes a value that minimizes the shear strain
| |
2 2
1 1
cot tan( ) 0
sen cos ( )
| |
| | | |
c c
= + = + =
c c
2 4
t
+ =
50
()
o
(|-)
a
()
o
(|-)
a
A
Ernst & Merchant model
No strain hardening
No Built Up Edge
No friction on the flank
Constant t
sh

No friction between tools rake and chip
Shear angle assumes the value that minimizes the energy
51
Angle | assumes a value that minimizes the energy of cutting
Ernst & Merchant model

) cos(
) cos(
sen
D
sh c
| |
|
|
t
+
=
A
F
H
A
H F U
+
= =
) cos(
) cos(
sen
D
sh c c
| |
|
|
t
0
c
=
c
c
|
U
2 2 4
| t
| + =
52

|

|
(|-)
(|-)
|
|
h
ch

h
ch

F
F
Influence of and | on forces
positive
negative
53
Cutting power
If v
r
is the relative speed
between part and tool, the
cutting power P
c
is given by the
scalar product:

But, since v
n
= 0, we get:

54
v
c
F
c
F
n
R
n n c c r c
v F v F v R P + = =
c c c
v F P =
The cutting pressure k
c
is defined from the relationship:
def
c c D
F k A =
Cutting pressure method
k
c
depends on:
A
D

Mechanical characteristics of the workpiece material
Tool material and geometry ( in particular)
v
c

lubrication conditions
Kronenberg relationship:
y x
b h
k
k
cs
c
=
where k
cs
is the specific cutting pressure to remove a chip
section of 1 mm
2
with h = 1 mm and b = 1 mm
Typically, y ~ 0, thus:
cs
c
=
x
k
k
h
k
cs
related to the material to machine
k
c
decreases as h increases
x costant mainly related to the tool material

Cutting pressure
k
c
x
h k k
=
cs c
k
cs
=1740 MPa

x = 0.27

cs c
log log log k h x k + =
cs
c
=
x
k
k
h
NB: k
cs
is a value that you can find in books and catalogues
Cutting pressure
Cutting power

The power given by the motor is the absorbed
electric power (P
e
) reduced by the transformation
efficiency (motor yielding factor q) :

In general 0.7< q <0.95, while the maximum value
P
e
is a given datum of the machine.
58
m c
P P s
The machine tool imposes that:
e m
P P =q
Cutting with an oblique tool
59
In practice most of the cutting processes use oblique tools

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Machining

sin cos cos

Experimental evidence indicates that a is on the order of 10

Computer Aided Manufacturing

: force tangential to the rake plane

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