Lexicostatistics Compared with Shared Innovations:

the Polynesian Case

jK=dJj~I=fK=mI=pK=p~
Santa Fe Institute

The Polynesian languages, together with Fijian and Rotuman, constitute the Central Oceanic branch, which is usually included in a bigger
Oceanic family, part of Austronesian.
The Polynesian language family consists of 28 languages ([BIGGS 9 8])
most of which are fairly well known. The history of the family is also well
investigated: we have the phonological reconstruction of its protolanguage ([BIGGS 9 8], [MARCK 2000]), suggestions about morphology and
syntax ([WILSON 982]; [CLARK 9 6]), and a detailed comparative dictionary of the family probably one of the best etymological dictionaries for
languages outside Eurasia ([BIGGS n.d.])
The Proto-Polynesian consonantal system is reconstructed as ([BIGGS
9 8: 08 09]):
*p
*m
*f
*w
*t
*n
*s
*l
*r
*k
*
(*h)
`
*
Using the principle of irreversible changes, one can see that the systems
of daughter languages could be derived from Proto-Polynesian through a
sequence of simple innovations (mostly mergers):
. Proto-Tongan:

. . Tongan

2. Proto-Nuclear Polynesian:

*p
*t
*k
*

*m
*n
*

*f
*w
*s > *h *l
*h

p
t
k

m
n

f
h

w
l

*p
*t
*k
*

*m
*n
*

*f
*s
*h >

*w
*l = *r

*r >

G-M~, P, S. S~. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

2. . Samoa

p
t
*k >

m
n

f
s

w
l

2.2. East Polynesian

*p
*t
*k
*

*m
*n
*

*f
*w
*s > *h *l

2. .3. Tahitian

p
t
*k >

m
n
* >

f
h

2. .5. NZMaori

p
t
k

m
n

*f > wh w
h> r

v
r

On the basis of these changes some authors have suggested an innovation-based classification of the Polynesian languages:
Proto-Polynesian:
. Proto Tongan: Tongan
2. Nuclear Polynesian:
2. . Samoa.
2.2. East Polynesian: Tahitian, Maori.
This classification is an abbreviated version of the generally accepted
one (see Fig. ).
The latter classification is supported by three kinds of evidence:
. phonological innovations;
2. innovations in morphology, identified by A. PAWLEY ([ 966]);
3. a lexicostatistical matrix presented by K. EMORY ([ 963]).
The phonological reasons are quite similar to those given above. An essentially similar subgrouping has been proposed by b ([ELBERT 953]),
primarily on grounds of comparative phonology (see [PAWLEY 966: 0]).
A. PAWLEY has listed 6 morphological points to support his branching
([ 966: 3- ]):
( ) PPN *kim(o)ura 2nd pers. dual, nuclear and *kimo(u)uto(l)u 2nd
pers. pl., nuclear are replaced in PNP by *ko(u)lua and *ko(u)tou, respectively.
PPN *m(o)urua 2nd pers. dual, possessive and *m(o)uto(l)u 2nd pers. pl.,
possessive are replaced in PNP by *o(u)lua and *o(u)tou, respectively.

-, , . . ...

Fig. ([BIGGS 9 8: 69 ], cf. also [GREEN 966])

(2) PPN *eni this, these is replaced in PNP by *tenei this and *(ee)nei
these. PPN *ena that, those (near addressee) is replaced by PNP *teenaa that
(near addressee), and *(ee)naa those (near addressee).
(3) PPN *ni, a postposed marker meaning near speaker in time or space
is replaced in PNP by *nei.
( ) PPN *ha indefinite article is replaced in PNP by *se indefinite article
singular and *ni indefinite article plural.
(5) PPN *taha / ha- one, a certain one is replaced in PNP by *tasi / a-.
(6) PPN nominal articles, demonstratives, preposed possessive pronouns and certain other markers are replaced in PNP by equivalents (not
necessary cognates) which make a distinction, not present in PPN, between singular and plural number.
Points (2) (6) have been discussed by I. DYEN ([ 98 ]), who dismissed
them as not decisive. He pointed out, in particular, that it is more plausible

G-M~, P, S. S~. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

to regard the distinction between singular and plural as an archaism and

not an innovation it is rather Tongan that produced an innovation by
replacing singular forms by plurals, as in p. (2); that ha- and taha- in Tongan
actually reflect *se and *tasi / a-, which therefore are not innovative in PNP;
and that the distinction between the postposed markers *ni and *nei is certainly not significant enough to speak of an innovation in PNP.
For ( ) we may suggest the following explanation: There are two roots
used in the Central Oceanic languages for the 2nd. person pronoun: *kamu
(Fijian, Tongan) and *kou (Rotuman and most Polynesian, including Samoan).
Both roots can be attributed to the Proto-Central Oceanic level, so the use
of *kou is not a Nuclear Polynesian innovation.
Dual affixes of all languages can be traced back to the same form: *rua:
Fijian kee-mu-ru, Rotuman au-ra, Tongan kimo-ua, Samoan ou-lua, and thus
also cannot represent a PNP innovation.
The affixes of the plural are historically identical in Fijian kemutou and
Samoan outou. It is not clear whether the Tongan affix (kimoutola) may be
traced back to the same proto-form. The origins of the Rotuman affix must be
different: ausa.
If this explanation and as suggestions are accepted, no reliable morphological evidence is known so far to support the above mentioned classification.
K. EMORY gives the following lexicostatistical matrix ([ 963: 8 ])1:
Rap
Rapanui
Tahitian
Maori
Hawaiian
Mangarevan
Marquesan
Samoan
Tongan
Fig. 2

Tah
69

69
6
6
5
6
62
65

Mao
6
92

92
88
8
83
2
6

Haw
6
88
86

86
86
82
0
66

Mng
5
83
86
86

86
82
62
6

Mar
6
83
82
82
86

86
66
66

Sam
62
2
0
62
66
60

60
6

86

Ton
65
6
66
6
66
6
86

The word lists and etymological identifications used to generate the matrix have never been published. However, on the basis of it one can work out a
classification:
1

The order of languages in the matrix has been rearranged by us.

-, , . . ...

Proto Polynesian:
Eastern Polynesian
. Easter I.
2 a. Mangarevan
Marquesan
b. Maori
c. Hawaiian
d. Tahitian

Western Polynesian
3. Tongan
. Samoan

In 9 8 B. _ presented a lexicostatistical matrix of 6 Polynesian languages which gives percentages of basic vocabulary cognates among pairs
of Polynesian languages. All percentages are calculated on a slightly modified
200-word Swadesh list of basic vocabulary. All vocabularies were collected by the approved method (most common conversational equivalent)
from informants, not dictionaries, and cognacy was determined in the knowledge of regular sound correspondences among all languages. This is almost
certainly the most reliable lexicostatistical matrix available for Polynesian
languages2 ([BIGGS 8: 692]).
The matrix, however, was used by B. _ only to dispel a once popular
view that there is but one Polynesian language. No classification has been
suggested and no data or etymologies have been published. Nevertheless
a possible classification based on _s matrix is:
Eastern Polynesian
a. Tahitian
b. Hawaiian
Marquesan
Maori: New Zealand Maori
RaraTongan

Western Polynesian
a. Kapingamarangi
Nukuoru
b. Rennellese
c. Samoan
d. (i) Pileni
Tikopia
(ii) Ellician
East Futunan
East Uvean
(iii) Tongan
Niuean

Several comments are appropriate:

. % of shared forms between Tahitian and Maori seems doubtful to
us; one would expect to get a much higher percentage, and indeed in Fig. 4
one does.
2

_ probably meant bs and bs data.

50
5

5
5

35
33
38
3
0
2
3
33
0

Rennellese

Samoan

Pileni

Tikopia

Ellician

East Futunan

East Uvean

Tongan

Niuean

Fig. 3

Nukuoru

50

35

Kapingamarangi

38

39

50

52

62

53

50

56

53

58

50

50

53

52

53

59

Euv

60
6

6
2

63
69

58
6

52

52

58

53

53

53

63

56

55

59

60

55

56

58

63

58

69

60

56

55

58

56

52

55

53

52

56

59

53

53

60

63

58

55

52

56
5

53

53

50

50

Niu

55

50

33

Ton

52

53

56

52

Efu

52

58

53

Ece

53

Tik

38

56

39

62

6
5

38

33

56

RaraTongan

Marquesan

38

56

56

35

56

Hawaiian

56

Pil

Kap Nuk Ren Sam

Maori

Tahitian

Tah Haw Mqa Mao Rar

-, , . . ...

2. High percentages shown by Kapingamarangi with Pileni and Tikopia

are equally doubtful; our calculations (Fig. 4) do not confirm them.
3. Percentages revealed by RaraTongan with Tahitian or Hawaiian are
most likely results of borrowings into RaraTongan;
. The high percentages between Ellician and Samoan, Ellician and Pileni, and Ellician and Tikopia may be induced by borrowings.
We have conducted our own lexicostatistical study of Polynesian languages (data given in Appendix). It is summarized in the following matrix
(see Fig. 4).
The Polynesian classification based on it is3 as follows (see Fig. 5).
Our tree shares several crucial features with the classification obtained from _s matrix:
) the binary division of Polynesian languages into Eastern and Western groups;
2) the Tongan languages not forming a primary branch of Polynesian;
3) a complex structure of the Western Polynesian group.
We see that lexicostatistical classifications do not agree with the innovation-based one. Presumably one of the classifications is false: the question is which one of them is preferable.
The main phonological difference between Proto-Tongan and the rest of
the Polynesian languages lies in the history of the *r *l distinction. In the
original words of Proto-Tongan it is retained, while in all other languages *r
and *l have merged into either l or r. If one accepts the possibility that this
merger indicates the first split within Polynesian, the lexicostatistical classification seems to be wrong. But what are the reasons to believe that this
merger is a genetic rather than a contact-induced feature and that it is not a
later process which somehow failed to affect the Tongan languages?
We should keep in mind that the distinction between *r and *l is maintained in Tongan in a peculiar way: *l is preserved, but *r > , cf.:
*l: *langi sky
*lomi squeeze
*lili angry

langi
lomi
lili

*r:

*rama torch
ama
*renga turmeric enga
*roo go
oo

3 The dates in the tree are in centuries BCE (negative figures) or CE (positive
figures); they are generated by the STARLing computer program and are of course
approximate.

Fig. 4

Rapanui
Tahitian
Maori
Hawaiian
Mangarevan
Marquesan
Samoan
Rennellese
Ontong Java
Tikopia
Anutan
Niue
Tongan
Tuvalu
Nanumea
Makatea
W. Futunan
Mele-Fila
Kapingamarangi
Nukuoro
Nadrogaa
Bau

Rap Tah Mao Haw Mng Mar Sam Ren Ont

61
58
62
69
63
54
57
60
61

61
64
65
59
51
48
50
58
61

70
70
62
57
55
62
62
64
70

77
72
55
60
62
69
65
70
77

81
59
64
68
63
59
62
72
81

53
57
56
54
51
57
55
59
53

65
66
57
48
55
60
64
57
65

75

60
50
62
62
68
56
66
75
85
61
53
64
63
71
59
67
77
60
53
62
59
63
57
66
69
76
58
55
61
62
67
57
68
66
70
55
53
60
59
64
56
69
69
68
56
55
64
63
67
57
69
71
74
60
54
65
66
69
60
70
71
73
58
53
64
64
66
57
68
75
78
64
54
62
64
70
59
62
70
72
60
50
60
68
70
64
63
71
73
58
49
60
60
60
56
59
68
70
55
49
53
56
60
52
57
65
66
33
26
35
38
40
36
35
37
38
35
30
41
43
44
39
40
41
44

Tik
61
53
64
63
71
59
67
77
85

82
77
74
80
76
78
76
77
68
68
40
46

Anu Niu Ton

60
58
55
53
55
53
62
61
60
59
62
59
63
67
64
57
57
56
66
68
69
69
66
69
76
70
68
82
77
74

75
76
75

81
81

76
73
81
77
72
75
74
69
76
75
65
71
62
73
71
64
68
63
60
62
63
58
40
39
37
45
47
45

Tuv Nan Mak Fut MFa Kap Nun Nad Bau

56
60
58
64
60
58
57
33
35
55
54
53
54
50
49
49
26
30
64
65
64
62
60
60
53
35
41
63
66
64
64
68
60
56
38
43
67
69
66
70
70
60
60
40
44
57
60
57
59
64
56
52
36
39
69
70
68
62
63
59
57
35
40
71
71
75
70
71
68
65
37
41
74
73
78
72
73
70
66
38
44
80
76
78
76
77
68
68
40
46
73
72
69
65
73
68
62
40
45
81
75
76
71
71
63
63
39
47
77
74
75
62
64
60
58
37
45

87
81
69
70
65
66
39
45
87

81
71
72
68
66
40
46
81
81

75
76
68
65
40
48
69
71
75

73
70
68
40
45
70
72
76
73

73
67
43
53

72
37
44
65
68
68
70
73
66
66
65
68
67
72

35
41

64
39
40
40
40
43
37
35
45
46
48
45
53
44
41
64

Fig. 5

Central Pacific (-2.16)

-0.50

-0.25

0.09

0.15

0.08

0.00

-0.03

Eastern (-0.58)
-0.20

Polynesian

-0.23

-0.42

Western (-0.57)
-0.08

Fijian (-0.44)

-2.25 -2.00 -1.75 -1.50 -1.25 -1.00 -0.75

0.40

0.40

0.39

0.25

0.75

0.71

0.68

0.50

1.00

1.25

1.50

1.75

W.Fijian
Bau (EF)
Samoan
Kapingamarangi
Nukuoro
Sikaiana
Rennell
Ontong Java
Tikopia
Anutan
Niue
Tongan
Mele-Fila
W.Futuna
Makatea
Tuvalu
Nanumea
Tahiti
Rapanui
Maori
Hawaiian
Mangareva
Marquesas

2.00

22

G-M~, P, S. S~. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

Let us suppose that:

a) the merger of *r and *l took place at some time in the history of the
Eastern Polynesian languages after the split of Proto-Polynesian, and it later
spread, as a contact feature, to the Western Polynesian area;
b) Proto-Western-Polynesian preserved the distinction of *r and *l.
c) Tongan was already separated from the other Western Polynesian languages at the time of this diffusion of the r / l merger, and it was after the
separation, but before the diffusion, that the change *r > occurred.
In the outlined scenario the result of this diffusion would be the following: the Western Polynesian languages that had preserved *r would be expected to merge it with *l, while Tongan would have had nothing to merge:
its *r had already disappeared by that time.
In fact, Tongan has quite a number of etymological doublets with and
l reflecting Proto-Polynesian *r, e. g.:
*qaro front
ao front
*riki small
iiki small
*rongo hear
ongo heard
*fara pandanus
faa pandanus
*rara heat over fire
aa heat leaves over fire
etc. (examples taken from [MARCK 2000]).

alo belly (of fish)

-iliki small
longo silent
fala mat
lala half-cooked,

The very existence of these examples proves that an *-l-language exercised its influence on Tongan, but here its influence could not result in a
phonological merger because of the preceding change *r > . In other Western
Polynesian languages we cannot easily detect traces of the presumed East
Polynesian influence, because in most cases, due to the r/l-merger, it is impossible to make a distinction between inherited and borrowed items.
Glottochronology provides us with plausible dates for these events:
(i) *r and *l merged in Proto-Eastern-Polynesian not earlier than the time
when this group separated from Proto-Polynesian (around 000 BCE);
(ii) the contact that caused the merger had to reach the area of Tonga
after the first century CE, when Proto-Tongan separated from the rest of
Western Polynesian. It is possible, however, that in other parts of Western
Polynesia the distinction between *r and *l was lost earlier.
The proposed hypotheses and glottochronology allow us to put forward the following scenario of Polynesian movements.
. Proto-Polynesian came to the western islands of Tonga and Samoa
about 3000 BP;

-, , . . ...

23

2. The migration to Eastern Polynesia (Society Islands?) took place about

000 years later. During this migration or soon after it, the merger of *r
and *l occurred.
3. The speakers of Eastern Polynesian languages continued their explorations and settled on other islands, including Easter Island and Hawai`i. As
there is no contradictory linguistic evidence, we assume that there was a
similar movement back to the west. It would be useful to review any nonlinguistic arguments for or against such an assumption. A possible trace of
this westward movement is seen in the *r and *l merger found in Western
Polynesian languages roughly dated by the first century CE.
. The movement of Western Polynesian speakers outside Polynesia must
have begun only after the contacts with their Eastern Polynesian relatives, as
in all Polynesian Outliers we can see the results of the merger of *r and *l.
To sum up: the Polynesian situation does not seem, after all, to be incompatible with the lexicostatistical method. The latter also does not contradict a
classification based on shared innovations, as long as that classification is
modified as outlined above (with a change in the position of Tongan).
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BIGGS 980
BIGGS 990
BIGGS n.d.

CLARK 9 6
CLARK 9 8

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B. _. The Position of East Uvean and Anutan in the
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993.
R. `~. Aspects of Proto-Polynesian Syntax. Auckland, Linguistic Society of New Zealand.
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C, 6 ). Canberra, Australian National University;

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The Implications for Prehistoric Settlements. Journal of
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-, , . . ...

JACKSON 99

LIEBER & DIKEPA 9

MARCK 2000
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PAWLEY 96

PUKUI & ELBERT 9

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WILSON 982

25

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26

G-M~, P, S. S~. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

Appendix
Lexicostatistical lists for Polynesian and Fijian languages
(compiled by I. m)
Note: Etymological identifications are marked by identical numbers;
borrowed items are marked by negative numbers; missing items are
marked as .
all Rapanui : taatoa (3); Tahiti : taatoa (3); Maori : katoa (2); Hawaiian : apan ( ); Mangareva : ; Marquesas : hakatahi (6); Samoan : ; Rennell : ; Ontong Java : ; Sikaiana : ; Tikopia : katoa (2); Anutan : katoa
(2); Niue : katoa (2); Tongan : kotoa (2); Tuvalu : katoa (2); Nanumea : katoa
(2); Makatea : pini ( ); W. Futuna : oi (5); Mele-Fila : ; Kapingamarangi :
huakatoa (2); Nukuoro : alodahi (6); W. Fijian : ; Bau (EF) : .
ashes Rapanui : eo-eo (8); Tahiti : rehu ( ); Maori : puarehu ( ); Hawaiian : lehu ( ); Mangareva : reu ( ); Marquesas : ehu ( ); Samoan : lefulefu ( ); Rennell : gehu ( ); Ontong Java : lehu ( ); Sikaiana : lehu ( ); Tikopia : refu ( ); Anutan : repu ( ); Niue : efu ( ); Tongan : efu-efu ( ); Tuvalu :
lefu ( ); Nanumea : lefu ( ); Makatea : refu ( ); W. Futuna : namuLaa (9);
Mele-Fila : refu ( ); Kapingamarangi : nia rehu ( ); Nukuoro : lehu ( ); W. Fijian : ra u ( ); Bau (EF) : dra usaa ( ).
bark Rapanui : kiri miro ( 0); Tahiti : paa raaau ( 3); Maori : hiako ( 2); Hawaiian : ili ( 0); Mangareva : kiri ( 0); Marquesas : kii ( 0); Samoan : pau ( );
Rennell : kigi ( 0); Ontong Java : ili ( 0); Sikaiana : kili ( 0); Tikopia : raukiri
( 0); Anutan : raukiri ( 0); Niue : kili ( 0); Tongan : kilii ( 0); Tuvalu : pakili ( 0);
Nanumea : laukili ( 0); Makatea : ; W. Futuna : ; Mele-Fila : kiri ( 0); Kapingamarangi : kiri ( 0); Nukuoro : gili ( 0); W. Fijian : taba ( ); Bau (EF) : kuli ( 0).
belly Rapanui : ; Tahiti : oopuu ( 6); Maori : koopuu ( 6); Hawaiian :
oopuu ( 6); Mangareva : manava ( 5); Marquesas : kopu ( 6); Samoan : manava ( 5); Rennell : tinae ( ); Ontong Java : maava ( 5); Sikaiana : maava
( 5); Tikopia : manava ( 5); Anutan : ma(a)nava ( 5); Niue : manava ( 5); Tongan : manava ( 5); Tuvalu : manava ( 5); Nanumea : tinae ( ); Makatea : nakau ( 8); W. Futuna : inae ( ); Mele-Fila : ; Kapingamarangi : tinae ( );
Nukuoro : dinae ( ); W. Fijian : ; Bau (EF) : .
big Rapanui : nui-nui (2 ); Tahiti : rahi (20); Maori : nui (2 ); Hawaiian :
nui (2 ); Mangareva : nui (2 ); Marquesas : nui (2 ); Samoan : tele (22); Rennell : huaeha ( 6 ); Ontong Java : lahi (20); Sikaiana : nanui (2 ); Tikopia :
lasi (20); Anutan : rai (20); Niue : lahi (20); Tongan : lahi (20); Tuvalu : lasi
(20); Nanumea : lahi (20); Makatea : lasi (20); W. Futuna : sore (23); Mele-

-, , . . ...

Fila : pwoulapa ( ); Kapingamarangi : tamana ( 52); Nukuoro : laanui (2 );

W. Fijian : le u (25); Bau (EF) : le u (25).
bird Rapanui : manu (26); Tahiti : manu (26); Maori : manu (26); Hawaiian :
manu (26); Mangareva : manu (26); Marquesas : manu (26); Samoan : manu-lee
(26); Rennell : manu (26); Ontong Java : mau (26); Sikaiana : manu (26); Tikopia :
manu (26); Anutan : manu (26); Niue : manu lele (26); Tongan : manu-puna (26); Tuvalu : manu lele (26); Nanumea : manulele (26); Makatea : manu (26); W. Futuna :
manu (26); Mele-Fila : manu (26); Kapingamarangi : manu (26); Nukuoro : manu-lele (26); W. Fijian : manumanu-a u (26); Bau (EF) : manumanu uka (26).
bite Rapanui : au (29); Tahiti : hohoni (28); Maori : uu (2 ); Hawaiian :
aki (30); Mangareva : auau (29); Marquesas : kakahu ( 2 ); Samoan : uu
(2 ); Rennell : uu (2 ); Ontong Java : uu (2 ); Sikaiana : nunu ( 68); Tikopia : aau (29); Anutan : uuti (2 ); Niue : aau (29); Tongan : uu (2 );
Tuvalu : uu (2 ); Nanumea : ; Makatea : utia (2 ); W. Futuna : maoia
(2); Mele-Fila : kaji (30); Kapingamarangi : khati (30); Nukuoro : kadi (30);
W. Fijian : kasi (30); Bau (EF) : kata, kati (30).
black Rapanui : uri-uri (3 ); Tahiti : uri (3 ), ereere (32); Maori : mau (33); Hawaiian : ele (32); Mangareva : tikae ( 30); Marquesas : keekee
(32); Samoan : uliuli (3 ); Rennell : ugi (3 ); Ontong Java : uli (3 ); Sikaiana : uli (3 ); Tikopia : uri (3 ); Anutan : uri (3 ); Niue : uli (3 ); Tongan :
uliuli (3 ); Tuvalu : uli (3 ); Nanumea : uli (3 ); Makatea : uri (3 ); W. Futuna : uri (3 ); Mele-Fila : paku (3 ); Kapingamarangi : ruuri (3 ); Nukuoro :
uliulu (3 ); W. Fijian : loo (35); Bau (EF) : loaloa (35).
blood Rapanui : toto (36); Tahiti : toto (36); Maori : toto (36); Hawaiian : koko
(36); Mangareva : toto (36); Marquesas : toto (36); Samoan : toto (36); Rennell : toto (36); Ontong Java : koko (36); Sikaiana : haeko ( 0); Tikopia : toto (36); Anutan :
toto (36); Niue : toto (36); Tongan : toto (36); Tuvalu : toto (36); Nanumea : toto
(36); Makatea : toto (36); W. Futuna : toto (36); Mele-Fila : toto (36); Kapingamarangi : toto (36); Nukuoro : dodo (36); W. Fijian : draa (3 ); Bau (EF) : draa (3 ).
bone Rapanui : ivi (39); Tahiti : ivi (39); Maori : wheua ( 26); Hawaiian : iwi
(39); Mangareva : ivi (39); Marquesas : ivi (39); Samoan : ivi (39); Rennell :
ibi (39); Ontong Java : ivi (39); Sikaiana : ivi (39); Tikopia : ivi (39); Anutan :
ivi (38); Niue : hui (38); Tongan : hui (38); Tuvalu : ivi (39); Nanumea : ivi
(39); Makatea : sui ( ); W. Futuna : i i (39); Mele-Fila : ivi (39); Kapingamarangi : iwi (39); Nukuoro : ivi (39); W. Fijian : ua ( 0); Bau (EF) : sui (38).
breast Rapanui : uu ( ); Tahiti : tiitii ( 2); Maori : uu ( ); Hawaiian : uu
( ); Mangareva : u ( ), titi ( 2); Marquesas : u ( ); Samoan : susu ( ); Rennell : baiu ( ); Ontong Java : uu ( ); Sikaiana : uu ( ); Tikopia : uu ( ); Anutan : uu ( ); Niue : huhu ( ); Tongan : huhu ( ); Tuvalu : uu ( ); Nanumea :

28

G-M~, P, S. S~. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

uu ( ); Makatea : mumu (3); W. Futuna : u ( ); Mele-Fila : susu ( ); Kapingamarangi : u ( ); Nukuoro : ; W. Fijian : uu ( ); Bau (EF) : suu ( ).
burn tr. Rapanui : tutu ( 3); Tahiti : tutui te auahi ( 3); Maori : tahu
( ); Hawaiian : kuni ( 5); Mangareva : tutu ( 3); Marquesas : tutu ( 3); Samoan : faa muu ( 6); Rennell : tutu ( 3); Ontong Java : kui ( 3); Sikaiana :
vela ( ); Tikopia : kaa ( 3); Anutan : tutu ( 3); Niue : tui ( ); Tongan : tutu ( 3); Tuvalu : tafu ( ); Nanumea : tafu ( ); Makatea : ; W. Futuna : ;
Mele-Fila : tuuia ( ); Kapingamarangi : ura (2 ); Nukuoro : tutu ( 3);
W. Fijian : ta u-nia ( ); Bau (EF) : aa-kama-a ( 9).
claw Rapanui : maikuku (53); Tahiti : maiuu (53); Maori : maikuku (53);
Hawaiian : mikiao (52); Mangareva : matikuku, maekuku (53); Marquesas :
maikuku (53); Samoan : maiuu (53); Rennell : ; Ontong Java : ; Sikaiana : ; Tikopia : maniia (5 ); Anutan : maminia (5 ); Niue : mahina lima (5 );
Tongan : pesi (50); Tuvalu : mania (5 ); Nanumea : maninia (5 ); Makatea : ;
W. Futuna : ; Mele-Fila : tapwaalasi (3); Kapingamarangi : mata-miha
(2 2); Nukuoro : aaaa (5 ); W. Fijian : kuku (53); Bau (EF) : gugu (53).
cloud Rapanui : rai (59); Tahiti : ata (58); Maori : kapua (5 ); Hawaiian : ao
(55); Mangareva : au (55); Marquesas : ao (55); Samoan : ao (55); Rennell : ao
(55); Ontong Java : ; Sikaiana : ; Tikopia : kauao (55); Anutan : kauao (55);
Niue : aolai (55); Tongan : ao (55); Tuvalu : kaumana (56); Nanumea : kaumana
(56); Makatea : pauri (5); W. Futuna : poa (55); Mele-Fila : puao (55); Kapingamarangi : kapua (5 ); Nukuoro : gili-lii ( 0); W. Fijian : o (55); Bau (EF) : oo (55).
cold Rapanui : ; Tahiti : ; Maori : makariri (62); Hawaiian : huihui
(6 ); Mangareva : anu ( 28); Marquesas : anu ( 28); Samoan : ; Rennell :
gogohi ( 5); Ontong Java : malii (62); Sikaiana : saumalikitau ( 6); Tikopia :
mariki (62); Anutan : mariki (62); Niue : momoko (60); Tongan : ; Tuvalu :
moko (60); Nanumea : ; Makatea : ; W. Futuna : ; Mele-Fila : ; Kapingamarangi : makariri (62); Nukuoro : ; W. Fijian : ; Bau (EF) : .
come Rapanui : oho mai (63, 62); Tahiti : haere mai (63); Maori : haere mai
(63); Hawaiian : hele mai (63); Mangareva : naumai (63); Marquesas : hoe mai
(63); Samoan : sau (6 ); Rennell : au (6 ); Ontong Java : haa mai (63); Sikaiana :
hale mai (63); Tikopia : au mai (63, 6 ); Anutan : au (6 ); Niue : omai (63, 62);
Tongan : hau (6 ); Tuvalu : o mai (63, 62); Nanumea : mai (63); Makatea : numai (63); W. Futuna : hmai (63); Mele-Fila : fini mai (63); Kapingamarangi : hani
moi (63); Nukuoro : humai (63); W. Fijian : laa maa (63); Bau (EF) : lako mai (63).
die Rapanui : mate (66); Tahiti : pohe (6 ); Maori : mate (66); Hawaiian :
make (66); Mangareva : mate (66); Marquesas : mate (66); Samoan : oti (68);
Rennell : mate (66); Ontong Java : make (66); Sikaiana : mate (66); Tikopia :
mate (66); Anutan : mate (66); Niue : matulei (66); Tongan : mate (66); Tuvalu : maate (66); Nanumea : mate (66); Makatea : mata (66); W. Futuna : ma-

-, , . . ...

29

te (66); Mele-Fila : mate (66); Kapingamarangi : mate (66); Nukuoro : magau

(69); W. Fijian : mase (66); Bau (EF) : mate (66).
dog Rapanui : paihea ( 2); Tahiti : urii ( ); Maori : kurii ( ); Hawaiian : ilio ( ); Mangareva : kani ( 98); Marquesas : nuhe, peto ( 29); Samoan : maile ( 3); Rennell : tokitoki (20); Ontong Java : poi ( 0); Sikaiana :
kulii ( );Tikopia : kurii ( ); Anutan : korii ( ); Niue : kulii ( ); Tongan : kulii ( ); Tuvalu : kuli ( ); Nanumea : kulii ( ); Makatea : kuri ( ); W. Futuna : kuli ( ); Mele-Fila : korii ( ); Kapingamarangi : phana (32 ); Nukuoro : gaadu ( ); W. Fijian : ui ( 5); Bau (EF) : kolii ( ).
drink Rapanui : unu ( 6); Tahiti : inu ( 6); Maori : inu ( 6); Hawaiian : inu
( 6); Mangareva : ainu ( 6); Marquesas : inu ( 6); Samoan : inu ( 6); Rennell :
binu ( 6); Ontong Java : uu ( 6); Sikaiana : unu ( 6); Tikopia : inu ( 6); Anutan :
inu ( 6); Niue : inu ( 6); Tongan : inu ( 6); Tuvalu : inu ( 6); Nanumea : inu ( 6);
Makatea : inu ( 6); W. Futuna : numwia (3); Mele-Fila : unu ( 6); Kapingamarangi : inu ( 6); Nukuoro : inu ( 6); W. Fijian : homu ( ); Bau (EF) : unu- u ( 6).
dry Rapanui : paka (80); Tahiti : maroo ( 8); Maori : maroke ( 8); Hawaiian :
maloo ( 8); Mangareva : magugugugu ( 8); Marquesas : mo ( 8); Samoan :
mao ( 8); Rennell : mamala ( ); Ontong Java : paupau ( 9); Sikaiana : pakupaku ( 9); Tikopia : pakupaku ( 9); Anutan : pakupaku (79); Niue : mao ( 8);
Tongan : moomoa (8 ); Tuvalu : maloo ( 8); Nanumea : ; Makatea : maro ( 8);
W. Futuna : matu (82); Mele-Fila : maatuu (82); Kapingamarangi : hunu (333);
Nukuoro : mmasa (83); W. Fijian : maamaa (83); Bau (EF) : maamaa (83).
ear Rapanui : taria (8 ); Tahiti : taria (8 ); Maori : taria (8 ); Hawaiian : pepeiao (85); Mangareva : teria (8 ); Marquesas : puaika (8 ); Samoan :
talia (8 ); Rennell : tagia (8 ); Ontong Java : akalia (8 ); Sikaiana : kauralina (8 ); Tikopia : taria (8 ); Anutan : taria (8 ); Niue : telia (8 ); Tongan : telia (8 ); Tuvalu : talia (8 ); Nanumea : talia (8 ); Makatea : taria
(8 ); W. Futuna : taria (8 ); Mele-Fila : taria (8 ); Kapingamarangi : taria
(8 ); Nukuoro : dalia (8 ); W. Fijian : bebe (86); Bau (EF) : taria (8 ).
earth Rapanui : oone (89); Tahiti : repo (88); Maori : one-one (89); Hawaiian : lepo (88); Mangareva : repo (88); Marquesas : po (88); Samoan :
atulau-lau (90); Rennell : kege (8 ); Ontong Java : eleele (8 ); Sikaiana : kelekele (8 ); Tikopia : kere (8 ); Anutan : kerekere (8 ); Niue : kelekele (8 );
Tongan : kelekele (8 ); Tuvalu : laukele (8 ); Nanumea : ; Makatea : kere
(8 ); W. Futuna : kere (8 ); Mele-Fila : kere (8 ); Kapingamarangi : ; Nukuoro : gele-gele (8 ); W. Fijian : gele (8 ); Bau (EF) : gwele (8 ).
eat Rapanui : kai (92); Tahiti : amu (93); Maori : kai (92); Hawaiian : ai
(92); Mangareva : kai (92); Marquesas : kai (92); Samoan : ai (92); Rennell : kai
(92); Ontong Java : ai (92); Sikaiana : kai (92); Tikopia : kai (92); Anutan : kai

30

G-M~, P, S. S~. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

(92); Niue : kai (92); Tongan : kai (92); Tuvalu : kai (92); Nanumea : kai (92);
Makatea : kaikai (92); W. Futuna : kai (92); Mele-Fila : kai-na (92); Kapingamarangi : kai (92); Nukuoro : kai (92); W. Fijian : kana (92); Bau (EF) : kana (92).
egg Rapanui : mamari (9 ); Tahiti : huoro moa (96); Maori : hua (95); Hawaiian : hua (95); Mangareva : mamari (9 ); Marquesas : mamai (9 ); Samoan :
fuaa-moa (95); Rennell : hua (95); Ontong Java : hua (95); Sikaiana : hua (95);
Tikopia : fuei (95); Anutan : puai (95); Niue : fua (95); Tongan : fuai moa
(95); Tuvalu : fuaamoa (95); Nanumea : fua (95); Makatea : fua-moa (95);
W. Futuna : a aka moa (98); Mele-Fila : atolu ( ); Kapingamarangi : oko
( 03); Nukuoro : ago ( 03); W. Fijian : yaloka ( 00); Bau (EF) : yaloka ( 00).
eye Rapanui : mata ( 0 ); Tahiti : mata ( 0 ); Maori : kanohi ( 02); Hawaiian :
maka ( 0 ); Mangareva : mata ( 0 ); Marquesas : mata ( 0 ); Samoan : mata
( 0 ); Rennell : mata ( 0 ); Ontong Java : alemaka ( 0 ); Sikaiana : kalemata
( 0 ); Tikopia : mata ( 0 ); Anutan : mata ( 0 ); Niue : mata ( 0 ); Tongan :
mata ( 0 ); Tuvalu : mata ( 0 ); Nanumea : mata ( 0 ); Makatea : mata ( 0 );
W. Futuna : foi-mata ( 0 ); Mele-Fila : mata ( 0 ); Kapingamarangi : koromata ( 0 ); Nukuoro : ganomata ( 0 ); W. Fijian : mata ( 0 ); Bau (EF) : mata ( 0 ).
fat n. Rapanui : morii ( 05); Tahiti : ao ( 03); Maori : ako ( 03); Hawaiian : aila ( 0 ); Mangareva : ai ( 03); Marquesas : kiko (2 0); Samoan : ao ( 03); Rennell : momona (369); Ontong Java : momoa (369); Sikaiana : momona (369); Tikopia : moomona (369); Anutan : momona (369); Niue : ako
( 03); Tongan : ako ( 03); Tuvalu : ako ( 03); Nanumea : ako ( 03); Makatea : ako ( 03); W. Futuna : pei ( ); Mele-Fila : kanainai ( 0 ); Kapingamarangi : kiriithi (335); Nukuoro : ; W. Fijian : uro ( 08); Bau (EF) : uro ( 08).
feather Rapanui : hu-hura ( 09); Tahiti : huruhuru ( 09); Maori : huruhuru
( 09); Hawaiian : hulu ( 09); Mangareva : ; Marquesas : hu ( 09); Samoan :
fulu ( 09); Rennell : hugu ( 09); Ontong Java : pala ( 9); Sikaiana : palaa ( 9);
Tikopia : furu manu ( 09); Anutan : puru ( 09); Niue : fulu ( 09); Tongan : fulufulu ( 09); Tuvalu : fulufulu ( 09); Nanumea : fulu ( 09); Makatea : mbala ( );
W. Futuna : fufuru ( 09); Mele-Fila : vaero (365); Kapingamarangi : aahuru
( 09); Nukuoro : hulu manu ( 09); W. Fijian : ulu ( 09); Bau (EF) : uti ( 2).
fire Rapanui : ahi ( 3); Tahiti : auahi ( 3); Maori : ahi ( 3); Hawaiian : ahi
( 3); Mangareva : ai ( 3); Marquesas : ahi ( 3); Samoan : afi ( 3); Rennell :
ahi ( 3); Ontong Java : ahi ( 3); Sikaiana : ahi ( 3); Tikopia : afi ( 3); Anutan :
api ( 3); Niue : afi ( 3); Tongan : afi ( 3); Tuvalu : afi ( 3); Nanumea : afi ( 3);
Makatea : afi ( 3); W. Futuna : afi ( 3); Mele-Fila : afi ( 3); Kapingamarangi :
ahi ( 3); Nukuoro : ahi ( 3); W. Fijian : gwaya ( 5); Bau (EF) : kama ( 6).
(

fish Rapanui : ika ( ); Tahiti : ia ( ); Maori : ika ( ); Hawaiian : ia

); Mangareva : ika ( ); Marquesas : ika ( ); Samoan : ia ( ); Rennell :

-, , . . ...

kaui ( 8 ); Ontong Java : ia ( ); Sikaiana : ika ( ); Tikopia : ika ( ); Anutan : ika ( ); Niue : ika ( ); Tongan : ika ( ); Tuvalu : ika ( ); Nanumea : ika
( ); Makatea : ika ( ); W. Futuna : ika ( ); Mele-Fila : ika ( ); Kapingamarangi : ika ( ); Nukuoro : mamu (2); W. Fijian : ika ( ); Bau (EF) : ika ( ).
fly v. Rapanui : rere ( 8); Tahiti : rere ( 8); Maori : rere ( 8); Hawaiian : lele
( 8); Mangareva : rere ( 8); Marquesas : ona ( 32); Samoan : lele ( 8); Rennell :
gege ( 8); Ontong Java : lee ( 8); Sikaiana : lele ( 8);Tikopia : rere ( 8); Anutan : rere ( 8); Niue : lele ( 8); Tongan : puna ( 9); Tuvalu : lele ( 8); Nanumea :
lele ( 8); Makatea : rere ( 8); W. Futuna : rere ( 8); Mele-Fila : rere ( 8); Kapingamarangi : rere ( 8); Nukuoro : lele ( 8); W. Fijian : a u ( 2 ); Bau (EF) : uka ( 22).
foot Rapanui : vae ( 23); Tahiti : aavae ( 23); Maori : waewae ( 23); Hawaiian : waawaa ( 23); Mangareva : vavae ( 23); Marquesas : vae ( 23); Samoan : vae ( 23); Rennell : bae ( 23); Ontong Java : vae ( 23); Sikaiana : vae
( 23); Tikopia : vae ( 23); Anutan : vae ( 23); Niue : vee ( 23); Tongan : vae
( 23); Tuvalu : vae ( 23); Nanumea : vae ( 23); Makatea : ae ( 23); W. Futuna : ae ( 23); Mele-Fila : vae ( 23); Kapingamarangi : wae ( 23); Nukuoro :
vae ( 23); W. Fijian : laa ( 2 ); Bau (EF) : ya a ( 2 ).
full Rapanui : ku ii aa ( 2 ); Tahiti : ii ( 2 ); Maori : kii ( 2 ); Hawaiian :
piha ( 26); Mangareva : pii ( 99); Marquesas : pi ( 99); Samoan : tumu ( 28);
Rennell : honu ( 25); Ontong Java : pi ( 26); Sikaiana : pi ( 26); Tikopia : fonu
( 25); Anutan : pito (50 ); Niue : puke ( 30); Tongan : fonu ( 25); Tuvalu : fonu
( 25); Nanumea : tumu ( 28); Makatea : fonu ( 25); W. Futuna : ; Mele-Fila :
fonu ( 25); Kapingamarangi : honu ( 25); Nukuoro : honu ( 25); W. Fijian : uga
( 30); Bau (EF) : siinai ( 3 ).
give Rapanui : vaai, avai ( 5 ); Tahiti : hoo, hooroa ( 32); Maori : hoo mai
( 32); Hawaiian : hoo ( 32); Mangareva : tuku ?, atu ? ( 33); Marquesas : tuku,
tu ( 33); Samoan : ave ( 5 ); Rennell : haigaa ( 82); Ontong Java : auae ( 5 );
Sikaiana : kave ( 5 ); Tikopia : sori ( 38); Anutan : tori ( 38); Niue : atu ( 3 );
Tongan : fo-aki ( 6); Tuvalu : ave ( 5 ); Nanumea : avatu ( 3 ); Makatea : fuana
( 35); W. Futuna : a ae (8); Mele-Fila : no- (5); Kapingamarangi : (w)aa < Micronesian (385); Nukuoro : gamai ( 36); W. Fijian : holi ( 38); Bau (EF) : soli ( 38).
good Rapanui : riva-riva ( 2); Tahiti : maitai ( ); Maori : pai ( 3); Hawaiian : maikai ( ); Mangareva : maarie ( 35); Marquesas : meita ( ); Samoan : lelei ( 0); Rennell : gaoi ( 3 ); Ontong Java : laoi ( 3 ); Sikaiana : laoi
( 3 ); Tikopia : laoi ( 3 ); Anutan : rerei ( 0); Niue : mitaki ( ); Tongan : leilei
( 0); Tuvalu : lei ( 0); Nanumea : lelei ( 0); Makatea : sumaria ( 5); W. Futuna : rufwie (9); Mele-Fila : marie ( 5); Kapingamarangi : humaria ( 5); Nukuoro : danuaa ( ); W. Fijian : inaa ( 8); Bau (EF) : inaka ( 8).
green Rapanui : ; Tahiti : maatie ( 52); Maori : kaakaariki ( 5 ); Hawaiian : mao ( 50); Mangareva : matie ( ); Marquesas : me he u ti te ( 3 );

32

G-M~, P, S. S~. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

Samoan : ; Rennell : usi ( 9); Ontong Java : kea ( 52); Sikaiana : ui ( 9);
Tikopia : kefu ( 36); Anutan : kepu ( 36); Niue : lanu laufuti ( 55); Tongan : ;
Tuvalu : usiusi ( 9); Nanumea : lanu lau niu ( 53); Makatea : ; W. Futuna : ; Mele-Fila : kesakesa ( 36); Kapingamarangi : thea ( 52); Nukuoro : nuui ( 56); W. Fijian : drokadroka ( 58); Bau (EF) : drokadroka ( 58).
hair Rapanui : puoko ( 63); Tahiti : rouru (2 5); Maori : makawe ( 62); Hawaiian : oho ( 6 ); Mangareva : oo, rouru ( 6 ); Marquesas : ouoho ( 6 ); Samoan : lau ulu (2 5); Rennell : ; Ontong Java : ; Sikaiana : ; Tikopia :
rauuru (2 5); Anutan : rau-uru (2 5); Niue : lauulu (2 5); Tongan : lou-ulu
(2 5); Tuvalu : lauulu (2 5); Nanumea : fulufulu ( 09); Makatea : fere-ure ( 09);
W. Futuna : fufuru uru ( 09); Mele-Fila : rauru (2 5); Kapingamarangi : aahuru ( 59); Nukuoro : aaulu ( 0); W. Fijian : ulu ( 09); Bau (EF) : ulu ( 59).
hand Rapanui : rima ( 65); Tahiti : rima ( 65); Maori : riaria ( 2);
Hawaiian : lima ( 65); Mangareva : rima ( 65); Marquesas : ima ( 65); Samoan : lima ( 65); Rennell : gima ( 65); Ontong Java : pulima ( 65); Sikaiana : lima ( 65); Tikopia : rima ( 65); Anutan : nima ( 65); Niue : lima ( 65);
Tongan : nima ( 65); Tuvalu : lima ( 65); Nanumea : lima ( 65); Makatea : rima
( 65); W. Futuna : rima ( 65); Mele-Fila : rima ( 65); Kapingamarangi : rima
( 65); Nukuoro : lima ( 65); W. Fijian : lima ( 65); Bau (EF) : lia ( 2).
head Rapanui : puoko ( 63); Tahiti : upoo ( 63); Maori : upoko ( 63); Hawaiian : poo ( 63); Mangareva : oo ( 59); Marquesas : upoko ( 63); Samoan :
ulu ( 59); Rennell : ugu ( ); Ontong Java : pohoulu ( 59); Sikaiana : pohoulu ( 59);Tikopia : pokouru ( 59); Anutan : pokouru ( 63); Niue : ulu ( 59);
Tongan : ulu ( 59); Tuvalu : ulu ( 59); Nanumea : piho ( 68); Makatea : nauru ( 59); W. Futuna : uru ( 59); Mele-Fila : konoa ( 69); Kapingamarangi :
ripoko ( 63); Nukuoro : biho ( 68); W. Fijian : ulu ( 59); Bau (EF) : ulu ( 59).
hear Rapanui : aroa ( ); Tahiti : faaloo ( ); Maori : roo-hia ( ); Hawaiian : lono ( ); Mangareva : roo ( ); Marquesas : ono ( 38); Samoan : faaloo ( ); Rennell : hakagoo ( ); Ontong Java : haaloo ( ); Sikaiana : lono
( ); Tikopia : fakaroo ( ); Anutan : roo ( ); Niue : loo ( ); Tongan :
fanoo ( ); Tuvalu : laona ( ); Nanumea : laona ( ); Makatea : fanoo
( ); W. Futuna : roona ( ); Mele-Fila : raona ( ); Kapingamarangi : roo
( ); Nukuoro : laona ( ); W. Fijian : roo-o ( ); Bau (EF) : roo-a ( ).
heart Rapanui : mahatu ( 6); Tahiti : maafatu ( 6); Maori : manawa ( 5);
Hawaiian : puuwai ( 8); Mangareva : uopo ( ); Marquesas : huopo ( ); Samoan : fatu ( 6); Rennell : hinaago ( 83); Ontong Java : hakumaava ( 5,
6); Sikaiana : atepili ( ); Tikopia : fatumanava ( 5, 6); Anutan : patumanava ( 5, 6); Niue : atevili ( ); Tongan : mafu ( 5); Tuvalu : fatu ( 6); Nanumea : fatu ( 6); Makatea : mama ( 9), roto ( 8 ); W. Futuna : faretoto ( 80);

-, , . . ...

33

Mele-Fila : ufi kaanoa ( 8 ); Kapingamarangi : hatu manava ( 5, 6); Nukuoro :

hadu-manava ( 5, 6); W. Fijian : ra ota ( 82), nunu ( 83); Bau (EF) : uto ( 8 ).
horn Rapanui : tara ( 86); Tahiti : tara = thorn ( 86); Maori : haona ( 89);
Hawaiian : kiwi ( 88); Mangareva : tara ( 86); Marquesas : niho ( 90); Samoan :
nifo ( 90), seu ( 8 ); Rennell : ; Ontong Java : ; Sikaiana : ; Tikopia : ;
Anutan : ; Niue : hoe ( 85); Tongan : mea-tui ( 9 ); Tuvalu : suki ( 96); Nanumea : tui loa ( 9 ); Makatea : ; W. Futuna : tala ( 86); Mele-Fila : nifo ( 90); Kapingamarangi : ; Nukuoro : haa ( 95); W. Fijian : hi i ( 92); Bau (EF) : i-leu ( 93).
I Rapanui : au ( 9 ); Tahiti : vau, au ( 9 ); Maori : ahau ( 9 ); Hawaiian : au
( 9 ); Mangareva : au ( 9 ); Marquesas : au ( 9 ); Samoan : au ( 9 ); Rennell :
au ( 9 ); Ontong Java : aau ( 9 ); Sikaiana : anau ( 9 ); Tikopia : kuou ( 9 );
Anutan : koau ( 9 ); Niue : au ( 9 ); Tongan : au, ou ( 9 ); Tuvalu : au ( 9 ); Nanumea : aku, au ( 9 ); Makatea : kou ( 9 ); W. Futuna : au ( 9 ); Mele-Fila :
avau ( 9 ); Kapingamarangi : au ( 9 ); Nukuoro : au ( 9 ); W. Fijian : jau ( 9 );
Bau (EF) : jau ( 9 ).
kill Rapanui : tinai (20 ); Tahiti : haapohe (200); Maori : whaka-mate (66);
Hawaiian : pepehi aa make (66); Mangareva : akamate (66); Marquesas : hamate (66); Samoan : fasi-oti (202); Rennell : taa (206); Ontong Java : kaa (206);
Sikaiana : taa (206); Tikopia : tamate (66, 206); Anutan : ta mate (66, 206); Niue :
taamate (66, 206); Tongan : taamatei (66); Tuvalu : tamate (66); Nanumea : taa
mate (66); Makatea : teia-kemate (66); W. Futuna : ia (203); Mele-Fila : fakamatea (66), taia (206); Kapingamarangi : matemate (66); Nukuoro : hagamagau
(20 ); W. Fijian : a-mase (66); Bau (EF) : aka-mate-a (66).
knee Rapanui : turi vae (20 ); Tahiti : turi (20 ); Maori : turi (20 ); Hawaiian : kuli (20 ); Mangareva : turi (20 ); Marquesas : mu ( 39); Samoan : tuli
vae (20 ); Rennell : tugi haoo (20 ); Ontong Java : pukuli (20 ); Sikaiana : tuli
(20 ); Tikopia : turi (20 ); Anutan : turi (20 ); Niue : tuli (20 ); Tongan : tui
(20 ); Tuvalu : tulivae (20 ); Nanumea : tuli vae (20 ); Makatea : turi (20 );
W. Futuna : turi (20 ); Mele-Fila : pwaatua (9); Kapingamarangi : turiwae
(20 ); Nukuoro : duli (20 ); W. Fijian : uru (20 ); Bau (EF) : duru (20 ).
know Rapanui : ite (2 0); Tahiti : ite (2 0); Maori : maatau (2 ); Hawaiian : ike (2 0); Mangareva : kite (2 0); Marquesas : ite (2 0); Samoan : iloa
(209); Rennell : naa ( 8 ); Ontong Java : ailoa (209); Sikaiana : iloa (209); Tikopia : iroa (209); Anutan : iroa (209); Niue : iloa (209); Tongan : ilo (209);
Tuvalu : iloa (209); Nanumea : iloa (209); Makatea : iroa (209); W. Futuna :
iroa (209); Mele-Fila : taaea (2 2); Kapingamarangi : iroa (209); Nukuoro :
ilo (209); W. Fijian : kila (2 ); Bau (EF) : kila (2 ).
leaf Rapanui : raupaa (2 5); Tahiti : rauere (2 5); Maori : rau (2 5); Hawaiian : lau (2 5); Mangareva : rau (2 5); Marquesas : au (2 5); Samoan : lau

G-M~, P, S. S~. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

(2 5); Rennell : gau (2 5); Ontong Java : laumea (2 5); Sikaiana : lau (2 5);
Tikopia : raurakau (2 5); Anutan : rau (2 5); Niue : lau (2 5); Tongan : lau (2 5);
Tuvalu : lau (2 5); Nanumea : lau (2 5); Makatea : raurau (2 5); W. Futuna :
rau (2 5); Mele-Fila : rau (2 5); Kapingamarangi : rau (2 5); Nukuoro : lau
(2 5); W. Fijian : rau (2 5); Bau (EF) : drau (2 5).
lie Rapanui : moe (2 ); Tahiti : taoto (2 6); Maori : takoto (2 6); Hawaiian :
moe (2 ); Mangareva : moe (2 ); Marquesas : moe (2 ); Samoan : taoto
(2 6); Rennell : moe (2 ); Ontong Java : moe (2 ); Sikaiana : moe (2 ); Tikopia :
takoto (2 6); Anutan : takoto (2 6); Niue : takoto (2 6); Tongan : tokoto (2 6);
Tuvalu : takoto (2 6); Nanumea : moe ki lalo (2 ); Makatea : moe (2 ); W. Futuna : moe (2 ); Mele-Fila : moe (2 ); Kapingamarangi : moe i rara (2 ); Nukuoro : bani (33 ); W. Fijian : daro (220); Bau (EF) : da o (220).
liver Rapanui : ate ( ); Tahiti : upaa (22 ); Maori : ate ( ); Hawaiian : ake
( ); Mangareva : ate ( ); Marquesas : ate ( ); Samoan : ate ( ); Rennell :
ate ( ); Ontong Java : ake ( ); Sikaiana : ate ( ); Tikopia : ate ( ); Anutan : ate ( ); Niue : ate ( ); Tongan : ate ( ); Tuvalu : ate ( ); Nanumea : ate
( ); Makatea : ate ( ); W. Futuna : ate ( ); Mele-Fila : ate ( ); Kapingamarangi : ate ( ); Nukuoro : ade ( ); W. Fijian : yase ( ); Bau (EF) : yate ( ).
long Rapanui : roa (222); Tahiti : roa (222); Maori : roa (222); Hawaiian : loa
(222); Mangareva : roa (222); Marquesas : oa (222); Samoan : umi PN *kumi
(223); Rennell : goa (222); Ontong Java : loloa (222); Sikaiana : loloa (222); Tikopia : roa (222); Anutan : roroa (222); Niue : loa (222); Tongan : looloa (222); Tuvalu : loa (222); Nanumea : loa (222); Makatea : le ale a (5); W. Futuna : palo
(222); Mele-Fila : tootoe (225); Kapingamarangi : roa (222); Nukuoro : loloe
(222); W. Fijian : bala u (222); Bau (EF) : bala u (222).
louse Rapanui : kutu (226); Tahiti : utu (226); Maori : kutu (226); Hawaiian : uku (226); Mangareva : kutu (226); Marquesas : kutu (226); Samoan : utu (226); Rennell : kutu (226); Ontong Java : uku (226); Sikaiana :
kutu (226); Tikopia : kutu (226); Anutan : kutu (226); Niue : kutu (226); Tongan : kutu (226); Tuvalu : kutu (226); Nanumea : kutu (226); Makatea : kutu
(226); W. Futuna : kutu (226); Mele-Fila : kutu (226); Kapingamarangi : kutu
(226); Nukuoro : gudu (226); W. Fijian : kuu (226); Bau (EF) : kutu (226).
man Rapanui : taata (229); Tahiti : taane (22 ); Maori : taane (22 ); Hawaiian : kaane (22 ); Mangareva : tamaroa (229); Marquesas : nata (229); Samoan :
taane (22 ); Rennell : taaata (229); Ontong Java : kaata (229); Sikaiana : tanata
(229); Tikopia : taata (229); Anutan : taata (229); Niue : taane (22 ); Tongan : taata (228); Tuvalu : taata (228); Nanumea : taata (228); Makatea : taata (228);
W. Futuna : tane (22 ); Mele-Fila : taane (22 ); Kapingamarangi : taane (22 );
Nukuoro : daane (22 ); W. Fijian : tamata-ola (229); Bau (EF) : taane (22 ).

-, , . . ...

35

many Rapanui : rahi (20); Tahiti : rahi (20); Maori : rau (233), maha (238);
Hawaiian : lau (233), nui (2 ); Mangareva : nui (2 ); Marquesas : tini (23 ), nui
(2 ); Samoan : tele (22); Rennell : eha ( 85); Ontong Java : komai ( 86); Sikaiana : tamaki ( 86); Tikopia : rava (230), kapi ( ); Anutan : rai ( 88); Niue : lahi
(20); Tongan : lahi (20); Tuvalu : uke (235); Nanumea : uke (235); Makatea : lasi
(20); W. Futuna : sorehmafi ( 0); Mele-Fila : toope (9); Kapingamarangi : roko
(236); Nukuoro : lagolao (236); W. Fijian : wara (23 ); Bau (EF) : le u (25).
meat Rapanui : kiko (2 0); Tahiti : io (2 0); Maori : miiti (8); Hawaiian :
io (2 0); Mangareva : kiko (2 0); Marquesas : kiko (2 0); Samoan : aano
(239); Rennell : kanoguku (239); Ontong Java : poohi (239); Sikaiana : io ( 89);
Tikopia : kanofi (239); Anutan : kanopi (239); Niue : kakano (239); Tongan : kakano (239); Tuvalu : kano (239); Nanumea : kanofi (239); Makatea : kanmata
(239); W. Futuna : napisi ( ); Mele-Fila : viisiko ( ); Kapingamarangi : koneika
(239); Nukuoro : kano (239); W. Fijian : iiko (2 ); Bau (EF) : lewe (2 5).
moon Rapanui : mahina (2 6); Tahiti : aavae (2 ); Maori : maahina (2 6),
marama (2 8); Hawaiian : mahina (2 6); Mangareva : marama (2 8); Marquesas :
mahina (2 6); Samoan : maasina (2 6); Rennell : maahina (2 6); Ontong Java :
malama (2 8); Sikaiana : malama (2 8); Tikopia : marama (2 8); Anutan : maaina (2 6); Niue : mahina (2 6); Tongan : maahina (2 6); Tuvalu : masina (2 6);
Nanumea : mahina (2 6); Makatea : masina (2 6); W. Futuna : mrama (2 8);
Mele-Fila : aale (2 9); Kapingamarangi : mahina (2 6); Nukuoro : ; W. Fijian : ula (250); Bau (EF) : ula (250).
mountain Rapanui : maua (25 ); Tahiti : moua (25 ); Maori : maua (25 );
Hawaiian : mauna (25 ); Mangareva : maa (25 ); Marquesas : uta ( 3); Samoan : maua (25 ); Rennell : ogo ( 9 ); Ontong Java : moua (25 ); Sikaiana :
moua (25 ); Tikopia : maua (25 ); Anutan : maua (25 ); Niue : moua (25 ); Tongan : moua (25 ); Tuvalu : maua (25 ); Nanumea : maua (25 ); Makatea : maua (25 ); W. Futuna : ausafi (6); Mele-Fila : tafuu ( ); Kapingamarangi : konotuu
( 60); Nukuoro : moua (25 ); W. Fijian : yataa (252); Bau (EF) : delana (253).
mouth Rapanui : haha (256); Tahiti : vaha (256); Maori : waha (256); Hawaiian : waha (256); Mangareva : aaaa (2); Marquesas : fafa (2); Samoan :
utu (255); Rennell : utu (255); Ontong Java : utu (255); Sikaiana : pukua
( 92); Tikopia : puua ( 92); Anutan : utu (255); Niue : puu utu (255);
Tongan : utu (255); Tuvalu : utu (255); Nanumea : utu (255); Makatea : utu (255); W. Futuna : fafa (256); Mele-Fila : utu (255); Kapingamarangi : utu (255); Nukuoro : udu (255); W. Fijian : uhu (255); Bau (EF) : usu (255).
name Rapanui : ioa (25 ); Tahiti : ioa (25 ); Maori : ioa (25 ); Hawaiian : inoa (25 ); Mangareva : igoa (25 ); Marquesas : ikoa (25 ); Samoan :
ioa (25 ); Rennell : ioa (25 ); Ontong Java : ioa (25 ); Sikaiana : mele
( 93); Tikopia : ioa (25 ); Anutan : ioa (25 ); Niue : hioa (25 ); Tongan :

36

G-M~, P, S. S~. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

hioa (25 ); Tuvalu : ioa (25 ); Nanumea : ioa (25 ); Makatea : ioa (25 );
W. Futuna : ioa (25 ); Mele-Fila : ioa (25 ); Kapingamarangi : ioa (25 );
Nukuoro : ioo (25 ); W. Fijian : yaa (258); Bau (EF) : yaa (258).
neck Rapanui : ao ( ); Tahiti : aii ( ); Maori : kakii ( ); Hawaiian : aaii ( ); Mangareva : kakii ( ); Marquesas : kaki ( ); Samoan :
ua ( 5); Rennell : ua ( 5); Ontong Java : uua ( 5); Sikaiana : uua ( 5);
Tikopia : ua ( 5); Anutan : ua ( 5); Niue : ua ( 5); Tongan : kia ( 6); Tuvalu : ua ( 5); Nanumea : ua ( 5); Makatea : ua ( 5); W. Futuna : kapupwenaua ( 5); Mele-Fila : penaaua ( 5); Kapingamarangi : ua ( 5); Nukuoro : ua ( 5); W. Fijian : domo (260); Bau (EF) : domo (260).
new Rapanui : aapii (262); Tahiti : aapii (262); Maori : hou (26 ); Hawaiian : hou (26 ); Mangareva : ou (26 ); Marquesas : hou (26 ); Samoan :
fou (26 ); Rennell : hoou (26 ); Ontong Java : hoou (26 ); Sikaiana : hou (26 );
Tikopia : fou (26 ); Anutan : pou (26 ); Niue : foou (26 ); Tongan : foou (26 );
Tuvalu : fou (26 ); Nanumea : foou (26 ); Makatea : fou (26 ); W. Futuna : fou
(26 ); Mele-Fila : foou (26 ); Kapingamarangi : hou (26 ); Nukuoro : hoou
(26 ); W. Fijian : ou (26 ); Bau (EF) : ou (26 ).
night Rapanui : poo (263); Tahiti : poo (263); Maori : poo (263); Hawaiian : poo (263); Mangareva : poo (263); Marquesas : po (263); Samoan : poo
(263); Rennell : poo (263); Ontong Java : poo (263); Sikaiana : poo (263); Tikopia : po (263); Anutan : poo (263); Niue : poo (263); Tongan : poo (263); Tuvalu : po (263); Nanumea : poo (263); Makatea : po (263); W. Futuna : tapo
(263); Mele-Fila : poo (263); Kapingamarangi : po (263); Nukuoro : boo (263);
W. Fijian : boi (263); Bau (EF) : boi (263).
nose Rapanui : ihu (26 ); Tahiti : ihu (26 ); Maori : ihu (26 ); Hawaiian : ihu (26 ); Mangareva : iu (26 ); Marquesas : ihu (26 ); Samoan : isu
(26 ); Rennell : isu (26 ); Ontong Java : isu, aaisu (26 ); Sikaiana : kaiusu
(26 ); Tikopia : isu (26 ); Anutan : iu (26 ); Niue : ihu (26 ); Tongan : ihu
(26 ); Tuvalu : isu (26 ); Nanumea : ihu (26 ); Makatea : isu (26 ); W. Futuna : isu (26 ); Mele-Fila : usu (26 ); Kapingamarangi : uhi (26 ); Nukuoro : usu (26 ); W. Fijian : iu (26 ); Bau (EF) : uu (26 ).
not Rapanui : kai (265); Tahiti : aite (265); Maori : kaahore (265); Hawaiian : aole (265); Mangareva : eai (265); Marquesas : aua (265); Samoan :
leai (26 ); Rennell : siai (268); Ontong Java : seai (268); Sikaiana : seai (268);
Tikopia : siei (268); Anutan : kairo (265); Niue : naakai (265); Tongan : ikai
(265); Tuvalu : e se (266); Nanumea : hee (266); Makatea : ee (266); W. Futuna : ikai (265); Mele-Fila : saai (268); Kapingamarangi : tee (269); Nukuoro : de (269); W. Fijian : sikai (265); Bau (EF) : sea (266).
one Rapanui : tahi (2 ); Tahiti : tahi (2 ); Maori : tahi (2 ); Hawaiian : ekahi
(2 ); Mangareva : tai (2 ); Marquesas : tahi (2 ); Samoan : tasi (2 ); Rennell : ta-

-, , . . ...

hi (2 ); Ontong Java : kahi (2 ); Sikaiana : kahi (2 ); Tikopia : tasi (2 ); Anutan :

tai (2 ); Niue : taha (2); Tongan : taha (2); Tuvalu : tasi (2 ); Nanumea : tahi
(2 ); Makatea : tasi (2 ); W. Futuna : tasi (2 ); Mele-Fila : tasi (2 ); Kapingamarangi : tahi (2 ); Nukuoro : dahi (2 ); W. Fijian : tahila ( ); Bau (EF) : dua (2 2).
person Rapanui : taata (229); Tahiti : taata (229); Maori : taata (229); Hawaiian : kanaka (229); Mangareva : taata (229); Marquesas : nana (229); Samoan : taata (229); Rennell : pegea ( 95); Ontong Java : kama (503); Sikaiana :
tama (503); Tikopia : taata (228); Anutan : taata (229); Niue : taata (229); Tongan : taata (229); Tuvalu : tino (2 3); Nanumea : taata (229); Makatea : taata
(229); W. Futuna : taata (229); Mele-Fila : taata (229); Kapingamarangi : taata (229); Nukuoro : daata (229); W. Fijian : e-ola (232); Bau (EF) : tamata (229).
rain Rapanui : ua (2 ); Tahiti : ua (2 ); Maori : ua ina (2 ); Hawaiian :
ua (2 ); Mangareva : ua (2 ); Marquesas : ua (2 ); Samoan : ua (2 ), timu
(2 ); Rennell : ua (2 ); Ontong Java : ua (2 ); Sikaiana : ua (2 ); Tikopia : ua
(2 ); Anutan : ua (2 ); Niue : uha (2 ); Tongan : uha (2 ); Tuvalu : ua (2 );
Nanumea : ua (2 ); Makatea : ua (2 ); W. Futuna : ua (2 ); Mele-Fila : ua
(2 ); Kapingamarangi : ua (2 ); Nukuoro : bala lai (2 5); W. Fijian : lu u
(2 6); Bau (EF) : ua (2 ).
red Rapanui : mea-mea (280); Tahiti : uraura (2 8); Maori : whero (2 9);
Hawaiian : ula (2 8); Mangareva : kura (2 8); Marquesas : pukiki ( ); Samoan : muumuu (28 ); Rennell : uga (2 8); Ontong Java : mea (280); Sikaiana :
ula (2 8); Tikopia : mero (280); Anutan : mero (280); Niue : kula (2 8); Tongan :
kulokulo (2 8); Tuvalu : kula (2 8); Nanumea : kula (2 8); Makatea : loa (283);
W. Futuna : mea (280); Mele-Fila : mmea (280); Kapingamarangi : mhee (280);
Nukuoro : mmea (280); W. Fijian : dradra (3 ); Bau (EF) : damudamu (282).
road Rapanui : ara (28 ); Tahiti : eea (286); Maori : huanui (285); Hawaiian : ala (28 ); Mangareva : ara(nui) (28 ); Marquesas : nui (28 ); Samoan : ala (28 ); Rennell : aga (28 ); Ontong Java : ala (28 ); Sikaiana : ala
(28 ); Tikopia : ara (28 ); Anutan : ara (28 ); Niue : puhala (28 ); Tongan :
hala (28 ); Tuvalu : ala (28 ); Nanumea : alatuu (28 ); Makatea : ara (28 );
W. Futuna : retu (5); Mele-Fila : ara (28 ); Kapingamarangi : ara (28 ); Nukuoro : haiava (2 9); W. Fijian : alevu (28 ); Bau (EF) : au-ni-sala (28 ).
root Rapanui : aka (28 ); Tahiti : aa (28 ); Maori : pakiaka (28 ); Hawaiian : aa (28 ); Mangareva : aa (28 ); Marquesas : aka (28 ); Samoan :
aa (28 ); Rennell : aka (28 ); Ontong Java : pakiaa (28 ); Sikaiana : patiaka
(28 ); Tikopia : vaiaka (28 ); Anutan : vaiaka (28 ); Niue : vaka (28 ); Tongan : aka (28 ); Tuvalu : aka (28 ); Nanumea : aka (28 ); Makatea : kai (rakau)
(288); W. Futuna : kainea (288); Mele-Fila : koaakoa (2); Kapingamarangi :
aka (28 ); Nukuoro : aga (28 ); W. Fijian : waka (28 ); Bau (EF) : waka (28 ).

38

G-M~, P, S. S~. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

round Rapanui : ohu (29 ); Tahiti : menemene (293); Maori : porotaka

(292); Hawaiian : poepoe (29 ); Mangareva : poo- (292); Marquesas : kapopo
( 8); Samoan : laapotopoto (289); Rennell : ; Ontong Java : ; Sikaiana : ;
Tikopia : ; Anutan : ; Niue : ; Tongan : fuopotopoto (289); Tuvalu : pukupuku (290); Nanumea : ; Makatea : ; W. Futuna : ; Mele-Fila : mwoliimwoli (9); Kapingamarangi : puupuu ( 5 ); Nukuoro : moe (295); W. Fijian : giligili (29 ); Bau (EF) : mokimokiti (298).
sand Rapanui : one (259); Tahiti : one (259); Maori : onepuu (259); Hawaiian : one (259); Mangareva : one (259); Marquesas : one (259); Samoan :
oneone (259); Rennell : one (259); Ontong Java : one (259); Sikaiana : keele
(8 ); Tikopia : one (259); Anutan : kerekere (8 ); Niue : one (259); Tongan : oneone (259); Tuvalu : one (259); Nanumea : one (259); Makatea : one (259);
W. Futuna : one (259); Mele-Fila : woraone (9); Kapingamarangi : kerekere
(8 ); Nukuoro : gelegele (8 ); W. Fijian : oli oli (302); Bau (EF) : nuku (303).
say Rapanui : vanaa (309); Tahiti : parau (308); Maori : kii (30 ); Hawaiian : oolelo (306); Mangareva : takao ( 9); Marquesas : tekao ( 9); Samoan :
tautala (3 0); Rennell : hegeu ( 55); Ontong Java : kakala ( 9 ); Sikaiana : taatala ( 9 ); Tikopia : muna (305); Anutan : karaa ( 56); Niue : lea (30 ); Tongan : lea (30 ); Tuvalu : muna (305); Nanumea : fai (3 2); Makatea : muna (305);
W. Futuna : tukua (3 ); Mele-Fila : vaanaa (309); Kapingamarangi : herekhai
( 55); Nukuoro : ; W. Fijian : oha (3 ), tata (3 6); Bau (EF) : osa (3 ).
see Rapanui : tikea (2 0); Tahiti : ite (2 0); Maori : kite (2 0); Hawaiian : ike (2 0); Mangareva : kite (2 0); Marquesas : ite (2 0); Samoan : vaai
(3 8); Rennell : kite (2 0); Ontong Java : ike (2 0); Sikaiana : kite (2 0); Tikopia : pula (2 0); Anutan : mamata ( 0 ); Niue : kitia (2 0); Tongan : sio (3 ),
ilo (3 9); Tuvalu : kite (2 0); Nanumea : kilo (3 9); Makatea : kutea (2 0);
W. Futuna : katea (2 0); Mele-Fila : seia (320); Kapingamarangi : kitee (2 0);
Nukuoro : gide (2 0); W. Fijian : daa-nia (32 ); Bau (EF) : rai-a (32 ).
seed Rapanui : ; Tahiti : huore (326); Maori : pua (325); Hawaiian : anoano (239); Mangareva : ; Marquesas : kakano (239); Samoan : fatu = stone ( 6);
Rennell : hatu ( 6); Ontong Java : hua (325); Sikaiana : hatu ( 6); Tikopia : fatu
( 6); Anutan : tea (322); Niue : tea (322); Tongan : tea (322); Tuvaluu fuaa (323);
Nanumea : fatu ( 6); Makatea : fatu ( 6); W. Futuna : noftu ( 6); Mele-Fila : ;
Kapingamarangi : kore (32 ); Nukuoro : -golee (32 ); W. Fijian : ; Bau (EF) : .
sit Rapanui : noho (328); Tahiti : noho (328); Maori : noho (328); Hawaiian : noho (328); Mangareva : noo (328); Marquesas : noho (328); Samoan :
nofo (328); Rennell : noho (328); Ontong Java : oho (328); Sikaiana : noho
(328); Tikopia : nofo (328); Anutan : nopo (328); Niue : nofo (328); Tongan :
nofo (328); Tuvalu : nofo (328); Nanumea : noho (328); Makatea : nofoiraro

-, , . . ...

39

(328); W. Futuna : puku (329); Mele-Fila : nofo (328); Kapingamarangi : noho

(328); Nukuoro : noho (328); W. Fijian : tadra (33 ); Bau (EF) : dabe (332).
skin Rapanui : kiri ( 0); Tahiti : iri ( 0); Maori : kiri ( 0); Hawaiian : ili ( 0);
Mangareva : kiri ( 0); Marquesas : ki ( 0); Samoan : pau ( ); Rennell : kigi
( 0); Ontong Java : ili ( 0); Sikaiana : kili ( 0); Tikopia : raukiri ( 0); Anutan :
kiri ( 0); Niue : kili ( 0); Tongan : kili ( 0); Tuvalu : pakili ( 0); Nanumea : kili ( 0),
pau ( ); Makatea : kiri ( 0); W. Futuna : kiri ( 0); Mele-Fila : kiri ( 0); Kapingamarangi : kiri ( 0); Nukuoro : gili ( 0); W. Fijian : taba (33 ); Bau (EF) : kuli- ( 0).
sleep Rapanui : hauru (336); Tahiti : taoto = lie (2 6); Maori : moe
(2 ); Hawaiian : moe (2 ); Mangareva : moe (2 ); Marquesas : hiamoe (2 );
Samoan : moe (2 ); Rennell : moe (2 ); Ontong Java : moe (2 ); Sikaiana :
moe (2 ); Tikopia : moe (2 ); Anutan : moe (2 ); Niue : momohe (2 ); Tongan : mohe (2 ); Tuvalu : moe (2 ); Nanumea : moe (2 ); Makatea : moe
(2 ); W. Futuna : mweroa (5); Mele-Fila : moe (2 ); Kapingamarangi : khii
( 5 ); Nukuoro : seni (33 ); W. Fijian : moe (2 ); Bau (EF) : moe (2 ).
small Rapanui : itiiti (339); Tahiti : iti (339); Maori : iti (339); Hawaiian : iki (339); Mangareva : iti (339); Marquesas : iti (339); Samoan : itiiti
(339); Rennell : miimea ( 99); Ontong Java : solilii (338); Sikaiana : likiliki
(338); Tikopia : vikilake (338); Anutan : riki (338); Niue : ikiiki (338); Tongan :
sii (3 0); Tuvalu : foliki, toniki (338); Nanumea : foliki (338); Makatea : tiiti
(3 0); W. Futuna : sisi (3 0); Mele-Fila : kekeela (6); Kapingamarangi : tamaa
( 58); Nukuoro : masei (3 2); W. Fijian : hewa (3 ); Bau (EF) : lailai (3 3).
smoke Rapanui : au (3 5); Tahiti : auauahi (3 5); Maori : au (3 5); Hawaiian : uahi (3 5); Mangareva : kakauai, kavauai (3 5); Marquesas : auahi
(3 5); Samoan : asu ( ); Rennell : ; Ontong Java : ; Sikaiana : ; Tikopia : au (3 5); Anutan : kokopu ( 60); Niue : ahu (3 5); Tongan : ahu (3 5);
Tuvalu : au (3 5); Nanumea : au (3 5); Makatea : asu-afi (3 5); W. Futuna :
ausafi (3 5); Mele-Fila : silao (3); Kapingamarangi : huiahi ( 59); Nukuoro : use-ahi (3 5); W. Fijian : kobulu (3 6); Bau (EF) : kubou (3 6).
stand Rapanui : maroa (3 9); Tahiti : tia (3 8); Maori : tuu (3 ); Hawaiian : kuu (3 ); Mangareva : tuu (3 ); Marquesas : tu (3 ); Samoan : tuu (3 );
Rennell : tuu (3 ); Ontong Java : kuu (3 ); Sikaiana : tuu (3 ); Tikopia : tu
(3 ); Anutan : tu (3 ); Niue : tuu (3 ); Tongan : tuu (3 ); Tuvalu : tu (3 );
Nanumea : tuu (3 ); Makatea : tui rua (3 ); W. Futuna : tu kake (3 ); MeleFila : tuu (3 ); Kapingamarangi : tuu (3 ); Nukuoro : duu (3 ); W. Fijian :
uu ( 2); Bau (EF) : tuu (3 ).
star Rapanui : hetuu (35 ); Tahiti : feetia (35 ); Maori : whetuu (35 ); Hawaiian : hookuu (35 ); Mangareva : etu (35 ); Marquesas : fetu (35 ); Samoan :
fetuu (35 ); Rennell : hetuu (35 ); Ontong Java : hekuu (35 ); Sikaiana : hetuu

G-M~, P, S. S~. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

(35 ); Tikopia : fetuu (35 ); Anutan : petuu (35 ); Niue : fetuu (35 ); Tongan :
fetuu (35 ); Tuvalu : fetuu (35 ); Nanumea : fetuu (35 ); Makatea : fetu (35 );
W. Futuna : fetu (35 ); Mele-Fila : mwasoi ( ); Kapingamarangi : hatuu (35 );
Nukuoro : heduu (35 ); W. Fijian : ilio (352); Bau (EF) : kalokalo (353).
stone Rapanui : maea (355); Tahiti : oofai (356); Maori : koohatu ( 6);
Hawaiian : poohaku ( 6); Mangareva : poatu ( 6); Marquesas : ke ( 50);
Samoan : maa (355); Rennell : hatu ( 6); Ontong Java : hatu ( 6); Sikaiana : hatu ( 6); Tikopia : fatu ( 6); Anutan : patu ( 6); Niue : maka (355);
Tongan : maka (355); Tuvalu : fatu ( 6); Nanumea : fatu ( 6); Makatea : fatu
( 6); W. Futuna : fatu ( 6); Mele-Fila : fatu ( 6); Kapingamarangi : hatu
( 6); Nukuoro : hadu ( 6); W. Fijian : au ( 6); Bau (EF) : atu ( 6).
sun Rapanui : raaa (35 ); Tahiti : mahana (39 ); Maori : raa (35 ); Hawaiian : laa (35 ); Mangareva : ra (35 ); Marquesas : oumati ( 5 ); Samoan :
laa (35 ); Rennell : gaaa (35 ); Ontong Java : laa (35 ); Sikaiana : laa (35 );
Tikopia : ra (35 ); Anutan : raa (35 ); Niue : laaa (35 ); Tongan : laaa (35 );
Tuvalu : la (35 ); Nanumea : laa (35 ); Makatea : matara ( 0 , 35 ); W. Futuna : ra (35 ); Mele-Fila : reaa (35 ); Kapingamarangi : raa (35 ); Nukuoro :
laa (35 ); W. Fijian : mata-ni-hia ( 0 , 360); Bau (EF) : sia (360).
swim Rapanui : kau (362); Tahiti : au (362); Maori : kaukau (362); Hawaiian : au (362); Mangareva : kau (362); Marquesas : kau (362); Samoan :
aau (362); Rennell : ; Ontong Java : ; Sikaiana : ; Tikopia : kau (362);
Anutan : kakau (362); Niue : kakau (362); Tongan : kakau (362); Tuvalu : kau
(362); Nanumea : kakau (362); Makatea : kaokao (362); W. Futuna : kau (362);
Mele-Fila : kau (362); Kapingamarangi : khaukhau (362); Nukuoro : kau
(362); W. Fijian : gau (362); Bau (EF) : galo (362).
tail Rapanui : hiku (36 ); Tahiti : aero (365); Maori : whiore (365); Hawaiian : huelo (365); Mangareva : vero (365); Marquesas : veo (365); Samoan : siusiu (36 ); Rennell : siku (36 ); Ontong Java : mosui (36 ); Sikaiana : muisuki
(36 ); Tikopia : sikusiku (36 ); Anutan : tikutiku (36 ); Niue : hiku (36 ); Tongan : hiku, iku (36 ); Tuvalu : felo, velo (365); Nanumea : huelo (365); Makatea :
siku (36 ); W. Futuna : siku (36 ); Mele-Fila : puupue (9); Kapingamarangi : huku (36 ); Nukuoro : sugi (36 ); W. Fijian : laulau (36 ); Bau (EF) : bui (366).
that Rapanui : ; Tahiti : ; Maori : teeraa (3 ); Hawaiian : keelaa (3 );
Mangareva : tera (3 ); Marquesas : tena (3 ); Samoan : lea (3 ); Rennell : ;
Ontong Java : ; Sikaiana : ; Tikopia : tera (3 ); Anutan : ena (3 0); Niue :
anaa (3 0); Tongan : ; Tuvalu : tela (3 ); Nanumea : teelaa (3 ); Makatea : ira
(3 ); W. Futuna : tera (3 ); Mele-Fila : ; Kapingamarangi : teeraa (3 ); Nukuoro : delea (3 ); W. Fijian : ; Bau (EF) : .
this Rapanui : ; Tahiti : ; Maori : teenei (3 2); Hawaiian : keeia (3 );
Mangareva : ; Marquesas : nei (3 2); Samoan : lenei (3 2); Rennell : te nei

-, , . . ...

(3 2); Ontong Java : ke ei (3 2); Sikaiana : te nei (3 2); Tikopia : tenei (3 2); Anutan : ieni (3 2); Niue : nei (3 2); Tongan : eni (3 2); Tuvalu : nei (3 2); Nanumea :
teenei (3 2); Makatea : reni (3 2); W. Futuna : tenei (3 2); Mele-Fila : tenei (3 2);
Kapingamarangi : nei (3 2); Nukuoro : de naa (3 3); W. Fijian : ; Bau (EF) : .
thou Rapanui : koe (3 5); Tahiti : oe (3 5); Maori : koe (3 5); Hawaiian :
oe (3 5); Mangareva : koe (3 5); Marquesas : koe (3 5); Samoan : oe (3 5);
Rennell : koe (3 5); Ontong Java : aoe (3 5); Sikaiana : akoe (3 5); Tikopia :
koke (3 5); Anutan : kokoe (3 5); Niue : koe (3 5); Tongan : koe (3 5); Tuvalu :
koe (3 5); Nanumea : koe (3 5); Makatea : akue (3 5); W. Futuna : koe (3 5);
Mele-Fila : akoe (3 5); Kapingamarangi : koe (3 5); Nukuoro : goe (3 5);
W. Fijian : iko (3 5); Bau (EF) : iko (3 5).
tongue Rapanui : arero (3 6); Tahiti : arero (3 6); Maori : arero (3 6); Hawaiian : alelo (3 6); Mangareva : erero (3 6); Marquesas : (3 6); Samoan :
laulaufaiva (3 8); Rennell : agego (3 6); Ontong Java : alelo (3 6); Sikaiana : alelo (3 6); Tikopia : alelo (3 6); Anutan : arero (3 6); Niue : alelo (3 6);
Tongan : elelo (3 6); Tuvalu : alelo (3 6); Nanumea : alelo (3 6); Makatea : arero (3 6); W. Futuna : rero (3 6); Mele-Fila : liimena ( ); Kapingamarangi :
horore (3 6); Nukuoro : alelo (3 6); W. Fijian : maa (3 ); Bau (EF) : yame (3 ).
tooth Rapanui : niho ( 90); Tahiti : niho ( 90); Maori : niho ( 90); Hawaiian : niho ( 90); Mangareva : nio ( 90); Marquesas : niho ( 90); Samoan : nifo
( 90); Rennell : niho ( 90); Ontong Java : iho ( 90); Sikaiana : niho ( 90); Tikopia : nifo ( 90); Anutan : nipo ( 90); Niue : nifo ( 90); Tongan : nifo ( 90);
Tuvalu : nifo ( 90); Nanumea : nifo ( 90); Makatea : nifo ( 90); W. Futuna :
niho ( 90); Mele-Fila : nifo ( 90); Kapingamarangi : niha ( 90); Nukuoro :
niho ( 90); W. Fijian : basi (380); Bau (EF) : bati (380).
tree Rapanui : tumu (38 ); Tahiti : tumu raaau (382); Maori : raakau (382);
Hawaiian : laaau (382); Mangareva : rakau (382); Marquesas : tumu kau (382);
Samoan : laaau (382); Rennell : gaakau (382); Ontong Java : laaau (382); Sikaiana : laakau (382); Tikopia : rakau (382); Anutan : raakau (382); Niue : akau (382);
Tongan : fuu akau (382); Tuvalu : lakau (382); Nanumea : laakau (382); Makatea : rakau (382); W. Futuna : rakau (382); Mele-Fila : raakau (382); Kapingamarangi : rakau (382); Nukuoro : ; W. Fijian : uu (383); Bau (EF) : uu (383).
two Rapanui : rua (386); Tahiti : piti (38 ); Maori : rua (386); Hawaiian : lua
(386); Mangareva : tokorua (386); Marquesas : ua (386); Samoan : lua (386);
Rennell : gua (386); Ontong Java : lua (386); Sikaiana : lua (386); Tikopia : rua
(386); Anutan : rua ( 62); Niue : ua (386); Tongan : ua (386); Tuvalu : lua (386);
Nanumea : lua (386); Makatea : rua (386); W. Futuna : rua (386); Mele-Fila : rua
(386); Kapingamarangi : rua (386); Nukuoro : lua (386); W. Fijian : rua (386);
Bau (EF) : rua (386).

G-M~, P, S. S~. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

walk (go) Rapanui : haere (390); Tahiti : haere (390); Maori : haere (390);
Hawaiian : haele (390); Mangareva : ere (390); Marquesas : hee (390); Samoan : ; Rennell : hano ( 6 ); Ontong Java : haele (390); Sikaiana : heele (390);
Tikopia : poi (390); Anutan : aru (390); Niue : fano (388); Tongan : alu (389); Tuvalu : fano (388); Nanumea : haele (390); Makatea : saere (390); W. Futuna : fano
(388); Mele-Fila : saaria (390); Kapingamarangi : hana ( 6 ); Nukuoro : lo (393);
W. Fijian : laa (39 ); Bau (EF) : taubale (392).
warm Rapanui : ; Tahiti : mahana (39 ); Maori : mahana (39 ); Hawaiian : mahana (39 ); Mangareva : maana (39 ); Marquesas : mahana (39 ); Samoan : maafanafana (39 ); Rennell : mahana (39 ); Ontong Java : mahaa (39 );
Sikaiana : mahana (39 ); Tikopia : mafana (39 ); Anutan : mapanapana (39 );
Niue : mafana (39 ); Tongan : mafana (39 ); Tuvalu : maafanafana (39 ); Nanumea : ; Makatea : ; W. Futuna : ; Mele-Fila : ; Kapingamarangi : ;
Nukuoro : mahana (39 ); W. Fijian : ; Bau (EF) : .
water Rapanui : vai (395); Tahiti : vai (395), pape (39 ); Maori : wai
(395); Hawaiian : wai (395); Mangareva : vai (395); Marquesas : vai (395);
Samoan : vai (395); Rennell : bai (395); Ontong Java : vai (395); Sikaiana : vai
(395); Tikopia : vai (395); Anutan : vai (395); Niue : vai (395); Tongan : vai
(395); Tuvalu : vai (395); Nanumea : vai (395); Makatea : ai (395); W. Futuna : ai (395); Mele-Fila : vai (395); Kapingamarangi : wai (395); Nukuoro : vai (395); W. Fijian : wai (395); Bau (EF) : wai (395).
we Rapanui : maatou (398); Tahiti : maatou (398); Maori : maatou (398);
Hawaiian : maakou (398); Mangareva : matou (398); Marquesas : matau (398);
Samoan : maatou (398); Rennell : kimaatou (398); Ontong Java : maakou (398);
Sikaiana : maatou (398); Tikopia : matou (398); Anutan : matou (398); Niue :
mautolu (398); Tongan : kimautolu (398); Tuvalu : maatou (398); Nanumea :
maatou (398); Makatea : maatou (398); W. Futuna : akimea (399); Mele-Fila :
maateu (398); Kapingamarangi : kimaatou (398); Nukuoro : gimateu (398);
W. Fijian : kematou (398); Bau (EF) : keimami (398).
what Rapanui : he aha ( 0 ); Tahiti : eaha, te aha ( 0 ); Maori : heaha
( 0 ); Hawaiian : aha ( 0 ); Mangareva : aa ( 0 ); Marquesas : aha ( 0 ); Samoan : aa ( 00); Rennell : nia, te aa ( 00); Ontong Java : ea, ke a ( 00); Sikaiana : hea ( 00); Tikopia : ea ( 00); Anutan : ea ( 0 ); Niue : se a ( 00, 02);
Tongan : haa ( 00); Tuvalu : haa ( 00); Nanumea : aa ( 00); Makatea : rea
( 00); W. Futuna : taha ( 0 ); Mele-Fila : afa ( 0 ); Kapingamarangi : aha
( 0 ); Nukuoro : aha ( 00); W. Fijian : aa ( 0 ); Bau (EF) : a a ( 00, 0 ).
white Rapanui : tea-tea ( 03); Tahiti : uouo ( 06); Maori : maa ( 05); Hawaiian : keokeo ( 0 ); Mangareva : tea ( 03); Marquesas : tea ( 03); Samoan :
paepae ( 08); Rennell : susugu (50 ); Ontong Java : maii (502); Sikaiana :
maa ( 05); Tikopia : tea ( 03); Anutan : tea ( 03), kena ( 63); Niue : tea ( 03);

-, , . . ...

Tongan : hinehina ( 09); Tuvalu : tea ( 03); Nanumea : tea ( 03); Makatea : keo
( 0); W. Futuna : tetea ( 03); Mele-Fila : teetea ( 03); Kapingamarangi : khene
( 63); Nukuoro : tea ( 03); W. Fijian : buo ( ); Bau (EF) : ula ula ( 2).
who Rapanui : ko ai ( 3); Tahiti : o vai ( 3); Maori : wai ( 3); Hawaiian :
wai ( 3); Mangareva : ai ( 3); Marquesas : ai ( 3); Samoan : ai ( 3); Rennell : koai ( 3); Ontong Java : oai ( 3); Sikaiana : koai ( 3); Tikopia : koai ( 3); Anutan :
koai ( 3); Niue : ko oi ( 3); Tongan : hai ( 3); Tuvalu : ko hai ( 3); Nanumea : ai
( 3); Makatea : koi ( 3); W. Futuna : akai ( 3); Mele-Fila : kuai ( 3); Kapingamarangi : ai ( 3); Nukuoro : go-ai ( 3); W. Fijian : ei ( 3); Bau (EF) : ei ( 3).
woman Rapanui : vie ( 5); Tahiti : vahine ( ); Maori : waahine ( ); Hawaiian : wahine ( ); Mangareva : toaaine ( ); Marquesas : vehine ( ); Samoan : fafine ( ); Rennell : hahine ( ); Ontong Java : hie ( ); Sikaiana : hahine ( ); Tikopia : fafine ( ); Anutan : papine ( ); Niue : fifine ( ); Tongan : fefine ( ); Tuvalu : fifine ( ); Nanumea : fafine ( ); Makatea : fafine
( ); W. Futuna : fine ( ); Mele-Fila : ffine ( ); Kapingamarangi : ahina ( );
Nukuoro : hine ( ); W. Fijian : huna-ni- anua ( 6); Bau (EF) : yalewa ( ).
yellow Rapanui : toua mamari ( 2 ); Tahiti : rearea ( 2 ); Maori : rea
( 2 ); Hawaiian : lena ( 2 ); Mangareva : rearea ( 2 ); Marquesas : ena
( 2 ); Samoan : samasama ( 22); Rennell : hego (2 9); Ontong Java : helo
(2 9); Sikaiana : helo (2 9); Tikopia : sea ( 8); Anutan : tetea ( 8); Niue :
ao ( 20); Tongan : eeea ( 2 ); Tuvalu : ao ( 20); Nanumea : sama ( 22);
Makatea : ferofero (2 9); W. Futuna : ; Mele-Fila : mwonoomwono ( );
Kapingamarangi : rou puke ( 6 ); Nukuoro : ganoao ( 20); W. Fijian : dromodromo ( 22); Bau (EF) : dromodromo ( 22).

Word lists used in the lexicostatistical analysis are taken from:

. Comparative dictionaries of modern languages:
Anutan: [TRYON & HACKMAN 983]
Bauan: (Eastern Fijian) [TRYON K 995], by P. d~
Makatea: [TRYON 9 6]
Mele-Fila: [TRYON K 995], list by R. `~
Nadrogaa: (Western Fijian) [TRYON K 995], by P. d~
Ontong Java: [TRYON & HACKMAN 983]
Rapanui: [TRYON K 995], list by R. t and N. t
Rennellese: [TRYON & HACKMAN 983]
Samoan: [TRYON K 995], list by U. j
Sikaiana: [TRYON & HACKMAN 983]
Tahitian: [TRYON K 995], list by Y. i~

G-M~, P, S. S~. Lexicostatistics & Shared Innovations . . .

Tikopia: [TRYON & HACKMAN 983]

Tongan: [TRYON K 995], list by P. d~
W. Futunan: [TRYON 9 6]
2. Dictionaries:
Hawaiian: [PUKUI & ELBERT 9 ]
Kapingamarangi: [LIEBER & DIKEPA 9 ]
Mangarevan: [RENSCH 99 ]
Maori: [BIGGS 990]
Marquesan: [DORDILLON 932]
Nanumea: [RANBY 980]
Niue: [SPERLICH 99 ]
Nukuoro: [CARROLL & SOULIK 9 3]
Tuvaluan: [JACKSON 99 ]

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