Parts of Skeletal System and its function:

The human skeletal system performs a number of key functions in the human body. The
key functions of the human skeletal system are:
Support: Our bones provide the rigidity we need to function.
Protection: The rigidity of our bones allows them to protect our internal organs
from damage for eample the rib cage and the skull.
!ovement: "ithout the strength of our bones we wouldn#t be able to move our
muscles are anchored to our bones.
Storage: Our bones are a storehouse for fat and certain essential minerals.
$lood cell formation: !ost of our blood components are made in the bones.
Appendicular
The appendicular bones are found in the
arms and legs% and attach% or append% to
the body.
Axial
The aial skeleton is composed of the &'
bones of your upper body.
Flat bone
Our flat bones are designed to provide
protection for vital organs% in particular
the skull and the ribs.
Irregular
Scientists use the term irregular bones for
all those that don#t fit into the other
categories(
Long bone Sesamoid
Our long bones are the hard% dense bones
that provide strength% structure% and
mobility.
) bone embedded in a tendon% Sesamoid
bones are so named because they
resemble a sesame seed.
Short bone
!ostly found around the etremities% the
short bones are small% and roughly cuboid
in shape.


Parts of *igestive System and its function:
+our digestive system is uni,uely constructed to perform its speciali-ed function of
turning food into the energy you need to survive and packaging the residue for waste
disposal. To help you understand how the many parts of the digestive system work
together% here is an overview of the structure and function of this comple system.
Mouth
The mouth is the beginning
of the digestive tract. and% in
fact% digestion starts here
when taking the first bite of
food. /hewing breaks the
food into pieces that are
more easily digested% while
saliva mies with food to
begin the process of
breaking it down into a form
your body can absorb and use.
Esophagus
0ocated in your throat near your trachea 1windpipe2% the esophagus receives food from
your mouth when you swallow. $y means of a series of muscular contractions called
peristalsis% the esophagus delivers food to your stomach.
Stomach
The stomach is a hollow organ% or 3container%3 that holds food while it is being mied
with en-ymes that continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. /ells
in the lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful en-ymes that are
responsible for the breakdown process. "hen the contents of the stomach are sufficiently
processed% they are released into the small intestine.
Small intestine
!ade up of three segments 4 the duodenum% 5e5unum% and ileum 4 the small intestine is
a 667foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using en-ymes released by the
pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also is at work in this organ% moving food
through and miing it with digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver. The
duodenum is largely responsible for the continuous breaking7down process% with the
5e5unum and ileum mainly responsible for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.
/ontents of the small intestine start out semi7solid% and end in a li,uid form after passing
through the organ. "ater% bile% en-ymes% and mucous contribute to the change in
consistency. Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover7food residue li,uid
has passed through the small intestine% it then moves on to the large intestine% or colon.
Pancreas
The pancreas secretes digestive en-ymes into the duodenum% the first segment of the
small intestine. These en-ymes break down protein% fats% and carbohydrates. The pancreas
also makes insulin% secreting it directly into the bloodstream. 8nsulin is the chief hormone
for metaboli-ing sugar.
Liver
The liver has multiple functions% but its main function within the digestive system is to
process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. $ile from the liver secreted into
the small intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat. 8n addition% the liver is the
bodys chemical 3factory.3 8t takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and makes
all the various chemicals the body needs to function. The liver also detoifies potentially
harmful chemicals. 8t breaks down and secretes many drugs.
Gallbladder
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile% and then releases it into the duodenum to
help absorb and digest fats.
Colon (large intestine
The colon is a 97foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum.
The large intestine is made up of the cecum% the ascending 1right2 colon% the transverse
1across2 colon% the descending 1left2 colon% and the sigmoid colon% which connects to the
rectum. The appendi is a small tube attached to the cecum. The large intestine is a highly
speciali-ed organ that is responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowels is
easy and convenient.
Stool% or waste left over from the digestive process% is passed through the colon by means
of peristalsis% first in a li,uid state and ultimately in a solid form. )s stool passes through
the colon% water is removed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid 1S7shaped2 colon until a 3mass
movement3 empties it into the rectum once or twice a day. 8t normally takes about :9
hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and
bacteria. These bacteria perform several useful functions% such as synthesi-ing various
vitamins% processing waste products and food particles% and protecting against harmful
bacteria. "hen the descending colon becomes full of stool% or feces% it empties its
contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination.
!ectum
The rectum 10atin for 3straight32 is an &7inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus.
8t is the rectum#s 5ob to receive stool from the colon% to let the person know that there is
stool to be evacuated% and to hold the stool until evacuation happens. "hen anything 1gas
or stool2 comes into the rectum% sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then
decides if the rectal contents can be released or not. 8f they can% the sphincters rela and
the rectum contracts% disposing its contents. 8f the contents cannot be disposed% the
sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that the sensation temporarily goes
away.
Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. 8t is a 67inch long canal consisting of the
pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters 1internal and eternal2. The lining of the
upper anus is speciali-ed to detect rectal contents. 8t lets you know whether the contents
are li,uid% gas% or solid. The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in
allowing control of stool. The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum
and the anus that stops stool from coming out when it is not supposed to. The internal
sphincter is always tight% ecept when stool enters the rectum. 8t keeps us continent when
we are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool. "hen we get an urge to go
to the bathroom% we rely on our eternal sphincter to hold the stool until reaching a toilet%
where it then relaes to release the contents.
Cell parts and its functions:
Plasma membrane7 The membrane enclosing a cell is made up of
two lipid layers called a 3bilipid3 membrane. The lipids that are
present in the plasma membrane are called 3phospholipids.3
These lipid layers are made up of a number of fatty acid building
blocks. The fatty acid that makes up this membrane has two different
parts to it7 a small water loving head7 hydrophilic head. Hydro
stands for water and philic means liking or loving. The other part of
this fatty acid is a long water7repelling or water hating tail.
This tail is hydrophobic7 Hydro stands for water and phobic means
fear. The plasma membrane is arranged in such a way so that the
tails face each other on the inside and the heads face towards the
outside of the membrane.

Channels"pores7 ) channel in the cell#s plasma membrane. This
channel is made up of certain proteins whose function is to control
the movement of food and water into the cell. These channels are
made up of certain proteins.

#ucleus7 The nucleus is the control center of the cell. 8t is the largest
organelle in the cell and it contains the *;) of the cell.
*;) 1*eoyribonucleic
)cid2 contains all the
information for cells to live%
perform their functions and
reproduce.
8nside the nucleus is another organelle called the nucleolus.
The nucleolus is responsible for making ribosomes.
The circles on the surface of the nucleus are the nuclear pores. These
are where ribosomes% and other materials move in and out of the cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum (E!7 8t is a network of membranes
throughout the cytoplasm of the cell. There are two types of <=.
"hen ribosomes are attached it is called rough <= and smooth <=
when there are no ribosomes attached.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum is where most protein synthesis
occurs in the cell. The function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
is to synthesi-e lipids in the cell. The smooth <= is also helps in the
detoification of harmful substances in the cell.

!ibosomes7 Organelles that help in the synthesis of proteins.
=ibosomes are made up of two parts% called subunits.
They get their names
from their si-e. One
unit is larger than the
other so they are
called large and small
subunits.
$oth these subunits are necessary for protein synthesis in the cell.
"hen the two units are docked together with a special information
unit called messenger =;)% they make proteins.
Some ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm% but most are attached to
the endoplasmic reticulum. "hile attached to the <=% ribosomes
make proteins that the cell needs and also ones to be eported from
the cell for work elsewhere in the body.

Golgi complex7 8t is the organelle in the cell that is responsible for
sorting and correctly shipping the proteins produced in the <=. >ust
like our postal packages% which should have a correct shipping
address% the proteins produced in the <= should be correctly sent to
their respective address. 8t is a very important step in protein
synthesis. 8f the ?olgi comple makes a mistake in shipping the
proteins to the right address% certain functions in the cell may stop.
This organelle was named after an 8talian physician7Camillo Golgi.
@e was the first person to describe this organelle in the cell. 8t is also
the only organelle that is capitali-ed.

Mitochondria7 This is the cells powerhouse. This organelle
packages the energy of the food into )TP molecules.
<very type of cell has a different amount of mitochondria. There are
more mitochondria in cells that have to perform lots of work% for
eample7 your leg muscle cells% heart muscle cells etc. Other cells
need less energy to do their work and have less mitochondrion.

Chloroplast7 This is the organelle in which photosynthesis takes
place. 8n this organelle the light energy of the sun is converted into
chemical energy.
/hloroplasts are found only in plant cells not animal cells. The
chemical energy that is produced by chloroplasts is finally used to
make carbohydrates like starch that get stored in the plant.
/hloroplasts contain tiny pigments called chlorophylls. /hlorophylls
are responsible for trapping the light energy from the sun.

$esicles7 This term literally means 3small vessel3. This organelle
helps store and transport products produced by the cell.
The vesicles are the transport and delivery vehicles like our mail and
Aederal <press trucks. Some vesicles deliver materials to parts of
the cell and others transport materials outside the cell in a process
called eocytosis.

$acuole7 Plant cells have what looks like a very large empty space
in the middle. This space is called the vacuole.
*on#t be fooled% the vacuole contains large amounts of water and
stores other important materials such as sugars% ions and pigments.

C%toplasm7 ) term for all the contents of a cell other than the
nucleus. <ven though the cartoon drawings do not look like it% the
cytoplasm contains mostly water.
Some fun facts about water and the human body:
)dult bodies are about B' to 9B percent water.
) childs body has a little more water at CB percent.
The human brain is about CB percent water.

Cell &all and Plasmodesmata7 8n addition to cell membranes%
plants have cell walls. /ell walls provide protection and support for
plants.
Dnlike cell membranes materials cannot get through cell walls. This
would be a problem for plant cells if not for special openings called
plasmodesmata.
These openings are used to communicate and transport materials
between plant cells because the cell membranes are able touch and
therefore echange needed materials.
Peroxisomes7 These collect and safely break down chemicals that
are toic to the cell.

Centrioles7 These are found only in animal cells and come into
action when the cells divide% helping with the organi-ation of
chromosomes.

L%sosomes7 /reated by the ?olgi apparatus% these help break down
large molecules into smaller pieces that the cell can use.

C%tos'eleton7 !ade up of filaments and tubules% it helps shape and
support the cell. 8t also helps move things move around in the cell.
Aor artistic purposes% the cytoskeleton is shown in 5ust one place
when in reality it is found throughout the entire cell.