Self-Monitoring Manual for Energy Generating Plants

Annex D
D-1 Chemistry of Combustion
These are based on elementary chemical equations for the reactions with
oxygen of each combustible constituent of the fuel.
a. Gaseous Fuels
By far the most common gas used in boilers is natural gas. This consists
mainly of methane. The composition of NG varies from one source to another,
but still C! is the main gas in its constituents. NG is virtually sulfur free, but
a small amount of hydrogen sulfide has been included to illustrate the
combustion calculations since sulfur could be a significant constituent in other
fuel gases. The chemical reactions of the combustible gases with oxygen are as
follows on a volume basis"
# $ethane %&.'( ) by volume
C! * + ,+ - C,+ * + +,
$ultiplying through by ..%&'(
..%&'( C! * /.'00 ,+ 122..%&'( C,+ * /.'00 +,
# 3thane +.+& )
C+4 * &.( ,+ - + C ,+ * & +,
$ultiply through by ...+%
...&+& C+4 * ..//&.( ,+ - ...4!4 C,+ * ...%4% +,
# 5ropane /.++ )
C&' * ( ,+ - & C,+ * ! +,
$ultiply through by ....!
.../++ C&' * ...4/ ,+ - ...&44 C,+ * ...!'' +,
# Butane ..( )
C!/. * 4.( ,+ - ! C,+ * ( +,
$ultiply through by ....+
....( C!/. * ...&+( ,+ - ...+ C,+ * ...+( +,
# 5entane ..& )
C(/+ * ' ,+ - ( C,+ * 4 +,
$ultiply through by ..../
....& C(/+ * ...+! ,+ - .../( C,+ * .../' +,
# ydrogen sulfide ..+ )
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Self-Monitoring Manual for Energy Generating Plants
+6 * /.( ,+ - 6,+ * +,
$ultiply through by ....+
....+ +6 * ....& ,+ - ....+ 6,+ * ....+ +,
7t should be appreciated that volumes cannot be summed across an equation8
this is illustrated in combustion equations where the volumes on opposite sides
are unequal. owever, there is always a conservation of mass or number of
atoms in right and left sides.
The next step is to obtain the total stoichiometric quantity of oxygen required
for combustion. The stoichiometric term is referred to the minimum
theoretical amount. 7f the fuel itself constitutes some oxygen, it should be first
subtracted from the required stoichiometric oxygen.
7n practice the combustion air will contain a small amount of moisture
9humidity: which, if it is ;nown, can be calculated and added to the products
of combustion along with the excess air.
6ummari<ing the above combustion equations, +.//.(( ;moles of ,+ are
required to burn / ;mole of the considered gas fuel.
The corresponding stoichiometric volume of air is
air of ;moles .( . /.
+/
/..
//.(( . +

.( . /.
/
.( . /.
fuel of =olume
air of =olume

The volumetric air>fuel ratio is -
The stoichiometric air>fuel ratio 9mass basis: is, therefore,
fuel ;g ? air ;g /'/ . /0
%!4 . /4 /
%0 . +' .( . /.
fuel of mass
air of mass
@
A
mass

,
_
b. Liquid Fuels
The analysis of solid and liquid fuels are based on masses of the combustible
substances present as chemical elements, unli;e those of gases which are
based on volumetric proportions of constituents gases.
Besidual liquid fuels, such as heavy fuel oil 9$a<out:, contains mineral matter
and moisture, but to a much lesser degree than most solid fuel. Table 9C>/:
gives typical analyses for such fuels.
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Self-Monitoring Manual for Energy Generating Plants
Table (D-1) Ultimate Analyses of a!out Fuel ("er#ent by mass)
Constituent $ei%ht &
Carbon '4.. )
ydrogen /..( )
6ulfur &.. )
,xygen ...( )
Nitrogen ...( )
$oisture ..+ )
Ash ..+ )
Total /.... )
To calculate the air required for combustion and the analysis of the products of
combustion, the procedure is rather similar to that for gaseous fuels. The
combustible substances present are carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur. 7t will also
be seen that oxygen presents in the fuel should be deducted from the total
oxygen required for stoichiometric combustion. The equations of combustion
will now be considered.
Because the fuel analysis is given on a mass basis the combustion calculations
will be carried out on a mass basis. The basic equation for combustion of
carbon is"
C * ,+ - C,+
The molar mass 9molecular weight: of carbon is /+ and that of oxygen is &+,
the mass balance therefore becomes"
/+ ;g of C * &+ ;g of ,+ - !! ;g of C,+
There is '4) carbon in the fuel analysis, i.e., ..'4 ;g of carbon per ;g of fuel.
Therefore for the fuel in equation, the molar masses are multiplied through by
9..'4?/+:, giving"
..'4 ;g of C * +.+%& ;g of ,+ - &./(& ;g of C,+
The other combustible constituents are treated in the same manner.
ydrogen content in fuel is /..(), that is ../.( ;g + ? ;g of fuel,
+ * D,+ - +,
+ ;g of + * /4 ;g of ,+ - /' ;g of +,
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Self-Monitoring Manual for Energy Generating Plants
$ultiplying through by 9../.(?+:
../.( ;g of + * ..'! ;g of ,+ - ..%!( ;g of +,
6ulfur content in fuel is &), that is ...& ;g?;g of fuel,
6 * ,+ - 6,+
&+ ;g of 6 * &+ ;g of ,+ - 4! ;g of 6,+
$ultiplying through by 9...&?&+:
...& ;g of 6 * ...& ;g of ,+ - ...4 ;g of 6,+
The mass of stoichiometric oxygen required for burning / ;g of fuel is,
therefore,
9+.+%& * ..'! * ...&: E .....( - &./4+( ;g ,+?;g fuel
Note that allowance is made for the oxygen already contained in the fuel.
Atmospheric air contains +&.&) ,+, therefore,
The mass of stoichiometric air required to burn / ;g of that ma<out fuel is
;g (0 . /&
& . +&
/..
/4+( . &
The stoichiometric air>fuel ratio 9mass basis: is, therefore,
fuel ;g ? air ;g (0 . /&
/
(0 . /&
fuel of mass
air of mass
@
A
mass

,
_
Excess Air
7n practice, since combustion conditions are never ideal, more than the
theoretical amount of air must be supplied to achieve complete combustion.
The actual quantity of combustion air required for a particular boiler, furnace
or ;iln depends on many factors. These include fuel type and composition,
furnace design, firing rate, and the design and adFustment of the burners. The
additional supply of combustion air above the theoretical requirement is called
excess air. 3xcess air is usually expressed as a percentage of the stoichiometric
9theoretical: requirement. Thus, use of double the amount of air theoretically
required would result in an excess air rate of /..), and so forth.
/.) excess air being appropriate for natural gas fuel firing in fire tube boilers,
less in large water tube boilers. 7n this case the actual air>fuel ratio will be"
fuel ;g ? air ;g '%%( . /' / . / /'/ . /0
@
A
actual

,
_
&.) excess air being appropriate for heavy oil fuel firing in fire tube boilers,
less in large water tube boilers. 7n this case the actual air>fuel ratio will be"
fuel ;g ? air ;g 4! . /0 & . / (0 . /&
@
A
actual

,
_
6ome typical excess air requirements are shown in Table 9C>+:. Note that
these are typical figures, which represent Ggood combustion practiceH.
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Self-Monitoring Manual for Energy Generating Plants
Table (D-') (x#ess Air )equirements A##ordin% to Ty*e of Fuel
Fuel Ty*e of furna#e or burner & ex#ess air
$a<out Iarge boilers 9power plant: /( E +.
Typical industrial boilers +. E &.
6olar eating equipment /. E /(
7ndustrial boilers /. E /(
Natural gas Begister burners ( E /.
Cual>fuel burners 0 E /+
Bagasse All types +( E &.
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Self-Monitoring Manual for Energy Generating Plants
D-' Gas Analysis to Determine (x#ess Air
Gas analysis 9measurement of ,+ and?or C,+: is used to determine the
combustion excess air. Jnowing ,+ or C,+, excess air can be directly
estimated as follows"
/. Ksing graphs that are shown in @ig. 9C>/:. These graphs are
direct plotting of calculated ,
+
and?or C,
+
when fuel is burned
with different excess air levels, assuming C, of /.. ppm. This
range of C, in the combustion products is good indication that
the combustion is complete.
+. Ksing the following relations"
) 3xcess air
/..
, +/
,
+
+

1
]
1

) 3xcess air
/.. /
C,
C,
+
max , +

1
]
1

max , +
C,
is the theoretical
) C,
+
in dry flue gases assuming
stoichiometric combustion 9<ero excess air:.
7n most electronic gas analy<ers ,+ is measured and C,+ is calculated
through the relation"
1
]
1

+/
,
/ C, C,
+
max , + +
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Self-Monitoring Manual for Energy Generating Plants
Fi% (D-1)
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Self-Monitoring Manual for Energy Generating Plants
D-+ ,eat )elease )ates
Two heat release rates are used"
/. -olumetri# )ate
7t is the heat release rate ratio of
volume furnace of m
fuel of value heating igher rating boiler at input fuel $aximum
&

#eco$$en%e% gui%elines
Lith oil and gas firing, an appropriate figure for volumetric heat release in the
flame tube of fire>tube boiler is up to /.' $L?m& 9B6+0%. " /%'4:. This
figure is used in the KJ and is based on the net furnace volumes only,
excluding the volume of the return chamber, and the volume occupied by
burner refractory or firing appliances.
7n the K6A, a slightly different criterion is also used in fire>tube boilers,
namely /.(( $L?m&, but in this case the geometric proFection of the furnace
dimensions into the return chamber is allowed, which ma;es the figure about
the same as in the KJ based upon the actual furnace dimensions.

+. (ffe#ti.e "ro/e#ted )adiant 0urfa#e
7t is the ratio of
surface radiant furnace of m
rate release @uel
+
#eco$$en%e% gui%elines
eat transfer in the furnace ta;es place mainly by radiation, where the heat
flux 9heat flow per unit area: is most intense in the boiler. The pea; rate occurs
at approximately one furnace diameter downstream from the burner front for
oil or gas firing. 7t can reach a value of &+. ;L?m+ or even higher, so that
high metal temperatures can prevail in this region. The pea; heat flux depends
on the cross>sectional area of the furnace, which is a function of the diameter,
so that to avoid excess values, the permissible heat input to a furnace is related
to the diameter. @or oil and gas fuel firing the maximum heat input allowed
per furnace is /+ $L, based on the net calorific value of the fuel. @or inputs
greater than these, two or more furnaces must be used. The mean heat flux in
the furnace is generally a little over half the pea; value, but is considerably
more than that which occurs on other parts of the boiler except for the rear
tube plate where local convection becomes important at the tube inlets.
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Self-Monitoring Manual for Energy Generating Plants
The calculation for this guideline is made by ta;ing the fuel heat release rate
and dividing it by the furnace area normal to the flame axis. @lame
impingement on boiler heating surfaces must be avoided for all firing rates.
@ire>tube boilers because of their compact design, automatic operation, and
resultant reduced maintenance have a lower life expectancy in general than do
water>tube boilers. ,verfiring, rapid starting and cooling and poor water
treatment programs affect life estimates.
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