IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 27, NO.

4, NOVEMBER 2012 1941

Capacitor Design Considering First Swing
Stability of Distributed Generations
Ali Bidram, Graduate Student Member, IEEE, Mohamad-esmail Hamedani-golshan, and Ali Davoudi, Member, IEEE
AbstractThis paper proposes an algorithm for designing a
xed shunt capacitive compensator to improve rst swing stability
margin of a micro-grid including synchronous machine-based
distributed generators (SMDGs). The notion of trajectory sensi-
tivity analysis is used to determine the sensitivity of the SMDGs
relative rotor angles and velocities with respect to the compensator
susceptance. For a given fault contingency, the minimum required
susceptance and compensator location are determined to maintain
the rst swing stability of SMDGs. The proposed methodology can
be used for a micro-grid with an arbitrary number of SMDGs,
various fault scenarios, and both grid-connected and autonomous
(islanded) modes of operation. The proposed algorithm is veried
using time-domain simulation of a modied benchmark system of
the IEEE standard 399-1997.
Index TermsCapacitive compensator design, micro-grid, sta-
bility, synchronous machine-based distributed generators, trajec-
tory sensitivity analysis.
I. INTRODUCTION
A
micro-grid is a small power system including loads and
distributed generators (DGs) that can operate as a single
controllable system. Micro-grid is expected to appropriately op-
erate in both grid-connected and islanded (autonomous) modes
[1][4]. Although DG units can be connected to the micro-grid
through power electronic interfaces [3], there exist DG units
that are connected directly through rotary AC machines, e.g.,
combustion engine-based DGs [3]. Currently, synchronous ma-
chine-based DGs (SMDGs) are found in thermal, hydro, and
wind power plants [5][8].
The rst swing stability margin enhancement in a micro-grid
including SMDGs, shown in Fig. 1, is of particular importance.
The rst swing stability is ensured when, following a fault oc-
currence, the relative rotor angles of SMDGs with respect to the
reference angle (e.g., stiff grid) swing back before they reach
a threshold (e.g., ) [9][12]. SMDGs are more vulnerable to
rst swing instability compared to the large synchronous ma-
chines in utility grid, given relatively long fault clearance time
Manuscript received July 10, 2011; revised August 03, 2011 and January 31,
2012; accepted March 25, 2012. Date of publication May 01, 2012; date of cur-
rent version October 17, 2012. Paper no. TPWRS-00645-2011.
A. Bidramand A. Davoudi are with the Department of Electrical Engineering,
University of Texas, Arlington, TX 76011 USA (e-mail: ali.bidram@mavs.uta.
edu; davoudi@uta.edu).
M. E. Hamedani-golshan is with the Department of Electrical and Com-
puter Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran (e-mail:
hgolshan@cc.iut.ac.ir).
Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TPWRS.2012.2193603
Fig. 1. SMDG-based micro-grid.
in micro-grid systems and relatively lowrotor inertia of SMDGs
[8], [13].
Several techniques have been proposed to improve the rst
swing stability margins of synchronous machines, namely
fast excitation system [14], braking resistors [15], static phase
shifting [16], and VAr compensation [17][26]. In particular,
VAr compensators have been widely investigated in the liter-
ature as a fast tool for enhancing the rst swing stability of
synchronous machines. They can be implemented as a simple
capacitor bank or as exible ac transmission systems (FACTS)
devices [23]. In this paper, the VAr compensator is considered
as a capacitor bank connected via fast acting power electronics.
Conventionally, the transient energy function method has
been adopted to design the VAr compensators [17][19],
[24][26]. This approach is accurate, yet computationally in-
tense, and the implementation is not straightforward for hybrid
systems (e.g., systems with tap changers or FACTS devices)
[27]. Thus, it is highly desirable to nd a systematic approach
that is not limited by the systems complexity.
Trajectory sensitivity analysis (TSA) has been introduced in
the literature as a strong tool for analyzing power systems sta-
bility [27][36]. However, TSA capabilities in capacitor com-
pensation design have not been considered yet. Since TSA is a
systematic approach that does not depend on the experts knowl-
edge, it can be automated for a micro-grid system with an arbi-
trary number of synchronous machines [27]. This paper extends
the authors work in [37] and provides the following contribu-
tions.
A state-space framework is developed to calculate the
trajectory sensitivities of synchronous machines relative
rotor angles and velocities with respect to the compen-
sators susceptance.
A methodology is proposed to choose the installation
bus and calculate the minimum required susceptance
while preserving the rst swing stability subsequent to a
pre-specied contingency.
0885-8950/$31.00 2012 IEEE
1942 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 27, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2012
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section II intro-
duces a state-space model of a micro-grid system and provides
a framework for trajectory sensitivity analysis. This procedure
is elaborated using a single machine connected to an innite bus
(SMIB) system and, then, extended to a micro-grid with an arbi-
trary number of SMDGs. In Section III, the trajectory sensitivi-
ties of SMDGs relative rotor angles and velocities with respect
to the compensator susceptance are employed as an indicator of
rst swing stability and, then, used to design the capacitive com-
pensator. Section IV implements the proposed methodology on
a modied benchmark system of the IEEE standard 399-1997 in
both islanded and grid-connected modes of operation. Section V
concludes the paper.
II. DYNAMIC MODELING AND TRAJECTORY SENSITIVITIES
In this section, a dynamic model of a SMDG-based micro-
grid is introduced to provide a general framework for trajectory
sensitivities calculation. This framework is elaborated for an
SMIB system to calculate the trajectory sensitivities of the syn-
chronous generators relative rotor angles and velocities with
respect to the compensator susceptance. The capability of tra-
jectory sensitivities in reecting the rst swing stability margin
is shown using the SMIB system.
A. State-Space Modeling and Trajectory Sensitivities of a
Micro-Grid
A micro-grid can be represented by a set of differential-alge-
braic equations (DAE) as in [27], [35]
(1)
(2)
where represents the micro-grid state
variables (e.g., SMDGs relative rotor angles and velocities);
represents the micro-grid algebraic vari-
ables (e.g., micro-grid bus voltages and angles); and denotes
the micro-grid parameters vector (e.g., line reactance, fault
clearing times, and mechanical input power of SMDGs). The
state vector, , is a continuous vector. The function
is a switching function that represents disturbances and changes
in the micro-grid conguration; e.g., during a fault scenario.
and represent the algebraic equations of the micro-grid
in the pre- and post-fault congurations, respectively. The al-
gebraic equation in (2) changes at and algebraic
variables may become discontinuous. The initial conditions for
(1) and (2) are and , respectively.
Trajectory sensitivities deal with the variations of micro-grid
variables, and , due to the changes in system parameters,
, and initial conditions, and . In this paper, trajectory
sensitivities of with respect to are of interest. Prior to a
switching instant, i.e., , the micro-grid model is
described by
(3)
Fig. 2. SMIB system.
By differentiating (3) with respect to , one can use the chain
rule to nd
(4)
where and are dened as the trajectory sensitivities of
the state variables, , and the algebraic variable, , with respect
to the parameters, [35]. Assuming that is a nonsingular
matrix, the initial conditions for (4) are found as
(5)
The trajectory sensitivities are obtained through solving (3) and
(4), and using , , and (5) as initial conditions. Subsequent
to the switching instant, , the trajectory sensi-
tivities and experience a discontinuity. The procedure to
obtain and subsequent to the switching instant is similar
to (3)(5) and is elaborated in [35].
B. Trajectory Sensitivities With Respect to the Compensator
Susceptance
An SMIBsystemis shown in Fig. 2. This basic systemis used
to illustrate the trajectory sensitivities analysis. The disturbance
is dened as a three-phase to ground fault at machine terminal
(Bus 1) that occurs at and is cleared at . Using fast
power electronic switches, a shunt capacitive compensator will
be connected to the machine terminal immediately after fault
clearance. The swing equations of the synchronous generator
are [22]
(6)
where is the relative rotor angular position. is the
machines mechanical input power. is the magnitude of
the synchronous machine internal voltage. is the innite
bus voltage. is the transient reactance of synchronous
machine. is the line reactance. is the compensator sus-
ceptance. is the damping coefcient. The machine inertia is
, where is the inertia constant, is the
base value of power, and is the system frequency.
The DAE model of the SMIB system in (6) is
(7)
BIDRAM et al.: CAPACITOR DESIGN CONSIDERING FIRST SWING STABILITY OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATIONS 1943
(8)
where the state vector is
(9)
and the switching function is
(10)
The fault occurs at the switching instant, , and is
the algebraic variable that becomes discontinuous. The initial
conditions for (7) and (8) are
(11)
The trajectory sensitivities of with respect to , , for the
pre-fault period, , is found by solving (4), (7), and (8),
using (5) and (11) as initial conditions. The coefcients , ,
, , , and in (4) are found as
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
A similar procedure can be used to calculate the trajectory
sensitivities of with respect to , , for the post-fault period,
. However, the discontinuity of and , subsequent to
the switching instant, needs to be considered [35]. Once is
found, one may extract the trajectory sensitivity of and with
respect to .
The procedure elaborated in (6)(17) can be extended to a
micro-grid with an arbitrary number of SMDGs by formulating
the DAE model of the micro-grid. It is assumed that the micro-
grid consists of buses and SMDGs. Considering the clas-
sical machine model for SMDGs, additional virtual buses are
considered as the SMDGs internal voltage buses. The total ac-
tive power leaving the th bus is
(18)
where is the voltage amplitude at the th bus for ,
and the magnitude of the SMDGs internal voltage for
. is the th bus phase angle for
, and the relative rotor angle of the SMDGs for
. is element associated with the th
row and the th column of the admittance matrix of micro-grid.
It should be noted that for the rst swing stability studies,
the constant impedance model of loads are considered in the
admittance matrix. Additionally, asynchronous generators can
be considered as constant negative complex power loads, where
their equivalent constant impedance model is augmented to the
admittance matrix of the micro-grid [38].
The DAE model of the micro-grid is formulated using the
following swing equations:
(19)
where , , and are the mechanical input power, mo-
ment of inertia, and the damping coefcient of the th SMDG,
respectively [39].
C. Stability Margin Evaluation
Trajectory sensitivities vary more quickly and with higher
amplitude as the micro-grid approaches instability [40]. This is
illustrated using the SMIB system in Fig. 2 with ,
, , , , and,
, where and denote the delivered active
and reactive power to the innite bus, respectively. The base
values for power and voltage are 100 MVA and 230 kV, respec-
tively. The disturbance is a three-phase to ground fault at the ma-
chine terminal that occurs at and is cleared at .
Using the equal area equilibrium for the SMIB system, one
can nd that the rst swing stability is not provided for this
system. The rst swing stability can be ensured by adding a
capacitor bank at the machine terminals (Bus 1) following the
fault clearance. The equal area criterion method is used to cal-
culate the minimum required susceptance, , to ensure the
rst swing stability.
is found to be 1.67 pu here. The sensitivity norm,
, is plotted in Fig. 3 for three
different susceptance values more than , namely: (a)
, (b) , and (c) . As seen in
Fig. 3, this norm varies more quickly and with higher magni-
tude as the compensator susceptance approaches .
III. CAPACITOR DESIGN USING TSA
This section proposes a methodology to design a capacitor
bank while ensuring the rst swing stability of SMDGs subse-
quent to a pre-specied contingency. The capacitor is placed on
all buses after the fault clearance, one bus at a time. It is as-
sumed that the capacitor is connected through the fast power
electronic switches. Capacitor placement at each bus denes
a new conguration. The minimum required compensator sus-
ceptance, , is calculated for all congurations. This capa-
bility of trajectory sensitivities is used to calculate for each
conguration. The conguration with the minimum calculated
is considered as the optimum case.
The owchart to nd for each conguration is shown
in Fig. 4. First, the most advanced SMDG subsequent to a
pre-specied contingency is identied. The most advanced
SMDG is the rst SMDG whose relative rotor angle reaches the
threshold . It should be noted that this threshold depends on
the system features, and angles less than can also be selected
as the critical angle [36]. Then, the capacitive compensator
1944 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 27, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2012
Fig. 3. Variations of sensitivity norm after fault clearance for different com-
pensator susceptances: (a) ; (b) ; (c) .
is assumed to be installed on the th bus following the fault
clearance. An initial value for compensator susceptance, ,
is estimated as
(20)
where is the compensator susceptance before the fault oc-
curs. Without loss of generality, we assume . To prevent
rst swing instability, a suitable value for is
(21)
where is the pre-fault relative rotor angle of the most
advanced SMDG with respect to the reference machine.
represents the sensitivity of with respect to
at the time that reaches . Equation (21) provides an
approximate value for the required compensator susceptance.
The rst swing stability of the micro-grid is checked con-
sidering as the compensator susceptance. The micro-grid
system is considered stable if the sign of the difference be-
tween two adjacent samples of the SMDGs relative rotor an-
gles changes before the rotor angles reach . If the micro-grid
is unstable, this conguration is disregarded, and another bus
(conguration) is considered. Otherwise, is considered as
an initial value for .
For a given micro-grid with SMDGs, the sensitivity norm
is dened as
(22)
where and are the relative rotor angle and velocity of the
th SMDG, respectively.
As decreases from , the magnitude of sensitivity norm,
, increases rapidly. Therefore, it is more appropriate to work
Fig. 4. Finding the minimum required susceptance for each conguration.
Fig. 5. Illustration of .
with the reciprocal of the maximum of during the post-fault
period dened in [28] as
(23)
For two arbitrary susceptance values, and , assuming
that , a straight line is drawn between the two points
and . The peak sensitivity norm will sig-
nicantly increase at the boundary between stable and unstable
conditions. This implies that approaches zero as the system
BIDRAM et al.: CAPACITOR DESIGN CONSIDERING FIRST SWING STABILITY OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATIONS 1945
Fig. 6. Micro-grid test system.
approaches instability. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 5, the value
found at is a good estimation of .
Since the rst-order trajectory sensitivities are used, and
should be in a close vicinity of to ensure the accuracy
(e.g., 20% of the actual value). Thus, the rst swing stability is
checked for the following four susceptance values:
(24)
Among the susceptance values in (24), the smallest one for
which the micro-grid remains stable is chosen as . Then, a
susceptance value, greater than but close to it, may be chosen
as . For example, if the micro-grid is only stable for , ,
and , then and another susceptance value greater than ,
but close to it, may be chosen as and .
Once is found for all congurations, the conguration
with the minimumrequired is considered to be the suitable
candidate to ensure the rst swing stability.
IV. CASE STUDIES
The benchmark systemof IEEE standards 399-1997 [41], that
is modied in [3] to allow both grid-connected and islanded
modes of operation, is shown in Fig. 6. The system includes
a 13.8-kV and 60-Hz three-feeder distribution subsystem con-
nected to a larger network through a 69-kV radial line. The
13.8-kV substation bus is connected to the utility grid through
the substation transformer and a 69-kV line. The network at the
end of the 69-kVline is modeled as a 69-kVbus with 1000 MVA
short-circuit capacity. The specications of loads, lines, and
transformers for the benchmark system are summarized in the
Appendix. System loads are linear R-L branches. Three 6-MVA
synchronous machines are labeled as SMDG1, SMDG2, and
SMDG3. A conventional two-axis model of a synchronous ma-
chine with and is used for the time-do-
main simulation. The constant impedance model is adopted for
the loads. The time domain simulations are performed using the
Matlab/Simulink [42].
A. Grid-Connected Mode
A three-phase to ground fault is assumed to occur on the 3rd
bus. This fault is cleared after 0.2 s ensuring grid-connected
operation. SMDGs produce the following output powers in the
pre-fault period:
(25)
The variations of the rotor angles of SMDGs are depicted in
Fig. 7, indicating that the micro-grid becomes unstable without
any reactive power compensation. , , and denote the rela-
tive rotor angles of SMDG1, SMDG2, and SMDG3 with respect
to the utility bus, respectively. The proposed methodology in
Section III is applied to the micro-grid. Table I shows the
found in (20), the corresponding rst swing stability statues, and
for different congurations. As indicated in Table I, the
capacitive compensator on the 4th bus with is
the optimum choice with regard to the rst swing stability.
Fig. 8 shows the variation of the SMDGs rotor angles sub-
sequent to using the capacitive compensator found via the pro-
posed algorithm. These bounded angles show that SMDGs have
preserved their rst swing stability following the fault in a grid-
connected mode. Fig. 9 shows the variation of SMDGs rotor
angles subsequent to using the capacitive compensator on the
4th bus with a susceptance value less than . As seen in
Fig. 9, the system becomes unstable.
B. Islanded Mode
A three-phase to ground fault is applied on the 69-kV line
near the 2nd bus. This fault is cleared by circuit breakers at
1946 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 27, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2012
TABLE I
, MICRO-GRID STABILITY STATUS FOR , AND FOR DIFFERENT
CAPACITIVE COMPENSATOR LOCATIONS IN THE GRID-CONNECTED MODE
Fig. 7. , , and in grid-connected mode without compensation.
Fig. 8. , , and in grid-connected mode once is placed
on the 4th bus.
Fig. 9. , , and in grid-connected mode once is placed
on the 4th bus.
both ends of the 69-kV line after 0.22 s, resulting in an islanded
mode of operation. SMDGs produce the output powers in (25).
The micro-grid system without the reactive compensation is un-
stable as shown in Fig. 10. The rotor angle of SMDG3 is con-
sidered as the reference angle. and denote the relative
rotor angles of SMDG1 and SMDG2 with respect to the ref-
erence angle. A capacitive compensator on the 4th bus with
is found using the methodology in Section III.
Fig. 10. and in the islanded mode without compensator.
Fig. 11. and in the islanded mode once is placed on
the 4th bus.
Fig. 12. and in the islanded mode once is placed on
the 4th bus.
Fig. 11 shows that the rst swing stability of SMDGs is main-
tained after using the capacitive compensator. is veried
by checking the stability of micro-grid with a smaller suscep-
tance. As shown in Fig. 12, the rst swing stability is not guar-
anteed for the susceptance values less than .
V. CONCLUSION
An algorithm for ensuring the rst swing stability of SMDG
micro-grids using trajectory sensitivity analysis has been pre-
sented. This algorithm determines the appropriate location for
installing the capacitive compensator and calculates the min-
imum required susceptance. The proposed algorithm is veried
using time-domain simulation of an IEEE benchmark system
for both grid-connected and islanded modes of operation. The
algorithmis general and can be applied to complex systems with
an arbitrary number of SMDGs in a micro-grid.
APPENDIX
The specications of loads, lines, and transformers in the
studied benchmark system are provided in Tables IIIV, respec-
BIDRAM et al.: CAPACITOR DESIGN CONSIDERING FIRST SWING STABILITY OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATIONS 1947
TABLE II
LOADS SPECIFICATIONS
TABLE III
LINES SPECIFICATIONS
TABLE IV
TRANSFORMERS SPECIFICATIONS
tively. It should be noted that the base values of power and
voltage are and at bus 3,
respectively.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the Department of Electrical
and Computer Engineering at Isfahan University of Technology,
Isfahan, Iran.
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Ali Bidram (S09) received the B.S. (Hon.) and M.S.
(Hon.) degrees in electrical engineering from Isfahan
University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran, in 2008 and
2010, respectively. He is currently pursuing the Ph.D.
degree at the University of Texas at Arlington.
His research interests include power systems dy-
namics and stability, micro-grid, and renewable en-
ergy resources.
Mohamad-esmail Hamedani-golshan was born in
Isfahan, Iran, in 1964. He received the B.Sc., M.Sc.,
and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from
Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran, in
1987, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran,
in 1990, and Isfahan University of Technology in
1998, respectively.
He is currently a Full Professor with the De-
partment of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Isfahan University of Technology. His major re-
search interests lie in the area of power system
analysis, power system dynamics, power quality, dispersed generation, FACTS
and custom power, and load modeling special arc furnace modeling.
Ali Davoudi (S04M11) received the B.Sc. and
M.Sc. degrees in electrical and computer engineering
from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran,
and The University of British Columbia, Vancouver,
BC, Canada, in 2003 and 2005, respectively, and the
Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering
from the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign,
in 2010.
He is currently an Assistant Professor in the Elec-
trical Engineering Department of the University of
Texas at Arlington. He worked for Solar Bridge Tech-
nologies, Texas Instruments Inc., and Royal Philips Electronics. His research in-
terests are all aspects of modeling, simulation, and control of power electronics
and energy conversion systems, renewable energy sources, and transportation
electrication.
Dr. Davoudi is an Associate Editor for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY and the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL
ELECTRONICS.