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DIFFERENTMETHODSOFSURVEYING
M.Seedat,S.Thusi,M.Zaca,L.Mnembe,N.NdabaSurveyandLandInformationDept.(June2012)

Introduction

Mostpeoplehaveanunderstandingthatsurveyingisonlyrestrictedtofieldworkonconstructionsites.
Thetruthofthematteristhattherearesixdifferenttypesofsurveyingthatasurveyorcanchoosefrom
inordertoundertakeaparticularjob,namely:
GeodeticSurveys
CadastralSurveys
EngineeringSurveys
AerialSurveys
MiningSurveys
HydrographicSurveys
Inthisarticlewewilldiscussthesedifferenttypes.Toalargedegree,theextentofurbanizationand
relativeworthofthelanddeterminethemethodofsurveyingmostappropriate.Theequipmentused
varieswiththeneedandnatureofsurvey.
GeodeticSurveys

GeodeticSurveyingisbasicallycontrolsurveyingonalargescale,thismeansthatitiscontrolsurvey
overlongdistanceswheremeasurementsaretakenandtheearthscurvatureandatmospheric
pressuresdeductionsareconsideredandapplied.ThewordgeodesyisfromaGreekwordgeodasia
meaningdividingandthestudyoftheearthsshapeandsize.
Inmostcasesthistypeofsurveyiscarriedoutwhenestablishingcontrolnetworkoflargemagnitude,
i.e.thenetworkoftrigonometricalsurveybeaconsofthecountry.Ifyoucanimaginethedauntingtask
ofmeasuringtheseinSouthAfrica,withallthemountains,valleysandrivers,thisiswhythecurvatureof
earthcalculationsareofvastimportanceingeodeticsurveying.

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Asweallknow,theearthssurfaceisround,howeverhighlyirregularandnotsuitableasa
computationalsurfacebecauseofthemountains,valleys,riversandthesurfaceofthesea,itisbecause
ofthisreasonthatthemoresuitablesurfaceswereassumedforcomputationalpurposes,namelythe
GeoidandanEllipsoid.
Belowaretheillustrationsthatshowtherelationshipbetweentheearthssurface,thegeoidandan
ellipsoid.

Itisofutmostimportancetotakenoteoftheseissueswhenundertakinggeodeticsurveyasitinvolves
thecurvatureoftheearthandtheatmosphericconditionsandtoproducethe3dimensionalcontrol
pointsofgoodquality,i.e.horizontalvaluesofY&XandheightatMSL.
CadastralSurveys

ThenameCadastreisaLatinbasetermwhichreferstoaregistryoflands.CadastralSurveyingis
surveyingoflandsoastodetermineanddefinelandownershipandboundaries.
Mostpeopledonottakeseriouslytheissueofsurveyingtheirpropertiesbeforetheydeveloporerecta
fence/wall,untiltheyhavefoundoutthattheyhavespentsomuchmoneyonthosedevelopmentsetc.
onsomeoneelsespropertyorland.
Thegeoidisdefinedasthemore
smoothedrepresentationofthe
earthandisdescribedasthe
surfacethatwouldbeassumedby
theundisturbedsurfaceofthesea,
continuedunderneaththe
continentsbymeansofsmall
frictionlesschannelswhilethe
ellipsoidisasmoothmathematical
surfacethatbestfitstheshapeof
thegeoidandisthenextlevelof
approximationoftheactualshape
oftheearth.

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Cadastralsurveydealswithmeasurementsofland,subdivisionsandsectionaltittles.Thiskindofsurvey
canonlybecarriedoutbyaProfessionalLandSurveyorregisteredwiththeSouthAfricanCouncilfor
ProfessionalandTechnicalSurveyors(PLATO)asitisstatedontheLandSurveyAct(No.8of1997).
CADASTRALSURVEYSINSOUTHAFRICANCONTEXT
TherearecurrentlynineSurveyorGeneralsoffices,eachofwhichregulatesCadastralSurveysinthe
Provincesforwhichitresponsible.Theseofficesaredealingwiththesafekeepingofsurveyrecords,
examinationsandapprovalofcadastralsurveys,generalplansanddraftsectionalplansforregistration
purpose.
NearbyalltheseSurveyorsGeneralofficesthereareDeedsOfficeswhichdealwiththeregistrationof
propertiesorland.
SurveyorGeneralsofficehaveaplansafewheretheykeepallcadastralsurveysthathavebeen
submittedtothembydifferentLandSurveyors.Theserecordsareusedforbeaconrelocationsandall
othercadastralsurveystoensurethatthereisnopossibilityofpropertiesoverlappingastoavoid
conflictingclaimstoownership.
InSouthAfrica,onlyProfessionalLandSurveyorsregisteredwiththeSouthAfricanCouncilfor
ProfessionalandTechnicalSurveyors(PLATO)arelegallyentitledtoundertakethiswork.
HowCadastralSurveysareperformed
Surveymethods
Therearenoprescribedmethodsthatareusedincadastralsurvey,eachsurveyisdifferentfromthe
otheranditalldependsontheareaandinformationthatlandsurveyorshave.Theonlyrequirementis
thatallcadastralsurveymustbeadequatelyandcarefullychecked.Thecontrolmustbebasedonthe
NationalControlNetwork.
Allsurveyinstrumentscanbeusedforcadastralsurveyaslongastheyareaccurate.WhenusingtheGPS
orphotogrammetrictechniques,alandsurveyorneedstofollowspecialrequirementsthatarelaid
down.
Theaccuraciestowhichsurveysmustbecarriedoutareprescribedandtherearethreeclassesof
surveys:
ClassAsurveysforthedeterminationofthepositionofreferencemarksinurbansurveys
ClassBsurveysinurbanandminingtitlesinrespectofpreciousstones
ClassCothersurveys,includingfarmsurveysandsurveysforminingtitlesinrespectofbase
minerals.

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BeaconsandBoundaries
Apropertybeaconisanaturalorartificialfeaturewhichmarkstheboundarycornerofapieceof
land/property.Aboundaryisanimaginarylinebetweenthebeacons.
Thetypesofbeaconsthatcanbeusedareprescribedbytheregulations,butitisusuallyanironpegof
specifieddimension,cornerofapermanentbuilding,wellconstructedcornerpostoradrilledholein
rock/concrete.Allbeaconsusedneedtobedescribedonthegeneralplanordiagram.
Atypicalgeneralplan

ConsolidationandSubdivisionalsurveys
Aconsolidationiswhereanownerofadjacentproperties/landwantstocombineittoformonebig
property/land.Asubdivisionistheoppositeofaconsolidation;hereanownerofadjacent
properties/landwantstocuthis/herproperty/landintosmallpiecesofparcels.
ThiskindofsurveycanonlybedonebyaregisteredProfessionalLandSurveyorandtheLandSurveyor
needtosendallthenecessaryinformationtotheSurveyorGeneralOfficeforregistrationandapproval.
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EngineeringSurveys

Thistypeofsurveyisassociatedwiththeengineeringdesign(topographic,layoutandasbuilt)often
requiringgeodeticcomputationsbeyondnormalcivilengineeringpractice.Itisrequiredinplanningand
executionofnearlyeveryformofconstruction.Theequipmentcommonlyusedforthisaretheodolites,
GNSS(GPS)andlevellinginstruments.
TopographicorDetailSurveys
Thepurposeoftopographicsurveyistogathersurveydataaboutthenaturalandmanmadefeaturesof
thelandaswellasitselevations.Mapsarethenpreparedfromthisinformation.Theworkusually
consistsofthefollowing:
Establishinghorizontalandverticalcontrolthatwillserveasreferencepointsforthesurvey.Themost
accuratemethodofestablishingtheverticalcontrolisbylevelling.
Collectingenoughhorizontalandelevationofgroundpointstoprovideenoughdataforplottingwhen
themapisprepared.Forexample,whensurveyingforupgradingataxirank,thefeaturestobelocated
willbe:existingsidewalks,curbs,trees,island,etc.Andalsoforaroadintersectionfeatureslike:kerbs,
roadmarking(white/yellowlines),islandswillbelocated.
thePositionandshapeofnaturalandmanmadefeaturesthatmayberequiredforthesurvey.
Calculatingdistances,anglesandelevations.

SettingOut
Thisisdonetoconstructastructureaccuratelyaccordingtoadesign.Themostcommonprocedureisto
establishagridinrelationtothedesign.Then,particularpointsarecorrectlystakedoutphysicallyon
siteeitheronexactpositionorataparticularoffsetasagreedamongstpartiesinvolved
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AsBuiltSurveys
Thistypeofsurveyiscarriedoutduringorimmediatelyafteraconstructionprojectforrecord,
completionevaluationandpaymentpurposes.Anasbuiltsurveyshowsthelocationorpositionof
featuresthathavebeenconstructedandthataresubjecttocompletionevaluation.Asbuiltsurveysare
usuallycomparedtothedesigninformation.Theyshowthedifferencebetweentheconstructedorbuilt
informationandthedesign.
AreasandVolumes
Onanengineeringsitethemeasurementofareasismoreoftenonlyastepinthedeterminationof
volumesalthoughoccasionsdoarisewhenareasareonlyrequiredforexample;
DesignandCosting:Forcapacityofthewall,volumeofmaterialwithingivenlimits,orvolume
requiredtofillanemptyspace.Allofthesearedeterminedbydoingasurveyandcertaincalculations.

AerialSurveys

Aerialsurveyisamethodofcollectinginformationconductedfromanairborneplatform.Thisis
collectedbyusingaerialphotography,LiDARorlaserscanning.Itisoftenrecognizedsimilarlyas
aerophotogrammetry,partofphotogrammetrywherethecameraismountedonanaircraft.Aerial
surveyisdifferenttosatelliteimagerybecauseofitsbetterresolution,qualityandatmospheric
conditions.
Photogrammetryisthepracticeofdeterminingthegeometricpropertiesofobjectsfromphotographic
images.Thisinvolvesestimatingthethreedimensionalcoordinatesofpointsonanobject.Theseare
determinedbymeasurementsmadeintwoormorephotographicimagestakenfromdifferent
positions.Commonpointsareidentifiedoneachimage.Alineofsight(orray)canbeconstructedfrom
thecameralocationtothepointontheobject.Itistheintersectionoftheserays(triangulation)that
determinesthethreedimensionallocationofthepoint.
TheSurveyDepartmenthasundertakensomeof
theasbuilt,settingoutandfieldcheckson
numeroussitesintheEthekwiniMunicipalitythe
largestbeingtheconstructionoftheQueenNandi
Drivefromphase1tothepresentphaseof
construction.Wecontinuetocarryoutdetail
surveysforvariousprojectsforalldepartmentsin
themunicipality.
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Inthesimplestexample,thedistancebetweentwopointsthatlieonaplaneparalleltothe
photographicimageplanecanbedeterminedbymeasuringtheirdistanceontheimage,ifthescaleof
theimageisknown.Theimagesareobtainedbymountingacameraonanaircraftwhichpoints
verticallydowntowardstheground.Multipleoverlappingphotosofthegroundaretakenastheaircraft
fliesalongaflightpath.Thesephotosareprocessedinastereoplotter(aninstrumentthatletsan
operatorseetwophotosatonceinstereoview).Generallythehigheryouflythelesspointsyouhave
persquaremeterandyourpixelresolutionworsens.
Photogrammetryismoreaccurateinthexandydirectionwhilerangedataisgenerallymoreaccuratein
thezdirection.TherangedatacanbesuppliedbytechniqueslikeLiDARandlaserscanners.
AirborneLiDARisahighlycosteffectivemeansofcollectingdetailedtopographicsurveyinformation,
andofferssignificantadvantagesovertraditionalformsoftopographicalsurveyintermsofspeed,
access,resolution,accuracyandcanopypenetration,foravarietyofapplications.
LiDARLightDetectionandRangingisamethodofdetectingdistantobjectsanddeterminingtheir
positionorothercharacteristicsbyanalysisofpulsedlaserlightreflectingfromtheirsurfaces.Basicallya
laserpulseisreflectedfromarotatingmirrorinsidealaserscanner.Bymeasuringthetimedelay
betweenwhenthelaserpulseisemitted,andwhenitreturnstothescanner,thedistancebetweenthe
scannerandtheobjectcanbepreciselydetermined.Thescannercanalsoaccuratelymeasureangles.
Whenallofthedistance,angularandpositionalinformationisprocessedthescannercanproduce
highlyaccurate3dimensionaldataset,whichissometimesreferredtoapointcloud.Photoscanclearly
definetheedgesofbuildingswhenthepointcloudfootprintcannot.Thereforeoftentheorthorectified
imagesaredrapedontopoftheLiDARgridthuscreatinga3dimensionalvisualsurvey.
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A3DvisualizationcanbecreatedbygeoreferencingtheaerialphotosandLiDARdatainthesame
referenceframe.Thelaserscannersareeithermountedontoairplanesorhelicopters,thelatterbeing
morepopularastheyaremoremaneuverableandcanbeflownatloweraltitudes.Typicalprogress
ratesforlinearinfrastructureroutes,suchaselectricitytransmissionlinesorhighways,are80100km
perday.

Thisimageshowsatypical
scanofapylonsurvey(note
thecablesbetweenpylonsare
scannedaswell)
Thecostofaerialsurveying
hasreduceddramaticallyover
thepastdecadeandwill
continuetodoso.

Aerialsurveysareusedfor:
Archaeology
Agriculture
Landsurveys
Mining
Reconnaissance
Fisherysurveys
Monitoringvegetationandground
cover
Largescaleplanningforland
development
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MiningSurveys
Miningsurveyisaspecialistareaofsurveyinginvolvingthemeasurement,representationand
managementofdataassociatedwithminingoperationswhichcouldbetheundergroundandopencut
mineworkings.Thesemeasurementsenablenewmineworkstoavoidolderandpossiblyfloodedones,
allowconnectionstobemadebetweendifferentundergroundpassagesandalsotoestablishthe
boundariesofminingclaimsandterritories.

Minesurveyorsareresponsibleforpreparingandupdatingtheentiresurfaceandundergroundplansof
aminetoaccountfornewbuildingsandotherstructuresandtokeeprecordsofminingoperations.
Theyplanthedirectionandextentofallundergroundworkingsandusedadvancedsurveying
techniquesandinstrumentstogivethesedirectionsunderground.
Minesurveyorsworkundergroundmostmorningsoftheweekgivingdirectionlinesfortheminersto
followortakingsamplesofthereefandduringtheafternoonstheydocalculationsintheiroffices.

Themethodsandtheinstrumentsusedforopencastandunderground
minesurveyingaresimilartothoseusedfornormalsurveysthe
differenceisonlywheretheworkingpointsarefixedontheunderground
mine,whichisontheceilingoftherocksinthetunnels.

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HydrographicSurveys

Hydrographicsurveyisthescienceofmeasurementanddescriptionofthephysicalfeaturesofthe
navigableportionoftheearthssurface(seas)andadjoiningcoastalareas,withspecialreferenceto
theiruseforthepurposeofnavigation.Hydrographicsurveyssupportavarietyofactivities:nautical
charting,portandharbourmaintenance(dredging),coastalengineering(beacherosionand
replenishmentstudies),coastalzonemanagementandoffshoreresourcedevelopment.

InsuitableshallowwaterareasLIDAR(LightDetectionandRanging)maybeusedwhichisanoptical
remotesensingtechnologythatcanmeasurethedistancetoandotherpropertiesofatargetby
illuminatingthetargetwithlightoftenusingpulsesfromalaser.Thisequipmentcanbeinstalledon
inflatablecraft,smallcraft,AUVs(AutonomousUnderwaterVehicles),UUVs(UnmannedUnderwater
Vehicles)orlargeshipsandcanincludesidescan,singlebeamandmultibeamequipment.

Thedatathatiscollectedduringthehydrographicsurveyismassiveandithastoundergopost
processing,thinnedoutandcorrectedforerrors.Theseerrorsthatneedtobecorrectedaretheerrors
duetobadsounding,theeffectsoftides,waves,waterlevelsandtemperaturedifferences.Usually
whenundertakingthissurvey,thesurveyorwouldhaveadditionaldatacollectionequipmenttorecord
thedataforcorrectingthesoundings.Thefinalproductisusuallychartswhicharecreatedbya
combinationofspecialtychartingsoftwareorCADpackagesusuallyAutoCAD.

ShipscanningtheoceanfloorSonarimageofawreckontheoceanfloor
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Conclusion

TheSurveyandLandInformationDepartmentintheEthekwiniMunicipalityutilizesallthesesurvey
methodswiththeexceptionofaerial,miningandhydrologysurveying.Theseifrequiredareoutsourced
tocompaniesthatspecializeandhavetheequipment(airplanes,boatsetc.)toundertakesuchsurveys.
HoweverwedoassistinestablishinggroundcontrolpointsandairmarksforthePhotogrammetry
Departmentandourdepartmenthasalsoonlyrecentlybegunusinglaserscanninghoweverthisisona
limitedandsmallscale(embankmentsandsmallstructures).
Afterhavingdiscussedthedifferenttypesofsurveyingavailableandtheirapplicationsonecandecide
whichmethodisthemostsuitabletomeetourclientsneeds.Wehopethatthisarticlehasenlightened
andclearedupthemindsofthosethatwerenotawarethatthereareothermethodsofsurveyingand
theirapplications.