Chapter 9 Sculpture

Sculpture is the art of carving, casting, modeling, or assembling materials into 3D figures
o Within this definition, architecture could be seen as a type of sculpture
Sculptures need serve no practical purpose
Relief sculptures are similar to 2D works in that their 3D forms are raised from a flat
background
o Low relief bas relief! the forms only slightly pro"ect from the background
o #igh relief figured pro"ect by at least half their natural depth
$he si%e of a sculpture has often been commensurate with the power ascribed to the hero
or event
Sculptures serve community and religious functions as well as decorative
Subtractive or additive
&arving
o $he sculptor begins with a black of material and cuts portions of it away until the
desired form is created
o &onsidered the most demanding type of sculpture
o $he material chosen strongly influences the mechanics of the carving process and
determines the type of creation that will emerge
'odeling
o ( pliable material such as clay or wa) is shaped into a 3D form
o &an work and rework the material
&asting
o ( li*uid material is poured into a mold
o $he li*uid hardens into the shape of the mold and is then removed
o $he mold is like a photographic negative
o (ny material that hardens can be used for casting
o +ron%e is used most fre*uently
+ron%e casting is usually accomplished by means of the lost wa) techni*ue
o ,riginal model usually sculpted from clay and a mold is made from sectioned
plaster or fle)ible gelatin
o 'olten wa) is then brushed or poured into the mold to make a hollow wa) model
o $he model is placed upside down in a container and wa) rods called gates are
connected to it
o $hen a sandy mi)ture of silica, clay, and plaster is ported into and around the wa)
mold
o $he mi)ture hardens into a fire resistant mold - investiture
.ses 2 models and 2 molds
o $he silica mold is turned over and placed in a kiln and the wa) becomes molten
and runs out/
o 'olten bron%e is poured in
o $he surface of the bron%e is burnished or treated chemically
0n constructed sculpture, forms are built from materials such as wood, paper, string, sheet
metal, wire
$ypes of materials
Stone
o 0s an e)tremely hard durable material that may be carved, scraped, drilled, or
polished
o 1ranite used by ancient 2gyptians was e)tremely resistant to detail carving
o 1reeks used white marble
$hey painted it, suggesting that they viewed it more for its durability than
color or te)ture
o #and tools used with stone
&hisel
Rasp
'allet
o 'arble can capture the softness and sensuousness of flesh and the te)tures of hair,
leaves, etc/
Wood
o 'ay be carved, scraped, drilled, and polished
o Wood may also be permanently molded and bent with heat
o 3aries in hardness and grain but is more readily carved than stone
o $ends to warp and crack
o (ppeals to sculptures because of its grain, color, and workability
o Wood4s tensile strength e)ceeds that of stone, so pro"ecting wooden parts are less
likely than their stone counterparts to break off
o Wood has become commonly used in assemblages
&lay
o 'ore pliable than wood or stone
o 5ersonal and direct
o #as little strength and is not considered a permanent material
&an use armature
o &ommonly used to make 3D sketches
'etal
o 'etals have been cast, e)truded, forged, stamped, drilled, filed, and burnished
o Welding, riveting, soldering, some glue
o +ron%e is the most popular casting material because of its pleasing surface and
color characteristics
Dull or glossy
&hemical treatments can produce colors
o Due to o)idation, bron%e and copper surfaces can form patinas
'odern and contemporary materials and methods
&onstructed sculpture
o $he artist builds the sculpture from materials such as cardboard, celluloid,
translucent plastic,sheet metal, wire, fre*uently creating forms that are lighter
than those made from carving stone or modeling clay or casting metal
3ladimir $atlin - credited with having reali%ed the 3D potential of
constructed sculpture
6urther developed by (ntoine 5evsner and 7aum 1abo
(ssemblage
o ( form of constructed sculpture in which e)isting or found ob"ects, recogni%able
in form, are integrated by the sculptor into novel combinations that take on a life
and meaning of their own
Ready8mades
o 6ound ob"ects could be literally elevated as works of art by being placed on
pedestals
'i)ed media
o Sculptors use materials and readymade or found ob"ects that are not normally
elements of a work of art
9inetic sculptures
o 'ove
o 'obile - :;3<s - (le)ander &alder
Light sculpture
o ,nly in the past century did sculptors begin to e)periment with the use of
artificial light in compositions
o $heir concern has been with the physical and physiological effects of color and at
times with the creation of visual illusions
Land art
o Site8specific work that is created or marked by an artist within natural
surroundings
Sculpture has always been
$raditional
0nnovative
2nduring
$ransient
(frican (rt =<;8=:<!
&arved wooden doors depict scenes of tribal life and ritual
$he figures are angular and styli%ed
Reads like a comic strip
0n most sections, a geometric patterned background adds a rich tapestry like *uality to the
work
5rimarily used for religious purposes, embodiments of vital forces divined in all living
matter - 2uropeans thought these pieces of art were used as idols, but actually they were
thought to speak to the dead ancestory!
$o western artists, those in the 2<
th
century, african art suggested ways to escape from the
dominant, but seemingly e)hausted academic tradition of naturalism
Chapter 11 Architecture
(rchitecture is the art and science of designing buildings, bridges, and other structures to
help meet our personal and communal needs
,f all the arts, architecture probably has the greatest impact on our daily lives
o Determines the *uality of the environment in which we work play and rest
2)perienced from within as well as without
(rchitects must work within the limits of their materials and the technology of the day
o 'ust work with other professionals and contractors to install service systems
$he architect is not only an artist but a mediator - a compromiser
:;3<s - 7ew >ork &ity - setback laws
3ariables
&limate
Site
'aterials
+uilding codes
&lients
&ontractors
Service systems
'oney available
Stone (rchitecture
Stone is massive and virtually indestructible
7ative (merican dwellings - underground kivas
5ost and Lintel
o Stonehenge is an early e)ample
o $wo stones set upright with one going atop both
o Dry masonry without mortar! relied on masterly carving of blocks, strategic
placement and sheer weight for durability
o Stone became the favored material for the public buildings of 2gyptians and
1reeks
(rches
o #ave many functions, including supporting other structures and serving as actual
and symbolic gateways
o 2arly masonry arches were fashioned from bricks
o 0n most arches, wedge shaped bocks of stone called vassoirs are gradually placed
in position ascending a wooden scaffold called a centering
&enter ? keystone
o $he pull of gravity on each block serves as cement
o $he compressive strength of stone allows the builder to place additional weight
above the arch
3aults
o (n e)tended arch
o ( tunnel or barrel vault simply places arches behind one another until a desired
depth is reached
o Roman engineers are credited with the creation of the groin vault
,vercome limitations of the barrel vault
&onstructed by placing barrel vaults at right angles to cover a s*uare space
7ecessitates buttressing
$he s*uare space enclosed by the groin vault is called a bay
o 1othic architecture
Ribbed vaults
5ainted arches
6lying buttresses
o St 2tienne has high rising vaults@ some of the earliest show true ribs that permit
light to enter through clerestory
Domes
o #emispherical forms that are rounded when viewed from beneath
2)tensions of the principle of the arch
o #agia Sophia used = triangular surfaces called pendentives that transfer the load
from the base of the dome to the piers at the corners of the s*uare beneath
o Stone today is rarely used as a structural material
2)pensive to *uarry and transport and too massive to handle readily at the
site
o 'etals are lighter and have greater tensile strength
Wood (rchitecture
o Wood is
3ersatile
(bundant
Renewable
Lightweight
&apable of being worked on site
3ariety of colors and grains
&an accept paint
Weathers charmingly
&an be used as a structural element or a faAade or both
o Drawbacks
Warps
&racks
Rots
#ighly flammable
$ermites
o &hemical treatments decrease woods vulnerability to rotting from moisture
5lywood
o Laminated wood beams possess great strength and are unlikely to distort due to
changes in temperature and moisture
o 5ost and +eam
Similar to post and lintel
3ertical and hori%ontal timers are cut and placed together with wooden
pegs
o $russes
Lengths of wood, iron, or steel pieced together in triangular shapes in
order to e)pand the ability of the material to span distances
o +alloon framing
5roduct of the industrial revolution
6actory cut studs
6actory produced nails
Sidings for balloon framed homes
&lapboard
(sbestos shingle
+rick and stone veneer
(luminum
&ast 0ron (rchitecture
0ntroduced by the industrial revolution
(lternative to wood and stone
(dvantages
o 1reat strength
o #eavy
o +rittleness
6irst material to allow the erection of buildings with relatively slender walls
Steel &age (rchitecture
Steel is a strong metal of iron alloyed with small amounts of carbon and a variety of other
metals
o #arder than iron
o 'ore rust and fire resistant
'ore e)pensive than other materials but its strength permits it to be used in relatively
small *uantities
Wainwright building - pilasters between windows through the upper stories
:;B<s - the clean modernist look of buildings was overwhelming to cityscape
o 5ost8modernist structures re"ect the formal simplicity and immaculate finish of
modernist architecture in favor of whimsical shapes colors and patterns
,ne of the most interesting aspects of post8modern architecture is its appropriation of
historical motifs
Reinforced &oncrete (rchitecture
Cac*ues 'onier - strengthen concrete flowerpots with wire mesh in :DE<s
6erroconcrete - reinforced concrete
(dvantages
o Steel rods increase tensile strength of concrete
o Steel wont rust
o &an span greater distances than stone
o Supports more weight than steel
o &apacity to take on curved shapes
Reinforced concrete has freed the architect to think freely and sculpturally
Steel &able (rchitecture
Wood and rope suspension in (sia
0ron suspension in 2ngland
Steel cable - many parallel wires share the stress
o Steel cable is fle)ible and allows the roadway beneath to sway within limits in
response to changing weather and traffic conditions
Shell (rchitecture
'asonry domes have been replaced by lightweight shells, which are fre*uently flatter and
certainly capable of spanning greater spaces
o Shells have been constructed from
Reinforced concrete
Wood
Steel
(luminum
5lastics
5aper
&hartres &athedral 3=E83=B!
&onsidered to be the first high gothic church
5lanned to have
o 3 level wall elevation
o 6lying buttresses
0n the high gothic period, there is a change from s*uare schematism to a rectangular bay
system
$he architects directed all of their efforts to creating a spiritual escape to another world
o &reated the illusion of weightlessness in stone and by capitali%ing on the
mesmeri%ing aspects of colored streams of light
Chapter 12 Craft and Design
$he distinction between fine art and the functional ob"ect is linked to the historical and
cultural conte)t in which the work was created
6or many artists, the distinction between art and craft is an artificial and limiting one
0n the realm of design, as with crafts, the distinction between art for arts sake and art for
utilities sake is also blurred
&eramics
Refers to the art or process of making ob"ects of baked clay
o 5ottery
o &lay sculptures
o +uilding bricks
o #ard tiles
'ethods of working with clay
o &eramics was highly refined in the ancient lands of the 'iddle 2ast and in china
o 7ative (mericans discovered that if they allowed clay vessels to dry and then
fired them in a kiln or over hot coals, they became waterproof and more durable
$he potter4s wheel
o Was first used in =<<< +&2 and seems to have come into common use a thousand
years later
o &oiling - ropes of clay are fashioned then stacked upon on another
$he walls of the pot are then scraped to a smooth finish and molded to
shape
o $he walls of a wheel thrown pot are thinner and more uniform in thickness than
coiled pots and the outer and inner surfaces are smoother
o $he goal is to achieve perfect symmetry and smooth contour, generally
1la%ing
o 3ariation in color and te)ture is secures by the choice of clay and gla%ing
o 1la%es, which contain finely ground minerals, are used in li*uid form
$hey are brushed, sprayed, or poured on after preliminary bis*ue firing
removes all water
During the second firing, the gla%e becomes glasslike, or vitrifies, fusing
with the clay
o 0t gives the clay a glassy, non8porous surface coating that can be shiny or dull
depending on its composition
$ypes of ceramics
o &lassified according to the type of clay and temperature at which they are fired
2arthenware8 usually red or tan/ 'ade from coarse clay or shale clay and
is usually fired at 2<<< 6/ somewhat porous and is used for common bricks
and coarse pottery
$erracotta - 2<B< - 232< 6
o Stoneware - usually gray but may be tan or reddish/ 6ired at 23<< - 2B<< 6/
slightly porous or fully non porous and is used for most dinnerware and much
ceramic sculptures
o 5orcelain - hard, nonporous, and usually white or gray in color/ 'ade from fine
white kaolin clay and contains other minerals such as feldspar, *uart%, and flint in
various proportion/ 2=<< - 2F<< 6/
&hinese porcelain ? low temperatures
1lass
o +eginnings of glass making are traced to an account of 5hoenician sailors
preparing a meal on a beach
o $echni*ues of working glass
1lass is generally made from molten sand, or silica, missed with minerals
such as lead copper cobalt cadmium lime soda or potash
o 3ersatile
o 'olten glass can be modeled, pressed, rolled, bowed, and spun into threads
o 6iberglass is glass that has been spun into fine filaments
>arn for te)tiles
0nsulation
5lastic material
o 1lassblowing - developed by Romans
( hollow tube or blowpipe is dipped into molten glass and then removed
and air is blown through the tube causing the hot glass to form a bubble
whose contours are shaped through rolling and pulling with various tools
1lass can be reheated if it must be worked e)tensively
,nce the desired shape has been achieved, the surface of the glass can be
decorated by cutting or engraving planes that reflect light in certain
patterns, by etching or by printing
o During the middle ages, 3enetian glass became known for its lightness and
delicacy :Dth century Stiegal glass - made in 5ennsylvania an became known for
its use of flint lead o)ide! to achieve hardness and brightness
6lint glass
0s used for lenses of optical instruments and for crystal
o :;th century sandwich glass was pressed into molds to take on the appearance of a
cut pattern
6iber (rts
o 6ibers are slender threadlike structures that are derived from animals, vegetables,
or synthetic source
o Weaving
(ccomplished by interfacing hori%ontal and vertical threads
Lengthwise ? warp
&rosswise ? weft or woof
$he material and type of weave determine the weight and *uality of the
cloth
Wool ? soft, resilient cloth that is easy to dye
7ylon ? strong, more durable than wool, mothproof, mildew and
mold resistant, non allergenic, and easy to dye
5lain weave found in burlap, muslin, and cotton broadcloth is the strongest
and the simplest
Satin weave
5ile weaving
$will weave
Weaving is typically carried out by a handloom or a power loom
$he surfaces of fabrics can be enhanced by printing, embroidery, tie dying
or batik
+atik - applications of wa) prevent the dye from coloring sections
o +asketry
6ibers are woven together in various patterns
o 'etalwork and Cewelry
'etals and common uses are on page 2F3
2nameled - by melting powdered glass on them
'etals can be hammered into shape, embossed with raised designs, and
cast
o Wood
Wood has only to be cut and carved to form a functional ob"ect
o Design
1ood design raises our *uality of life even if we are unaware
1raphic design
Refers to visual arts in which designs or patterns are made for
commercial purposes
o Stamps
o 1reeting cards
o +ook design
o (dvertising
o +illboards
o 5roduct packages
o 5osters
o Signs
o Logos
6re*uently, graphic design includes written copy that is set in type
$ypography - the related are or process of setting and arranging type for
printing
o 5osters
'ass produced and often illustrate paperworks that are designed to widely
publici%e or advertise products or events
o Logos
(n emblematic design used to identify and advertise a company or an
organi%ation
o 0ndustrial design
$he factors that usually enter into an industrial design include utility, cost,
and aesthetic considerations
CERAMICS
ceramics
refers to the art or process of making objects out of baked clay
includes many objects that range from the familiar pots and bowls of pottery to clay sculptures to building bricks and
the extremely hard tiles that protect the surface of the space shuttles from the intense heat of atmospheric reentry
methods of working with clay
people have modeled pinched and patted various types of wet clay into useful vessels and allowed them to dry or
bake
in the sun creating hard durable containers
you can roll the clay into rope shapes which can be coiled around an open space
roll out slabs of clay like dough and cut them into pieces, fastened them together and smoothed them with simple tools
as native americans do today
kiln - oven to make clay waterproof and more durable
the potter's wheel
pots can be thrown rapidly and effortlessl on a hweel once the techniques have been mastered
coiling
ropes of clay are fashioned then stacked upon one another
pg 239
Glazing
contain finely ground minerals and are used in liquid form
bisque firing removes all water
2nd bisque firing the glaze becomes glasslike or vitrifies fusing with the clay